Hydraulic

Hydraulics Prof. B.S.
Thandaveswara

Indian Institute of Technology Madras
16.3.1 Resistance in Open Channel Hydraulics
If Manning and Chezy equations are compared
2
3
1
1
1 1 1
2 2 2
0 0
2 1 1
-
3 2 6
1
6
e
e
2 2
e1
2 2 2
2
e1
e1
1
R S CR S
n
R R
C=
n n
R
C=
n
For laminar flow:
K
f =
R
VR
R
VR
K= f
8gSR 8gVR S 8gR S 8g

But f = K= = R
V V C
V
8g
C R
K
VR
If R
=
=
=
=

=

=
2
8g
f =
C

14
f = For triangular Smooth Channel (Refer: Chow)
R
e1
24
f = For Rectangular Smooth Channel (Refer: Chow)
R
e1

Sand Roughness Fixed to Flume Bed (Photograph - Thandaveswara)

Hydraulics Prof. B.S. Thandaveswara


16.3.2 Laminar Flow with Roughness
e1
e1
60
f = for a 90 V shape channel. Roughness 0.3023 mm
R
33
f =
R

10
Laminar
Transitional Turbulent
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.01
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
R
e1
f
f =
14
___
R
e1
f =
24
___
R
e1
Reference:
"Chow Ven Te- Open Channel
Hydraulics", Mc Graw Hill Company,
International student edition, 1959, page - 10
Variation of friction coefficient f with Reynolds number Re1
in smooth channels
=
vR
__
( )


f =
14
___
Re1
f =
33
___
Re1
f =
60
Re1
___
10 10
2
10
3 10
4
10
5
10
6
2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8
Re1
Variation of friction coefficient f with Reynolds number Re1
in rough channels
=
vR
__
( )
10
7
2 4 6 8
0.006
0.008
0.01
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
f
37.5 cm
25 cm
Varwick
Varwick
1
1
20 cm
Laminar Transitional Turbulent
10
3 10
4
10
5
10
6
2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8
10
7
2 4 6 8
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
Reference:
"Chow Ven Te- Open Channel Hydraulics",
Mc Graw Hill Company, International
student edition, 1959, page - 11

Rectangular Channel - Rough flow (Roughness =0.7188)
Bazin conducted experiment using (500 measurements were made at greatest care)
(1) Gravel embedded in cement.
(2) Unpolished wood roughened by transverse wooden strip
(i) 27 mm long * 10 mm high * 10 mm spacing.
(ii) 27 mm * 10 mm at 50 mm spacing.
3) Cement lining
4) Unpolished wood
If the behavior of n and C is to be investigated then a number of basic definitions
regarding the types of hydrodynamic flow must be recalled.
Flow can be divided into

(i) Hydro dynamically smooth turbulent flow
(ii) Hydro dynamically Rough turbulent flow
(iii) Hydro dynamically transition turbulent flow.
1 2
o
1 5
7 o
e
The boundary layer for flow past a flat plate is given by
V x
5 Laminar
x
V x
0 38 turbulent R 2 10 logarthmic velocity law holds
x
/
/
. *

=

= >

Velocity
V
99% V
y
Velocity distribution
0 Viscous sub layer

Transitional
region
Turbulent
Pseudo boundary
y


0
0 0
k
kc kc
k
kc
Different surface roughness
(c) rough
k
k
c
=

v*
__
100
kc
=
5
v
*
__
Smooth
for average condition
kc is critical roughness height
k is roughness height
(b) wavy
(a) Smooth


Viscous sublayer
k
s
(i) Hydrodynamically smooth
turbulent flow f = f(R
e
)
Viscous sublayer
k
s
Viscous sublayer
k
s
(ii) Hydrodynamically transition
flow f = f (R
e
, k
s
/y)
(iii) Hydrodynamically rough
turbulent flow f = f (k
s
/y)

For hydro dynamically smooth condition, viscous sub layer submerges the roughness
elements.
For hydro dynamically transitional case the roughness element are partly exposed with
reference to viscous sub layer.
For hydro dynamically rough turbulent flow the roughness elements are completely
exposed above the viscous sub layer.
For hydro dynamically rough turbulent flow resistance is a function of Reynolds number
and the roughness height.
If we define
e*
R =shear Reynolds number
* s
v K
. ; and
o
* f

v gRS
= = .


The flow is classified as follows:
* s
* s
* s
v K
4 Hydrodynamically smooth
v K
4 100 Hydrodynamically transition
v K
100 Hydrodynamically fully developed turbulent flow
<
< <
>

Summary of Velocity-Profile Equations for Boundary layers with
dp
0
dx
=
Zone Smooth Walls Rough Walls
Law of the
wall
Universal equations
Laminar
sub layer
( y )
*
v y
4
<
*
*
v y v
v
=

-
Buffer
zone
*
v y
4 30 to 70
< <

-

-
Logarithmi
c zone
(also
called turb
ulent layer)
*
v y
30 to 70
y
0.15
>
<

*
*
*
*
v y v
A log B
v
v y v
5.6 log 4.9
v
= +
= +
*
*
v k
A log B
v y
v k
5.6 log B
v y
B f
= +
= +
=

(roughness size, shape and
distribution)
Velocity-defect law
Inner
region
(overlaps
with
logarithmi
c wall law)
y
0.15
<
Outer
region
(approxim
ate
formula)
y
0.15
<
*
*
V v y
A log B
v
V v y
5.6 log 2.5
v
= +
= +

*
*
V v y
A log
v
V v y
8.6 log
v
=

(3000
<
e
R <
70,000)
outer
region

-
Power Law
1
7
*
*
v v y
8.74
v

=

-

A and B are constants.

Table shows velocity distributions for different conditions

Pipe flow equation
e
VR
R
= Open channel flow

e
VR
R 4
=
Blasius
equation
for
smooth
flow
5
e
0.25
e
e
5
e
0.3164
f = upto R <10
R
R f 1
=2log
2 51 f
R 10
.
>

e
e
1/8 2
0.25
e
e
e
C=18.755 R mks units for g = 9.806 m/sec
0 223
f
R
R 8
C = 4 2g log
2 51 C
R 8g
C = 17.72 log
2 51 C
3.5294R
C = 17.72 log
C
.
g
.
.

=

Smooth
pipe flow
Nikurads
e Rough
pipe
Nikurads
e
( )
o
1
= 0.86 ln Re f - 0.8
f
1
= 1.14 - 0.86 ln
d f

e
s
R 8g C
= 2 log
C 2 51 8g
C 12R
= 2 log
k 8g
*
.

White
and
Colebroo
k formula
o
/d 1 2.51
= 0.86 ln
3 7 f Re f .

+

s
e
2.52 8g k C
= -2 log
14.83R 8g R f

+

Suggested modification to equation is
s
e
k C 2.5
= -2 log
12R 8g R f

+

[ASCE Task Force Committee 1963]. R is hydraulic mean radius, 4R =Diameter of
pipe.
In open channel flow following aspects come into picture
( )
e
f = f R K, C,N, F,U
(1) (2) (3)
,

In which R
e
is the Reynolds number, K is the Relative Roughness, C Shape factor of the
cross-section, N is the Non- uniformity of the channel both in profile and in plan, F is the
Froude number, U is the degree of unsteadiness.
In the above equation, the first term corresponds to, Surface Resistance (Friction), the
second term corresponds to wave resistance and the third term corresponds to Non
uniformity due to acceleration/ deceleration in flow.

Surface Resistance: To be accounted based on Karman - Prandtl - velocity distribution.
The constant in resistance equation is due to the numerical integration, and is a function
of shape of the cross-section.
C 1 R
=A log +B
y' 2g f
For circular section A = 2.0, B = -0.62
For rectangular section: A = 2, B = -0.79 (for large ratio of width/depth)
=

It has remained customary to delineate roughness in terms of the equivalent sand grain
dimensions k
s
. For its proper description, however, a statistical characteristic such as
surface texture requires a series of lengths or length derivatives, though the significance
of successive terms in the series rapidly approach a minimum. Morris classified the flow
into three categories namely (1) isolated roughness flow, (2) Wake interference flow,
and (3) Quasi smooth flow. The figure provides the necessary details.
s
y
k
Isolated - roughness flow (k/s) - Form drag dominates
s
The wake and the vortex are dissipated before the next element
is reached. The ratio of (k/s) is a significant parameter for
this type of flow


s s
Wake interference flow (y/s)
j
j
j
Quasi smooth flow - k/s or j/s becomes significant acts as Pseudo wall
s
y
k
y
k
s s
s
j
k is surface roughness height
s is the spacing of the elements
j is the groove width
y is the depth of flow
Concept of three basic types of rough surface flow
When the roughness elements are placed closer, the wake and the vortex
at each element will interfere with those developed by the following
element and results in complex vorticity and turbulent mixing. The height
of the roughness is not important, but the spacing becomes an important
parameter. The depth 'y' controls the vertical extent of the surface region of
high level turbulence. (y/s) is an important correlating parameter.
Quasi smooth flow is also known as skimming flow. The roughness elements
are so closed placed. The fluid that fills in the groove acts as a pseudo wall
and hence flow essentially skims the surface of roughness elements. In such
a flow (k/s) or (j/s) play a significant role.

k, j, s should describe the characteristics of roughness in one dimensional situations is
Areal concentration of or density distribution of roughness elements. (after Moris).


16.3.3 Areal concentration or Density Distribution Roughness
Elements
Spheres
Spatial distribution of roughness
Schlichting, 1936
Koloseus (1958) and Koloseus and Davidian (1965)
conducted experiments using Cubical Roughness
Symmetrical diamond shaped pattern.
O'Loughlin and Mcdonald (1964) Cubes arranged
as in (1) abd (2) also sand grains (2.5 mm dia)cemented
to the bed .
1 2


Logarithmic plot of data from figure at low
concentration
Effective roughness as a function of form pattern, and
concentration of roughness elements. (Assuming high
Reynolds number)
Open channel resistance (after H. Rouse, 1965)
1.0 0.1 0.01
0.001
0.1
1
10
0
1
2
3
4
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Spheres
Sand
Cubes
Nikuradse
Sand
Schlichting (1936) - Sphere spacing
Koloseus (1958)
Koloseus and Davidian (1965)
Cubical Roughness
Symmetrical diamond shaped pattern
O'Loughlin and Mcdonald (1964)
k
s
___
y
Areal concentration
Cubes arranged as in 1 and in 2.
Also sand grains centered to the sand grains
(2.5 m diameter)
Areal concentration
k
s
___
y


Resistance of a bridge pier in a wide channel, after Kobus and Newsham
F = 1.5
1.0
0.5
b
3b
d = 3b
V
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
Froude number, F

Variation of pier resistance with lateral spacing "S"
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Froude number, F
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
C
D
S
D
__
= 5
7.5
30
D
S
D
d = 30
V d


Loss at one of a series of channel bends after Hayet
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 2.0 4.0
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.6
y/b = 1/16
y/b = 1/8
y/b = 1/4
2b
4b
90
0
y
b
Froude number, F

Some of the important References:
(i) Task force on friction factors in open channels Proc. ASCE J I. of Hyd. Dn. Vol. 89.,
No. Hy2, March 1963, pp 97 - 143.
(ii) Rouse Hunter, "Critical analysis of open channel resistance" , Proceedings of ASCE
J ournal of Hydraulic division, Vol.91, Hyd 4, pp 1 - 25, J uly 1965 and discussion pp 247
- 248, Nov. 1965, March 1966, pp 387 to 409.
Schlichting, "Boundary layer theory", Mc Graw Hill Publication.
16.3.4 Open Channel Resistance
There is an optimal area concentration 15% to 25% which produces greater relative
resistance.
1 R
A log B
DhS f
= +
h is the roughness height , S is the areal concentration (<15%), D is the constant which
depends on shape and arrangement of the roughness elements.
For sanded surface: D =21 and B =2.17
The existence of free surface makes it difficult to assume logarthmic velocity distribution
and to integrate over the entire area of flow for different cross-sectional shapes. The

lograthmic velocity distribution can be integrated only for the wide rectangular and
circular sections.
Effect of boundary non-uniformity is normally ignored and particularly so for gradually
varied flow profile computation.
The dependence on Froude number is clearly seen in case of pier.
In case of unsteady flows such as floods, it is assumed that the inertial effects are small
in comparison with resistance. Hence, the resistance of steady uniform flow at the same
depths and velocity is taken to be valid.
Where the Froude number exceeds unity, the surface has instability in the form of roll
waves.
Earlier formulae for determining C (for details refer to Historical development of
Empirical relationships)
1. G.K. Formula (MKS)
2. Bazins Formula 1897 (MKS)
3. Powell Formula (1950) FPS while using Powell formula C must be multiplied by
0.5521 to get C in m
1/2
s
-1

4. Pavlovskii Formula (1925)
Manning equation is applicable to fully developed turbulent rough flow.
Slope of the straight line is 1:3

1/ 6
1/ 3
s
2
s
1/ 6
s
1/ 3
s
s
1/ 3
k g g
f C
R k
C
n k
k
f = 0.113
R
If we replace k by diameter of the grain size (d)
d
f = 0.113
R
8g 8g R
C =
f 0.113 d

1/ 6
2
1/ 6 1/ 6
1/ 6
1/ 6
1/ 6 1/ 6
for MKS units g = 9.806 m/s
8 * 9.806 R R
C = 26.3482
0.113 d d
R
or C = 26.34
d
R
n
C
1
n = *d 0.0379d
26.34

=

=

=

A number of empirical methods to relate n diameter of the particle are advanced.
1 Strickler
(1923)
[ ]
1/6
n = 0.02789 d d in m
This is not applicable to mobile
bed
2 Henderson's
interpretation
of Strickler's
formula
[ ]
1/6
50
n = 0.034 d d in feet

3a Raudkivi
(1976)
[ ]
1/6
n = 0.047 d d in m

3b Raudkivi
(1976)
[ ]
1/6
65
n = 0.013 d d in mm
d
65
=65 % of the material by
weight smaller.
3c Raudkivi
(1976)
[ ]
1/6
65

4 Garde and
Ranga Raju
[ ]
1/6
50
( )
( )
( )
1/6
1 6
50
0 039 0 3048
0 039 0 82036 0 03199
n = 0.03199 d , d is in 'm'
/
. * .
. . . = =
5 Subramanya
[ ]
1/6
50
n = 0.0475 d d in m

6 Meyer and
Peter and
Muller
[ ]
1/6
90
n = 0.038 d d in m
(Significant proportion of coarse
grained material)

7 Simons and
Sentrvrk
(1976)
[ ]
1/6
n = 0.047 d d in mm

8 Lane and
Carbon
(1953)
1/6
75
n= 0.026 d
(d in inches and d
75
=75% of the
material by weight is smaller)

( )
* f
* s
1/6 1/6
1/6 1/6
1/6 1/6
1/6
8) Consider
v g R S
k
4 < 100 Transition flow
v
R R
n = but C = 26.35
C d
R d 1
n = d 0 03795 d (d in m)
26 35
R 26 35
Conditon for fully develop
.
.
.
=
<
= =
( )
( )
6
8 6 * s
6
6
f
-6 2 2
6
f
6 6
6
ed rough flow
v k n
100 d = 3 3458 10 n
0.03795
n 1
g R S
0.03795
Assuming
= 1.01 * 10 m /s g = 9.806 m/s
9 806 1
n R S 100
1 01 10
0.03795
n
. *
.
. *
= =

=
14
f
RS 9 635 10

. *


Laminar flow
Smooth surfaces
Fully rough zone
Transition zone
Commercial surfaces
Sand coated surface (Nikuradse)
Reynolds number Re = 4 V R/v
Modified Moody Diagram showing the Behavior of the Chezy C after Henderson
10
3
10
4
f =
0.316 _____
Re
0.25
(C = , mks) 15.746 Re
1 __
8
1 __
f
= 2.0 log ( )
Re f _____
2.51
C = 4 2g log ( )
Re 8g
2.51C
_____
Blasius equation ( ) Re <10
5
______
= 100
v* ks
1 __
f
=
C __
8g
= 2.0 log ( )
12R
___
ks
10
5
10
6
10
7
10
8
2 4 6
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
180
or Manning
507
252
126
60
30.6
15
10
do _____
2ks
2R _____
ks
=

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Hydraulics Prof. B.S.

8gSR 8gVR S 8gR S 8g

0 Viscous sub layer

= Open channel flow

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