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INTRODUCTION
The term soil has different meanings in different scientific fields. It has
originated from the Latin word solum. To an agricultural scientist, it means the loose
material on the earths crust consisting of disintegrated rock with an admixture of organic
matter, which supports plant life. To a geologist, it is a mixture of organic matter, which
has not been transported from the place of origin. But to a civil engineer the term soil
means, the loose unconsolidated inorganic material on the earths crust produced by the
disintegration or rocks overlying hard rock with or without organic matter. Foundations of
all structures have to be placed on or in such soil, which is the primary reason for our
interest as civil engineers in its engineering behavior.
Soil may remain at the place of its origin or it may be transported by various
natural agencies. It is said to be residual in the earlier situation and transported in the
latter.
1.1 ORIGIN OF SOILS:-
Soils are formed by weathering of rocks due to mechanical disintegration or
chemical decomposition. When a rock surface gets exposed to atmosphere for an
appreciable time, it disintegrates or decomposes into small particle and thus the soils are
formed.
Soil may be considered as an incidental material obtained from the geologic cycle
which goes on continuously in nature. The geologic cycle consists of erosion,
transportation, deposition and upheaval of soil. Exposed rocks are eroded and degraded
by various physical and chemical processes. The products of erosion are picked up by
agencies of transportation such as water and wind, and are carried to new locations where
they are deposited. This shifting of the material disturbs the equilibrium of forces on the
earth and causes large scale earth movements and upheavals. This process results in
further exposure of rocks and the geologic cycle gets repeated.
If the soil stays at the place of its formation just above the parent rock, it is known
as residual soil or sedentary soil. When the soil has been deposited at a place of its origin,
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it is called a transported soil. The engineering properties of residual soils vary
considerably from the top layer to the bottom layer. Residual soils have a gradual
transition from relatively fie material near the surface to large fragments of stones at
greater depth. The residual soil formation is generally limited to a few meters.
The engineering properties of transported soils ate entirely different from the
properties of the rock at the place of deposition. Deposits of transported soils ate quite
thick and ate usually uniform. Most of the soil deposits with which a geotechnical
engineer has to deal ate transported soils.



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1.2 FORMATION OF SOIL :-
Soil is formed by the process of wearing of rocks, that is disintegration and
decomposition of rocks and minerals at or near the earths surface through the actions of
natural or mechanical and chemical agents into smaller and smaller grains.
The factors of wearing may be atmospheric, such as changes in temperature and
pressure; erosion and transportation by wind, water and glaciers; chemical action such as
crystal growth, oxidation, hydration, carbonation and leaching by water, especially rain
water, with time.
Obviously, soils formed by mechanical weathering (that is disintegration of rocks
by the action of wind, water and glaciers) bear a simplicity in certain properties to the
minerals in the parent rock. Since chemical changes which could destroy their identity
does not take place.
It is to be noted that 95% of the earths crust consists of igneous rocks and only
the remaining 5% consists of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. However sedimentary
rocks are present on 80% of the earths surface area. Feldspars are the abundantly present
(60%) in igneous rocks. Amphiboles and pyroxenes, quartz and micas come next in that
order.
Rocks are altered more by the process or chemical weathering than by mechanical
weathering. In chemical wearing some minerals disappear partially or fully, and new
compounds are formed. The intensity of weathering depends upon the presence of water
and temperature and dissolved materials found in water which cause the weathering of
rocks. Chemical weathering has the maximum intensity in humid and tropical climates.
Leaching is the process of where by water- soluble parts in the soil such as
calcium carbonate are dissolved and washed out from the soil by rain fall or percolating
subsurface water. Leaching soil, in which certain areas of Kerala abound, is formed by
leaching.
Harder minerals will be more resistant to the weathering action, for example,
Quartz, present in igneous rocks. But, prolonged chemical action may affect even such as
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clay minerals illite, kaolite, and montmorillonite. Clay mineralogy has grown into a
very complicated and broad subject.
1.3 EXPANSIVE SOILS
The stability and bearing power of the soil is considerably improved by soil
stabilization through controlled compaction, proportioning and the addition of suitable
admixtures. Swelling soil is not suitable for the construction work on account of its
volumetric changes.
It swells and shrinks excessively with change of water content. Such tendency of
soil is due to the presence of fine clay particles which swell, when they come in contact
with water, resulting in alternate swelling and shrinking of soil due to which differential
settlement of structure takes place. Stabilization of black cotton soil has been done in this
project work by using stone dust as admixture.
1.4 BLACK COTTON SOIL
Expansive soils are soils or soft bedrock that increases in volume or expand as
they get wet and shrink as they dry out. In India this Expansive soil is called black cotton
soil. Colour of this oil reddish brown to black and this helps for cultivation of cotton, so
is called black cotton swelling soil covers about 20% of the land area in India. They are
also commonly known as bentonite, expansive, or Black Cotton soil. In India Black
cotton soil also known as regurs are found in extensive regions of Deccan Trap. They
have variable thickness and are underlain by sticky material locally known as Kali
MittiIn terms of geotechnical Engineering, Black Cotton Soil is one which when
associated with as engineering structure and in presence of water will show a tendency to
swell or shrink causing the structure to experience moments which are largely unrelated
to the direct effect of loading by the structure.

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Fig1.1 Black Cotton Soil
These clays are characterized by
1. Having a particle size, below 2 micron.
2. A large specific surface area (SSA)and
3. A high Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC).
4. High liquid limit and plasticity index.
Black cotton soils are one of the most prevalent causes of damage to buildings
and construction. This in turn can be immense loss to a nations economy. The damages
that can be result from construction on swelling soil can include.
1. Severe structural damage,
2. Cracked driveways, sidewalks and basement floors,
3. Heaving of roads and highway structures,
4. Condemnation of buildings,
5. Disruption of pipelines and sewer lines.


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1.5 DISTRIBUTION IN INDIA
In India, an area about one-fifth is occupied by black cotton soil. The area covers
mostly the Deccan Trap plateau, between 73
o
80 East longitude and 15
o
to 24
o
north
latitude. Thus, most of soil in and around Mumbai, Madras, Gwalior, bundelkh and
Khandwa, Indore, Nagpur and even some on the river banks is Black cotton. That means
these soils are predominant in Deccan trap plateau region,
1.6 TYPICAL CHARACTERISTICS:-
Black cotton soils are generally reddish brown to black in colour and occur from
0.5m to 10m deep and have high compressibility. The generally observed characteristics
of black cotton soils are recorded in table below:-
S.No PROPERTY VALUE
1 Specific Gravity 2.69
2 Atterberg Limits
Liquid Limit 44%
Plastic Limit 20%
Plastic Index 24%
Shrinkage Limit 24.34%
3 Standard Proctor test
Maximum Dry Density 1.4g/cc
Optimum Moisture Content 16.28%
4 Grain Size Analysis
Sand 25%
Silt 30%
Clay 45%
5 Shear Parameters
Cohesion 0.6kg/cm
2

Angle of Internal Friction 11
0

6 Free Swell Index 75%

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1.7 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Black cotton Soil are made of varying properties of clay minerals like
Montmorillonite, Illite and Kaolinite, chemicals like iron oxide and calcium carbonate (in
the form of canker nodules), and organic matter like humus. Montmorillonite is the
predominant mineral of Black cotton soils. The swelling and shrinkage behavior of black
cotton soil originate mainly from this mineral are hydrous silicates of aluminum and
magnesium. They are made of sheets of silica (tetrahedral) and alumina (octahedral)
stacked on above the other forming sheet like of flaky particle. Montmorillonite has a
three-sheeted structure with expanding lattices. The structure carries negative charge, due
to isomorphic substitution of some aluminum ions by magnesium ions and minerals
become chemically active.
Table 1.7 Chemical Composition of Black Cotton Soil
S.No. Property Range
1. pH value >7(Alkaline)
2. Organic content 0.4 to 204%
3. CaCO
3
5 to 15%
4. SiO
2
50 to 55%
5. SiO
2
, Al
2
O
3
3 to 5%
6. Montmorillinite mineral 30 to 50%

Problems associated with black cotton soil :
Black Cotton soils are problematic for engineers everywhere in the world, and
more so in tropical countries like India because of wide temperature variations and
because of distinct dry and wet seasons, leading to wide variations in moisture content of
soils. The following problems generally occur in black cotton soil.
High compressibility
Black Cotton soils are highly plastic and compressible, when they are saturated.
Footing, resting on such soils under goes consolidation settlements of high magnitude.
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Swelling
A structure built in a dry season, when the natural water content is low shows
differential movement as result of soils during subsequent wet season. This causes
structures supported by such swelling soils to lift up and crack. Restriction on having
developed swelling pressures making the structure suitable.
Shrinkage
A structure built at the end of the wet season when the natural water content is
high shows settlement and shrinkage cracks during subsequent dry season.
Effects of black cotton soil on structures
Because of affinity of black cotton soil to the moisture, seasonal movement of
moisture to the soil below the structure during wet and dry season respectively, creates a
cumulative increase of moisture below the structure and produces a dome shaped heave
at the central proportions of the structures thus leading to differential of level. Differential
causes inclined cracks in structure flexible road pavements shows waviness and rigid
pavement produces cracks. The pavement cracks in may even reach the de seated sub
grade, which during subsequent wet season may be filled water and make the road
unserviceable. Canals in the black cotton soil areas develop large transverse cracks,
which during flooding open out, and cause heavy leakage and even failure of
embankment. Cracks in any number do not really pose a threat to the safety of the
structures, except when they are too wide or they continue to increase in width. Starting
as hair cracks they go on widening.
Season, the piers are still supported by friction with the soil. When it begins to
rain, water enters deep into the soil through the cracks. After 5 to 10 large storms, the soil
swells, lifting the house and piers. In the dry season, the groundwater table falls and the
soil dries and contracts. As tension cracks grow around the pier, the skin friction is
reduced and the effective stress of the soil increases (due to drying). When the building
load exceeds the remaining skin friction or the effective stress of the soil increases to an
all-time high, adhesion is broken by this straining, and the pier sinks.