Food Technology 3, 2013. CA.

David Smith, L00090777

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Wheat Flour and Alternative Flours which can be used for Bread making and
their Effects on Bread Texture.

Introduction:
Bread is a food made of flour or meal that has been mixed with milk or water, made into a
dough or batter, with or without yeast or other leavening agent, often additional
ingredients, such as butter or salt to improve the taste and baked. (Dictionary.com, 2013)
The process of bread production involves grains that have been ground into flour or meal,
moistened and kneaded into dough, and then baked. Many types of bread are leavened,
usually with yeast, which induces fermentation and causes the breads to rise. White breads
are made from finely sifted wheat flour, as opposed to whole wheat bread, which retains
the fiber-rich outer kernel of the grain. Other ingredients that may be added to breads
include milk, fats, eggs, salt, and sugar. (Judith Jones, 1986)
Flour is a powder, which may be either fine or coarse, which is prepared by sifting and
grinding the meal of a grass (Dictionary.com, 2013). One of the most popular sources of
flour is from wheat. Wheat is a cereal grain, originally from the Levant region of the Near
East and Ethiopian Highlands, but now cultivated worldwide. In 2010, world production of
wheat was 651 million tons, making it the third most-produced cereal after maize (844
million tons) and rice (672 million tons). (Farmers Weekly, 2010). Wheat flour is the powder
flour, made from the grinding of wheat used for human consumption. Using wheat flour,
Whole-wheat bread can be made. The vast majority of bread is traditionally produced from
wheat flour. Apart from its major constituent starch, wheat flour also contains many other
types of substances of which are gluten, non-starch polysaccharides as well as lipids. They
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are very important in Bread Making in terms of their Effect on the final products; Bread
Texture. (Goesaert, 2005)
However in recent years, there is a rising demand for alternative flours to wheat flour. The
demand is primarily due to increasing concerns over Genetically Modified Wheat grains and
the implications that may have and because of the damage caused by the gluten in wheat
flour to people suffering from Celiac disease. (Hubbard, 2012). Today there are a range of
alternatives to wheat flour. However there are significant technological challenges to
replace the crucial textural components of wheat. For this reason; research and
development is still being carried out to produce the most efficient alternatives.
This review will outline; Wheat Flour and its Effects on Bread Texture and Alternative Flours
and their Effects on Bread Texture. Of course the type of flour used in bread making will
have other effects other that texture, including colour, taste, shelf life ect.


Wheat Flour and its Effects on Bread Texture:
The vast majority of bread is traditionally produced from wheat flour. Apart from its major
constituent starch, wheat flour also contains many other types of substances of which are
gluten, non-starch polysaccharides as well as lipids. They are very important in Bread
Making in terms of their Effect on the final products; Bread Texture. (Goesaert, 2005). The
3 main constituents of wheat flour that contribute to textural effects of bread are; Protein,
Gluten, Starch and Lipids.
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Protein role in texture
Below is a table of different proteins found in wheat. They include; Albumin, Globulin,
Gliadin, Glutenin, Protein Residue. Generally their functional role in for Dough viscosity and/
or plasticity.
Figure 1: Overview of the different groups of wheat proteins
Osborne
fraction
Solubility
behaviour
Composition Biological role Functional role
Albumin
Extractable in
water
Non-gluten proteins
(mainly monomeric)
Metabolic and
structural
proteins
Variable
Globulin
Extractable in
dilute salt
Non-gluten proteins
(mainly monomeric)
Metabolic and
structural
proteins
Variable
Gliadin
Extractable in
aqueous
alcohols
Gluten proteins
(mainly monomeric
gliadins and low
molecular weight
glutenin polymers)
Prolamin-type
seed storage
proteins
Dough
viscosity/plasticity
Glutenin
Extractable in
dilute acetic
acid
Gluten proteins
(mainly high
molecular weight
glutenin polymers)
Prolamin-type
seed storage
proteins
Dough
elasticity/strength
Residue Unextractable
Gluten proteins (high
molecular weight
polymers) and
polymeric non-gluten
proteins (triticins)
Prolamin-type
(gluten) and
globulin-type
(triticin) seed
storage proteins
Variable

(Goesaert, 2005)
There are two types of protein found in wheat. These are the non-gluten proteins,
with either no or just a minor role in the texture of breads, and the gluten proteins, with a
major role in the texture of bread. The non-gluten proteins (between 15 and 20% of total
wheat protein) mainly occur in the outer layers of the wheat kernel with lower
concentrations in the endosperm. Unfortunately their textural role in bread remains unclear
(W.S. Veraverbeke, 2002) and further research is needed to confirm their textural effect.
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Gluten role in texture
The gluten proteins (between 80 and 85% of total wheat protein) are the major storage
proteins of wheat. They belong to the prolamin class of seed storage proteins. (Shewry,
2002). Gluten is developed when flour is moistened and then either kneaded or mixed.
When this happens, the gluten molecules literally stretch out. Then, the gases produced by
yeast or another leavening agent inflate these gluten molecules like little balloons, which is
what permits doughs to rise. Finally, when the dough is baked, the gluten hardens, giving
the bread its structure. Without gluten, baked goods won't hold their textural shape. When
the glutens in wheat are stretched out through the kneading or mixing process, they form
little pockets which can then be inflated by the gases released by the leavening agent. When
these air pockets inflate, the dough expands or rises. As gluten is a protein, it hardens when
it is heated. This hardening of the gluten molecules is what allows the bread to hold its
shape, and gives it its firm texture. (Alfaro, 2006)
Starch role in texture
Starch is the major constituent of wheat flour. It represents 65-75 per cent of flour
depending up on extraction rate. Wheat starchs function leads to the normal hardening in
crumb texture as bread age. The specific reason for the hardening of the crumb is the
recrystallization of the terminal chains of the branched amylopectin component of the
starch. Amylopectin is about 75% of the dry starch weight (Oregon State Unversity, 2010).
Starch plays a significant role in bread during storage when the aging or staling begins.
Bread staling refers to firming or hardening of bread during storage that decreases
consumer acceptance of bread. The starch causes bread staling due to its retrogradation or
re-association of starch fractions i.e. amylose and amylopectin after baking and during
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storage. Retrogradation of starch contributes to hardening of breadcrumb during storage.
(B.S.Khatkar, 2003)

Lipids role in texture
Wheat flour lipids constitute about 2% by weight of flour but make important contribution
to dough properties, baking behaviour and bread staling. It has been noticed that lipids
differ in their effects on dough properties made from strong and weak flours. The lipids tend
to decrease the extensibility and extensigraph area of doughs made from strong flours.
Polar lipids improve texture and loaf volume of bread substantially, making the bread softer
and fresher. On the contrary, the non-polar lipids depress the loaf volume of bread making
the bread compact and less acceptable by the consumer. The unsaturated fatty acids mainly
linoleic, which constitutes more than half the free fatty acid in wheat flour, are held
responsible for depression in the loaf volume and quality of bread. Lipids also play some role
in retarding staling (texture hardening) of bread. It has been proposed that the lipids
prevent firmness of breadcrumb by preventing retrogradation of starch molecules.
(B.S.Khatkar, 2003)








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Alternative Flours and their Effects on Bread Texture:
For varying reasons alternative flours to wheat flour have been in demand but with the
characteristics to produce bread with the same or similar texture to bread made using
wheat flour. The driving force behind this desire can be attributed to increasing concerns
over Genetically Modified Wheat grains and the implications that may have and because of
the damage caused by the gluten in wheat flour to people suffering from Celiac disease.
(Hubbard, 2012). Celiac disease is an autoimmune disorder in which people cannot tolerate
gluten because it damages the lining of their small intestine and prevents absorption of
nutrients. (NIH, 2012).

Some popular wheat flour alternatives include; Amaranth flour, Arrowroot flour,
Barley flour, Brown rice flour, Buckwheat flour, Chia flour, Chick pea flour, Cornflour,
Cornmeal, Hemp flour, Maize flour, Millet flour, Oat flour, Potato flour, Potato starch flour,
Quinoa flour, Rye flour, Sorghum flour, Soya flour, Tapioca flour, Teff flour, White rice flour.
(Fletton, 2005)
Most of the above examples of alternative flours are gluten free. Gluten gives the
crucial property of elasticity to dough, helping it rise and keeps its shape and often gives the
final product a chewy texture. However unfortunately, Gluten free flours do not provide the
same elastic matrix for the structure and textures, associated with traditional bread
produced with flour containing gluten. For this reason when using Gluten free flours other
additives are used to compensate. Xanthan Gum and Guar Gum are examples of gums
which are used as a stabilizer and a thickener and aid in the rising of dough with other
ingredients, such as yeast, baking soda, and baking powder.
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Gluten removal in bread formulations, results in major technical problems, yielding a
liquid batter rather than a dough and bread with a cumbling texture. (E. Gallagher, 2004)
By blending specific gluten-free flours (that collectively imitate the taste and texture
of wheat flour) with the invaluable gluten substitute xanthan gum, it is possible to make a
gluten-free flour mix that closely imitates the important properties of wheat flour for bread
making. Mixed with basic ingredients traditionally used to make bread water, yeast, salt,
sugar and a little oil it is possible to make a well risen, crusty, versatile loaf that rivals
wheat bread in texture. (Scott, 2008)
Buckwheat flour significantly improves the textural properties in gluten-free bread
formulations, a study has found. Published in the journal Food Hydrocolloids the study
investigated the role of buckwheat and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) on the
bread-making properties of gluten-free formulations. The Italian researchers from DiSTAM
(Department of Food Science and Technology and Microbiology) at the University of Milan
concluded that high levels of buckwheat flours improved both the textural and nutritional
properties of gluten-free breads. Findings showed that the inclusion of up to 40% of
buckwheat flour in formulations had favourable impacts on the leavening characteristics of
gluten-free breads and thus overall quality. The study also found that the bread crumb in
the final product was softened with the inclusion of puffed buckwheat flour as well as the
food additive HPMC. (M. Mariotti, 2012)
Oat Flour light texture adds moisture to baked goods best combined with corn or
rice flours, use only 20% oat flour in recipe contains a natural antioxidant, therefore retains
its freshness longer than wheat. (Snider, 2010)
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Soy Flour makes bread or baked goods more moist and smooth best if add small
amounts to other flours; use only 20% soy flour in recipe, decrease temperature by 25
degrees. (Snider, 2010)

Studies have been carried out showing the effect of brown rice and maize flour on
the quality of bread by Bangladesh Agricultural University. Breads were prepared with
various combinations of maize, brown rice and wheat flours in the basic formulation of
bread. The baking properties and chemical composition of bread were evaluated and
analysed, respectively. The bread volume decreased, where as bread weight and moisture
content increased with the increasing level of maize and brown rice flour. The crumb and
crust colour of breads were improved with addition of 8% maize and 8% brown rice flour in
bread formulation. Bread quality in respects of bread volume and crumb texture were
improved by using 2.5% yeast, 5% sugar, 5% fat and 0.6% improver. The analysis of bread
containing added 8% maize and 8% brown rice flours showed protein 9.76%, fat 4.10%, ash
2.10%, crude fibre 5.16%, sugar 2.26% and total carbohydrates 46.91%. Bread having 8%
maize and 8% brown rice flour had improved texture as well as other characteristics. (MZ
Islam, 2011)

Another study carried out by the Agriculture & Food Development Authority:
Teagasc; showed that Surimi and inulin may be used in wheatstarch-free gluten-free bread
formulations as texture improvers. Gluten-free rice breads were also produced from rice
flour in this study, however they contained the undesirable characteristic a firm and
crumbly texture due to the starch base. (E. Gallagher, 2004)

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Barley Flour can be used as an alternative to wheat. It is a low-protein barley flour
which produces bread with an earthy, sweet flavour and a slightly chewy texture. (Asian
Online Recipes, 2008)

Coconut Flour can also be used. It is very high in fiber, low in digestible
carbohydrates and a good source of protein. It gives baked goods a rich, springy texture but
needs a lot more liquid than other flours. (Boje, 2008)

Oats are sometimes used in baking in various forms: rolled, quick, steel cut, and
flour. Rolled oats added to bread creating a chewy texture and moistness. (Weaver, 2009)

Millet is a tiny, round yellow grain that is a common addition to multi-grain mixtures.
It has a slightly mild nutty taste, a fluffy texture, and is very easy to digest. It is used in
breads in Europe and Russia to give added texture. Rice Flour is a non-wheat flour that is
gluten free. It can be ground from brown or white rice. Whole, cooked brown and white rice
are an excellent addition to breads, adding texture and moisture. Ground rice and rice flour
are milled from rice grains. Ground rice is more granular, similar to semolina. Either can
replace some white bread flour in a recipe to add a sweet flavour and chewy texture to the
bread. (BreadExperience, 2008)

Potato flour another alternative. It is finely ground from dehydrated starchy
potatoes. The starch, also packaged as potato starch flour, is a very fine white flour that is
excellent for baking breads when combined with other specialty flours and gluten flour.
Potato starch flour is an important addition to gluten-free breads when combined with
other flours such as rice flour, tapioca starch or arrowroot. (BreadExperience, 2008)

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Finally study carried out in Slovak University of Agriculture, Faculty of Biotechnology
and Food Science; showed that with the addition of lentil and chickpea flour there was
considerably improved texture and taste of crumb depending on the amount used. The total
acceptability of bread with addition of chickpea up to 20 % was considered as better or
equally good as wheat bread. Bread with addition of 10 % of lentil was evaluated as equally
good as wheat bread. (Bojansk et al, 2012 )

Conclusion:
The characteristics of good quality bread are an optimum specific volume and crumb
grain, and low crumb firmness. (E. Gallagher, 2004). The vast majority of bread is
traditionally produced from wheat flour. The wheat on the market today is a new breed,
different from grains consumed by Americans in the early decades of the 20th century.
Modern wheat differs from its origins as the result of intense cross-breeding programs.
These changes may make it harder for the human body to synthesize modern wheat.
(Newcomer, 2012) For this reason, alternatives to wheat flour are sought with the same
properties to produce breads of similar texture to wheat breads. Today there are a range of
alternatives to wheat flour. However there are significant technological challenges to
replace the crucial textural components of wheat. For this reason; research and
development is still being carried out to produce the most efficient alternatives.



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