Professional Documents
Culture Documents
6-7 9 22 37
Gudrun Krämer Patrick Chabal Sonja Hegasy Leyla Bouzid Discacciati
The Use and Abuse Africa: Modernity without Transformation through Monarchy The Image of Women in Algerian
of the Study of Islam Development? in Morocco and Jordan and Tunisian Cinema
to Religious Recasting
rest of the Muslim world, a Muslim intelligentsia has
slowly emerged in Europe and is now more vocal in
calling for a recognition of the Muslim presence, trig-
gering heated debates in European public opinion.
gists or social workers), Islam is embedded What we have here is the fabrication of a ’Born again Muslims’
in such pristine cultures (‘Arab’, ‘Asian’). But neo-ethnicity. It may work, but has little to A second consequence of the immigration
OLIVIER ROY these cultures are not transmitted as such do with Islam. is that there is no longer any social evidence
from generation to generation: language We have to go back to a very basic idea: of religion. Of course in neighbourhoods
might be lost (as is colloquial Arabic in Islam is a religion, not an ethnic identity, where large Muslim populations are concen-
What do we call a ‘Muslim’ in Europe? This is France) as well as dress and diet. A process not even a culture as such. But how can this trated, there is some social pressure to adopt
a seldom-asked question in response to of acculturation is under way, even if it does religion be expressed as such? It is not a a conservative way of life (especially for
which there are two approaches: the ethnic not lead to integration, but to other pat- question of inter-faith dialogue: Europe is women). But there are no social constraints
one and the purely religious one. The more terns of differences. The beur (slang for no longer a Christian society, it is a secular or even inducements to behave as a good
common approach in Europe is to consider Arab) culture of the suburbs in France has one. What we see is that Muslims do adapt, Muslim; praying, fasting, eating halal require
Muslims as a quasi-ethnic group, identifying nothing to do with Islam or even with Arab not by changing Islam, but by adjusting personal involvement. One has to re-create,
them with people originating from Muslim culture: the slang (verlan) is French, the diet their way of thinking of themselves as be- on an individual basis, the patterns of an
countries, as it is the case in Belgium.1 Many and the clothing are American (Mc Donald’s lievers. everyday life for a Muslim. Even if one joins
specific communities (with or without a
Islamic identity neighbourhood basis), this community is es-
Believers who want to maintain a purely tablished on the basis of a volunteer and
Islamic identity are also confronted by the personal engagement. In fact, to be a ‘true’
fact that pristine cultures divide the Muslim Muslim is an individual choice, because it
community in Europe. Mosques tend to be usually means a double break: with a too tra-
attended in Europe according to common ditional familial environment and with the
origin, dialect, or by belonging to communi- dominant secular society. Here we meet the
ty groups. There are ’Moroccan’, ‘Algerian’, phenomena of the ‘born again Muslim’, who
‘Punjabi’ and even ‘Kurdish’ mosques. For after a very mundane and sometimes dis-
many second or third generation Muslims, solute life (e.g. womanizing, alcohol, drugs)
or even for ‘born-again Muslims’ identifying goes back to Islam, after a spiritual experi-
Islam and culture of origin is a mistake for ence, on patterns very similar to many ‘born
Image not available online two reasons: it is a dividing factor, but it also again Christians’: the emphasis is here on
tends to embed Islam in cultural traditions personal conversion, redeeming and expres-
which have little to do with ‘true Islam’. The sion of self, not on community and social
‘salafist’ approach, which stresses the return conformism. The terms ‘faith’, ‘salvation’,
to an authentic Islam, rid of local traditions that is the quest for identity and psychologi-
and superstitions, fits well with the contem- cal balance, are more important than ‘licit’
porary process of acculturation. Its propo- and ‘illicit’. Stories of conversions underline
nents strive to build non-ethnic mosques this quest for equilibrium and happiness.
and communities. To bypass the cultural di- Fundamentalism, even in its stress on the
visions brought by pristine cultures, they communitarian nature of Islam, goes also
tend to advocate the use of language of the along the individualization of social life,
host country (English, French, etc.), which is, common to the western societies.
by the way, the main if not the sole lan- This lack of evidence can also been seen in
guage understood by the youth, or to push the problem of authority: Who is entitled to
Muslim girls and British Muslims are campaigning to make and baseball caps), the music is western for modern Arabic. In both cases, they go teach Islam? The famous institutions of the
boys preparing the ‘Inter Races Relations Act’ (which allows (rap, ‘hip-hop’), they are fond of dogs such along with the process of acculturation and Muslim world, like the University of Al Ahzar,
food for 200 to sue for defamation) applicable to Islam. as, for example, pit bulls. In fact, this is a typ- globalization. In this sense, modern funda- in Cairo, retain some prestige but are unable
schoolmates In this sense, being Muslim has nothing to ical western urban youth sub-culture: the mentalism is not a leftover of traditional cul- to meet the religious needs of the Muslim in
i nD e v e n t e r , do with faith and belief, but rather with ori- terms used to qualify such groups might be tures, but on the contrary, an expression of Europe: training of modern imams, adapta-
t h eN e t h e r l a n d s , gin and culture. The stricto sensu religious taken from the ethnic register, but we have modernization and globalization. Religion is tion of the curriculum of studies, etc. But the
at the end of aspect is diluted in a larger form of identity. here the process of ethnicisation of a space voided from its cultural content (there is no problem is not so much a lack of trained
t h eR a m a d a n . But the problem is that nowadays pristine of social exclusion along the patterns of a such thing, for a fundamentalist, as ‘Islamic’ ulema: in fact the vacuum is filled by self-
ethnic cultures are fading away, either western urban sub-culture, and not through music, or even an Islamic novel). Religion is proclaimed thinkers, who, whatever their in-
through assimilation or because they are re- importation of patterns from the primary assimilated to a code of behaviour (‘do’s’ tellectual background, claim that they know
cast into new sets of identities. Neverthe- culture. In this sense, any endeavour to de- and ‘do not’s’), and not to a culture. In this and can teach ‘true Islam’. The web is full of
less, for the first immigrants as well as the fine a ‘Muslim community’ by retaining the sense, it can adapt to a world where nation- sites emanating from individuals or small
European public opinion (comforted by the criteria of origin, does not refer to Islam as al cultures are giving way to codes of com- communities, which share two patterns: a
culturalist approach of many anthropolo- such. It also does not refer to ‘real’ cultures. munication and sub-cultures. high level of fragmentation and the stress on
Continued on page 29
2 ISIM ISIM NEWSLETTER 5/00
The ISIM initiated a wide range of activities in 1999-2000, includ- ter, Dutch, French, or German) Islam. Some even argue that this is
ing the design of its education and research programmes, the or- the inevitable outcome of the integration of (post-)migrant Mus-
ganization of academic meetings and lectures (see pages 3 and lim communities. However, Olivier Roy (page 1) argues that other
5), the construction of a database and a website, and the estab- processes, such as individualization and restructuring of identi-
lishment of national and international networks of cooperation. ties, are at work and that they prevent the coming into being of
These and other ISIM activities are an indication that ISIM is an European Islam. In some radical cases, individual believers
quickly expanding its horizons. have the choice of opting out of society. And although some of
Within two years’ time the ISIM has been shaped in such a way them may well be in the spotlight, they are unlikely to attract a
as to attract the intellectual curiosity of many in the broad field of large and lasting following as the case of Metin Kaplan shows
the study of Islam and Muslim societies, in particular because of (Werner Schiffauer, p. 27). The examples given in Yasha Lange’s
ISIM Newsletter 5
June 2000 its unique thematic profile and its broad geo- article (page 29) demonstrate that no matter
48 pages graphic focus. The ISIM has established its name what direction is taken in the process of integra-
ISSN 1 388-9788
Editorial Office
Visiting Address
in this international field, a process in which the
ISIM Newsletter plays an essential role. While the
diversified and dynamic approach of the ISIM is
Editorial tion and (mutual) adjustment, the scrutinizing of
existing laws and the seeking of new precedents
can not be avoided. The problematic relationship
Rapenburg 71, Leiden
Postal Address clearly reflected in this publication, the institute between cultural, national and religious identi-
ISIM, P.O. Box 11089
2301 EB Leiden, The Netherlands is far from being its only source. Its pages are filled with contribu- ties informs the debate on the position of Islam in Europe, includ-
Telephone
+31-71-527 7905 tions by highly active researchers in the field. Its contents echo ing the difficult position of Europe’s autochthonous Muslims, in
Telefax
+31-71-527 7906 the trends, ambitions, and even future prospects of the study of particular in the Balkans (Raymond Detrez, page 26) and Russia
E-mail
ISIMNewsl@rullet.leidenuniv.nl
Islam and Muslim societies. (Vladimir Bobrovnikov, page 25). The problematic of religion and
WWW Homepage Vital to the development of this field of research are methodol- nationality is nonetheless not limited to Europe; it is indeed a
http://www.isim.nl/
ogy and theoretical approaches. Gudrun Krämer critically ad- worldwide issue of particular interest in an increasing number of
Editor
Dick Douwes dressed a number of these issues at the ISIM Annual Lecture Middle Eastern countries (Henry Munson, page 10).
Desk and copy editors
Gabrielle Constant and Shelina Kassam (page 6-7). She starts with the simple question: ‘Why do we study The ISIM Newsletter has once again tried to give attention to the
Design
De Kreeft, Amsterdam
Islam and how should we do it?’ She advocates focusing on actors diversity of approaches to Islam and Muslim societies. Among the
Printing rather than systems, concentrating on intra-cultural variation most dynamic research domains at present, health and the body
Dijkman Offset, Diemen
rather than homogeneity. Another important issue is that of are dealt with in the articles of Sylvia Wing Önder (page 12) and
Coming issues
ISIM Newsletter 6 modernity, which is of particular interest to the ISIM as it forms Sabine Strasser (page 13) respectively. Yet another booming field
Deadline: 1 August 2000
Published: October 2000 one of the founding concepts of the institute. Patrick Chabal of research is that of the role of the new media in the expanding
ISIM Newsletter 7
Deadline: 1 November 2000
(page 9) approaches the concept of modernity in Africa by disso- public space (Jon Anderson, page 39). Media coverage strength-
Published: January 2001 ciating it from the notion of development. In a provocative essay, ens the mobilizing force of Islamic notions of national and inter-
ISIM Newsletter 8
Deadline: 1 February 2001 Sadik Al-Azm (page 11) calls for a critical reflection upon the posi- national order, including those concerning the politics of human-
Published: April 2001
tion Arabs and Muslims take vis-à-vis modernity and the West. itarian aid in local (Imad Sabi’, p. 24) as well as global contexts
The ISIM solicits your response to the ISIM News-
letter. If you wish to contribute to the Newsletter, David Shankland (page 43) comments on current tendencies in (Jérôme Bellion-Jourdan, p. 15). The persistent relevance of the
style sheets may be obtained upon request from
the ISIM Secretariat or on the ISIM website. In order
the study of Muslim societies, in particular Turkey. He warns more syncretic – and even heterodox – trends and movements
to offer update information on activities concern- against overemphasizing Islamist trends and underestimating in/to the lives of many Muslims is clearly demonstrated in the
ing the study of Islam and Muslim societies, along
with news on vacancies, grants, and fellowships, the importance of non-religious movements and practices. cases of Jammu (Yoginder Sikand, p. 19), Bengal (Anne-Hélène
the ISIM relies on its readers. The information will
be made available on the ISIM Website. In recent months, the position of Muslims within the Nether- Trottier, p. 17), Iran (Matthijs van den Bos, 18), and Turkey (Krisz-
The ISIM Newsletter is a tri-annual publication of lands, and in the West in general, has gained prominence in the tina Kehl-Bodrogi, p. 23).
the International Institute for the Study of Islam in
the Modern World (ISIM). Responsibility for the
discussions of multi-cultural society. These discussions clearly The ISIM Newsletter would like to continue to expand on these
facts and opinions expressed in this publication demonstrate the need for further research as well as for a critical and other issues, by tapping into new resources within the field.
rests solely with the authors. Their views do not
necessarily reflect those of the Institute or its sup- assessment of identity – whether that be cultural, national, reli- In order to do so, however, we depend on the critical input of our
porters. The ISIM Newsletter is free of charge.
gious, or ethnic identity. In this debate, an increasing number of audience. ♦
players foresee the development of an European (or for that mat- DICK DOUWES | editor
Staff ISIM
• Muhammad Khalid Masud
Academic Director M I S C E L L A N E O U S A N N O U N C E M E N T
• Dick Douwes
Academic Coordinator
• Mary Bakker
Administrative Coordinator
• Nathal Dessing
Education Coordinator
ISIM Academic Committee ISIM Fellowships
New Members
• Afelonne Doek
Website and D-base Manager The ISIM invites applications and research proposals for various fel-
• Manuel Haneveld lowships. Applications from candidates in all fields of the social sci-
Information Systems Manager ences, humanities, and religious studies will be considered. Appli-
• Esther Oostveen
Administrative Assistant The ISIM would like to announce the appointment of two new members to its Acad- cants should be competent in academic English. The ISIM fellow-
• Yenny Thung emic Committee. Kees Versteegh, Professor of Arabic and Islam and Chairman of the ships include the following:
D-base Assistant
Department of Middle Eastern Studies of the University Nijmegen (the Netherlands)
Board is now the representative of this participating university. He has published widely on – PhD fellowships are granted for a period of four years to students
• Drs J.G.F. Veldhuis (Chairperson)
President of Utrecht University
linguistics. who have an MA degree or its equivalent. The fellowships are
• Dr S.J. Noorda Léon Buskens, Professor of Law and Culture of Islam at Utrecht University, suc- awarded twice annually for a period of up to four years.
President of University of Amsterdam ceeds Professor Martin van Bruinessen as the representative of his university in the – Post-doctoral fellowships are granted for a period of up to two
• Dr Th.H.J. Stoelinga
President of University of Nijmegen Academic Committee. He has published on law and anthropology. years and are available to junior scholars who have received their
• Drs L.E.H. Vredevoogd PhD degree less than 5 years prior to application.
President of Leiden University
– Visiting fellowships are granted for a period of up to 3 months.
Academic Committee
• Prof. Peter van der Veer (Chairperson)
University of Amsterdam
• Prof. Léon Buskens
Our Apologies Some of these senior fellowships are offered upon invitation. Oth-
ers are awarded in an open competition.
– Sabbatical fellowships are offered to academic staff of participat-
Utrecht University In the ISIM Newsletter 4, the following error was made in our Info Pages, page 39. ing and other universities to conduct research. In specific cases,
• Prof. Mamadou Diouf
CODESRIA, Dakar The address of the New Masters of Arts Programme at the University of Melbourne, the ISIM makes funds available to finance the temporary replace-
• Prof. Dale Eickelman Australia, was inadvertently omitted. The relevant information is as follows: ment for teaching at the home university.
Dartmouth College, Hanover,
New Hampshire
Contact: Abdullah Saeed, Melbourne Institute of Asian Languages and Societies,
• Prof. Gudrun Krämer the University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3252, Australia
Free University Berlin For more information on the various fellowships, please consult the ISIM website:
• Prof. Jean-François Leguil-Bayart
CERI, Paris Tel: +61 3 9344 5555 / 9344 / Fax: +61 3 9349 4870 http://www.isim.nl/
• Prof. Frits Staal E-mail: enquiries@asian.unimelb.edu.au All those interested are invited to apply. Application forms may be downloaded
University of California at Berkeley
• Prof. Kees Versteegh URL: www.arts.unimelb.edu.au from the website or obtained upon request from the ISIM secretariat.
University of Nijmegen
• Sami Zubaida ISIM Fellowship Programmes
Birkbeck College, University of London
• Prof. Erik J. Zürcher Further, we would like to apologize to Dr Elizabeth Attané (ISIM Newsletter 4, page 11) P.O. Box 11089, 2301 EB Leiden, The Netherlands
Leiden University for having referred to her in the author’s description as Dr Isabelle Attané.
ISIM NEWSLETTER 5/00 ISIM 3
Conference
although in a different way in each case.
which was to last for 14 years. In 1986, a relationship that continued successfully Stokhof withdrew from the institute. Never-
Stokhof returned to the Netherlands where for several years. theless, his input is still vital as reflected in
he was appointed chair of Austronesian Lin- In 1993, he also became director of the In- his position in the International Advisory
guistics, succeeding the well-known lin- ternational Institute for Asian Studies (IIAS), Committee of the ISIM. ♦
guist, Joop Anceaux. a post-doctoral institute jointly established
At the same time, he founded the Projects by the Netherlands Academy of Arts and
Division of the Department of Languages Sciences (KNAW), Leiden University, the
and Cultures of Southeast Asia and Oceania Free University and the University of Ams-
of Leiden University, where he initiated the terdam. Even at that time, Stokhof had al-
Indonesian-Netherlands Cooperation in Is- ready begun to launch ideas about an insti-
lamic Studies (INIS) Programme. Further- tute for research on modern Islam. The Islam
more, he established two programmes on in the 21st-century Conference, organized in
Irian Jaya Studies and a Public Administra- 1996 by the INIS, helped in making clear
tion Project in Indonesia, to name but a few. that the strengthening of a global, interre-
Apart from these projects, he initiated and gional academic dialogue was needed.
stimulated several influential series on lin- At the end of 1997, a constitutional docu-
guistics in Indonesia, such as the ILDEP-se- ment was written, upon which the Ministry
ries, and Pacific Linguistics: Materials in Lan- of Education, Culture and Sciences, the Min-
guages of Indonesia. His interests, however, istry of Development Cooperation and three
reach beyond the archipelago and his en- main universities in the Netherlands agreed
deavours are far too numerous to be listed to establish an institute for Islam Studies.
here. Stokhof was asked to become the ‘building
Prof. Stokhof Wim Stokhof, born as the son of an Amster- The most well known of his projects, INIS, pastor’ of the institute, until an academic di-
addresses the dam craftsman in 1941, began his fruitful ca- was first financed by the Dutch Ministry of rector was found to develop research and
public at reer as a scholar in Slavic Languages. Having Development Cooperation. In 1992, after a fellowship programmes.
the opening been asked by the Indonesian literature major crisis between the Minister and the Stokhof operated, together with a Work-
of the ISIM. specialist, Hans Teeuw, to conduct linguistic Indonesian government, relations between ing Group consisting of crucial advisors
research on the remote island of Alor, In- the two countries came heavily under dis- from each of the participating institutes, to
donesia, Stokhof published several articles cussion. From then on, projects could only design the scientific programme. He recruit-
and books on the linguistic aspects of the be initiated under the headings of ‘mutual ed the necessary staff for the office and or-
local ‘Woisika’ and other related languages. benefit’ and ‘equal footing’. Stokhof suc- ganized the remarkable opening of the ISIM
During his 10-year stay in Indonesia, he also ceeded as one of the very few to save his on 20 October 1998. Finally, he led the
expanded the successful Indonesian project and became a partner of the Dutch search for an academic director. Four
Netherlands Development Project (ILDEP), Ministry of Education, Culture and Sciences, months after Khalid Masud was appointed,
Visions of Modernity
ERIK J. ZÜ RCHER
ISIM-CNWS masterclass
movements in the Middle East during the nineteenth
and twentieth centuries.
ISIM Workshop: M u s l i m
I n s t it u t i o n a l A c t iv i t i es
M A RT I N V A N B R U I N E S S E N
On Difference
I S I M An n ua l Le ct u r e
GUDRUN KRÄMER
Continued from page 6 his or her personal views)? For it will hardly tivity for those involved, has a liberating ef- talist painting held no attraction for me, nor
do to summarily dismiss them as evidence fect. Among other things it frees students of did I feel any desire to go native in the
discourses on Islamic history rather than Is- of false consciousness. Islam from the necessity to declare them- desert. My interest had to do with the possi-
lamic history proper, suggesting that histo- selves on the highly sensitive issue of bility that there might be alternative ways of
ry proper does not exist, no matter whether Culture in the market-place whether the Qur’an is actually God’s word, living and of thinking and of organizing so-
Islamic or other: there still remains the fact One way to reconcile the demands of in- and whether Muhammad was truly God’s ciety, and I assume that many of our stu-
that for ever so many Muslims, Islam is pre- tellectual integrity with the recognition of prophet, or indeed the last and final one in a dents feel the same (unless, of course, they
cisely the timeless, homogeneous and strong beliefs among those who are after all long line of messengers that had been sent are looking for their roots…).
unique whole, the sum total of divinely or- the principal partners of the students of to humankind for God’s will to be known. We are constantly faced with questions
dained norms, values and aspirations Islam- Islam, and not just the object of their re- What matters is that Muslim believers view which are not predicated on a sense of dis-
icists spend so much time and energy on search, is to look at Islam as a repertory of and revere them as such. Considering the tance or superiority that is so often associat-
‘deconstructing’. That they often do so in references, textual, visual and other, that explosive nature of the issue particularly in ed with the notion of difference, or not nec-
order to defend Islam (no inverted commas can be variously transmitted, but which our times, this is an advantage not to be un- essarily so. If Muslims believe that there is
here) and the Muslims against those critics under all circumstances require interpreta- derestimated. such a thing as Islamic values, what are
who seem unable to distinguish between tion if they are to acquire force, and have To put it bluntly then, it is not the task of they? If Islamists advocate an ‘Islamic order’,
the Taliban in Afghanistan, the Islamic Re- done so from the very beginning of Islamic those who study Islam to define Islam for what is so specific or possibly unique about
public of Iran, a mullah in Cologne and the history (I do not hesitate to use the term). In- the Muslim believer, to delimit its bound- it? Unlike many Islamists, I do not think that
teachings of the Prophet as understood by terpretation is done by active minds, or to aries and to measure transgression. I would it has to be unique in order to merit atten-
Muslim communities in the Netherlands, put it in current scientific jargon: it is maintain that in spite of the current fascina- tion. If the critics of modernization theory
adds to the irony of the situation. How then premised on agency. To speak of a repertory tion with negotiated space, shifting bound- (simplified, unilinear modernization theory)
should the student of Islam deal with the of references that are continually re-inter- aries and imagined communities, bound- consider the possibility that there might be
firm convictions of the Muslim believer (that preted, and re-defined, and frequently con- aries exist that cannot all be negotiated. The several paths towards modernity, or that we
is to say: not just any Muslim regardless of tested, without losing their status of norma- very notion of a repertory suggests that it is should think in terms of plural modernities
limited (or should I say ‘bounded’?), and that transcend the Western model (of
that it can be exhausted. To speak of negoti- which, again, there are several), what exact-
ated space does not mean that ‘anything ly does this plurality exist of? Is it possible to
goes’. Islam, Sayyid Qutb is said to have re- distinguish a stable core of Islam, constitut-
marked, is flexible but not fluid. But it is not ing its essence and foundation, from its
for the scholar to fix those boundaries. It is more malleable elements that can adapt to
V A C A N C I E S our task to unravel how in a given context the most diverse circumstances in order to
the available (normative) references are se- make Islam, as the well-known formula has
lected, used and combined, and by whom, it, relevant to all times and places? And how
A consortium of the International Institute for Asian Studies (IIAS), to what purpose and to what effect. In does this correspond to the familiar claim
The Institute for the Study of Islam in the Modern World (ISIM) and doing so we should perhaps be more careful that whereas techniques can be freely
when employing the market metaphor: adopted from non-Islamic sources, Islamic
the Research School of Asian, African and Amerindian Studies (CNWS)
shopping around for suitable references to values must by all means be preserved in-
has initiated a project on uphold specific views and to further particu- tact? It is certainly important to analyse the
‘The Dissemination of Religious Authority in 20th Century Indonesia’. lar interests has not always been an option function of these claims and convictions.
The project is part of the programme of the Netherlands-Indonesian and may not always be one today. It is pre- However, I do not think we should stop
cisely more interesting to find out what ref- there, but look at content as well. Human
Co-operation, funded by the Netherlands Minister
erences are available to specific people in rights, good governance or social justice
of Education, Culture and Sciences. specific situations. In many cases, the choice provide excellent examples of what is at
could turn out to be more restricted than it stake.
The research project will deal with the study of four major themes: might appear to the scholar with full access These are big questions, and they must be
(a) Traditional religious authority: ulama and fatwa; to all kinds of ideas, sources and resources. approached with modesty. But then, if I may
At the same time I would be more cautious be allowed a moral note at the end of my re-
(b) Mystical associations (tarekat) in urban communities;
when speaking about inside and outside marks, modesty may be a crucial prerequi-
(c) Dakwa (Muslim propagation) activities in urban communities; and views, for in many situations the divide is by site if we are to continue the study of Islam
(d) Education and the dissemination of religious authority. no means as clear as some seem to think. I in all its rich diversity without falling into
see, at any rate, no reason why the ‘under- the trap of culturalism. This particular mod-
standing’ of an urban middle-class academ- esty code does not apply to women only,
The project seeks:
ic of Muslim faith should by definition be nor is it restricted to non-Muslims. The study
more authoritative, and insightful, than the of Islam is a joint venture. We all share the
4 Part-time Post-docs (each 0.5 fte) ‘interpretation’ of an urban middle-class risks and the benefits – and the doubts. ♦
academic of Hindu, Christian or uncertain
leanings; otherwise European medievalists
to do research in one of the four themes
would not face the methodological prob-
(a combination of two themes in 1.0 fte is negotiable). lems that they do in trying to understand
medieval history.
An Islamic Triangle
Law
LÉON BUSKENS
Léon Buskens was The attention on the plurality of norms in practice’. The role of the sharı-c a was limited opment of these post-modern forms of A plea for comparative
appointed to the Muslim societies has a tradition of more than and placed in the framework of the state Islam. Not only do they have easier access to studies
Chair of Law and a century in the Western study of Islamic law. legal system. A government-led confronta- schooling and modern communication tech- The triangular model which is presented
Culture of Islam at Instead of the binary opposition of theory and tion between Islamic law and local customs nologies, they also enjoy in most cases a here is not intended as a general outline of
the Faculty of Law, practice, as can be found in the work of replaced the pre-colonial situation of accom- greater freedom to exchange their religious the ‘nature’ of Islamic legal systems. On the
Utrecht University. founding fathers like Goldziher, Snouck Hur- modation. The opposition to this colonial and political ideas. In Western societies, contrary, this contribution is a plea for re-
This article is an gronje and Schacht, I propose a triangular policy joined forces with Islamic purification Muslims from all parts of the world meet, search on the diversity of legal systems and
extract from his model, related to an approach in the anthro- movements that developed in the same peri- and get to know their diverse customs and their historical development. In my own
inaugural lecture pology of law, which stresses the plurality of od. These nationalist puritans wanted to beliefs. For Muslim immigrants of the first work on the genesis of the modern Moroc-
delivered on legal norms.1 The three domains in this trian- cleanse Islamic orthodoxy from local, ‘un-Is- generation, their mutual differences are can legal system since the 19th century, at-
23 February 2000. gular model are the sharı-c a, state law as de- lamic’ practices. Their struggle for a pure often of great symbolic importance, but the tention is paid to the interaction of the
The full text of veloped by the government, and a rather dif- Islam was simultaneously a struggle aganist governments of their European host coun- three domains of legal norms.6 A compara-
the lecture will be fuse complex of local customs. This last do- colonialism and customary law. According to tries take another view. For these govern- tive perspective is vital in order to under-
published separately main is the most difficult to define, also be- this view, the sharı-c a should be the law of the ments, these strangers are all Muslims, and stand the pecularities of the different legal
in Dutch. cause of the problematic character of notions independent state for which they were fight- they should organize themselves in one systems of the Islamic world. Our discipline
such as ‘folk law’ and ‘customary law’. Consid- ing. group, with one clear set of opinions. Reli- might greatly benefit from a comparative
ering the dominance of an Islamic idiom in all After independence, the new power-hold- gious young persons of the succeding gen- essay which might be entitled, as a pun on
three domains, as well as in the discourse on ers readily took over the colonial legacy of a erations seem to be willing to comply with Clifford Geertz’ famous book, Islamic Law
legal norms in general, it is possible to speak strong, centrally-governed state. State law this wish for unity. Many of them seem to Observed. ♦
of an ‘Islamic’ triangle. functioned in these new states as an ideolo- give more importance to a shared Islamic
In this model, the emphasis is on the neces- gy of national unity. There remained hardly identity than to differences in law schools
sity of considering the different domains in any space for diversity of legal norms. Cus- and customs. They consult modern ‘restate-
relationship to each other, instead of viewing tomary law was abolished as a colonial inven- ments’ of Islamic law, such as al-Zuhayl-ı’s al-
them as isolated entities. Study of the process tion, even if it lived on in daily practice. Nega- Fiqh al-isla- mı- wa-adillatuhu (fourth edition,
of state formation, in which a central govern- tion of other legal norms replaced the colo- 1997), instead of the classical manuals of the
ment claims the monopoly on the imposition nial tradition of confrontation. respective madhhabs.
of uniform and generally valid legal norms, However, the creation of a national legal
offers a key to understanding the constantly system did not mean (re)introduction of Is- Customs in the diaspora
changing relationships between the three lamic law as it existed before colonization. In In the ‘diaspora’, state law and customs Notes
domains. The model provides a better under- the view of many independent governments, change as well. In addition to the state law 1. See, for example, Dupret, Baudouin, Maurits
standing of the diversity of norms in Muslim the classical learned law books were not suit- of their countries of origin, the immigrants Berger, and Laila al-Zwaini, eds. (1999).
communities. As a starting point for discus- able instruments to administer a modern are faced with the state law of their country Legal Pluralism in the Arab World. The Hague, etc.
sion, a schematic overview of the develop- state. Only legislation could perform this new of residence, partly in the form of private in- 2. See Messick, Brinkley (1993). The Calligraphic State:
ment of legal norms in Islamic societies and in task. Only in the 1970s was a further Islamiza- ternational law.5 At the same time, their cus- Textual Domination and History in a Muslim Society
immigrant communities in Western Europe is tion necessary in some states to legitimize toms can no longer be described as local. In (Berkeley, etc), for a study of the transformation of
presented below.2 existing regimes. A favourite symbol with these new communities of immigrants, nor- the Islamic legal system in Yemen, to which I am
which to create such a new legitimacy was mative customs are not tied to one locality. greatly indebted.
A triangle in development the invention of an Islamic penal law with The members of the ‘moral community’ are 3. See Johansen, Baber (1999). ‘Coutumes locales et
In pre-modern Islamic states, the central ample attention for corporal punishment scattered all over Western Europe. In the coutumes universelles aux sources des règles
government generally had rather limited and public executions. Another popular mea- well-known cases of ‘crimes of honour’, the juridiques en Droit musulman hanéfite’, in his
control over the contents of Islamic law. The sure was the creation of Islamic banks. Even behaviour of people living in Western Eu- Contingency in a Sacred Law. Legal and Ethical
culama- ' were the main agents in the interpre- in Iran, the revolution of 1979 did not mean a rope is governed by considerations of pub- Norms in the Muslim Fiqh. Leiden, etc; and also
tation of God’s will and thus developed legal direct return to the rich shic-ı legal literature, lic opinion in the villages of origin, thou- Masud, Muhammad Khalid (1995). Sha- ibı-’s
rules. The state could try to direct the course but a large-scale codification of Islamic law sands of miles away. The killing of a daugh- Philosophy of Islamic Law; Islamabad, especially
of legal thinking, as in the Ottoman Empire, according to Western textual forms. ter might be meaningless in the eyes of Ger- chapter 10.
but in general this did not lead to indepen- man neighbours, for example, but in- 4. See, for example, Eickelman, Dale F., and Jon W.
dent state legislation. Furthermore, the state Post-modern Islamic law evitable and honourable according to the Anderson, eds. (1999). New Media in the Muslim
hardly had the power to impose these official There are many indications that nowadays standards of grandparents and cousins in World. The Emerging Public Sphere. Bloomington:
interpretations of the sharı-ca on the popula- the relationship between sharı-c a, state law Turkey. Indiana University Press, especially John Bowen’s
tion. In practice, local customs often played and customs is again drastically changing. In Research on these legal customs is of great contribution ‘Legal Reasoning and Public
an important role in the regulation of daily Indonesia, the limits of the power of the cen- importance to understand the behaviour of Discourse in Indonesian Islam’.
life. culama-' did their best to integrate these tral government has become obvious. Mili- Muslims living in Western Europe. Many Is- 5. See, for example, Strijbosch, Fons, and Marie-
customs in official Islamic legal thinking in as tant Muslims no longer accept the pluralism lamic immigrants come from societies in Claire Foblets, eds. (1999). Relations familiales
far as they did not conflict too flagrantly with of pancasila ideology and demand an Islam- which customary law traditionally played an interculturelles. Séminaire interdisciplinaire juridique
orthodox norms.3 This condition of accom- ic state. At the same time Indonesian intel- important role, such as the Rif in Northern et anthropologique / Cross-Cultural Family Relations.
modation between state and Islamic law, and lectuals dare to think in an unorthodox way Morocco, Kabylia, Anatolia, Kurdistan, and Reports of a Socio-Legal Seminar; Oñati, especially
local customs, was characterized by consid- about the contents of this ‘post-modern’ Is- recently also Somalia and Albania. Special Fons Strijbosch’s contribution, ‘The
erable flexibility and dynamism. lamic law. Increasing literacy and the intro- attention should be paid to changes in these Anthropological Study of Customary Law for
Colonial rule pretended to aim at a so- duction of new means of communication af- customs which are linked to the context of Practical-Juridical Ends: Some Remarks on
called modernization and rationalization of fect the monopoly of the traditional scholars migration. Do Islamic or state norms replace Methodology’.
the state. Generally this meant strengthening on the interpretation of Islamic law. On the these ‘older’ values and norms? Knowledge 6. For example, in my Islamitisch recht en
the central government and importing legal Internet, Muslims from all over the world dis- of these issues can be of great importance in familiebetrekkingen in Marokko (Islamic Law and
norms from the European ‘mother country’. cuss – in English – these new forms of Islam. order to properly prosecute behaviour Family Relations in Morocco). Amsterdam: Bulaaq,
However, it was also often part of colonial Cheap CD-roms of classical texts produced which is defined as ‘criminal’ by the laws of 1999.
policy to strengthen the plurality of legal by mullahs in Qum enable ordinary believers Western European countries. This research is
norms by transforming local customs into to browse, in an unorthodox manner, in also of scholarly value, because this kind of Léon Buskens is professor of Law and Culture of Islam
folk law. what was until very recently an enclosed research is often difficult to conduct in the at Utrecht University, and assistant professor of
Elevating customs to that status of law garden for initiates.4 countries of origin where their governments Islamic Law and Cultural Anthropology of Islamic
went hand in hand with a marginalization of Muslims in Western Europe and North prefer to deny the existence of other, non- Societies at Leiden University, the Netherlands.
Islamic law, which allegedly did not work ‘in America play an important role in the devel- official norms. E-mail: LPHMBUSKENS@RULLET.LEIDENUNIV.NL
ISIM NEWSLETTER 5/00 General Issues 9
Africa:
Debate
PATRICK C HABAL
Islamism
Debate
HENRY MUN SON
Indigenous Evaluations
Health
S Y L V I A W I N G ÖN DE R
Impurity as Criticism
Th e Bo dy
SAB INE STRASSER
Dances of
Dance
AI S H A AL I
M I S C E L L A N E O U S
ISIM NEWSLETTER 5/00 General Issues 15
Islamic Relief
Aid
J É R Ô M E B E L L I O N - J OU R D A N
and ‘Humanitarianism’
claims to the ‘right to intervene’ as practised by non- 1
governmental organizations, such as Doctors with-
out Borders, setting the tone for what humanitarian
action should be.
Despite its heterogeneity, the field of inter- The Afghan war as the lajnat al-zakat in Egypt) affiliated with ution of warm meals for the homeless in
national aid seems to function according to The Afghan war incited numerous mobi- a mosque or an Islamic association. On their France.5
the North-South principle, the North often lizations in the Muslim world, notably side, the Islamic relief organizations intend However, the displayed universality of aid
being assimilated with the West and the amongst movements that advocate the es- to re-develop a zakat practice at the level of does not necessarily have the same signifi-
Judeo-Christian tradition. However, it should tablishment of an Islamic society, such as the umma: by a form of transnationalization cance. Three explanatory types for this
be noted that this vision of international hu- the Muslim Brotherhood or the Jama’at i-Is- of the zakat, they become intermediaries demonstrated universality can be retained.
manitarian aid is incomplete: from the lami. In the mid-1980s, several relief organi- between donors and beneficiaries that are Within the Islamic relief organizations, the
Sudan to Afghanistan, to Bosnia, Kosovo, or zations were created to come to the aid of culturally and geographically distant. Hence ‘da’wa-ist’ attitude towards aid is always
Chechnya, Islamic organizations have estab- the Afghans: in 1985, the Egyptian Union of organizations such as Islamic Relief or Mus- present: it justifies the universality of aid by
lished emergency programmes and devel- Doctors created a humanitarian branch, the lim Aid instil a policy of fundraising to con- the universal ambition of Islam as a religion
opment projects. Generally ignored in the Lajnat al-Ighatha al-Insaniya (Human Relief vince, for example, the practising Muslims destined for the whole of humanity. The
numerous publications of international non- Agency); in 1986, the Organization for Social of France that it is legitimate to offer their principal of non-differentiation of beneficia-
governmental organizations, the activities Reform in Kuwait created the Lajnat ad- zakat to an organization based in England ries is thus distorted in the sense that a dis-
of these Islamic organizations also remain Da’wa al-Islamiya (Islamic Mission Agency) for projects in Sudan, Kosovo, or Pakistan. tinction amongst beneficiaries is in fact op-
unanalysed in the abundant and irregular to collect funds for Afghanistan; and in erated between Muslims and the others, for
literature devoted to Islamist mobilizations. 1987, Yusuf Islam (formerly Cat Stevens – Universality of aid whom there is hope of conversion. In cer-
In the latter type of publications, the role of pop singer converted to Islam) took the lead Do only Muslim populations benefit from tain organizations, universality rejoins more
charitable associations of Islamic reference of a collective of associations in England the aid of these organizations? The question the problematic of the notion of ‘third
has at times been dealt with, but the em- and founded Muslim Aid. These organiza- is recurrent and points to the problem of world’: compassion for human misery marks
phasis is placed on local associations that tions and others such as IIRO, the Islamic Re- the universality of aid. This principle is rec- most notably the workers who have been ‘in
have taken charge of activities that the lief Agency (international network of the Su- ognized as fundamental in the field of con- the field’ and is sometimes accompanied by
State does not fully assume (e.g. health care, danese organization IARA), and Human temporary international humanitarian ac- bitter criticism of the inequalities and the di-
education). Concern International regrouped them- tion: each and every human being should vision of resources at the global level. An ex-
selves in Peshawar as the Islamic Coordina- be aided unconditionally. The universality ample of this caricature was published in
tion Council, in which also Kuwaiti and of aid reveals itself difficult to realize: the Tariq al-Kheir, information brief produced
Saudi Red Cross associations take part.2 logic of preference and the conditioning of by Islamic Relief: an obese man struggling
In order to analyse the development of aid have not disappeared from the field of on his stationary bicycle to try and lose
these organizations, one must place value international humanitarian aid. Most Islamic weight, is shown in front of a television re-
judgements aside and avoid the simple im- relief organizations do not conceal the fact port displaying an image of a rachitic
plicit or explicit oppositions in which praise that they develop projects in which priority African.6 The demonstrated universality is
is given to humanitarian aid and conde- is given to those that benefit Muslim popu- equally a question of marketing: just as their
scension to Islamism: humanism / obscu- lations. This is based on three reasons: polit- Christian or secularized homologues, Islam-
rantism, liberalism / holism, political disin- ical, pragmatic, and dogmatic. The political ic relief organizations do not escape the
terest / interest. From all sides, the reality of reason has to do with the fact that the con- market logic of the international humanitar-
the situation is obviously more complex, cerned organizations hold a worldview that ian scene. ♦
and the Islamic relief organizations do not identifies ‘Islamic causes’, from Bosnia or
escape this complexity. It is a question of Kashmir to Palestine, where the victims are Notes
looking at how they developed and en- Muslims and (it is often added) are victims 1. This article is based on research conducted with
Tariq al-Kheir, Of particular interest are organizations that tered the field of international humanitarian precisely because they are Muslims. This the framework of a PhD in political science at
n°2, Summer develop activities at the trans-national level action. Would Islamic relief organizations be form of ‘martyrologie’ justifies an aid that the Institut d’Etudes Politiques in Paris, under
1995, p.7. and that are found in different zones in irreducibly different from their Christian or gives priority to the Muslim ‘brothers’. This the direction of Prof. Jean Leca. It is based on
‘humanitarian crisis’, and more generally, secular homologues? These organizations political dimension is supported by a prag- interviews held with the employees and
where there are populations in need of as- constituted themselves in reaction to ‘West- matic one: it is often repeated, as in the management of Islamic relief organizations
sistance. Thus, in Khartoum just as in Islam- ern’ hegemony in the field of humanitarian brochure of the International Islamic Relief in France, the United Kingdom, Sudan, Egypt,
abad and Sarajevo, one obviously finds of- action: for that reason, they claim specifici- Organization, that ‘more than 80% of the Bosnia, and Pakistan.
fices of both Doctors without Borders and ty, a rooting in the Islamic tradition. But si- refugees and victims of war and disaster in 2. Sometimes placed within the same category as
the International Islamic Relief Organiza- multaneously, their insertion in the field of the world are Muslim’.3 Finally, the dogmat- Islamic relief NGOs, the Red Cross societies have
tion (IIRO). Created in 1978 in Jeddah as a humanitarian action contributes to a refor- ic reason: according to certain interpreta- nonetheless a specific status in that they belong to
branch of the Islamic World League, the mulation, even a re-interpretation, of this tions, the zakat should be collected and dis- the International Federation of Red Cross Societies
IIRO is one of the many Islamic relief organi- tradition to be able to compose with the tributed within the Muslim community. and the Red Cross and are expected to obey the
zations (al-ighatha al-islamiya) that have dominant norms. Also, to analyse the prac- These three dimensions seem to justify a principles of the movement founded by Henry
come into existence since the late 70s. It tices of these organizations allows one to particularistic aid in which only members of Dunant in 1863: ‘humanity, impartiality, neutrality,
was then that those Islamic organizations see how they combine various registers of the Muslim community may benefit. independence, voluntary service, unity,
whose principle activity was oriented to- action. Nevertheless, according to their brochures, universality.’
wards teaching and the da’wa (call to Islam) They look to inscribe their action in the the organizations’ intentions are to offer aid 3. Brochure IIRO (in French).
invested in the field of humanitarian aid so heritage of the Islamic tradition of charity. ‘according to purely humanitarian criteria 4 .I b i d .
as to respond to two different situations. The emphasis is placed on the Qur’anic in- devoid of any ethnic, linguistic, or religious 5. This universality of action implies developments
On the one hand, there was the need to junctions or the texts of the hadith, which distinction’.4 The idea of non-differentiation at the level of interpretation of the usage of
face up to the humanitarian consequences call upon Muslims to do charitable works: of beneficiaries of aid which characterizes the zakat. For certain organizations like Islamic
of famines and the wars affecting the whether it be by the donning of zakat and modern humanitarian aid seems to have be- Relief, the solution consists in differentiating
African continent. The Islamic African Relief the sadaqa, or the qurbani, donation for the come the norm for Islamic relief organiza- funds: the zakat funds are destined for Muslims
Agency (IARA) was created for this reason in occasion of sacrificial festival. With the ex- tions. In fact, they do not exclude coming to and other funds are allocated to projects that aim
1981 in Khartoum as a humanitarian branch ception of several Muslim countries that the aid of non-Muslims. Intervening in at mixed populations.
of the Organization of the Islamic Call have reintroduced an official system of zones where there are groups of various ori- 6. Tariq al-Kheir (1995), Summer (2), p. 7.
(Da’wa Islamiya) to come to the aid of the zakat collection (principally Pakistan and gins (e.g. refugee camps), the organizations
Ethiopian and Eritrean refugees in Sudan. Sudan), the practice of zakat is largely left to are more and more concerned with demon-
On the other hand, it was also necessary to private initiatives. It is in this ‘empty space’ strating the universality of their actions: for Jérôme Bellion-Jourdan is a PhD candidate in
face the consequences of the war in that different types of zakat-collecting insti- Islamic Relief, the beneficiaries are all those Political Science at the Institut d’Etudes Politiques,
Afghanistan that broke out after the Soviet tutions have multiplied: from Islamic banks populations in need, whether it be for pro- Paris, France.
invasion in 1979. to local zakat-collecting committees (such jects in Bosnia or in Africa, or for the distrib- E-mail: j_bellion@hotmail.com
16 Regional Issues ISIM NEWSLETTER 5/00
A Case of Grassroots
S o u t h A s ia
ANNE-HÉLÈNE TROTTIER
Roots of modern
M id dl e E a s t
MA T T H I J S V A N DE N B O S
by Keyvā nQ a z vı̄nı̄ (d.1938), who in 1926 de- es during the Reza Shah era: the
parted from the Sufi path as it was predom- Sol t.āncalı̄šāhı̄s were accused of smoking
inantly known in Iran.2 opium, of bribing judges, and Qazvı̄nı̄ had
While Qazvı̄nı̄ witnessed the shah’s de- written that son Sā . leh. calı̄šāh pretended to
molition of the traditional clergy’s religious kingship. Maǧzūb calı̄šāh also recollected a
-
institutions, it is unlikely to have eluded him visit by Reza Shah during which the king re-
that ‘some audacious thinkers attempted to quested – to the background of these alle-
reconcile […] intellectual modernism with a gations – the writing of an instruction from
renewal of religion.’3 The sermons of the in- which it would become manifest what con-
fluential ayatollah Sangelaǧı̄ (1890-1944), stituted legitimate Sufi behaviour. The man-
for instance, attracted many from the state uscript that resulted in 1939 was ‘Sā . leh. ’ sA d-
and societal elite. Central among his ideas vice’ (Pand-e Sā . leh),
. a booklet which more
was the need for a more rigorous monothe- than any other established the
ism that would do away with the belief in sa- Sol t.āncalı̄šāhı̄s as a legitimate religious
cred intermediaries, i.e. the imams, and force in modern Iran. According to another
their ‘intercession’ (šefā'at). The ‘emulation’ manifesto, the booklet became ‘a house-
(taqlı̄d) of moǧtaheds ought to be replaced hold word amongst the religious of Iran.’
by everyman’s direct ‘interpretation’ The order’s respectable mission aimed at
(eǧtheād) of the sacred sources. the broadest possible audience, as Pand-e
While Sangelaǧı̄ attacked Shicite taqlı̄d, Sāleh. ‘makes clear for the ordinary man and
Qazvı̄nı̄ assaulted the traditional authority woman how to practice this moral and spiri-
structure of master and disciple, and juxta- tual discipline [of Sufism], and so to enjoy
posed the ‘formalist’ (rasmı̄) Sufism of Sufi the fruits of the spirit in daily life in this
orders to ‘true’ (h. aqı̄qı̄) Sufism. At its core world.’6 Pand-e Sāleh. was recently observed Notes
lay the idea that mysticism could be a mod- to be ‘a work filled with platitudes and hack- 1. Miller, W. (1923). ‘Shicah Mysticism (The Sufis of
ern scientific enterprise. The 1930 version of neyed moral exhortations, the mystical con- Guna- ba- d)’, The Moslem World, 13, p. 353.
his Book of Mysticism (cErfān-nāme) used the tent of which is insignificant.’7 Whether or 2. Gramlich, R. (1965). Die schiitischen Derwischorden
measure of the modern age: the Gregorian not one accepts this qualification, there is Persiens. Erster Teil: Die Affiliationen. Wiesbaden:
calendar. indeed nothing in it that would put Franz Steiner, p. 68.
Qazvı̄nı̄’s Sufism was strongly con- Solt. ān calı̄šāhı̄ Sufis up against the national, 3. Richard, Y. (1988). ‘Shar-ıcat Sangalaj -ı: A Reformist
demned by the Solt. āncalı̄š āhı̄s: ‘One cannot societal or stately order. When son Theologian of the Ri da -
. Sh ah Period’. In Authority
count this to be Islamic Sufism anymore, it Sāleh. calı̄šāh did call upon the state, it was in c
and Political Culture in Shi ism, edited by S.
was a new religion.’ They furthermore a bid for support of traditional crafts and in- Arjomand. Albany: State University of New York
Pand-e S -
. ale h. The long-term survival and modern devel- protested that ‘sometimes [Qazvı̄nı̄ was] dustries, a token of the (great) nation of Press, p. 159.
booklet, Tehran opment of Sufism in Iran has its foundation particularly interested in the Wahhabi reli- I r a n .8 4. Na- s. er cal-ı, Asadollah
- Golp a- yega- n-ı (362/1983).
1365/1986 in the Necmatolla- hı̄ order’s 18th -century gion’ and that ‘like the Sunnis, he did not Resa- le-ye Ǧavab - I-ya. Tehran: Hwaǧ
- a, p.67.
- - - ˘
(second edition), socio-political renaissance, after the fall of recognise “being divinely chosen” (na s. s. ) Communalism c
5. Interview Maǧ_z ub al Iš ah, 04/19/97, cf. Owrang,
written by Hajj the Safawids. In the 19th century, religiously and “authorisation” (eǧāze) as necessary National integration had been a cause of cA. ‘To solta - - - -
. n - em o q t a d e r - e ın mamlekat hwahı
˘
Sheikh influential Sufis found royal patronage in conditions.’4 In other words: in attacking all great concern for Kasravi, who had ‘focused šhod’ in S a-l-name-ye
- Donya-, 22, p. 218;
Mohammad the courts of the late Qajar shahs. Sufi spiri- established Shicite bases of spiritual author- on the question of communalism in [his Necmatolla- h-I, cA (1361/1982). T ı-q - eB o r a n d e.
Hasan tual authority was sometimes conceptual- ity, Qazvı̄nı̄ was a heretic unbeliever. treatise] Sufigari’, and held Sufism, as a reli- Tehran: Paya- m, p. 80.
Saleh calishah. ized as a worldly realm, autonomous from Qazvı̄nı̄’s challenge presents a distinctly gious sect, among the primary causes of na- 6. Hazeghi, H. (1970). In A Muslim Commentary on
royal or jurist power. These Iranian develop- modernist struggle: not only personal tional disintegration.9 But Nūr calı̄ šāh had The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, S.
ments were contemporaneous with increas- claims to spiritual authority were ques- promised ‘to remove all discord from the Tabandeh. London: Goulding, pp. viii, ix.
ing repression of Sufis by reformist jurists tioned, but also the nature of authority it- nation in the space of two years’ (if only the 7. Lewisohn, L. (1998). ‘An Introduction to the
elsewhere in the 18th and 19th-century Is- self. In addition, his questioning of Sufi au- nation would recognize him as its spiritual History of Modern Persian Sufism, Part I: The
lamic world. While Sufism in Turkey and thority had the nation-state as an organiz- leader).10 Son Sāleh. calı̄šāh had not verbally Nicmatulla- h-ı Order: Persecution, Revival and
Egypt suffered from 20th-century modernist ing motif. He outlined a vision of ‘classes in countered Kasravi’s assault, but Sāleh. ’s na- Schism’. Bulletin of the School for Oriental and
regimes and subsequently declined, the society [that] are like organs in the body, tional advice (Pand-e Sāleh) . contradicted African Studies, 61 (3), p. 452.
Solt. āncalı̄š āhı̄-Necmatollāhı̄ order redefined [and] that must be present in the society to any potential challenge in Sufi authority - n-a-me-ye (1367/1988) S a- leh. Tehran:
8. Yad . .
its traditional, Shicite Sufi religiosity in the the extent that they are necessary, not too and developed the Solt. āncalı̄šāhı̄ order in Ketabkhane-ye Amir Soleymani, p.141.
face of 20th-century modernity, and ex- much and not too little, otherwise [society] ways to make it seem idle. 9. Abrahamian, E. (1973). ‘Kasravi: The Integrative
panded. would become defective like the man with One finds traces of modern Shicite Sufism Nationalist of Iran.’ Middle Eastern Studies, 9 (3),
four eyes and one hand, or four feet and one in the Solt. ān calı̄šāhı̄ order, then, not only in pp. 282, 297.
Sufism and the nation-state tooth’. Of the clergy, few were functional. If the conspicuously revolutionary innova- 10. Miller (1923), p. 354.
Nationalist modernization in the early there were many clergymen, there would be tions of Qazvı̄nı̄. It is also to be found in
Pahlavi polity (1921-1941) has been associ- more corruption (cErfān-nāme, p. 313). Even Nūr calı̄šāh’s nation-wide appeal for spiritual I would like to express my gratitude to
ated with the repression of Sufism as a com- less leniency was left over in his considera- recognition and national unity, and in the Dr Bernd Radtke for his comments on earlier
ponent of anti-religious policy. However, tion of Sufism. In Qazvı̄nı̄’s functionalist streamlined religiosity which stories sur- versions of this article.
there are also different accounts that defy mode of reasoning, the organ of traditional rounding Pand-e Sā . leh. claim was commis-
the alleged incongruity of religion and na- Sufism was not only un-Islamic, but nation- sioned by the (state’s) leader of the nation. Matthijs van den Bos is currently writing his PhD
tionalist modernization. While the national- ally dysfunctional (p. 311). Thus, the Sol t. āncalı̄šāhı̄ order evolved from dissertation on the Solt. a-n calıš
- a- hı- and Saf ı-calıš
.
- ah- ı--
ist historian Ahmad Kasravi proclaimed that being a powerful but localized ferqe (sect) c - -
Ne matollahı orders at the Amsterdam School for
all books of the Sufis had to be thrown into Admonitory advice into, to some outward extent at least, be- Social Science Research (University of Amsterdam),
the fire, Sufism made its way into school- After Nūr calı̄šāh died in 1918, his son coming a subdued but nationally integrated and is an editor of Soera, tijdschrift over het
books. The shah himself, Reza Shah, is re- . leh. calı̄šāh (d.1966) assumed the order’s
Sā socio-religious organization. ♦ Midden-Oosten.
ported to have been closely associated with leadership. His position was enhanced by E-mail: vandenbos@pscw.uva.nl
ISIM NEWSLETTER 5/00 Regional Issues 19
Continued on page 20
20 Regional Issues ISIM NEWSLETTER 5/00
Debating Gender
M i ddl e E a s t
Z I B A MI R - H O S S E I N I
Transformation
M id dl e E a s t / No r t h A f ri c a
SONJA H EGASY
Islamic Associations
Turkey
I M AD F . S A B I ’
Mythologizing
Caucasus
V L AD I M I R B O B R O V N I K O V
North Caucasus
What is the historical background of discourse on
sharia courts?
Public debates on and attempts at introduc- Sharia and state-building that ‘judges brutality in the Chechen man- deportation of entire groups that took place
ing Islamic law have become characteristic As soon as the first death sentence of the ner’ associated with public flogging, cutting under the Soviet rule. Moreover, the authors
of post-Soviet Muslim and non-Muslim Supreme Sharia Court of Chechnya was off of hands, throwing stones, and therefore cited above completely ignored the fact that
areas, and are especially vivid in the North given in Grozny in April 1997, vigorous de- quite unsuited for the modern law and soci- the criminal laws of the sharia were not ap-
Caucasus. In recent years, the so-called bates on sharia began in the North Cau- ety. This view is shared by the top-level offi- plied in the pre-modern Caucasus. Histori-
‘sharia courts’ or mahakim shar’iya were es- casian and Moscow media. One can identify cials in the Russian Federal government such cally, highlanders settled criminal cases in
tablished de facto by reopened mosques in two competing attitudes towards this issue. as K.M. Tsagolov, a deputy to a former minis- accordance with their customary laws or im-
a number of villages and towns in Dagestan, The majority of Muslim clergy are in favour ter of nationalities of the Russian Federation, posed state legislation.
Chechnya, Ingushetia, North Ossetia-Alania, of introducing Islamic law, regarded as the and the majority of the pro-Moscow Cau- Another myth typical of the discourse on
Karachaevo-Cherkessia and Kabardino- tool of national liberation and social mod- casian authorities. They accuse adherents of sharia courts is the vision of Islamic law as a
Balkaria. The majority of mosques are locat- ernization. They consider sharia as the the sharia courts of working for Chechen ter- natural antagonist of the Russian state. Par-
ed in Northern Dagestan and Southern magic solution to the problem of growing rorists. Part of the Moscow mass media sid- ticipants of these debates argue that in the
Chechnya. They settle small inheritance and criminality and social instability caused by ing with the Putin’s government propagated past sharia played a significant role in the
criminal cases including divorce, theft, the collapse of Soviet rule. such a negative vision of ‘Shariatists’. As an- political resistance of the North Caucasian
drinking alcoholic beverages, and the like. other minister of the Russian Federation, Ra- highlanders, first to the Russian conquest
The decisions of these courts are final and mazan Abdulatipov, pointed in August 1999: and later to the Soviet reforms. From this,
The distinct flavour of this view was
not subject to appeal. They usually impose ‘Against a background of the war in Dages- they conclude that restored sharia courts
captured by Seyyid-Muhammad
both fixed sharia and non-Islamic penalties. tan and the aggravated situation in the must undermine Russian rule in the present
Abubakarov, the former Dagestani
Dagestani chairmen of village and district North Caucasus, an impression has been day Caucasus. This mythology has a long his-
Mufti, in an interview with ‘Izvestia’ just
administrations often call upon local qadis spread in Russia that every Muslim is an Is- tory, embedded in the colonial policy of late
before his assassination in August 1998:
to settle family and land trials. lamic extremist’. Imperial Russia, which considered Islamic
’Do you remember the recent execution
Articles 212 and 235 of the Soviet criminal Paradoxically, both of these antagonistic law unfavourable. After the Caucasian war of
of the death sentence imposed by the
code of the Russian Federation prohibiting visions of sharia have a somewhat common the 19th century, the possibility of Islamic
sharia court in Chechnya? And such
the application of sharia norms regarding core. The first striking thing is the almost uprisings haunted the mind of top-level
trouble and harrowing reminiscences
marriage and inheritance practices were total absence of knowledge of Islamic law state officials such as S.M. Dukhovsky, Gover-
abolished in its new version passed in 1996. made of it? Even those who had agreed among the majority of adherents and oppo- nor-General of the Turkestan Province, or
with this sentence hesitated, their souls
But sharia courts have not been legalized in nents of re-enacting Islamic courts. In their K.P. Pobedonostsev, Procurator-General of
having been disgusted. But let’s think of
post-Soviet Russia with the exception of view sharia is reduced to some elementary the Saint Synod. This fear lead the state to re-
a quite another thing. The problem is
Chechnya and Ingushetia. In December norms of criminal and family law. No one can strict the use of sharia norms for the Russian
what we should do with those who deal
1997 the Ingush president Ruslan Aushev distinguish the Shaficite legal school, tradi- Muslims and to keep Muslim clergy of the
in kidnapping and trade the captured,
enacted mediating judges who are to follow tionally dominant on the territory of Dages- North Caucasus under tight control. In turn,
turned into living goods, or with those
‘the adat (i.e. local customary law) and sharia tan, Chechnya and Ingushetia, from the Muslim political opposition arose at the end
who kill their victims and sell their
norms’ while settling criminal and civil Hanafi one prevailing among the other Cau- of the 19th century, constantly reclaiming
cadavers. I consider sharia court as a
cases. Sharia norms relating to marriage casian and Russian Muslims. Due to such ig- the full application of the sharia law.
preventive measure against new
(zawaj) and feuding (qisas) were legalized in norance, the Chechen authorities adopted This mythology had much influenced legal
murders, not as a pure cruelty. Today a
the republic in 1996-1999. The Chechen Re- the Sudanese sharia code based on the Ma- and social development of the North Cau-
criminal knows that his case will be
public of Ichkeria officially proclaimed itself likite madhhab. The majority of participants casian Muslims in the 20th century. First, it
arranged, decided in his favour, that
an independent Islamic State in 1996. The in the debates are unable to judge numer- led to the introduction of sharia courts after
punishment is not inevitable. According
preamble of the Chechen Constitution was ous deviations from the classic Islamic doc- the Revolution of 1917 and the collapse of
to sharia, his responsibility is full – thus it
amended such that it then read: ‘Quran and trine as they were attested in the work of re- the Russian empire. These courts were en-
is a good preventive measure, isn’t it?’
sharia are the principal source of legislation’. enacted sharia courts in the last decade. acted by revolutionary decrees passed by
In September 1996, acting president Ze- It is noteworthy that no Muslim judges or the First Congress of the Highland Peoples
limkhan Yandarbiyev brought into force the even academic legal theoreticians specializ- of the Caucasus and that of the Terek peo-
new criminal code copied from the 1983 It is amazing, that many Moscow journalists ing in Islamic law take part in this public de- ples held in 1917-1918. They worked under
sharia criminal code of Sudan. The Supreme and academic scholars, quite unfamiliar with bate. Its participants are mainly journalists, different political rules including the early
Sharia Court and corresponding district in- Islam, also support re-enacting the sharia politicians and academic scholars including Soviet one and were abolished only by 1925-
stitutions were created. Public punishments law in the North Caucasus. They believe that political scientists, historians and anthropol- 1927. For the second time, the idea of ‘Islam-
Muhammad- with fixed penalties (hudud) were intro- it is the only means to maintain order and to ogists. The only exception is Prof. L.R. ic resurgence’ was realized in the North Cau-
Sayyid Gaziev, duced for selling alcoholic beverages, illegal prevent Chechnya and neighbouring Cau- Syukiyaynen from the Institute of State and casus following the break-up of the Soviet
qadi and sexual intercourse and severe criminal of- casian republics from anarchy. As a former Law in Moscow. Syukiyaynen is Russia’s lead- Union. Sharia courts were introduced here
chairman of fences like robbery and homicide. In reality, member of the Soviet Union Communist ing expert on Islamic law, although his opin- again. But the social and legal situation in
sharia court, few death sentences and corporal punish- Party Central Committee and now political ion is uncommon and much more realistic. the region had completely changed.
Khushtada ments sentenced by Chechen sharia courts scientist, A.S. Tsipko, put it: ‘Let’s take a While recognizing the great advantages of One should take into account that re-Is-
village, Dagestan. have been applied to date. sober view of things. The sharia laws pro- sharia in resolving social problems and in re- lamization emerged in a context of, and in
tecting the Chechens from self-degradation laxing local tensions in present-day North reaction to, the Soviet legacy. It presents a
are much more progressive than other laws Caucasus, he argues that there has not yet specific modern answer to challenges origi-
and culture (i.e. neo-liberal) stipulating self- been adequate application of Islamic law in nating from the collapse of the Soviet rule in
destruction of the people’. This view is wide- this region. the Caucasus. Now the myth of sharia is em-
spread among Moscow intellectuals. A jour- Myth-making about the sharia is charac- bodied in the post-Soviet flesh and is
nalist, A. Fedin, expressed it as follows: ‘The teristic of both opposing sides of the debate. fraught with all its negative effects due to
Chechen society is still mainly pre-state and The concepts of both are more or less di- the degradation of Islamic legal culture and
traditional. It is based on the unwritten cus- vorced from reality. ‘Highland Muslim tradi- growing criminalization of power and soci-
tomary law […] Public executions sentenced tionalism’ is seen as the key to the nature of ety in the region. ♦
by the sharia court appear to be the begin- the North Caucasian law and society. This
ning of the state-building of Chechnya, notion does not take into account the radical
which is to be an inevitably bloody affair’. social and legal changes that have been in- Dr Vladimir Bobrovnikov is a senior research fellow
evitably caused by drastic state reforms in at the Institute for Oriental Studies and a teacher
Opposing views this region for more than a century (from the of Arabic and anthropology at the Russian State
There is also an opposite notion of sharia 1860s); the mass resettlement of Muslim University of Humanities in Moscow, Russia.
as ’a barbarous remnant of the middle ages’ highlanders to the plain; and even forcible E-mail: depcis@orientalia.ac.ru
26 Regional Issues ISIM NEWSLETTER 5/00
Religion
Th e B a lk an s
R AY M ON D D E T R E Z
The End of
We s te rn E u ro p e
WERNE R SCHIFFAUER
Kaplan Case
of Turkish migrants.
A Handshake
We s te rn E u ro p e
Y A S H A L AN G E
The Equilibrium in
Education
N I M A T H A F E Z B AR A Z A N G I
Islamic Education
American Muslims do face misconceptions, yet their
view of the woman as morally dependent, hence so-
cially and politically non-central to issues of Islamic
and multicultural education is indeed problematic.
How is it plausible for a morally dependent individ-
in the US
ual to instil the character of an autonomous spiritual
and intellectual Muslim who can integrate effectively
in a ‘pluralistic’ society? A change in the paradigm of
moral or religious education – beyond multicultural-
ism – may be the solution.
In 1998, a special edition of Religion and Ed- This relegation makes ‘religion’ seem as if it heteronomy. How constructive this balance taqwa can also be the criterion by which a
ucation (R&E, 25, 1&2, Winter 1998, St. Louis, were something of the past, neglecting the is in our own character and interaction with course of study is declared ‘Islamic’ or ‘non-
MO: Webster University), a journal of the Na- lived experience of it, even though some, ourselves, others and nature, is what makes Islamic’. It is only when education achieves
tional Council on Religion and Public Educa- particularly Muslim educators, have made us human. We need a constant reminder to this (conscious) balance, this equilibrium,
tion, focused on ‘Issues of Islamic Education great strides not to let that happen (Susan recognize our human limitations, and so our that we can call it ‘Islamic’. To focus on
in the US’, suggesting a transformation in Douglass, Audrey Shabbas and Sharifa job is to figure out how to strike this bal- whether Muslim/Islamic schools are impart-
the framework of investigating moral or reli- Alkhateeb’s articles). On the other hand, ance, not to dictate the criterion to each ing ‘Islamic education’ or ‘religious educa-
gious curricula if we seek significant Muslim educators are trying to restore the other. tion’, and what is being projected as ‘Islam-
changes resulting from the contemporary relationship between ‘values’ and ‘facts’, or To recognize that Muslim learners in the ic’, is to understand the relationship be-
‘educational reform’ movements. As issues soul and mind, while nonetheless ignoring US need a different schema from that of tween two domains in the pedagogy of
of character building and religious identity their discrepant practices concerning non-Muslim learners is as significant as real- moral judgement and ‘religious education’,
are making a visible dent both in education- women’s autonomous morality. The US con- izing that these Muslim learners also need a particularly in ‘pluralistic’ societies like the
al assessments and religio-ethnic cultural stitutional framework that separates ‘teach- different schema from that of Muslims any- US. The relationship between the ontologi-
studies, a main concern comprises cross- ing about religion’ from ‘teaching religion’ where else. How we may bring an equilibri- cal domain (the beliefs about the nature of
cultural understandings of education that may have resulted in a split between teach- um between the ideals of Islamic pedagogy, reality) and the intellectual domain (the
take religion, values, character, or morals as ing and educating, but more problematic is and the prevailing views and practices of causal and associational standards by which
a sub-text, particularly when a woman’s the Muslims’ splitting between the female’s education in the United States, based on Pi- we investigate reality) is almost absent in
morality is viewed as a proxy to that of her ability to consciously choose Islam as her aget, Dewey and others is one step forward. the American Muslim educators’ debates,
male household. worldview or belief system and her ability to To recognize the centrality of Muslim especially when women’s perspectives and
The theme of this special edition of R&E is cognitively participate in the interpretation women’s Islamic higher learning and active participation in jurisprudence and consulta-
taqwa. Taqwa is an Arabic word often over- of this belief system. agency in interpreting Qur’anic pedagogy is tive community affairs are concerned. Fur-
simply translated as ‘piety’, but which bears The first matter is being addressed by in- the first step toward equitable Islamic edu- thermore, these are rarely discussed in con-
the meaning of ‘a conscious balance be- troducing ‘Islamic education’ as an alterna- cation. temporary educational debates. Is there a
tween the individual, the society, and the tive measure (Salwa Abd-Allah and Zakiyyah I am concerned with integrating these relationship between the absence of such
limits set by Allah or God as the source of Muhammad’s articles). The demand on and other views into a balanced pedagogy discussions and the misunderstandings that
value and knowledge.’ As the guest editor teachers to be ‘neutral’ when teaching for Muslims – both males and females – and surround Islam (and Muslims)? How does
of this edition, three overarching issues for- about religion and its ‘sacred language’ – or for teaching (about) Islam in the United this relate to the prevalent views of Muslim
mulated my thinking on it – from selecting values in general – can reduce teaching to States at the turn of the 21st century. This women’s and girls’ morality, education and
the theme to the significance that this edi- the transmission of ‘facts’ and reduce reli- implies a pedagogy in which there is equi- acculturation? I challenge the reader to find
tion of R&E may have for the debate over ed- gion to a sterile ‘factual’ entity. This reduc- librium between the need for deciding the the connection. ♦
ucation in the US as a whole. The first issue tion seems to disregard the human need for moral, religious, as well as secular founda-
is how to achieve a balance between the be- a value system that is learned in a particular tions of multicultural education and the
lief systems of individuals (often referred to language and taught within a specific his- need for determining how best we may pre-
as religion or philosophy) and the US uni- torical and cultural environment (Mary El- pare the next generation to consciously
versal schooling system which has tradition- Khatib and Yahiya Emerick’s articles) using think about, and to effectively act within,
ally intended, to a large degree, to meld di- specific instructional material (Abidullah the parameters of these foundations.
verse individual views into the ‘common Ghazi and Tasneema Ghazi’s article). The One of the focal points of Piaget’s social
ground’ of a ‘pluralistic’ social framework. second matter, the conscious choice of the theory is the concept of equilibrium. ‘Equili-
The second issue is questioning the efficacy belief system needs to be addressed further. brated exchanges among adults’, writes
of ‘teaching about religion’ and ‘teaching a We educators – Muslim or non-Muslim – Rheta De Vries, ‘are those in which discus-
religion’. This issue comes out in particularly have missed the practice of the basic princi- sants share a common framework of refer-
sharp relief in teaching about Islam as a be- ple for clear cognition and constructive be- ence (which may be political, literary, reli-
lief system, and about Muslims, in a ‘neutral’ haviour, autonomous morality, especially gious, etc.), conserve common definitions,
manner when many teachers have little or when we continue to rely solely on male in- symbols, etc., and coordinate reciprocal
no knowledge of Islam, and what they do terpretations of Islam and of woman’s propositions. Piaget (1941/95) calls this
know too often offers an inaccurate picture. morality from her male household. phenomenon “reciprocal valorization” by
The third issue, which was the core of this “co-exchangers” within a particular scale of
edition, is how to introduce a discourse on Prospects of change values.’ (Educational Researcher, 1997, 26:
‘Islamic education’ from females’ perspec- No matter what we call this process of im- 11).
tives – only two of the thirteen contributors parting knowledge, the problem lies in that
are males – when females have traditionally we continuously talk about change, expect- The equilibrated education
been perceived as lacking the full privilege ing change by the ‘other’ without changing Valorizations – being ‘affective and cogni-
to interpret Islam. ourselves first. Some refer to the Qur’an as tive’, and eventually social – represent the
The centrality of Muslim women’s and stating that God will never change the con- ‘equilibrated exchange’ that the contribu-
girls’ education and acculturation (Barazan- dition of a people until they change what is tors (the ‘valorizers’) in this special edition
gi and Mohja Kahf’s articles) to Islamic edu- in themselves (Qur’an, 13: 11). How can we, of R& E hope to achieve. As important is rec-
cation – and even their very contribution to for instance, teach about Abrahamic reli- ognizing a representation of these valoriz-
this edition of R&E – may seem contradicto- gions equitably, or about other worldviews, ers’ frame of reference – being predomi-
ry and perhaps difficult to understand by when some of us still perceive the ‘other’ as nantly feminine and paradigmatically differ-
those whose knowledge of Islam is limited inferior without attempting to understand ent from those who follow precedent
to the perception that males are the only ‘le- the basis of the particular behaviour we find (muqallidun). Also significant is the realiza-
gitimate interpreters’ of Islamic texts or the objectionable? tion that learners who identify themselves
perception that females are ‘oppressed by When the majority of us still consider our with Islam as a worldview (encompassing
their patriarchal religion’. own standard interpretations and practices both religion and culture) or with Muslims
as the measuring stick for how others think as a cultural group have special needs.
Challenges and responses and what they ‘ought to do’ – instead of Depending on the reader’s frame of refer-
The challenge facing Muslim educators – considering facilitating them to learn to ence, this special edition of R& E may
and those who would learn or educate oth- think autonomously – then we have not yet achieve either a ‘cooperative equilibrium’ or
ers about Islam – is twofold. On the one acknowledged our shortcomings as human result in a constraining system that I would
hand, teaching about religion, particularly educators. Various teachings and philoso- call ‘window-dressing tolerance’. I am not
about Islam, has been relegated to courses phies have set certain limits, yet these ‘reading history backward’ when I bring to
in history, social sciences, area studies or teachings also remind us that the judge of the readers’ awareness the fact that equilib-
world religions (Maysam al Faruqi and our work and intention is not our own crite- rium, taqwa, in the Qur’an is the measuring Dr Nimat Hafez Barazangi is a research fellow at the
Gisela Webb’s articles address the higher rion, but the guiding principle of taqwa, or stick by which a human character is judged Women’s Studies Program, Cornell University, USA.
education dilemmas). the equilibrium between autonomy and (Qur’an, 49:13). By extension, I argue that E-mail: nhb2@cornell.edu
ISIM NEWSLETTER 5/00 Publications 31
Re-collecting Algerian
B oo k Rev i ew
ALLAN CHRISTELOW
Islam, Modernity
Bo o k P re s en t a ti o n
PATRICIA SLOANE
Certain ethnographic studies have discussed trepreneurial societies, college alumni co- est and group interest and clarifies the cul- Finally, the crucial role of entrepreneurship in
the economic situation of Malaysians – horts, and executives’ networking organiza- ture of social and moral entailments in which establishing and legitimizing Malay identity
Malays, Chinese, and Indians – who have tions established to capture greater entre- the informants operate. Also examined was and representing Malay ideals of morality,
been disadvantaged by the dramatic preneurial opportunities. I attended work- the belief informants had that they were pre- egalitarianism, harmony, and tradition in the
changes brought about by the NEP. This shops (accompanied by informants) on serving – through entrepreneurship – egali- contexts of rapid social and economic
study, however, discusses the lives and en- Malay entrepreneurship, Malay entrepre- tarian and communal traditions and values change is discussed. It is demonstrated that
terprises of the Malay men and women who neurs’ clubs, entrepreneurship talks, entre- from the Malay past, when in fact, entrepre- through its seemingly endless incorporative-
have been advantaged the most by Malay- preneurial development societies, entrepre- neurship has resulted in greater social dis- ness, through the enmeshing of material and
only government policy. Many economists neurial award ceremonies, and huge confer- tinctions and the formation of a new elite. I affective ties in networks, Malay entrepre-
and political scientists have argued over the ences and trade shows sponsored by gov- argue that entrepreneurship implies, to the neurship, to its actors, symbolizes diminished
consequences of NEP for the Malaysian na- ernment ministries and agencies to develop informants concerned, an Islamic develop- eliteness and Malay classlessness, and im-
tion as a whole and the economic and social local, regional, and global Malay entrepre- ment process which could reveal key, group- plies openness, shared power, and free ac-
consequences of Malaysia’s ethnicized poli- neurial networks. oriented moral and traditional behaviours – cess to opportunity. What was learned from
tics, but there have been few ethnographic Malay entrepreneurship and the changes the material demonstration of ‘good works’ – the informants can be described as a Malay
studies of the social group most directly in- it implies affected other, less visible aspects until Malay entrepreneurs see themselves theory of entrepreneurship, one which lo-
volved in and affected by NEP – the new of life, especially in relationships between acting not just for themselves, but for all cates Malay entrepreneurs in their local cul-
Malay middle and upper-middle class. Al- men and women, children and parents, Malays, Muslims, and the very fate of the na- ture, validates the pro-Malay policies of NEP,
though there is recent literature focusing on brothers and sisters, individuals and cohorts, tion and Malaysian society. and connects Malay development to a global
the spectacular culture of consumption and even human beings and Allah. As such, I culture of capitalism. Then a theory of Malay
choices of the new rich of Asia (one publish- spent a great deal of time in Malay homes, Networks – Malay entrepreneurship is elucidated. A description
er even has a series dedicated to that sub- discussing marriage, family, modern entrepreneurship in action is given of the way in which entrepreneur-
ject), the analysis in Islam, Modernity and En- women’s roles, and the consequences of The second part of the book, presented ship tends to confirm, determine the gender
trepreneurship among the Malays provides rapid social change. It was found generally under the rubric of ‘Networks’, is an attempt of, and politicize Malay eliteness, while simul-
insight into the culture of business – the eco- everywhere that Malay men and women ac- to elucidate how the informants enact their taneously closing out many of the entrepre-
nomic decisions, the investments, and the tively seek to understand the role of Islam in understanding of Malay economic modernity neurs aspiring to wealth and power who are
capital and social networks – that have re- contexts of social and economic change, and and entrepreneurship; that is, how they in- met in the pages of the book. Moreover, it is
sulted in Malay wealth. There is also very re- follow or react to dakwah, the intensification fuse their altruistic image of ‘good works’ into argued that the theory of Malay entrepre-
cent literature on the spectacular economic of Islamic practice in Malaysia since the economic and social action. A description is neurship conceals the crucial role of the state
downturn among the Asian ‘Little Dragon’ 1980s. given of the way in which networks and rela- in creating and supporting high-level, politi-
economies in late 1997; I venture to suggest Later on in the first period of fieldwork, in- tionships form in Kuala Lumpur society and cally-connected Malay entrepreneurs – pre-
that the book offers retrospective insight creasing focus was placed on several partic- the ways in which social life can be manipu- cisely the group that I then went on to study
into why that crisis occurred in one Little ular ventures which seemed characteristic of lated in pursuit of economic gain. Case stud- in later periods of research in Malaysia. ♦
Dragon, and perhaps even offers prognos- the various kinds of entrepreneurship in ies of entrepreneurial networking and the en-
ticative insight into the nature of Malaysia’s which my informants were engaged. These trepreneurial objectives of three of the enter-
recent, but exaggerated, economic recovery, were established businesses, a year or so old, prises concerned are given. The first case
which also silenced the voices of political well beyond the drawing-board stage in the study illustrates how alliances form among
dissent in 1999. sense that they had already been capital- Malay entrepreneurs, often as a consequence
ized, registered with the government, and so of the way in which the government repre-
Research among Malay on. The enterprises focused upon had been sents modern economic opportunity and en-
entrepreneurs formed with the injection of government or terprise to Malays. The expectations infor-
Entrepreneurship is, in Malaysia, what NEP private capital, and consisted of several large mants had of each other and of their ventures
intended it to be: a middle-class, even elite, manufacturing concerns, as well as enter- in pursuing such opportunities, and the often
phenomenon. It earns grand-scale public at- prises which represented the non-industrial disappointing returns that their swiftly
tention in the Malay community; the govern- sector into which much Malay private capital formed alliances brought are dealt with.
ment honours individuals who are deemed is flowing: real estate, insurance, tourism, ad- The second case study examines the con-
successful entrepreneurs, bestowing titles vertising, publishing, communication, and sequences of achieving a high profile for one
and honorifics upon them, while magazines consultancies. female entrepreneur in Kuala Lumpur. The
and the media report endlessly on the positive effects of networking used for build-
lifestyles and management secrets of Malay Good works – Malay ing alliances are described along with the
entrepreneurs. Hundreds of Malay entrepre- entrepreneurship and Islamic negative effects of networking – when gos-
neurial people, who were participating in values sip and rumours of sorcery are used by net-
the modern economy in Kuala Lumpur or at- The first part of the book, presented under work participants to diminish the identity of
tempting to cast a wider net to economic the rubric of ‘Good Works’, argues that an entrepreneur who is thought to be dan-
and social niches in the rest of Malaysia, among the Malay middle class, entrepre- gerously self-interested, and even un-Islamic.
Southeast Asia, and the world, offered in- neurship has become the main vector of eth- It is suggested that these consequences are
sight through our conversations. I inter- nic, religious, and moral worth, and a test of often experienced by autonomous women in
viewed people in their houses and their of- virtue and modernity among the beneficia- Malay entrepreneurial society, who induce a
fices, factories, and country clubs. Male and ries of the NEP. The complex themes of Islam- certain cultural ambivalence about the true
female entrepreneurs – both participated ic duty and financial obligation, which en- source of their powers. Patricia Sloane, Institute of Social and Cultural
with equal fervour in the modern economy – frame Malay life in relationships with parents, An entrepreneurial venture that harnessed Anthropology and JASO, Oxford University, earned
were contacted. Also interviewed were par- spouses, cohorts, and the communal group, its very existence to the role of Malay net- a PhD in Social Anthropology from Oxford University
ents and children, students, and teenagers are explored. Also explored are the crucial, works to the point at which networking be- in 1996. She was appointed as a research fellow at
(every one of them wanting to be an entre- self-consciously ‘modern’ redefinitions of Is- came the primary purpose – indeed, the the Institute of Malaysian and International Studies
preneur one day); recent university gradu- lamic economic beliefs and meanings which product – of the enterprise itself, is exam- at the National University of Malaysia, where she
ates (all wanting to be entrepreneurs); pro- have shaped the Malay understanding of en- ined. These networks are then related to researched middle-class culture, and later conducted
fessors and professionals in big corporate trepreneurship and human agency. Focusing other forms of Malay action which explicitly an in-depth study of corporate culture in a major
businesses who were planning to go out ‘on upon several individual stories of eschatolog- use social relations for economic ends, and it Malay-owned conglomerate. An editor for JASO,
their own’ or were already doing so on the ical and economic self-development, I exam- is shown how this strategy has become in- The Journal of the Anthropological Society of
side. Furthermore, groups were met with or ined the ways in which a Muslim world-view creasingly concatenated to the Malay theory Oxford, she is currently preparing an article on
spoken to, such as women’s and men’s en- establishes balanced definitions of self-inter- of ‘good works’. sexual harassment in the Malay workplace.
ISIM NEWSLETTER 5/00 Publications 33
Periodical
R O B E R T W A TE R H O U S E
The Azur Decade:
A Brief History of Mediterraneans
Millions of words are published every year by and Made in Manchester Moments of destiny doldrums and Durrellian ties. ‘Istanbul,
about the peoples of the Mediterranean. Its place at The first two issues of Mediterraneans bore The first of the themed issues, Algeria, Many Worlds’ (Autumn 1997) explored the
the crux of Europe, the Middle East and North Africa the imprint of Didsbury Press, a small inde- Summer 1993, came at a moment of destiny Turkish dilemma of embracing the West
and its historical importance overlaid with present- pendent Manchester publishing house as civil war loomed. This was closely fol- while fighting a war in its own eastern back-
day relevance means that Mediterraneans are never whose owner, Patrick Quinn, personally lowed by Beirut/Sarajevo and Israel/Pales- yard. ‘Voices from Morocco’ (Winter 1999-
far from the news. Many cultures, speaking many funded the venture. They carried an extraor- tine. Mediterraneans showed no aversion to 2000) captures Mahgreb aspirations at the
tongues, have shared interests and concerns, even if dinary selection of contributors – novelists, the hot spots, though it retained a section of millennium, with a change of king and per-
the act of sharing often seems more like smash and poets, journalists, artists and photographers Varia at the back, and had the ability to at- haps of regime.
grab. Yet among all the words and images there are a – covering an extraordinary variety of top- tract spicy pot-pourri contributions like An-
precious few voices saying just what it is to be a ics. From the outset, Mediterraneans pub- dreu Martin’s story of sex – and worse – Five-year programme
Mediterranean today. lished uncompromisingly in English or among beach hoodlums (Issue 4). Mediterraneans has survived almost a
French, without translation. Designed on Financial support from the Centre Nation- decade in the tough theatre of international
desk-top by Trevor Hatchett, edited from al de Lettres helped establish Mediter- publishing. It commences the millennium in
the garrets and pubs of South Manchester, raneans in Paris, but the review remained – good spirits with the next issue, on Mar-
Mediterraneans proved an immediate tour and remains – at the commercial margins, seille, planned for Autumn 2000, homes
de force: ’a new bold literary review’ wrote depending upon the goodwill of contribu- both in the Maison des Sciences de
the Guardian. Le Monde Diplomatique called tors and subscribers. Involvement with l’Homme in Paris and the Friche Belle de Mai
it an ‘éblouissant sommaire […] de très Med-Media, the EC programme for journal- in Marseille, and high hopes of a five-year
beaux écrits de poètes, journalistes, ro- ist training led to a Spring 1994 seminar in publishing programme based on two issues
manciers de la région.’ Marseille and subsequent publication of an per year. The proposed subjects for 2001 are
hors serie title, ‘Etre journaliste en Méditer- Haifa and Salonika.
Goytisolo, Durrell, Moravia ranée’ (also in Spanish and Arabic, but not The struggle, as ever, is not for good ma-
Issue 1 of Summer 1991 had Juan Goytiso- English). A second such seminar took place terial but for the financial wherewithal to
lo on Cairo’s City of the Dead, Lawrence Dur- in Alexandria in cooperation with Al Ahram, publish. In a world where book selling is be-
rell on bull-worship in Provence, Alberto il manifesto and Milliyet. Continuation of the coming more global by the day, small oper-
Moravia in conversation, David Hirst on Sad- project awaits de-freezing of the EC ators have a huge marketing challenge.
dam before Kuwait, Clarisse Nicoidski on a Mediterranean programme budget. Mediterraneans is soon to fight back via its
French soldier’s diary from the Algerian For Issue 7, Autumn 1995, Brown and own website (mediterraneansreview.com)
front in 1960. Mahmoud Darwish described Davis devoted almost a whole review to the which will offer readers the opportunity to
how he risked on a daily basis a sniper’s bul- falling apart of Yugoslavia, ‘Le pont détruit’. sample back issues, as well as being able to
let to make early-morning coffee during the The title referred to Mostar, the Bosnian city order and subscribe on line. ♦
height of the Beirut civil war; Yigal Sarna de- dismembered by Croats. Mediterraneans’
tailed an infamous sectarian murder in Is- by-now proven mix of reportage, short sto-
Or so it seemed to Kenneth Brown when, rael. Lucia Graves told how her father Robert ries, poetry and telling images described,
in the spring of 1990, he began testing his came to Mallorca, while Claudia Roden ex- with passion but without side, a Balkan
thoughts and ideas on a group of friends plored Italy’s regional cuisine. tragedy which continues to unfold.
in Manchester, where he was a senior lec- So it went on. By the third issue, Brown
turer in sociology. Brown’s working back- had taken himself and the review to Paris, Alexandria, Istanbul, Morocco For further information:
ground in Morocco, Tunisia and the Mid- where the official funding climate was more More recent issues have been, perhaps, E-mail: medit@msh-paris.fr
dle East, and his knowledge of Arabic and promising. He found a new co-editor, Han- less consciously from the frontline yet are
Hebrew as well as Spanish and French nah Davis, and set about widening a circle hardly irrelevant. ‘Alexandria in Egypt’ (Au- Robert Waterhouse is president of l’Association
should have warned those of us he cor- of supporters who eventually evolved into tumn 1996) found the ancient waterfront Méditerranéens and a co-editor of Mediterraneans.
ralled that the ride would be lively. an advisory panel. city at the point of shaking off economic E-mail: robertwaterhouse@atsat.com
P E R I O D I C A L P E R I O D I C A L
Neo-colonialism
Morocco
AN TO N J . E S C H E R &
S A N D R A P E T E R M AN N
of Marrakesh
During the sixties, individual members of a
growing gay community settled Marrakesh.
In the 1980s, UNESCO acknowledged the
exotic attractiveness and the cultural signif-
icance of the ‘oriental Medina’ of Marrakesh
by including the town in the world’s cultural
heritage programme, and the characteris- international tourism had already discov- Other equally important arguments are in- which is evaluated positively because it
tics of the Medina also attract the interna- ered the old towns along with all other old dividuality and independence, which one helps preserve the precious fabric of the
tional mass tourism today. Helped by the cities of cultural interest in the world. UN- can express and enjoy behind the closed buildings rich in tradition, or it represents
structural condition of globalization, nu- ESCO took the cultural significance of the walls one’s own house. The riya- d. is consid- neo-colonialism, which uses the product of
merous western foreigners had moved into Medina into account by including it into the ered a symbol of freedom by both tempo- Islamic culture to meet the expectations of
the old town by the end of the 20th century. world’s cultural heritage programme in rary and permanent immigrants. Europeans the European settlers. One should recall in
All forms of media, first and foremost the In- 1985. However, the town-planning restora- are still attracted by a world which seems this context the origin of the imagination
ternet, offer real estate for rent and for sale tion measures were restricted at first to indi- strange and mystical to them, and which ‘Orient’, as Mary Anne Stevens2 outlines: ‘Be-
in many quarters of the old part of Mar- vidual buildings and to the paving of the may evoke sentiments of being a colonialist tween 1798 and 1914, North Africa and the
rakesh. In the Medina, the growing group of most important streets of the old town. amidst the omnipresent poverty of the Mo- Near East, as a closest non-Christian region
western foreigners live excessively on a roccans. to Europe, exercised a fascination upon the
grand scale together with the increasingly Western foreigners Hollywood films, TV reports, magazines, West, which responded in a variety of ways:
impoverished Moroccans. Does all this in the Medina of Marrakesh newspapers, and the Internet add to the the scholarly study of ancient civilisations
speak for symptoms of neo-colonialism? Or, During the 60s and 70s, the process of de- subjective conveying of information about and of contemporary cultures, imaginary
due to the fact that well-off foreigners con- colonization took place comparatively the Medina of Marrakesh and to the promo- evocations in poems and novels, literary de-
tribute to the renovation and preservation peacefully in Morocco. Foreign real estate tion of living in a riya- d.
. Currently, architects scriptions and tourists’ enthusiasms, as well
of the fabric of the buildings, does it rather property was not expropriated. This led to and real estate agents are offering hundreds as representations by artists.’ More than a
indicate gentrification? individual western foreigners settling in the of riya- d. s on the market. French Moroccan hundred years after the Europeans created
Medina of Marrakesh already in the early estate agents pursue aggressive marketing the image of the ‘Orient’, they now once and
2 0 t h -century town planning 60s, when one could still find the French strategies, which range from face to face for all (peacefully) start to redesign their ‘Ori-
The policy of Governor Lyautey and his population of the protectorate in the villes contact on the Jemaa el-Fna to interactive ent’, i.e. the old towns of Morocco, struc-
chief architect Prost during the time of the nouvelles. That would not have been possi- communication on the Internet. Western turally and ideologically according to their
protectorate helped to spatially isolate the ble during the time of the French protec- foreigners also buy in other old towns of imagination. They do that from the inside,
old towns of Morocco, including the Medina torate because of urban apartheid. Many of Morocco, such as Essaouira and Asilah. where the Islamic urban way of life, the cum-
of Marrakesh, from modern town expan- these foreigners were artists and architects rân hadarî, is rooted. ♦
sions as well as to preserve the fabric of the ‘looking for the Orient’ and/or looking to Gentrification
buildings. This did not only include the ‘find themselves’. An international gay com- vs. neo-colonialism
View of an inner preservation and protection of the historic munity was established, which functioned The prominent American architect Bill
courtyard and old towns, but also the building of modern as the initiator for the massive influx of Willis, who has been living in a former
a roof garden ‘European’ towns, so-called villes nouvelles, western foreigners at the end of the 20th palace in the north of the Medina since the
with swimming at a distance from the old towns. century. 60s, formulates the arguments brought into
pool of an old After the end of the French protectorate A fascination with the oriental aura, the discussion on the presence of western for-
town house in 1956, the Moroccan upper and middle colours, the fragrances, the year-round eigners in the old town of Marrakesh by the
renovated by a class left the old town, and a poor rural pop- warm climate, the reasonable cost of living, new inhabitants: ‘It’s very good for the Med-
European. ulation spread into the Medina. By the 60s, and expectations of Dionysiac joys con- ina because these foreigners are bringing in
tributed to the expansion of the communi- a lot of money and are fixing up all these old
ty. By the mid-80s, the number of western houses that are falling into ruins […] or are
foreigners in the Medina had risen to sever- tearing them down and are building some-
al dozen, but it remained a manageable thing marvelous in the place […], so that’s
quantity. By the mid-90s, Europeans had be- very good. […] It cleans up the city. It brings
come increasingly interested in buying a lot of money to Morocco. It employs hun-
houses in the old town. At this time, the first dreds of Moroccan workmen, and so that
inns (maison d’hôtes) and several exclusive part is very, very good’. These observations Notes
restaurants were built. During the final years cannot be contradicted if one applies them 1. The ordinary house with an inner courtyard in the
of the 20th century, the real estate business exclusively to the fabric of the buildings and Moroccan town is called dar. The central element
boomed in the old town. The demand for to the financial input. Similar to the eco- is the inner courtyard surrounded by a colonnade,
real estate has especially exploded in the nomically and socially declined districts of at which rooms facing each other are located. In
last two years, and supply has been extend- industrial countries, those districts of Mo- the corners are usually an entrance, a kitchen, and
ed. rocco which seem to be left to fall into a stairwell with a bathroom. In Morocco riya-d.
In September 1999, western foreigners socio-economic ruin are structurally saved stands for a special form of a house with a garden.
lived in approximately 150 riya- d. s Most pre- and revalued by the wealthy population. In The basic type has residential buildings on the
ferred were accommodations which stood addition, another way of life is being estab- shorter sides that face each other. The other sides
out for their not yet completely dilapidated lished in the district: gentrification in the display high boundary walls. In today’s Marrakesh
fabric, close proximity to the Jemaa el-Fna, ‘oriental town’ – indeed in the ‘oriental every residential house is called riya-d. in colloquial
and easy accessibility by car. town’ because the houses, apart from some context with foreigners.
In contrast to previous years, last year’s exceptions, are designed in the ‘oriental’ 2. Stevens, Mary Anne (1984). ‘Western Art and its
buyers no longer mainly came from the style that shaped the image 19th-century Encounter with the Islamic World 1798-1914’. In
upper class or the artist scene, but rather Europe had of the Orient. Thus, a hybrid The Orientalists: Delacroix to Matisse. European
from the broad middle class of Europe. area was created with an imaginary oriental Painters in North Africa and the Near East, Mary
There is a wide variety of newcomers, from ambience and a sumptuous way of life, Anne Stevens. London: Royal Academy of Arts, pp.
immigrants and transmigrants, to bour- which consciously contrasted the poverty of 15-23.
geoisie and illustrious holiday guests, to Eu- the neighbourhoods. This contrast, which is
ropean Muslims. manifest especially in the availability of ser- Prof. Dr Anton J. Escher is head of the Center for
Many buy riya- d. s in Marrakesh because of vants in houses, hotels, and restaurants, Research on the Arab World (CERAW), Institute of
the comparatively low cost – with respect to adds to the fact that western foreigners feel Geography, Johannes Gutenberg-University of
European prices. However, not only the pur- they live in a ‘sort of gracious colonial at- Mainz, Germany.
chase price is decisive: the standard of living mosphere’, as Mr Willis says. E-mail: a.escher@geo.uni-mainz.de
in general has improved. In Marrakesh, a Depending on what perspective is taken, Sandra Petermann is a researcher at the Center for
house with an inner courtyard and em- the process of change in the Medina of Mar- Research on the Arab World (CERAW), Germany.
ployed servants is affordable for many. rakesh either proves to be gentrification, E-mail: petes000@mail.uni-mainz.de
ISIM NEWSLETTER 5/00 Space & Architecture 35
From Fantasy
UK
P E T E R C L AR K
Influences in Britain
with some decoration intended to Islamize the build- 1
ing.
one architectural historian has observed, ‘in the small number of converts, about industrial premises. The rest have been
small domes or “pepper-pots” of every 600,000 are of Pakistani origin, 150,000 from adapted from private houses. What is likely
shape, some of them deliberately oriental.’2 India and 200,000 from Bangladesh. A ma- to be the largest mosque, in Darfield Street,
Brighton Pavilion had an impact on many jority of British Muslims have now been has been under construction since 1986.6
new buildings throughout the 19th century, born in Britain. Part of it has been opened for prayer, but
but other influences were reaching Britain The South Asians have tended to occupy problems of funding have led to slow
from Andalusia and from the Middle East. particular areas of inner cities. In many progress. Nonetheless the architect, Neil
Orientalist painting has been fully docu- places South Asian Muslims have often Waghorne, has a clear vision of how the
mented. Thanks to the development of been the latest wave of outsiders. The ap- building will develop. He is a student of
steam-driven ships, travel to the Middle East pearance of an area may be like a Turkish architecture. Part of his inspiration is
from the 1830s became easier. Travellers re- palimpsest with physical evidence of earlier the Suleymaniye mosque in Istanbul. A su-
turned with souvenirs, and also ideas of de- settlements. Manningham in Bradford, for perb muqarnas doorway has been carved by
sign and notions of space and leisure. example, has been successively the home of a local stonemason, David Bedford, from
Two outstandingly self-conscious at- German Jewish immigrants, then Irish and Yorkshire stone.
tempts at reproducing Arab architecture in now South Asians. Near the synagogue al- Islamic architecture has historically adapt-
the 19th century have survived. ready mentioned, is an Irish pub. Syna- ed to local traditions of building. In Britain
One is at Leighton House in London, built gogue and bar are incongruous prominent many purpose-built mosques have been in
in 1865 for the artist Lord Leighton who col- buildings in an area inhabited by people a tradition of ‘orientalist’ architecture, going
lected ceramics and other Islamic artefacts overwhelmingly of Pakistani origin. back to the 18th century. The best models
during visits to the Middle East. The house There are today about 1200 mosques and from the Islamic world have been studied,
was built to house his souvenirs. The model praying areas in Britain, of which approxi- used or copied. The sponsors of the build-
Gujarati Mosque There is nothing alien about Islamic archi- was La Zisa in Palermo, but the 17th-century mately a hundred have been purpose-built. ings today are Muslims but the architects,
at Manningham, tectural influences in Britain. Nor is British wooden lattice-work came from Damascus. The major mosques of Britain – at Regents designers and craftsmen are likely to be
Bradford, Islam a peculiarly 20th-century phenome- Another example is the Arab Room at Park London, in Whitechapel, the cathedral- non-Muslims. What makes a building an Is-
formerly a factory. non. Close connections between the Islamic Cardiff Castle, built by William Burges for mosques of Birmingham, Leeds and Edin- lamic building? Its purpose? Its owners? Its
world and Britain go back for over four cen- the Marquess of Bute. Burges had been to burgh – have been built with funding from source of inspiration?
turies, through trade, diplomacy, travel, art, Turkey. He had taken time off from design- outside Britain. The others have been con- Is a distinctly British Muslim style emerg-
the Empire and scholarship. In the early 17th ing the Crimean Memorial Chapel in Istan- versions of houses, warehouses and cine- ing? Is it the blending of work from the Is-
century there is evidence of a small commu- bul to study the city’s mosques. The floor mas. Richly carpeted rooms where shoes are lamic world with local materials? Or is it the
nity of Muslims in London – including crafts- pattern of the room, to quote John Sweet- discarded, calligraphic texts and some dec- striking adaptation of a building originally
men and a lawyer, though there is no record man, ‘sets out the Islamic eight-fold figure, oration have helped to ‘Islamize’ the build- designed for other purposes? ♦
of a mosque. which is developed with pyrotechnic virtu- ing. In the 1960s, the architect Gulzar Haider
osity in the domical ceiling.’3 arrived in Britain from Pakistan and attend-
Imperial fantasies ed prayers at a Wimbledon house. ‘There
The 18th century was a great age for build- Faith takes over was no mihrab niche, just a depression in a
ing in Britain. Styles often reflected an atti- Meanwhile fantasy was yielding place to side wall, a cold fireplace with a checker-
tude of philosophical curiosity about the faith. The first religious buildings to owe in- board of green and brown ceramic tiles. A
world. From Islamic countries there were in- spiration to Islamic models were actually small chandelier with missing pieces of crys-
fluences from buildings from Grenada to new synagogues. Newly prosperous Jewish tal was suspended asymmetrically in a cor-
India. Mosques were designed, not as places communities eschewed the Gothic or the ner. A rickety office chair with gaudy plush
of worship but as ‘garden embellishments’. Classical styles. One was associated with rug draped over its back acted as the minbar
One such example was at Kew where medieval Christianity, the other with 18th- pulpit.’ Twenty five years later he returned
William Chambers built an exotic collection century rationalism. The adopting of a to the house-mosque which was ‘now
of oriental buildings for Frederick Prince of ‘Moorish’ style was a reminder of Jewish wrapped with a glazed finish: arched win-
Wales. His mosque (now disappeared) had glories in Arab Andalusia. The finest exam- dows sat squeezed into what seemed like an
‘Gothic ogee arches’ above the doorways ples have been in mainland Europe, but endless line of sharp crescents: and there
with quotations from the Holy Qur’an in there is one good example in Liverpool. An- was a number of token minaret domes,
gold lettering. other in the heart of Muslim Bradford has a whose profile came less from any architec-
Britain’s closest contacts with the Islamic horse-shoe arched doorway and horizontal tural tradition than from illustrations of the Notes
world two centuries ago were through the banding of alternate colours of stone. Arabian Nights.’4 1. This article is based on a talk given at the Felix
expanding Empire in India. In the first twen- Some new churches also displayed Islamic The Sussex area has a small, but ethnically Meritis Foundation, Amsterdam, 24 January 2000.
ty years of the 19th century there was a influences, albeit indirect. The best example heterogeneous community of Muslims, with 2. Conner, Patrick (1979). Oriental Architecture in the
vogue for an Indian style. British architects is Christ Church Streatham in South London, 39 mother tongues. Of the three Brighton West. London: Thames and Hudson, p. 141.
relied on artists’ drawings that would have whose architect, James Wild, used horse- mosques, one occupies a private house that 3. Sweetman, John (1988). The Oriental Obsession:
been produced in expensive folio editions. shoe shaped arches and a grand west door- was previously a Jewish school, another is a Islamic Inspiration in British and American Art and
One pioneering artist was William Hodges way modelled on the doorway of the Sultan converted shop, the third is above five Architecture 1500-1920. Cambridge: University
who produced Select Views of India between Hasan Mosque in Cairo. shops. To the east, is the Hastings mosque – Press, p. 193.
1785 and 1788. Hodges was impressed by From the late 19th century there was a a converted church – and to the west is the 4. Haider Gulzar (1996). ‘Muslim Space and the
what he called ‘Moorish grandeur’ and ar- growing Muslim presence in Britain. At first, Worthing mosque – a converted warehouse. Practice of Architecture: a Personal Odyssey’. In
gued, as had Sir Christopher Wren a century prayers were held in private houses or in The new town of Crawley, inland, near Making Muslim Space in North America and Europe,
earlier, that there was an historic connec- rented halls. Sometimes there were rallies at Gatwick airport, has a purpose-built edited by Barbara Daly Metcalf. Berkeley:
tion between Islamic architecture and the Leicester Square (ironically by the Alhambra mosque.5 This pattern is fairly representa- University of California Press, pp. 36, 42.
Gothic arch. Theatre, now the Odeon cinema), Hyde Park tive of British mosques. 5. I am grateful to Imam Dr Abduljalil Sajid JP for
The supreme example of replication of In- Corner or Peckham Rye. The first purpose- information in this paragraph.
dian Islamic architecture was the Royal built mosque was at Woking, south of Lon- Orientalism revived? 6. I am grateful for guidance on Bradford to Dr Philip
Pavilion at Brighton, whose architect, John don. This was constructed from funds left by By contrast, the Manningham area of Lewis and Mr Neil Waghorne.
Nash, studied volumes on Indian Islamic the Ruler of Bhopal, and was built in 1889 by Bradford is almost wholly Muslim. Of the 30
buildings. Though a classicist throughout a British non-Muslim architect. mosques in the city, four have been pur- Peter Clark is a freelance consultant and translator
his life – he designed the Regents Park es- Today it is reckoned that there are about pose-built, two are in former cinemas, three from Arabic to English, Brighton, UK.
tates – Nash was versatile and delighted, as 1.5 million Muslims in Britain. In addition to are former churches and nine are converted E-mail: mecas@clark1.clara.net
36 Visual Arts ISIM NEWSLETTER 5/00
Muslim Actors
Film
CLAUDIA PRECKEL
Inter-religious marriages
In this context it is interesting to observe
the choices of spouse made by Bollywood
actors. Whereas Muslim actresses in most
cases chose (and still choose) a Muslim as
husband, many male Bollywood stars have
married Hindu women (e.g. Shah Rukh Khan,
Saif Ali Khan, and Aamir Khan). In recent
times, it has not been seen to be necessary
Hindi films (which last at least two hours) Rukh Khan, Salman Khan and Saif Ali Khan. for these women to convert to Islam before
are traditionally melodramatic love stories, Figures indicate that 27% of Bollywood marriage, although even the superstars
marsala western, or adaptations of US hits. stars are Muslims, while only 12% of the In- admit that they had to face difficulties with
The revival of Hindi love stories has attract- dian population is Muslim. It is also interest- regard to acceptance of their marriages.
ed, since the 1980s, millions of viewers into ing to see that only five of these superstars Shah Rukh Khan, for example, has said that
at least 12,000 Indian cinemas. Spectators (e.g. Tabu, her sister Farah, and Zeenat that his wife’s family was at first strictly op-
are terrified when a hero’s life or virgin’s Aman) are Muslim women, whereas some posed to their marriage, because they con-
chastity is endangered, are relieved when decades ago Muslim female actors were sidered him to be ‘the wrong man with the
the hero discovers the intrigue and applaud much more prevalent on screen. A probable wrong religion, the wrong attitude and the
when the heroine finally falls into the hero’s reason for this may be that with the growth wrong profession.’ Some Muslims also
arms. of influence of several strict religious demonstrated in front of his house to
Some say that these romanticized love groups, Muslim families may not want their protest against his inter-religious marriage.
stories are a typical expression of Indian cul- daughters to appear on screen – an issue But this did not prevent Shah Rukh Khan and
ture because music and dance are its tradi- that requires further examination. his wife Gauri from marrying in a court cere-
tional media. Other defenders of Bollywood mony (which is obligatory for inter-religious
films add that films often propagate reli- The social origin marriages) as well as in a Hindu ceremony.
gious tolerance and harmony, which may of Muslim actors Aamir Khan said in an interview that he
be an important social function for them in Having stated that the percentage of Mus- would not regard a Hindu-Muslim marriage
India’s multi-religious society. Critics, on the lims in Bollywood’s film and show business as a problem in a secular state such as India.
other hand, say that Bollywood films only is above average, one may ask about the In his view, the fundamentalists among the
support the status quo of India’s social sys- stars’ social origin. Here one can clearly ob- Hindus as well as among the Muslims should
tem. Whatever may be said for and against serve that being a Bollywood star is (mostly) get used to this fact. He further explained:
it, India’s film industry produces more films an upper-class phenomenon. Actors often ‘Somehow I have a feeling that despite the
than any other country in the world. state that their father was a doctor, lawyer, attempts of fundamentalist parties to polar-
A visitor to India cannot ignore Bolly- or restaurant owner. Some come from a ize communities – and to a certain extent
wood’s charm and the omnipresence of its family of actors, directors, scriptwriters or they have succeeded in this polarization –
superstars, as witnessed by huge, painted producers. Often, the mothers were practis- when it comes to love, that polarization
film posters and video clips on MTV Asia or ing professionals as well. Shah Rukh Khan’s somehow doesn’t work. That’s what my ex-
Channel V. Film magazines like G or mother, for example, was a well-educated perience is.’ He added that, as in his case, it
CinéBlitz provide the hottest gossip about Muslim woman who had studied in Oxford should be possible to celebrate Muslim as
the stars, contributing to a very impressive and later worked in social service. The most well as Hindu festivities together with the
‘star cult’. famous example of an upper-class Bolly- whole family without a problem.
Watching the popular music shows on wood actor is Saif Ali Khan: his father is the It is also interesting to observe that chil-
television, one can easily recognize that the famous cricketeer Mansoor Ali Khan Patau- dren of these Hindu-Muslim couples some-
essential film music is very often provided di. His mother is the actress Sharmila Tagore times have a Hindu name, sometimes a Mus- Claudia Preckel MA, is a PhD student and member of
by Muslim composers and lyricists, the most (Mississippi Marsala), a niece of the writer lim one. For example, Aamir Khan’s son’s the research group on ‘Islamic Educational Networks
famous of whom is A.R. Rahman. One also Rabindranath Tagore. Before her marriage, name is Junaid, whereas his daughter has in Transnational and Local Contexts (18 t h-20t h
notices that many Bollywood stars are Mus- Sharmila Tagore converted to Islam and the Sanskrit name Ira. In their educational centuries)’ at Ruhr University Bochum, Germany.
lims, which is what inspired the examina- took on the Muslim name Aisha Sultan. On upbringing, Muslim, Hindu and even Christ- E-mail: CPreckel@t-online.de
ISIM NEWSLETTER 5/00 Visual Arts 37
without a real political conscience and in emancipation and for national develop- Maghreb is often generated by strictly polit-
search of her son who has disappeared, ment. The girl’s behaviour is given a positive ical reasons or by claustrophobic patriarchal
without whom she is lost. Likewise, in Rache- value, also because economic development family structures: this is the theme of films
di’s Al-afyun wal-‘asa (Opium and the Stick, needed emancipated and educated women. such as Touchia by Benhadj (Touchia, Alge-
Algeria, 1969) the female figures are por- ria, 1992) and Al-qal’a by Chouikh (The Cita-
trayed only in the home environment and The search for a personal del, Algeria, 1988). The screams of the pro-
appear cut off from the political situation of identity tagonist in the first film and of the little girl
the period. In the 1980s and 1990s, with the advent in the second, both in the last sequences,
Another role for female figures is that of and consolidation of auteur films, a consid- show the need to express pain and put an
the wife, probably the most suitable role to erable change can be noticed in the film- end to silence in order to bring about
consolidate the formation of a young na- maker’s artistic approach and, consequently change.
tion. Shams al-diba by Behi (Hyenas’ Sun, in the contents and aesthetics of film pro-
Tunisia, 1977) and Dhil al-Ardh by Louhichi duction. The search for a new identity and a The discourse of
(Shadow of the Earth, Tunisia, 1982) show personal – individual and no longer collec- emancipation
wives who are attentive to the needs of tive – dimension which has characterized A constant reality in Tunisian society is
their children, husbands and families, thus auteur films from the Maghreb since its be- highlighed by two films: Soumt al-Qusour by
consolidating the identity of the Arab family ginnings, also affected representations of Tlatli (Silences of the Palace, Tunisia, 1994)
nucleus. women in film. What is new in these films is and Bent Familia by Bouzid (Bent Familia,
In films which ‘preach’ a social debate (for mainly the search for the past and present Tunisia 1998). Both films focus on the dis-
this reason defined by critics as ‘social in the collective imagination and the sur- course of emancipation and the improved
Soumt al-Qusour, An analysis of the female figure in Tunisian films’), another image of the woman mounting of the stereotypes presented in social and juridical condition of women in
Silences of the and Algerian films1 must take into consider- emerges: a woman oriented towards West- previous films: the discourse goes from the society. In the first film, hope for change is
Palace. ation one of the dominant characteristics of ern-style ‘modernity’, who fights for her social to the introspective and from political placed in the future generations, who will
the cinema of these countries, namely their rights. In many Algerian films, this image is issues to personal questions. conclude the slow and difficult march of
short history, as they came into being only based on a specific socio-cultural process. The women represented are looking for progress, begun by their mothers upon the
with national independence (in 1956 and Following the agrarian reform in 1972, new models and life styles and a dimension country’s independence. Bent Familia, on
1962 respectively). As they are of recent cre- women were considered an active part of of their own, with the concentrated effort to the other hand, underlines that forty years
ation, these cinemas are the articulation of a the economic process for development, be considered thinking individuals in soci- on, little has really changed in how Tunisian
quest for a specific national identity rather based on the Socialist model. As a conse- ety. The female figures are no longer ‘ideal- women are considered. Despite their im-
than a creative need for expression. The cin- quence, this political plaidoyer is reflected istic or theoretical constructs’.4 It is there- proved juridical position, women experi-
ema is seen as a way of expressing a socio- within the couple or preferably within the fore the diversity and multiplicity of these ence the paradox of ‘false modernity’ where
cultural discourse and imposing images family. In Al-Fahham by Bouamari (The Char- figures that represents the leitmotif of films they are not yet considered free and think-
drawing attention to specific political inten- coal Burner, Algeria, 1972) the wife of the made in the past twenty years. Moreover, ing individuals but still as belonging to a
tions. The representation of women in films charcoal burner who has gone to work in a male and female filmmakers deepen the dis- family, which thinks, decides and acts on
has thus been influenced by the interpreta- factory following the sector’s economic cri- course on women, investigating the mecha- their behalf.
tion of women’s role in society. sis, becomes aware of her situation and re- nisms of the relations between the sexes in In the final analysis, women’s search for
jects her traditional role as a housewife, not a broader sense, for example touching upon their own identity and dimension continues
Mother, wife and daughter: because she has become aware of herself as such delicate taboo subjects as homosexu- in daily life in Tunisia and Algeria. Such a
representation in early films a woman but for reasons linked to an eco- ality or male chauvinism. search is mirrored in representations of
There was no lack of films about women in nomic change. M. Léon comments: ‘Le cou- By emigrating and fleeing abroad, women women in film in these societies and will
the 1960s and 1970s. However, limited and ple n’est utilisé que comme le moyen ser- look for the opportunity to express their real continue to do so as the societies them-
generalized images were conveyed. Female vant le mieux à l’exposé didactique, et le identity which has been oppressed by claus- selves undergo change. ♦
figures were always present in the films, plus apte à toucher la sensibilité du specta- trophobic family environments. This is high-
even if their representation was without sig- teur.’ 3 Women’s active participation in the lighted in Ben Mabrouk’s al-Sama (The
nificance. They appeared ‘alongside’ the national economy is shown in two other ex- Trace, Tunisia, 1982) where, at the end, the
main male characters or were utilized as part emplary films: Aziza by Ben Ammar (Aziza, protagonist, suffocated by a restrictive envi-
of the environment where the action took Tunisia, 1980) and Laila wa akhawatuha by ronment, burns her textbooks from the
place. The representation of the woman in Mazif (Leila and the Others, Algeria, 1978). In exams she has failed5and leaves for Europe.
her roles as mother, wife and daughter, was both films, the protagonists suggest that In Cheb by Bouchareb (Cheb, Algeria, 1990)
linked to a socio-political discourse. The ten- women’s emancipation will occur (and and Keswa, al-haitu al-da’i by Bornaz (Keswa, Notes
dency of these films was, in fact, based on thereby contribute to national develop- the Lost Thread, Tunisia, 1998), the problem- 1. All the titles of the films quoted are in transcribed
the need of these young nations, Algeria and ment) if they enter the world of work out- atic confrontation between the culture of and simplified Arabic for technical reasons and
Tunisia, to create a national identity. The side the home environment. Both protago- origin and that of the country of immigra- have been taken from the Dictionnaire des
family acted, for example, as a microcosm of nists become self-aware, leading them to tion is treated differently. The discomfort af- cinéastes du Maghreb (Armes, Roy (1996).
the whole social system. In the familial rebel: against the claustrophobia of the fects above all female beurs6 who, having Paris: Editions ATM). Where there is no original
sphere, the representation of women, in family environment (in Aziza) and against appropriated European customs and habits, title in Arabic, the French title is quoted.
roles defined only by their relationships with the ill-treatment of women in the workplace find themselves at grips with a now lost 2. Maherzi, Lofti (1980). Le cinéma algérien.
male figures, consolidated religious, social and in the public sphere (in Laila wa identity on their return to the country of ori- Institutions-imaginaire-idéologie.
and political values. akhawatuha). gin. Algiers: Sned, p. 291.
In a number of Tunisian films of the 1960s, The other figure chosen by filmmakers for With different approaches, two other films 3. Léon, Maryse (1981). ‘L’image de la femme dans la
the figure of the woman is often represented a social discourse is that of the daughter, deal with the identity of woman in society, littérature et le cinéma algérien’. In L’Algérie vue
as a dominating and self-confident mother representing the new generation. The main but by observing the difficult quest by North par son cinéma, edited by J.P. Brossard.
who enjoys considerable decision-making characteristic of the daughter is her contro- African men for their own sexual identity Locarno: Editions Festival du Film, 1981, p. 122.
power within the family. However, in the pro- versial relationship with her father, her de- and through the analysis of the controversial 4. Bouzid, Nouri (1995). ‘New Realism in Arab
lific Algerian productions which idolized the sire for freedom and an adequate educa- relationship between the sexes. Rih al-sadd Cinema’. Alif 15, p. 249.
war of independence, stressing and mythi- tion. In two films, Rih al-Janub by Riad (Wind by Bouzid (Man of Ashes, Tunisia, 1986) and 5. Symbolically this means breaking away from and
cizing the strong and heroic character of the from the South, Algeria, 1975) and Houria by Asfour stah–Halfaouine by Boughedir (Hal- eliminating every trace of the past.
male fighter, only stereotyped figures of suf- Mazif (Houria, Algeria, 1986), the young pro- faouine, Tunisia, 1990) deal with these taboo 6. Inversion in French of the consonants of the word
fering mothers or wives were portrayed. As tagonists face up to paternal authority, rep- subjects by placing the accent on the vio- arabe indicating the second generation of
Maherzi emphasizes, in these films women resenting the previous generation and rebel lence generated by negating sexual identity immigrants of North African origin.
took on the classic functions of protectors against it so that they can gain access to ed- and, in the latter film, on the ‘territoriality’ of
and nurturers.2 An example is the remarkably ucation and consequently, to emancipation. sexuality as conceived by Islam. Leyla Bouzid Discacciati studied Islamic Studies
successful film Rih al-Awras by Lakhdar-Ham- For example in the first film, the protagonist The psychological and physical violence at Humboldt University and Comparative Literature
ina (The Wind from the Aurès, Algeria, 1966), explains to a shepherd in clearly didactic that blocks and forms an obstacle to at the Free University, Berlin Germany.
where the protagonist is a mother in despair, tones that education is fundamental for her women’s progress in the society of the E-mail: myoholeyla2000@hotmail.com
38 Obituaries ISIM NEWSLETTER 5/00
Pr oj ect P re s en t a t io n
LIISAMAIJA JURVALA
Islam in the Far North of Europe:
’An old Muslim minority in Finland’; ‘an offi-
cially acknowledged religious community
since 1925*…’; ‘Secularization or still active
The Tatars of Finland
religious worship…’. Such statements
about the Tatars of Finland caught my at- I have been writing a dissertation on the Framework of the dissertation project my aim is also to analyse more care-
tention some years ago. The Tatars are an contemporary religious worship of the I intend to focus on the following questions: fully the far too general and loose characteri-
old ethnic Turkic Islamic national minority Tatars in Finland since February 1999, What is the role played by the five pillars, i.e. zation of the Islam practised by the Tatars in
consisting of about 850 people, hardly specifically concerning such matters as the the creed, prayer, the alms tax, the fast in the Finland as Euro-Islam and to use a more pre-
known either in Finland or the rest of Eu- importance of Islam to the Tatars in ordi- month of Ramadan and the pilgrimage to cise definition for the term Euro-Islam in this
rope. nary everyday life, their understanding of Mecca? What does the celebration of reli- connection. ♦
essential Islamic concepts, norms, values, gious festivals mean to a Tatar? Is religiosity
moral conception and their contacts visible in everyday life and behaviour? Who
The ISIM Newsletter would like to urge abroad. From August to October 1999, I transfers religious knowledge (imams, the Note
researchers to introduce their projects in this conducted research in Finland: establishing oldest members of families, influential fami- * The second country in Europe to officially
contact with the Tatars, making inquiries, lies or other actors) and to whom? acknowledge the rights of a Muslim community
section. Introducing new research in the field interviewing the imam Ahmet Naim Atasev- The contemporary religious worship of the was Belgium in 1974.
of Islamic studies can serve to stimulate er, and participating as an observer in Fri- Tatars in Finland is seemingly of no interest in
interest as well as to strengthen networks day prayer at the community centre in scientific discussions and publications. It is Liisamaija Jurvala, M.Pol.Sc., is a doctoral candidate
Helsinki. commonly assumed that the Tatars are a ho- at the Institute for Asian and African Studies at
amongst researchers.
mogeneous group in view of their religion, i.e. Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany
Sunnites and secularized Muslims. Within this E-mail: lumme@zedat.fu-berlin.de
Pr oj ect P re s en t a t io n
C A R OL I N E P L Ü S S
Hong Kong Muslim Identities
Muslims in Hong Kong are characterized by another, to their Hong Kong surroundings, Methodology and funding
a high degree of ethnic and religious diver- as well as to their societies of origins or of This study started in 1998 and uses
sity. They came from China, India, Pakistan, previous residences. archive research, interviews and participant
Malaysia, Indonesia and from further places The principal organizations surveyed are: observation. It is part of Dr Plüss’ umbrella
or origins, and belong to various religious (1) the Trustees of the Islamic Community project researching transnational communi-
traditions, such as the Sunni, Shi’a, or Bohra Fund, which is the oldest organization in ties in Hong Kong. The Muslim project has
groups. This project examines how the in- charge of the administration of the mosques received funding from the CRCG (the Com-
volvement, or non-involvement, of different and cemeteries; (2) the Islamic Union, which is mittee for Research and Conference Grants Caroline Plüss obtained a PhD in the Sociology of
Muslim groups into common organizations the second oldest organization of which also of the University of Hong Kong), the Religion from Oxford University in 1995. Since 1996,
explains how Hong Kong Muslims built up Chinese are members; and (3) the Chinese Freemason’s Fund for East Asian Studies she has been working as a post-doctoral fellow at the
their identities. In addition, the policies of Muslim Cultural and Fraternal Organisation, and the Hang Seng Golden Jubilee Educa- Centre of Asian Studies, the University of Hong Kong.
different Hong Kong Muslim organizations which has become especially important since tion Fund. ♦ Her research includes the Jewish community in Hong
from the 19th century to today, and the Chinese Muslims had become the largest Kong, the Hong Kong Indians, and the Church of Jesus
changes in these policies, are investigated Muslim group in Hong Kong, and since Hong Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons) in Hong Kong.
as indicators of how Muslims related to one Kong has returned to Chinese sovereignty. E-mail: cbpluss@hkucc.hku.hk
A D V E R T I S E M E N T
ISIM NEWSLETTER 5/00 Research 41
Researching
Fieldwork
BRUC E K OEPK E
Modern Period
Middle East Studies Association (DAVO) in December
1999 in Hamburg, the study group on ‘Arabic-Ot-
toman Sciences in the Modern Period’ organized a
panel in which five research projects covering the
17th through 19 th centuries were presented.
Contrary to what Edward Said’s notorious ac- thoughts of al-Afghani, cAbduh, Rida, al- Western scientific theories, the discursive Notes
cusations of ‘Orientalism’ suggest, pupils of Banna, and Qutb and the present day teach- structures of the initial treatise and commen- 1. Charette, François (1995). Orientalisme et histoire
Sylvestre de Sacy, the archetype of Saidian ings of the Muslim Brethren.8 tary literature (rasa’il, shuruh) still remained des sciences: l’historiographie européenne des
orientalism, started as early as the mid-19th Paradoxically, many ‘oriental’ thinkers today visibly rooted in traditional forms of scientific sciences islamiques et hindoues, 1784-1900.
century to pinpoint the specific accomplish- seem to subscribe to this traditional account practice,14 this did not prevent Arab scientists Université de Montréal: MA thesis in History.
ments of classical Islamic sciences in their which claims that there is a remarkable intel- from participating in Western-based interna- 2. A recent example is given by Rashed, Roshdi, ed.
proper historical context.1 lectual gap encompassing half the history of tional scientific ventures like the global map- (1996). Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science.
However, even today, the assumption of a Islam.9 ping of geomagnetism. Rainer Brömer London: Routledge.
gradual decline of Islamic sciences between (Jena/Göttingen) showed in his paper how 3. Lewis, Bernard (1982). The Muslim Discovery of
the 13th and 18th centuries is hardly contested Continuities the later director of the Egyptian observatory, Europe. New York, London: Norton, p. 238.
– though the notion of ‘decline’ is hard to de- More recent research in the history of sci- Mahmoud Bey al-Falaki (1815-85), in the 4. Schulze, Reinhard (1998). ‘Die islamische Welt der
fine.2 The view is held that these sciences ence presents a different picture. Sonja Brent- 1850s travelled through a number of Euro- Neuzeit’. In Der islamische Orient - Grundzüge seiner
were only rediscovered after the clashes with jes (Frankfurt am Main) who was unable to at- pean countries, publishing his geophysical Geschichte, edited by Albrecht Noth and Jürgen
European colonialism and imperialism in the tend the panel had a paper read ‘On the rela- data in different periodicals.15 Paul. Würzburg: Ergon, pp. 333-403, 351.
course of the 19th century, when ‘Western sci- tion between the Ottoman Empire and the 5. Wulff, Karl (1998). Gibt es einen
ence’ eventually supplanted the ‘classical’ sci- West European Republic of Letters (17th - 18th Science and the public naturwissenschaftlichen Universalismus? Cuxhaven,
ences almost completely.3 The fact is, howev- centuries)’ in which she traced a continuous The second half of the 19 th century saw the Dartford: Junghans, p. 63.
er, that many disciplines flourished until the flow of scientific knowledge across the massive spread of interest in scientific mat- 6. Philipp, Thomas, and Moshe Perlmann, eds. and
mid-20th century. Mediterranean Sea which contradicts the ters to a growing literate public, in the ‘West- trans. (1994). cAbd al-Rahman al-Jabarti’s History of
‘iron curtain’ concept promulgated by, for ex- ern’ world, but to a similar degree in the Arab Egypt. 4 vols. in 2 plus Guide. Stuttgart: Steiner.
Decline of sciences? ample, Edward Lewis. speaking countries. Dagmar Glaß (Leipzig) 7. Hasselblatt, Gunnar (1968). Herkunft und
A number of possible reasons have been At the same time, classical texts continued characterized in her study the relationship Auswirkungen der Apologetik Muhammad cAbduh’s
suggested to account for this alleged decline. to be read and annotated throughout the between Arab journalists and their readership (1849-1905). Diss. Göttingen.
Ghazali’s ‘destruction of the philosophers’, the 18th century which is documented by the in the late 19 th century as a ‘pedagogical dia - 8. Abu-Rabi’, Ibrahim M. (1996). Intellectual Origins of
Ottoman defeat in the naval battle at Lepanto reading and possession marks on Islamic logue’ in which the former actively sought to Islamic Resurgence in the Modern Arab World.
(1571 AD) and subsequent persecution of ‘hu- manuscripts preserved in libraries around the create a public understanding of science. In Albany: SUNY.
manist’ scholars,4 and the missing connection world, as François Charette (Frankfurt am this process, only subsequently would the im- 9. Hanafi, Hasan (1991). Muqaddima fi cilm al-istighrab.
between scholars and artisans – a crucial fac- Main) pointed out in his contribution on the portance of religious aspects of science gain Cairo: ad-Dar al-fanniya, p. 703.
tor in the rise of modern Western science5 – library of the Ottoman scholar Mustafa Sidqi greater importance, which leads to a more 10. See the Islamic Science homepage at the University
are some examples. (d. 1769). Likewise, modern commentaries on fundamental question dominating much of of Oklahoma at http://www.ou.edu/islamsci/
Each of these factors, however, can arguably classical texts may well include an apprecia- the contemporary debate: Can science be Is- 11. Although more recent research in Science Studies
be called into question. A condemnation of tion of the latest data from scientific observa- lamic? tends to privilege experimental practice over
the tenets of natural philosophy occurred in tions. It therefore appears that, on the one From a completely different point of view, institutional form, Shapin, Steven (1996). The
Paris 1270/77; the Inquisition threatened Eu- hand, detailed studies are still urgently re- over the last three decades a number of pro- Scientific Revolution. Chicago, London: Chicago UP.
ropean scholars in the same period Schulze quired in order to document the available jects has been initiated by Muslims through- 12. E.g. the case of Muhammad as-Sanusi, Vikør, Knut S.
examines in the Ottoman Empire; and, on the sources of scientific activity to which little at- out the Islamic world and in the diaspora (1995). Sufi and Scholar on the Desert Edge. London:
other hand, the connection between learning tention has been paid thus far10 – a conse- which aims at creating an ‘Islamic science’ or Hurst, p. 63.
and the trades is documented (e.g. in a rele- quence of the self-fulfilling prophecy that lit- the ‘Islamization of scientific knowledge’ 13. Reichmuth, Stefan (2000). ‘Murtada az-Zabidi
vant number of instances in al-Jabarti’s fa- tle of interest was to be found in more recent (ISTAC in Kuala Lumpur, IIIT in Herndon/Vir- (1732-91) - Netzwerk und Lebenswerk eines indo-
mous chronicle of Egypt covering the years documents. On the other hand, it seems nec- ginia, etc.).16 On closer inspection, many con- arabischen Gelehrten des 18. Jahrhunderts’. In
from 1694 to 1821); to name but a few.6 essary to take a broader look at the manifold tributions to this contemporary debate rather Islamische Bildungsnetzwerke im lokalen und
Remarkably, scholars in the colonized coun- institutional settings where different forms of a-critically subscribe to the assumptions of transnationalen Kontext (18.-20. Jahrhundert),
tries, very early on, confronted the challenge scientific ventures might have been pursued. Western ‘scientific fundamentalism’ (Ziaud- edited by Michael Kemper. Bochum: Sem.
of Western technological superiority, reacting din Sardar) which is to be Islamized in form Orientalistik. See also Reichmuth (1999). Murtada
with bewilderment, as in the case of al-Jabarti, Institutions of science and rather than in content.17 In this respect, the az-Zabidi (d. 1791). In Die Welt des Islams
yet without questioning the superior moral networks of learning ‘Islamized disciplines’ show less similarity to (Biographical and Autobiographical Accounts.
and cultural values of Islam. Thus, the self-pro- Though it is assumed that a specific set of classical Arabic sciences than, perhaps, the Glimpses of Islamic Scholarship in the 18th Century)
claimed moral and cultural superiority of Islam institutions in the West supported the Scien- writings of the 19th century Darwinism de- 39 (1), pp. 64-102.
inaugurated a whole new thread of apolo- tific Revolution (such as universities, corre- bate in which a considerable number of Arab 14. E.g. Shumayyil, Shibli (1884). Sharh Buchnar cala
getic literature during the Arab Renaissance spondence networks, learned societies, pri- Christian authors were involved. ♦ madhhab Darwin. Cairo. Cf. Ziadeh, Susan Laila
(nahda), projecting the ideal fulfilment of Is- vate presses, and scientific journals),11 there is (1991). A Radical in His Time: The Thought of Shibli
lamic duties back to the times of the pious an- some evidence that in the Islamic cultures Shumayyil and Arab Intellectual Discourse (1882-
cestors of early Islam (as-salaf as-salih, hence: one might rather have to examine different 1917). Diss. Univ. Michigan. Ann Arbor: UMI.
salafiyya).7 Though the structure of discourse spaces of research and communication (from 15. Mahmoud, M. (1854). ‘Observations et recherches
is changing in the course of decolonization, mosques and Sufi brotherhoods12 to observa- For further information on this group and sur l’intensité magnétique et sur ses variations
there is considerable continuity between the tories, hospitals, the hajj, private salons, mili- submission of paper proposals (in English or pendant une période de 25 ans, de 1829 à 1854’.
tary institutions, etc.). Stefan Reichmuth German) please contact: Bulletins de l’Académie royale de Belgique 21 (9).
(Bochum) presented his work on the Indian- Rainer Brömer, MA Bruxelles: Hayez.
It is the intention of the study group on ‘Arabic-Ottoman Sciences born scholar Murtada az-Zabidi (1732-1791), Inst. Wissenschaftsgeschichte 16. Stenberg, Leif (1996). ‘The Islamization of Science.
in the Modern Period’ to create a platform for the discussion of who created an intellectual network around Humboldtallee 11 Four Muslim Positions Developing an Islamic
ongoing research on these and related issues, as well as to create his dwellings in Medina and Cairo, which ex- D-37073 Göttingen, Germany Modernity’. Lund Studies in History of Religions, 6.
a wider awareness of the desiderata in the field, thus possibly tended throughout the Muslim world, from Tel: +49 551 39 9468 17. Ghamari-Tabrizi, Behrooz (1996). ‘Is Islamic Science
attracting more scholars to Modern Islamic Science Studies and West Africa and Ethiopia to Anatolia and Cen- Fax: +49 551 39 9748 Possible?’ Social Epistemology 10 (3-4), pp. 317-330.
offering an interface of discussion between Western-based tral Asia. 13 Networks of teaching in the Mus- See also Lotfalian, Mazyar (1999).
Science Studies and Islamic science projects, bridging the lim world from the 18th to 20th century are the Rainer Brömer is preparing a dissertation in the ‘Understanding Muslim Technoscientific Identities’.
historical gap between the ‘lingering’ classical sciences (B. Lewis) subject of a Junior Scholars’ Research Group History of Science on the role of Darwinism in Italian ISIM Newsletter 4, p.8.
and the present Islamic science debate. At the next DAVO based at the Ruhr University in Bochum, co- biology during the kulturkampf. His further interest
congress in Mainz (12-14 October 2000), another panel on Arabic- ordinated by Michael Kemper. lies in examining the role of science in Western and
Ottoman Sciences is planned. While in the second half of the 19th century, Islamic societies in the 19th and 20th centuries.
when Arab scholars discussed contemporary E-mail: Rainer.Broemer@gmx.de
ISIM NEWSLETTER 5/00 Research 43
Studying Secularism:
Debate
D AV I D S H A N K L A N D
IISMM
LUCETTE VALE NSI
Institut d’Études de l’Islam et
The IISMM, a research centre of the École des Hautes
Études en Sciences Sociales (EHESS), is devoted to
the study of societies and cultures in the Muslim
des Sociétés du Monde Musulman
world. It is organized around a group of scholars rep-
resenting all the social sciences of the regions where world have returned that world to its histo- er about 30 students preparing for doctor- progress. The first of these seminars con-
Islam is present: anthropology, history, anthropolo- ry, a history that is being both made and ates in France and in the host country cerned ‘The Figure of the Literati in Islam’
gy and history of law, political science, linguistics, unmade. Former oppositions are fading around a broad academic theme, allowing (May 2000).
and sociology. Its goal is to simultaneously amplify away or being rearranged. Nevertheless, for exchanges and field visits. Applications
and mobilize existing resources by providing sup- ‘Islam’ remains a fully valid topic of study. It should be addressed to the Institute, ac- ’One Book/One Event’
port for research projects conceived by specialists of constitutes the only common feature defin- companied by a statement of purpose. The series of meetings entitled ‘One
Islam and societies of the Muslim world. ing the domain that the IISMM intends to The first study-cycle will be held in Mo- Book/One Event’ are open to an invited
cover, extending from Senegal to North- rocco, in collaboration with the Faculty of public. The first of these focused on Nasr
The IISMM is not intended as a replacement west China, from the Balkans to Indonesia. Arts and Human Sciences of Saïs-Fès, from Abu Zaid, Egyptian professor in exile in the
for the already existing research groups in The weight of religious tradition and the 13-22 September 2000, around the theme Netherlands and the author of A Critique of
universities or in the Centre National de la search for renewal cannot obliterate the ‘Memory/Memories: Forms, Functions, and the Religious Discourse, which has been
Recherche (CNRS). It intends, rather, to pro- multiplicity of references – political, scien- Customs’. translated into French. The next meetings
vide assistance to specialists in completing tific, aesthetic or cultural – in the Islam of will feature French specialists on modern
projects under way and in preparing events today or yesterday, that fall outside of a Postgraduate workshops Iran.
(e.g., round tables, seminars, colloquia, etc.) strict Koranic genealogy. Islam is not the The Institute supports and initiates meet-
that will highlight and disseminate this re- sum of its commandments. Whether it has ings intended to encourage contacts and Continuing education
search. Mobilizing the resources in this field been so remains a question of paramount discussion between postgraduate students Annual courses, summer schools, and in-
is done by lifting the routine-based barriers importance to the IISMM. working in the same cultural area and on tensive courses are organized on specific
that have, on occasion, so rigidly compart- The role chosen by the IISMM is to coordi- the same period. These sessions, in which themes and disciplines for groups and insti-
mentalized research on the Muslim world. nate research and specialized instruction, teaching staff also participates, will be led tutions that request them. ♦
The IISMM intends to organize seminars and to open a venue of training and infor- by the students.
and encourage research focused on broad- mation to a wide, non-specialized public. It
er topics than those that have usually been proposes a programme of research and Research and teaching skills
studied, where specialists of a particular pe- teaching activities. Parallel to the research programmes of
riod or region can enrich their thinking external teams supported by the IISMM, the
through exposure to other approaches, de- Institute is also developing its own acade-
veloped in different areas of Muslim studies mic programme of cross-disciplinary semi-
or through the analysis of other civiliza- Research training nars linking different disciplines and cultur-
tions. al areas.
This call for an association of energies is Weekly or bimonthly seminars
imposed by the evolution of the research These seminars are given within the con- Research subjects
subject itself. Without breaking with the text of specialized courses concerning Mus- The following are the research topics des-
long tradition of oriental studies of which lim societies at the EHESS. The courses lead ignated for the academic year 2000 and
France may be justly proud, the IISMM to the DEA (postgraduate diploma), a doc- 2001: For further information:
seeks to free research from the tendency to torate or the EHESS Diploma. The pro- Islam in the Feminine; Faces of Islam; In- IISMM
confine Islam to a discourse so particularist grammes and admission requirements will ternationalization of the Religious; Oriental- 96 Boulevard Raspail
as to make the object into a kind of irre- be announced by the EHESS. ism and Social Sciences; and Contemporary 75006 Paris, France
ducible reality, incommensurable, regard- Artistic Creation in the Islamic Countries. Tel.: +33 (0)1 53 63 02 40
less of how it is approached, with any other Summer schools Fax: +31 (0)1 53 63 02 49
reality. Every year, in a Muslim country and in Occasional one-day seminars E-mail: iismm@ehess.fr
The profound changes of the past centu- collaboration with the higher educational These special events allow a wide public
ry combined with the improved knowledge establishments in that country, the IISMM to benefit from the presence of scholars in-
of the societies and cultures of the Muslim will organize study cycles bringing togeth- vited by the EHESS to discuss research in Lucette Valensi is director of the IISMM.
C O M M E N T
Muslims in Germany
The article entitled ‘Is Islam soluble in Germany?’
published in the last ISIM Newsletter (page 30) con- Muslim communities in Germany. Discussions The 1980s saw the birth of two umbrella or- educational developments. On the other
centrated primarily on Muslims originating in Tur- were initiated with the education ministry ganizations for Muslims in Germany. One, hand, DITIB can rarely publish anything
key, as if they are a unique phenomenon and not a over the question of religious education in ac- established in 1986, was called the Islamic without approval from Ankara. Certainly,
lively part of the community as a whole. While it is cordance with federal and land constitutions. Council for the Federal Republic of Ger- after its foundation, the board of the Islamic
true that Turkish Muslims account for almost 80% of Such discussions led to a series of seminars, many. The other, established a year later, Council had to adapt to this German norm;
the German Muslim population, there are also small- encounters and unofficial meetings in which became the Central Council of Muslims in while German Muslims had little difficulty in
er groups whose members originate from other Is- the partners attempted to find intersections Germany. Through the years, a number of offering their opinion, those of other back-
lamic societies globally. The smallest segment of the between Muslim communities and the Chris- local Islamic associations have joined these grounds had to adjust to this.
German Muslim population is formed by Germans to-secular German system, which had been coalitions, and today, the Islamic Council in- Today, the differences are not significant.
who are often characterized by terms such as ‘con- molded by the thousand-year relationship of cludes 38 member associations, while the The two councils mentioned above (The
verts’ and thus overlooked. A few of these German the churches and different political forces. In Central Council has 28. Members of these Central Council of Muslims and the Islamic
Muslims have been engaged in issues concerning the other words, where were the crossroads of a coalitions include associations with diverse Council) are committed to organizing the
Muslim community in Germany since the 1960s and church-molded legal system and a churchless national, cultural, social and theological future of Muslim communities in Germany
have been engaged in social work as well as in dis- Abrahamic community living in such a soci- backgrounds. within the framework of German societal
cussion of fundamental questions relating to Mus- ety? These public and semi-private encoun- Meanwhile, the Turkish side reacted by and legal contexts. An important step in this
lims within German society. It is therefore appropri- ters took place in a changing society that mar- creating the so-called DITIB at Cologne. This direction has been the foundation of a com-
ate to briefly describe the history of involvement of ginalized religious life and its public symbols is an association under German law, but the mittee on religious education (founded last
indigenous German Muslims. and thus, such questions were at the heart of head and most of the personnel are Turkish autumn). ♦
important debates within German society as civil servants who are, ostensibly, ‘on leave’
In the early 1960s, a handful of German Mus- a whole. and normally stay up to six years in Ger-
lims gathered around what later became At the same time, official Turkish repre- many without learning any German. Last
the Islamic Archives of Germany. Through sentatives often intervened in order to hin- year, some younger men who grew up in
the efforts of this group, the first rules of a der access to greater freedom for their fel- Germany became involved in DITIB as secre-
local Islamic association were written and low countrymen and women. An example taries.
registered under German law. At the same was the rent of a local hall for a meeting. A German Muslims have attempted to coop-
time, Germans met in Hamburg, Munich, Turkish diplomat protested at the municipal erate with DITIB but the contrast between
Cologne and Aachen and began to organize hall against permission being granted for Turko-French laicité and German secularism
facilities for daily worship. use of the hall. German Muslims followed is so deep that one might say that each prin- Wolf D. Ahmed has been a lecturer at the Universities
During the 1970s, these individuals utilized and insisted on the proper application of ciple almost destroys the other. For exam- of Paderborn and Kassel as well as a scientific advisor
their membership in different societal organi- German law. The meeting was held. In this ple, German society expects that the for the Board of the Islamic Council for the Federal
zations – political parties, unions, and the like way, Muslims originating in Turkey learned churches and religious organizations com- Republic of Germany.
– to discuss the developing situation vis-á-vis to enjoy the benefits of secular freedom. ment publicly on political, ethical, social and Fax: +49 5241 339986
ISIM NEWSLETTER 5/00 Institutes 45
Islamic Development
IDMP
M U H A M M AD S Y U K R I S A L L E H
Academic Meetings
Institute for Studies and Cooperation with Freie Universität Berlin, Arbeitsstelle Politik
Recent Conferences and Twenty-five years of Middle East Timor, Alameda da Guia, 139-3o Esqo 3 6 t h International Congress of des Vorderen Orients, Ihnestr. 31, Middle East Studies Association
Public Lectures Eastern and Islamic Studies in 2750-370 Cascais, Portugal. Asian and North African D-14195 Berlin, Germany (MESA) Annual Meeting
the Netherlands tel: +351 969 033 618 / Studies tel: +49 30 838 6640 / fax: +49 30 838 6637 Date: 16-19 November 2000
Arab World 2000: Date: 19 May 2000 fax: +351 222 003 599 (ICANAS 2000) fbue@zedat.fu-berlin.de Venue: Orlando, Florida
Venue: Theological University, Date: 27 August - 1 September 2000 Information: MESA of North America,
Transformations and
Challenges Kampen, The Netherlands The Mediterranean in the 21 s t Venue: Montreal, Canada 7th Annual Congress of the University of Arizona, 1643 E. Helen Street,
Information: Ruud Strijp, Century: Enduring Differences Information: ICANAS 2000 Secretariat, Bureau German Middle East Studies Tucson, Arizona, 85721 USA
Date: 30-31 March 2000
Dr. Jan Berendsstraat 132-A, and Prospects for Co-operation des congrès, Université de Montréal, P.O. Association (DAVO) tel: +1 520 621 5850
Information: Ms. Anne Marie Chaaraoui,
6512 HE, Nijmegen, The Netherlands Date: 3-14 July 2000 Box 6128, Date: 12-14 October 2000 fax: +1 520 6269095
Center for Contemporary Arab Studies
tel: +31 24 360 5852 Venue: European University Institute, Station Downtown Montréal, Venue: Centre for Research on the Arab World mesana@u.arizona.edu
Georgetown University,
Steen.strijp@inter.NL.net Florence, Italy Québec H3C 3J7, Canada (CERAW), University of Mainz, Germany URL: http://w3fp.arizona.edu/
Washington, D.C. 20057-5793
Information: Ann-C. Svantesson, tel: +1 514 343 6492 / fax: +1 514 343 6544 Deadline for papers: mesassoc/Annualmeetings/
tel: +1 202 687 6215 or +1 202 687 5793
fax: +1 202 687 7001 Muslim Identities in North Mediterranean Programme Secretary congres@bcoc.umontreal.ca 12 September 2000 AnnualMeetings/htm
ccasinfo@gunet.georgetown.edu America tel: +39 55 468 5785 / fax: +39 55 468 5770 URL: http://www.bcoc.umontreal.ca. Information: DAVO-Congress Organization,
Date: 20-21 May 2000 svantess@iue.it Professor Dr. Anton Escher, Center for People and Power in 21 st
Islam and Constitutionalism Venue: University of California, Irvine Religion and Society in Qajar Research on the Arab World (CERAW), Century Africa: 43 rd Annual
Date: 7-9 April 2000 Information: Prof. Karen B. Leonard Australiasian Middle East Iran Institute of Geography, University of Meeting of the African Studies
Venue: Harvard Law School, Boston, kbleonar@uci.edu Studies Association 2000 Date: 4-6 September 2000 Mainz, Association
Massachusetts USA Conference Sponsored by: The British Institute of Persian D-55099, Mainz, Germany Date: 16-19 November 2000
Information: Professor Sohail Hashmi, The Third Biennial Conference Date: 5-6 July 2000 Studies and the Iran Heritage Foundation. tel: +49 6131 39 25654 Venue: Convention Center, Nashville,
Mount Holyoke College (or) on Iranian Studies Venue: Melbourne, Australia Information: Robert Gleave (Conference fax: +49 06131 39 24736 Tennessee, USA
Date: 25-28 May 2000 Information: Dr. Shahram Akbarzadeh, Coordinator), Department of Theology and davo-congress@geo.uni-mainz.de Information: Loree D. Jones,
Professor Houchang Chehabi,
Venue: Bethesda, Maryland Politics, Religious Studies, University of Bristol, URL: http://www.geo.uni-mainz.de/davo Executive Director, African Studies
Boston University
Sponsored by: The American Institute of La Trobe University, Vic. 3083,Australia. Bristol, BS8 1TB UK Association, Rutgers, The State University
fax: +1 617 353 9290
Iranian Studies (AIIrS) fax: + 61 3 9479 1997 tel: +44 117 928 8168 / fax: +44 117 929 Islam and Society in the 21 s t of New Jersey, Douglass Campus, 132
Mediation and Minority and The Society for Iranian Studies (SIS) S.Akbarzadeh@latrobe.edu.au. 7850 Century: 29 t h A n n u a l George Street,
Information: Kambriz Eslami SIS Executive URL: http://www.arabic.univelb.edu/au/ r.m.gleave@bristol.ac.uk Association of Muslim Social New Brunswick, NJ, 08901-1400 USA
Cultures
Secretary events/amesa/amesa3.htm Scientists (AMSS) tel: +1 732 9328173
Date: 15 April 2000
Venue: Harvard Law School, Boston, keslami@phoenix.princeton.edu Seminar for Arabian Studies Date: 13-15 October 2000 fax: +1 732 932 3394
URL: www.iranian-studies.org Navigation and Trade in the Date: 4-6 September 2000 Venue: Georgetown University, Washington, callas@rci.rutgers.edu
Massachusetts, USA
Information: Peri Bearman at: Mediterranean from the 7th to the Venue: The Institute of Archaeology, D.C.
pbearman@law.harvard.edu Annual RIMO Conference: 19th centuries: 8th International University College London. Sponsored by: The Association of Muslim 1s t Graduate Student
(or) Asifa Quraishi at: Dutch Association for the Congress on Graeco-Oriental and Information: Nanina Shaw Reade, Secretary, Social Scientists (AMSS) in collaboration Conference on Ibn Sina
aquraish@law.harvard.edu Study of the Law of Islam and African Studies Seminar for Arabian Studies, Institute of with The Center for Muslim-Christian Date: March 2001 (tentative)
the Middle East Date: 5-9 July 2000 Archaeology (UCL), 31-34 Gordon Square, Understanding at Georgetown University. Venue: Yale University, New Haven,
Date: 27 May 2000 Venue: Oinousses, Greece London WC1H 0PY Information: The International Institute of Connecticut, USA
L’individu et ses rapports au
Venue: Leiden, The Netherlands Sponsored by: the Institute for Graeco-Oriental fax/answerphone: +44 1367 850 130 Islamic Thought (IIIT), Information: David C. Reisman or Ahmed al-
pouvoir dans les sociétés
Sponsored by: ISIM and RIMO Studies, Athens, and the Department of arab-seem-@dircon.co.uk Attention: AMSS Conference 2000, Rahim, NELC,
musulmanes de la région
History, Cairo University P.O. Box 669, Herndon, VA, 20170, USA, (or) Yale University, P0 Box 208236,
Méditerranéenne
Date: 3 May 2000 Upcoming Conferences, Information: Professor V. Christides, Institute Immigrant Religious Deonna Kelli New Haven CT 06520-8236 USA
Venue: Hammamet, Tunisia for Graeco-Oriental and African Studies, Communities: tel: +1 703 471-1133, ext. 116 tel: +1 203 432 2944
Lecture Series and Solomou 39, Kryoneri Attikis, 14568 Greece Ideas and Identities fax: +1 703 471-3922 fax: +1 203 4322946
Sponsored by: Université de Tunis, Faculté des
Sciences Humaines et Sociales and Public Events. fax: +30 1 816-1037 Date: 8-10 September 2000 Dkelli@iiit.org david.reisman@yale.edu (or)
Venue: San Diego State University, California, URL: http://www.iiit.org/callpapers.htm ahmed.al-rahim@yale.edu
European Science Foundation
Afghanistan: Country without a Borders, Orders and Identities of USA
Al-Andalus and Europe: Between State the Muslim World Sponsored by: The Institute of Druze Studies in 29 th Annual Conference Medical Ethics and Law in Islam
Date: 15-18 June 2000 Date: 12-14 July 2000 collaboration with the Department of on South Asia Date: 19-21 March 2001
Orient and Occident
Venue: Museum of Anthropology, Information: Michelle Speak, External Religious Studies, San Diego State Date: 13-15 October 2000 Venue: Haifa, Israel
Date: 3-7 May 2000
Munich, Germany Relations Officer, International Boundaries University (SDSU), The Society for the Venue: University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA Sponsored by: The Department of Arabic
Venue: Bonn, Germany
Information: Conrad Schetter, Coordinator, Research Unit, Suite 3P, Mountjoy Academic Study of Religions (SDSU) and Information: Center for South Asia, University Language and Literature and the Center
Information: Secretary,
Scientific Program, Center of Development Research Centre, University of Durham, the G.E. von Grunebaum Center at the of Wisconsin-Madison, 203 Ingraham Hall, for Health, Law and Ethics at the Law
Seminar für Orientalische Kunstgeschichte
Research, Walter-Flex-Str. 3, DH1 3UR, UK University of California, 1155 Observatory Drive, School, both of the University of Haifa,
Regina-Pacis-Weg,
53113, Bonn, Germany tel: +44 191 374 7705 Los Angeles (UCLA) Madison WI 53706, USA Israel.
53113 Bonn, Germany
tel: +49 228 263144 fax: +44 191 374 7702 Information: Institute of Druze Studies, tel: +1 608 262 4884 / fax: +1 608 265 3062 Information: Dr. Vardit Rispler-Chaim,
c.schetten@uni-bonn.de michelle.speak@Durham.ac.uk San Diego State University conference@southasia.wisc.edu Department of Arabic, University of Haifa,
Perception According to Mulla
URL: http://www.rzuser. (or) Ali Ansari, Centre for Middle Eastern P.O. Box 22828, San Diego, CA 92192 Haifa, Israel 31905
Sarda and Western Schools of
Philosophy uni-heidelberg.de/~iv0/aga & Islamic Studies, South End House, idsi@druzestudies.org with copy to Samy s. The Third World in the 21 st tel: + 972 4 8249789
Date: 12-13 May 2000 South Road, Durham, DH1 3TG, UK Swayd sswayd@mail.sdsu.edu Century: 18th Annual Meeting of fax: +972 4 8249710
Venue: The School of Oriental and African Islamic Origins: National tel: +44 191 374-2822 the Association of Third World rhla103@uvm.haifa.ac.il
Studies (SOAS), University of London, UK. Endowment for the Humanities fax: +44 191 374-2830 Muslims of Europe in the New Studies
Sponsored by: The Institute of Islamic studies, (NEH) Summer Institute 2000 ali.ansari@durham.ac.uk Millennium: Multiculturalism, Date: 19-21 October 2000 Islam in America: Series of
the Department of Study of Religions at Date: 19 June - 21 July 2000 URL: Identity and Citizenship Venue: Denver, Colorado seminars
Venue: University of Chicago, Illinois, USA www.1bru.dur.ac.uk/conf/islam/intor/htm Date: 9-10 September 2000 Deadline for registration: September 1, 2000 A Seminar or a series of seminars are planned
the School of Oriental and African Studies
Information: http://humanities. Venue: Islamic Cultural Centre of Ireland, Information: Professor Norman W. Provizer, to develop a comprehensive research
(SOAS) at London University and Sadra
Islamic Philosophy Research Institute. uchicago.edu/islamic-origins/ Literature and Nationalism in Dublin Director, Golda Meir Center for Political program on the theme ‘Islam in America.’
Information: S. Safavi, the Middle East and North Africa Information: The Steering Committee, Leadership, Metropolitan State College of A working paper is to be developed shortly
Director of the Institute of Islamic Studies, Muslim Europe: The Changing (MENA) Association of Muslim Social Scientists Denver, P.O. Box 173362, Campus Box 43, which will contain a series of research
Cultural Contours of the West (An Date: 10-13 July 2000 (UK), P.O. Box 126, Richmond, Surrey, TW9 Denver, CO, 80217-3362 USA questions. The seminar will be based on
PO Box 8148, London, NW6 7ZS England,
Institute for Educators) Sponsored by: The Edinburgh Institute for the 2UD, UK tel: +1 303 556 3157 / fax: +1 303 556 2716 these questions and, subsequently, a
UK
Date: 19 June - 14 July 2000 Advanced Study of Islam and the Middle tel: +44 208 948 9511 or +44 208 948 9512 provizen@mscd.edu special issue of the American Journal of
tel: +44 20 8459 1000 / fax: +44 20 8830
Information: Hazel Sara Greenberg, The East fax: +44 208 940 4014 Islamic Social Sciences will be published.
4013.
American Forum for Global Education, 120 Information: Secretary, Edinburgh Institute for amss@dial.pipex.com God, Life and Cosmos: Information: Dr Abdul Hameed
iis@islamic-studies.org
URL: www.islamic-studies.org Wall Street, Suite 2600, New York, NY, the Advanced Study of Islam and the Theistic Perspectives Abusulayman, President, International
10005 USA Middle East, University of Edinburgh, 7-8 International Conference Date: 6-9 November 2000 Institute of Islamic Thought,
Workshop on tel: +1 212 624 1300 / fax: +1 212 624 1412 Buccleuch Place, Edinburgh EH8 9LW, on Middle Eastern Popular Venue: Islamabad, Pakistan P.O. Box 669, Herndon,
Islamic Thought in Africa Scotland Culture Sponsored by: The Center for Theology and VA 20172 USA
Time & Space in Islam fax: +44 131 650 6804 Date: 17-21 September 2000 the Natural Sciences (CNTS), the Islamic tel: +1 703 471 1133
Date: 12-14 May 2000
Date: 1-3 July 2000 EIASIME@ed.ac.uk Sponsored by: University of Oxford Research Institute of the International fax: +1 703 471 3922
Venue: Northwestern University, Illinois, USA
Venue: The Islamic Foundation, Villa Park, URL: http://www.arts.ed.ac.uk/eiasime/events Information: Professor Clive Holes Islamic University and the International iiit@iiit.org (or)
Information: John Hunwick,
Illinois /litnat-conf.html (clive.holes@oriinst.ox.ac.uk) or the NESP Institute of Islamic Thought Dr Ilyas Bayunus, Professor of Sociology,
Department of History, Northwestern
Sponsored by: The Iqbal Society, The American Administrator at Near Eastern Studies Information: Muzaffar Iqbal SUNY Cortland, 4339 Alexandria Drive,
University, Evanston, IL, 60208 USA
tel: +1 847 491-7412 / fax: +1 847 467-1393 Islamic Heritage, and the Ameer Khusro Conference on Oman Programme, University of Oxford tel: +1 780 922 0927 / fax: +1 780 922-0926 Cortland, NY 13045 USA
Society of America Date: 17-19 July 2000 (neareast@orinst.ox.ac.uk) mwsrp@icrossroads.com tel: +1 607 753 2475
Information: Dr Habibuddin Ahmed, Venue: British Museum, London UK URL: users.ox.ac.uk/~neareast/middle.htm fax: + 1 607 753 5987
Women and Society
in the Middle East Coordinator Information: Julian Reade The US and the Middle East
Date: 15-16 May 2000 tel: +1 630 739 9028 jreade@british-museum.ac.uk Central Asia: Past, Present and after the Gulf War
Venue: Emek Yezreel College, Israel. hahmed@unistarinc.com Future (7 t h European Date: 9-10 November 2000
Information: The Organizing Committee, Media, Religion and Culture: Conference on Central Asian Venue: La Plata University, Argentina
WSME Conference, Emek Yezreel College, BRISMES 2000 Centre for 22nd General Assembly and Studies) Further information: Dr Virginia Petronis
Emek Yezreel, 19300 Israel. Middle Eastern and Islamic Scientific Conference of the Date: 25-29 September 2000 tel/fax: +221 423 0628
tel: +972 6 6423456 / fax: +972-6-6423457 Studies: Annual Conference International Association for Venue: University of Vienna, Austria iri@isis.unlp.edu.ar (or)
Michal Palgi at: palgi@research.haifa.ac.il Date: 2-5 July 2000 Media and Communication Information: Dr Gabriele Rasuly-Paleczek, Chairperson, Middle East Department, Lic.
(or) Venue: University of Cambridge, UK Research (IAMCR) Institute for Social and Cultural Pedro Brieger
Information: Faculty of Oriental Studies, Date: 17-20 July 2000, Venue: Singapore Anthropology, University of Vienna, A- pbrieger@wamani.apc.org
Khawla Abu Bakr at:
Sidgwick Avenue, Cambridge, CB3 9DA UK URL: http://www.iamcr2000.org 1010 Vienna, Universitatsstr. 7/IV, Austria
hishamm@cs.technion.ac.il (or)
Ruth Barzilai-Lumbroso at: tel/fax: +44 1223 335103 tel: +43 1 4277 4806 / fax: +43 1 4277 9485 Contesting and Constructing
oriental-mes-admin@lists.cam.ac.uk The 19 t h International Congress gabriele.rasuly@univie.ac.at Islamic Identities in the In order for the ISIM Info
luzi@netvision.net.il
of Historical Sciences Periphery: A Panel at the Pages to prosper, we kindly
Respect and Tolerance between The Second International Date: 6-14 August 2000 History and Historiography: American Anthropological
Conference on Jordanian Social Venue: Oslo, Norway New Approaches and Association Annual Meeting ask for your participation by
Islam and Christianity in the
Texts History Information: Congress-Conference AS, PO Box Perspectives: International Date: 15-19 November 2000 filling out the forms for
of History and Literature Date: 3-5 July 2000 2694 Solli, 0204 Oslo, Norway Summer Academy Venue: San Francisco, California, USA
tel: +47 22 56 19 30 / fax: +47 22 56 05 41 Date: September 2000 Information: Dr Ron Lukens-Bull, Assistant Vacancy Announcements and
Date: 15-18 May 2000 Venue: Amman, Jordan
Information: Hani Hourani, URL: www.oslo2000.uio.no Venue: Germany Professor of Anthropology, University of Special Events. These forms
Venue: Canakkale, Turkey
Director General, Al-Urdun Al-Jadid Sponsored by: the Modernity and Islam North Florida, Jacksonville, FL, 32224-2650
Information: Professor Zeki Cemil Arda, can be found online on the
Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Research Center, P O Box 940631, Amman History of Religions: Working Group of Berlin Universities and USA
Terziglu Kampusu, Canakkale, Turkey 11194, Jordan Origins and Visions extra-university institutions tel: +1 904 620 2850 ISIM website:
tel: +962 6 553 3113/4 / fax: + 962 6 551 Date: August 5-12 2000 Information: Arbeitskreis Moderne und Islam, rlukens@unf.edu
tel: +90 286 213 02 05 or +90 213 01 55 http://isim.leidenuniv.nl
1118 Venue: University of Durban-Westville, Geschäftsstelle: Wissenschaftskolleg zu
fax: +90 286 212 2030
zekicemilarda@hotmail.com ujrc@go.com.jo South Africa Berlin Contesting and Constructing If you wish to have a formula
Sponsored by: The International Association Georges Khalil Wallotstraße 19, Islamic Masculinities: A panel to sent by e-mail, fax, or post,
East Timor, Indonesia and the for the History of Religions (IAHR) and D - 14193 Berlin Germany be presented at the American
Ethnic and Religious Conflict
Region: Perceptions of History and hosted by the Department of Science and tel: +49 30 89 00 1258 / fax: +49 30 89 00 Anthropological Association please contact the ISIM
in Cross-Cultural Perspective
Prospects for the Future Religion at the University of Durban- 1200 Annual Meeting Secretariat:
Date: 18-19 May 2000
Date: 3-8 July 2000 Westville, South Africa Khalil@wiko-berlin.de Date: 15-19 November 2000
Venue: Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, USA
Venue: Lisbon, Portugal Information: Prof. P. Kumar, Dept. of Science Venue: San Francisco, California, USA Tel: +31 71 5277905
Information: Polly Sandenburgh, Interethnic
and Religious Conflict Conference, Ohio Information: José Esteves Pereira Magalhães, and Religion, University of Durban- Congress of the International Information: Dr Ron Lukens-Bull, Assistant Fax: +31 71 5277906
University, Vice-Rector, Symposium and of the Westville, Private Bag X54001, Durban Association of Middle East Professor of Anthropology, University of
4000, South Afric Studies (IAMES) North Florida, Jacksonville, FL 32224-2650 E-mail:
Center for International Studies, Universidade Nova de Lisboa Universidade
Nova de Lisboa, Praça Príncipe Real, 26, tel: +27 31 204 4539 / fax: 027-31-204-4160 Date: 5-7 October 2000 USA ISIM@rullet.leidenuniv.nl
Burson House, Athens, OH, 45701
1250-184 Lisbon, Portugal (or) kumar@pixie.udw.ac.za Venue: Berlin, Germany tel: + 1 904 620-2850
António Barbedo, Coordinator of the URL: http://www.udw.ac.za.iahr Information: Prof. Dr. Friedemann Büttner, rlukens@unf.edu
48 ISIM NEWSLETTER 5/00
Contents
Olivier Roy Anne-Hélène Trottier Peter Clark
Muslims in Europe: A Case of Grassroots Syncretic Sufism: From Fantasy to Faith: Islamic Architectural
From Ethnic Identity to Religious Recasting The Fakir of Bengal Influences in Britain, 1800-2000
1 17 35