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Satellite Communications
Reference book:
Satellite Communications, 3rd ed.
Dennis Roddy
McGraw-Hill International Ed.
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1.1 Introduction
Features offered by satellite communications
large areas of the earth are visible from the satellite, thus the
satellite can form the star point of a communications net linking
together many users simultaneously, users who may be widely
separated geographically
Provide communications links to remote communities
Remote sensing detection of pollution, weather conditions,
search and rescue operations.
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1.3 Intelsat
International Telecommunications Satellite
Created in 1964, now has 140 member countries, >40
investing entities
Geostationary orbit
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Source: http://www.intelsat.com
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a 2 b2
e!
a
For an elliptical orbit, 0 < e < 1. When e = 0, the orbit
becomes circular.
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Thus the farther the satellite from earth, the longer it takes
to travel a given distance
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Q
a ! 2
n
3
(2.2)
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(2.4)
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Example 2.1:
Calculate the radius of a circular orbit for which the
period is 1day.
Solution:
The mean motion, in rad/ day, is
Thus,
Also,
2 T
n :!
1day
rad
n ! 7.272 v10
sec
5
Q
a :! 2
n
a ! 42241km
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Descending node:
The point where the orbit crosses the equatorial
plane going from north to south.
Line of nodes
The line joining the ascending and descending
nodes through the center of the earth.
Inclination
The angle between the orbital plane and the
earths equatorial plane. It is measured at the
ascending node from the equator to the orbit,
going from east to north. The inclination is shown
as i in Fig. 2.3.
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Prograde orbit
An orbit in which the satellite moves in the same
direction as the earths rotation. Also known as a direct
orbit. The inclination of a prograde orbit always lies
between 0 and 90
Retrograde orbit
An orbit in which the satellite moves in a direction
counter to the earths rotation. The inclination of a
retrograde orbit always lies between 90 and 180.
Argument of perigee
The angle from ascending node to perigee, measured
in the orbital plane at the earths center, in the direction
of satellite motion.
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Q
n0 !
a3
The 0 subscript as a reminder that this result applies
for a perfectly spherical earth of uniform mass.
However, earth is not perfectly spherical an
equatorial bulge and a flattening at the poles (oblate
spheroid)
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1
n ! n0
2
2 1.5
a e
1
(2.8)
(2.9)
With n in radians/second
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1
Q 1 1 1.5 sin 2 i
n 3
!0
2
2 1.5
a
1
a e
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(2.10)
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(2.11)
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(2.12)
regression westward
regression is eastward
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(2 2.5 sin 2 i )
(2.13)
Units: same as n
Given Epoch time = t0, right ascension of the
ascending node ;0 at epoch, argument of the
perigee [0 at epoch, the new values for ; and [ at
time t is:
d;
(2.14)
; ! ;0
(t t0 )
dt
d[
[ ! [0
(t t0 )
dt
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(2.15)
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n0
a $ a0
'
n0 n0 t t0
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2
3
(2.16)
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(2.17)
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2.9.1 Calendars
The mean sun does move at a uniform speed but otherwise
requires the same time as the real sun to complete one orbit of
the earth, this time being the tropical year. A day measured
relative to this mean sun is termed a mean solar day.
Calendar days are mean solar days, and generally they are just
referred to as days.
A tropical year contains 365.2422 days. In order to make the
calendar year, also referred to as the civil year, more easily
usable, it is normally divided into 365 days. The extra 0.2422 of
a day is significant and for example, after 100 years, there
would be a discrepancy of 24 days between the calendar year
and the tropical year.
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UTday
1
minutes seconds
! (hours
) (2.18)
24
24
3600
UT o ! 360 v UTday
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(2.19)
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Example 2.10:
Find the Julian day for 13h UT on 18 Dec.2000
Solution: JD = 2451897.0417 day
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T!
JD JDref
JC
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(2.20)
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Example 2.11: Find the time in Julian centuries from the reference
time January 0.5 1900 to 13h UT on 18 December 2000
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a 1 e2
r!
1 e cos v
(2.23)
! n(t T )
(2.24)
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! n (t 0 T )
Therefore,
T ! t0
(2.25)
M ! M 0 n(t t0 )
(2.26)
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246.6853
T ! 223.79688452 14.23304826 v 360
! 223.79604425 days
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M ! E e sin E
(2.27)
M ( E e sin E ) ! 0
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(2.28)
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v
1 e
E
tan !
tan
2
1 e
2
(2.29)
r ! a e cos E
1
(2.30)
5 2
v $ M 2e sin M e sin 2M
4
(2.31)
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(2.32)
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rI
~
r ! R rp
r
J
Q
rK
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(2.33a)
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(cos ; cos [ sin ; sin [ cos i ) cos ; sin [ sin ; cos [ cos i
~
R ! sin ; cos [ cos ; sin [ cos i
sin ; sin [ cos ; cos [ cos i
sin [ sin i
cos [ sin i
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The position vector of the earth station relative to the IJK frame is R
as shown in Fig. 2.10.
Figure 2.10 Position vector R of the earth relative to the IJK frame
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Figure 2.11 Reference ellipsoid for the earth showing the geocentric
latitude ]E and the geodetic latitude PE
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aE bE
eE !
! 0.08182
aE
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(2.38)
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With the height of the earth station above mean sea level
denoted by H, the geocentric coordinates of the earth
station position are given in terms of the geodetic
coordinates by
aE
N!
(2.39)
1 eE sin PE
RK ! N 1 eE H sin PE ! z
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(2.42)
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cos] E V I
0 VJ
sin] E V K
(2.44)
z
] E ! arctan
l
(2.45)
The coordinates l and z given in Eqs. (2.40) and (2.42) are known
in terms of the earth station height and latitude.
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(2.46)
V ! VS VE VZ
2
VZ
V ! arcsin
V
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(2.47)
(2.48)
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V ! arctan
VE
VS
VS
Azimuth
degrees
180 - E
180 + E
360 - E
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h ! H SS hSS
(2.50)
N!
aE
2
1 eE sin PSS
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(2.51)
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(2.52)
(2.53)
rK ! N 1 eE h sin PSS
(2.54)
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aGSO
(3.1)
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(3.2)
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(3.3)
! 42,164 6378
! 35,786km
(3.4)
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(3.5)
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Figure 3.1: The geometry used in determining the look angles for a
geostationary satellite
ES = position of the earth station
SS = subsatellite point
S = the satellite
d = range of the earth station to the
satellite
W = angle to be determine
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(3.6)
c ! 90Q PE
(3.7)
B ! JE JSS
(3.8)
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A ! arcsin
sin b
(3.9)
(3.10)
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PE
Az degrees
<0
<0
<0
>0
360S A
>0
<0
180S - A
>0
>0
180S + A
aGS
El ! arccos
sin b
d
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(3.12)
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The angle between the polar mount and the local horizontal
plane is set equal to the earth station latitude, PE. Thus the
boresight is parallel to the equatorial plane.
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Figure 3.5(b)
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(3.13)
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Figure 3.5(c)
aGS
sin PE
d
(3.14)
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(3.15)
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aGS
El0 ! arccos
sin PE
d
Eq (3.11) with b = PE
Eq (3.12) with b = PE
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U ! arccos
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(3.16)
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Polarization rotation:
porduce rotation of the polarization of a signal
(Faraday rotation)
When linearly polarized wave traverses in the
ionosphere, free electrons in the ionosphere are sets in
motion a force is experienced, which shift the
polarization of the wave.
Inversely proportional to frequency squared.
not a problem for frequencies above 10 GHz.
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E ! aR p dB / km
(4.2)
(4.3)
where,
L = effective path length of the signal through the rain.
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(4.4)
(4.5)
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(4.6)
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(4.7)
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GPS
!
4Tr 2
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(12.1)
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(12.2)
(12.3)
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(12.4)
Where,
f
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EIRP
!
4Tr 2
(12.6)
EIRP P GR
!
4Tr 2 4T
P
! ( EIRP)(GR )
4Tr
(12.7)
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where
r = distance, or range, between the transmit and receive
antennas
GR = isotropic power gain of the receiving antenna. The
subscript R is used to identify the receiving antenna.
In decibel notation, equation (12.7) becomes
4Tr
?PR A! ?EIRPA ?GR A 10 log
P
(12.8)
(12.9)
(12.10)
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(12.8)
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?L
(12.12)
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(12.13)
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where
[PR]
[PL]
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(12.14)
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where
TN = equivalent noise temperature (K)
BN = equivalent noise bandwidth (Hz)
k = 1.38x10-23 (Boltzmanns constant)
For thermal noise, noise power per unit bandwidth, N0,
is constant (a.k.a noise energy)
PN
! kTN joules
N0 !
BN
(12.14)
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Sky noise:
The microwave radiation which is present through out
the universe and which appears to originate from matter
of any form at finite temperatures.
Fig.12.2 shows the equivalent noise temperature of the
sky, as seen by an earth-station antenna.
The lower graph: Antenna pointing directly overhead
The upper graph: Antenna pointing just above the
horizon.
The equivalent noise temperature for satellite antennas
is approx. 290 K
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Peak coincides
with peaks in
atmospheric
absorbtion loss
Antenna
pointing
overhead
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N 0,ant ! kTant
Where,
N0,ant = Input noise energy from the antenna (Joules).
In noise power per unit bandwidth
Tant
= Boltzman constant,
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N 0,out ! Gk Tant Te
Where,
N0,out = Output noise energy
Te
Tant
= Boltzman constant
= Amplifier gain
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N 0,in ! k Tant Te
G ! G1G2
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Cascaded amplifiers
! kTe 2
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N 0,1 !
N 0, 2
(12.21)
G1
Te 2
! k Tant Te1
G1
N 0,1 ! kTS
(12.22)
TS is given by,
TS ! Tant
Te 2
Te1
G1
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(12.23)
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TS ! Tant
Te 2
Te 3
Te1
...
G1 G1G2
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(12.24)
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N 0,out ! FGkT0
where,
G = available power gain of the amplifier
F = noise factor
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(12.25)
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Gk T0 Te
! FGkT0
or
Te ! F 1
0
T
(12.26)
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(12.27)
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Referring to Fig.12.5.
Let the network be matched at both ends, to a terminating
resistor RT at one end and an antenna at the other.
Let the system be at ambient temperature Tx.
The noise energy transferred from RT in the the network is
kTx.
Let the network noise be represented at the output
terminals by an equivalent noise temperature TNW0. Then
the noise energy radiated by the antenna is
N rad
kTx
!
kTNW , 0
L
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(12.28)
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TNW , 0
1
! Tx 1
L
(12.29)
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TNW ,i ! Tx L 1
(12.30)
F!L
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(12.31)
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TS ! Tant Te1
L 1
T0 LF 1
T0
G1
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G1
(12.32)
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Example 12.7
For the system shown in Fig12.6a, the receiver
noise figure is 12dB, the cable loss is 5dB, the LNA
gain is 50dB, and its noise temperature 150K. The
antenna noise temperature is 35K. Calculate the
noise temperature referred to the input.
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Solution:
Main receiver, F ! 101.2 ! 15.85
Cable,
L ! 100.5 ! 3.16
LNG,
G ! 105
10 5
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Example 12.8
Repeat the calculation when the system of Fig.12.6a is
arranged as shown in Fig.12.6b.
Solution:
The cable now precedes the LNA, the equivalent noise
temperature referred to the cable input is
3.16 v .85 1
v 290
15
TS ! 35 3.16 1
v 290 3.16 v150
105
! 1136 K
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(12.33)
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(12.35)
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therefore
C C
! ?BN A
N0 N
(12.37)
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(12.38)
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Ex.12.9:
In a link-budget calculation at 12GHz, the free
space loss is 206dB, the antenna pointing loss is
1dB, and the atmospheric absorption is 2dB. The
receiver feeder losses are 1dB. The EIRP is
48dBW. Calculate the carrier-to-noise spectral
density ratio
Solution:
Data are computed in tabular form, with losses
entered as negative numbers. Also, recall that
?k A! 228.6 decilogs
thus
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?k A! 228.6 decilogs
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(12.39)
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(7.1)
where,
a,b,c
e0
= output voltage
ei
= input voltage
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and
2 f1 f 2 ! f1 (f
input backoff
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EIRP
From (12.6), flux density, =M !
4Tr 2
In decibel notation
1
?=M A! ?EIRPA 10 log 2
4Tr
(12.40)
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(12.41)
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Substituting in to Eq.(12.40),
P2
?=M A! ?EIRPA ?FSLA 10 log
4T
P2
?A0 A! 10 log
4T
(12.43)
Let,
(12.42)
(12.43)
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(12.45)
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(12.46)
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(12.47)
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(12.48)
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(12.49)
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(12.50)
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The total gives the carrier-to-noise density ratio at the satellite receiver as 74.5dBHz
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(12.51)
?P
HPA , sat
A! ?P A ?BOA
HPA
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HPA
(12.52)
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12.8 Downlink
The downlink the satellite is transmitting the signal and
the earth station is receiving it.
Equation (12.38) can be applied to the downlink, but with
subscript D to denote that the downlink is being
considered.
C
G
! ?EIRP AD ?LOSSES AD ?k A
T D
N0 D
(12.53)
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(12.54)
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(12.55)
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(12.56)
(12.57)
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PR
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where
K
= the system power gain from satellite input to
earth station input
This includes the satellite transponder and
transmit antenna gains, the downlink losses,
and the earth station receive antenna gain and
feeder losses.
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PR
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