Renewable Energy Potential for Aquaculture Farms

RES OURCE DEVELOPMENT /ENVI RONMENT & QUALI TY S ECTI ON
The Potential for Renewable Energy Usage in

Aquaculture

Damien Toner, Resource Development Section,
Aquaculture Initiative
14 Grays Lane, Park St, Dundalk, Co. Louth
Phone 042 9385074 Fax 042 93 52490

Mo Mathies, Environment & Quality Section,
Bord Iascaigh Mhara
Crofton Road, Dun Laoghaire, Co. Dublin
Phone 01 2144 100 Fax 01 2144 119

FOREWORD

The Aquaculture Initiative is a dedicated support body, committed to playing a
leading role in the development of a sustainable aquaculture industry throughout
the Initiatives remit area of Northern Ireland and the six border counties of the
Republic. The team advises the aquaculture industry on financial, technical and
strategic issues, in order to provide effective support to new and existing
aquaculture ventures.
Bord Iascaigh Mhara, the Irish Sea Fisheries Board, was established under the Sea
Fisheries Act 1952 as the state agency with primary responsibility for developing the
Irish seafood sector. BIMs aim is to promote the sustainable development of the
Irish seafood industry at sea and ashore and support its diversification in the coastal
regions.
This report, which has been published jointly by the AI Resource Development
Section and BIM Environment & Quality Section, is a timely look at the potential
for renewable energy usage in the aquaculture industry.

We would like to thank Dr. Anthony Kay, University of Limerick, for reviewing
this report.

December 2002

Table of Contents

1 Introduction 1
Case study 2
Pacific Oyster Farm 2
Rainbow Trout Farm 3
Marine Recirc Unit 4

2 Energy Efficiency 5
Efficient Technology 5
Efficient Design and Planning 6
Efficient Purchasing & Maintenance of Equipment 6

3 Energy Loads 8
Fig 1.1 Energy Load of Pacific Oyster Farm 9
Fig 1.2 Energy Load of Rainbow Trout Farm 10
Fig 1.3 Energy Load of Marine Recirc Unit 11

4 Wind Power 13
Wind Turbines 13
European & Irish Production Overview 14
Fig 2.1 European Wind Energy Potential 15

Offshore Wind Energy 15
Small Scale Wind Turbine Systems 16
Basic Principles of Wind Power 16
Windspeed 17
Fig 2.2 Frequency of Wind Directions 18
Fig 2.3 Energy Output of Wind Turbines 19
Windpumps 21
5 Hydropower 24
Fig 3.1 Top Hydroelectric Producing Countries 25
Basic Principles of Hydropower 25
Micro-Hydro Systems 26
Ocean Energy 29
Water Powered Pumps 34
6. Solar Power 36
Solar Water Heating 36
Solar Electricity 38

7 Other Energy Sources 41
Bioenergy 41
Methane Digesters 43
Hydrogen Power 45
Geothermal Power 46
8 Environmental Considerations 47
9 Conclusion 49
10 Useful Contacts 51

1
T H E P O T E N T I A L F O R R E N E W A B L E E N E R G Y
U S A G E I N A Q U A C U L T U R E
INTRODUCTION
"Coal, gas and oil will not be the three kings of the energy world for ever. It
is no longer folly to look up to the sun and wind, down into the sea's waves."
The Economist
I
n July 1996 the European Parliament adopted the Declaration of Madrid,
calling for a major boost in the share of renewable energy in the European
Union. The declaration states:
"In the year 2010, Renewable Energy Sources can, and with collaborative efforts between all actors
should, substitute the equivalent of 15% of conventional primary energy demand in the European
Union."
The process of looking at renewable energy started in 1992, when governments
adopted the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. They
recognized that it could be a launching pad for stronger action in the future. By
establishing an ongoing process of review, discussion, and information exchange,
the Convention makes it possible to adopt additional commitments in response to
changes in scientific understanding and in political will. In December 1997 some
10,000 delegates, observers and journalists participated in the conference on the
Convention on Climate Change hosted by Kyoto, Japan. The high-profile event
resulted in a consensus decision to adopt a Protocol under which industrialized
countries will reduce their combined greenhouses gas emissions by at least 5%
compared to 1990 levels by the period 2008-2012. This legally binding
commitment promises to produce an historic reversal of the upward trend in
emissions that started in these countries some 150 years ago. On 10 July 2002
Ireland joined the other EU member-states in formally ratifying the Kyoto
Protocol on Climate Change at a special ceremony at the United Nations
headquarters in New York.
The recent UN World Summit on Sustainable Development held in South Africa

called on countries to diversify energy supply by developing advanced, cleaner,
more efficient, affordable and cost-effective energy technologies with a request
that countries must with a sense of urgency, substantially increase the global share
of renewable energy resources.
1
One of the fundamental issues facing all of us today is proper management of our
energy resources. The current generation has a responsibility to ensure that energy
is used efficiently and with minimum impact on the environment. As
considerations of fuel diversity, market uncertainties and environmental concerns
are increasingly factored into electric utility resource planning, renewable energy
technologies are beginning to find their place in the utility resource portfolio.
Much has been written about the use of renewable energy and there is a myriad of
useful publications and manuals. The purpose of this report, however, is to outline
the various methods of using renewable energy with particular reference to
aquaculture. Whilst energy costs in aquaculture generally come behind salary, feed
and stock costs, it is nevertheless a significant part of operating cost. The reduction
of operating costs is the key to increasing competitiveness and long-term
profitability. As will be outlined in the first two chapters, energy conservation is an
important step in reducing costs. Perhaps surprisingly, some of the biggest
proponents of energy conservation are the electricity suppliers themselves who are
under increasing pressure to meet supply demands and indeed at times have to
restrict supply.
Aquaculture is a growing industry and one that has its fair share of criticism. The
location of aquaculture operations in remote areas may lend it to renewable energy
usage far easier than other small and medium sized enterprises. While cost benefits
are still marginal, the overall public perception of renewable energy being
environmentally friendly may be an important factor in improving the image of
aquaculture.

CASE STUDY
The report highlights a number of different sources of renewable energy and
discusses their potential application in aquaculture. In order to assess the potential
impact of each of the methods, practical examples are worked out in 3 fictional
case studies and these are examined where relevant.

C A S E S T U D Y 1 : P A C I F I C O Y S T E R F A R M
The farm is situated in the northwestern part of Ireland and produces 50
tonnes/annum of Crassostrea gigas oysters. There is an onshore shed, which houses a
power washer, grading machine and small purification unit. Two holding ponds
allow the farm to keep produce for the market and hold graded stock during slack
tides. There is also general electrical equipment including the all-important kettle!
Energy usage is consistent throughout the year.
2

Case study 1
is a 5o
tonnes/year
Pacific Oyster
farm. The
farm is
situated on an
exposed site.

C A S E S T U D Y 2 : F R E S H W A T E R T R O U T F A R M
The farm is situated in an inland rural area in Northern Ireland and produces 60
tonnes/annum of Rainbow Trout. The farm is situated on the site of an old mill
and draws water by gravity from an adjacent river. There is an onsite workshop and
hatchery unit containing graders, fish pumps, and an aeration system. Energy usage
varies throughout the year with high consumption during dry spells and when the
hatchery unit is operating during the winter.

Case study 2 is a 6o-tonnes/year
Rainbow Trout farm situated in
Northern Ireland. The farm is situated
adjacent to a river from which its
water source is drawn.

3

C A S E S T U D Y 3 : M A R I N E F I N F I S H R E C I R C F A C I L I T Y
The farm is situated in southern Ireland and produces 200 tonnes/annum of
Turbot/Halibut. The farm is situated on the coast and replaces 5% of its water per
day. The facility is only two years old and so the equipment is relatively new. The
building was designed
to conserve as much
energy as possible and
is well insulated to
prevent heat loss. The
facility has a high-
energy demand
throughout the year.
4

Case study 3 is a 200-tonnes/annum marine finfish farm
situated in southwestern Ireland.

2
ENERGY EFFIENCY
"Electricity seems destined to play an important part in the arts and
industries." Ambrose Bierce 1876
A
ny
the
wh
ela
analysis of the prospects for using renewable energy must first assess
current energy load and, in particular, shortcomings in the system,
ich lead to energy wastage. There is little point in developing an
borate integrated energy system without first addressing energy leaks
and loss. A common sight on most farms is the DIY approach to electrical
maintenance. Wires fused together and wrapped in insulating tape, thermostats left
to seize up and water pumps operating at inefficient levels all combine to reduce
the efficient use of the energy being drawn upon. Northern Ireland Electricity
estimates that these losses can add 10% to an average farms electricity bill.
Many homeowners have in recent times become aware of the need for energy
conservation. Items such as insulated water cylinders and attics are now accepted
standards in all new homes. The application of this ethos in the commercial
environment has been slow but is now being instigated, directed by national policy,
and business is accepting the important role it has to play in implementing energy
reduction programs.
Energy efficiency can be broadly addressed in the following areas:

Efficient Technology
Many aquaculture operations still use equipment and machinery that they
established their business with. While this loyalty is admirable it is increasingly
misplaced. Advances in technological design and energy efficiency mean that
change is not only necessary for depreciation purposes but also to make your
operation more cost effective. High volume pumps for example now have loadings
as low as 0.75kW in comparison to the 2.2kW pumps in standard use in the recent
past. Modern control switches and thermostatically controlled apparatus mean that
equipment is in use for the minimum time necessary. The benefits of choosing
these technologies generally more than compensate for any additional cost. The
availability of European and government funding to the sector specifically aimed at
5
the purchase of new capital items means that there has seldom been a better time
to update your farms equipment.
Efficient Design & Planning
The importance of efficient design and planning cannot be over-stressed. Whilst
many aquaculture operations have to adapt their current systems to become more
energy efficient, a new entrant or the expansion of an existing site gives the
designer a blank canvas. A much-overlooked advantage is the ability to allow for
reduction of equipment sizes in the future and this should be taken into
consideration when planning the layout of a farm. It is always of benefit to ask your
local electricity company to look at the plans and suggest any changes or areas,
which can be made more energy efficient.

Efficient Purchasing & Maintenance of
Equipment
It is always tempting to select the cheapest equipment because of budgetary
restrictions but this rarely works out in the long run. In general, consideration
should be taken of the equipment's running cost over 5 years.
1
Regular
maintenance and servicing of equipment ensures longevity and efficiency. This is
particularly important in the aquaculture sector where the environment is harsh on
equipment and machinery, as well as fittings and fixtures.
The European Union introduced mandatory
efficiency labelling of all domestic appliances in
1992. The label ranks appliance efficiency from A to
G, A being the most efficient and G being the least
efficient. The mandatory nature of the program has
spurred manufacturers to improve the efficiency of
their products. In Germany for example the
efficiency of products on the market improved by
16.1% from 1993-1996. The labelling is only
mandatory on domestic appliances but may be
extended to small-scale industrial appliances in the
near future.

1
The standard depreciation for industrial equipment is 20%/annum, however the harsh working
environment of aquaculture means that 25% is more appropriate. Electric motors typically have 3
months running costs = capital cost.
6

So what in practice does all this mean for people in the aquaculture industry? The
following bullet points outline steps that can be taken to improve energy efficiency
on most farms and will probably lead to a reduction in energy costs.

Ensure pumps, lights and motors are switched off when not needed;
Repair damaged appliances, insulation etc.;
Check timer units are set correctly;
Ensure the farm is on the right tariff program with your electrical
supplier;
Manage farm load to take advantage of special tariffs;
Use energy efficient equipment.

7
3
Energy Loads
"Electricity, the peril the wind sings to, in the wires on a grey day."
Janet Frame
E L E C T R I C I T Y
G L O S S A R Y
AC - "Alternating current".
Mains electricity & also
generators.
Amps - measure of electric
current
Current - The flow of electricity
measured in amps
DC -"Direct Current" as used in
charging batteries.
Gigawatt (GW) 1,000 MWs
Inverter - Device for
converting d.c into a.c
Load - Anything which uses
electricity
Mains - grid electricity supplied
at 230 volt a.c
Megawatt (MW) 1,000 kWs
Power - Rate of delivery of
energy. Energy per hour.
Measured in watts (W) or
Kilowatts (kW). 1kW=1,000W.
Rectifier - Device which
converts a.c to d.c
TWh - 1,000,000,000 kWh
Voltage - Electrical 'pressure
drop' between two wires.
F
irstly it is important to understand what a load is and the exact meaning of
energy and power. Energy in this context refers to what you pay for, from
your electricity supplier. Energy is measured in units and these units appear
on your electricity meter. A unit of electricity is referred to as a 'Kilowatt-
hour' (kWh). All electrical appliances are obliged by law to display their rating or the
number of watts, which the appliance will use in one hour if running continuously.
For example if a toaster has a rating of 500 watts it will use of a unit in one hour.
Similarly an electric water pump with a rating of 2.2 kW will use 2.2 units per hour
if running continuously. The average home in the UK and Ireland uses around
5,000kWh/annum. The bulk of this electricity is used up in heating homes and
powering electrical appliances such as cookers, fridges, televisions and so on. An
aquaculture facility may use some of the above appliances, but pumps, machinery
etc. consume the majority of electricity. Looking at each case study individually we
can calculate the load and subsequently assess the potential for using different
sources of renewable energy.
The system load is the likely number of kWh used over a period of time. By
assessing what the load is likely to be we can calculate
how much energy is needed and consequently the size of
power source required in order to power all our
appliances. Working out the system load is always
approximate. For instance, whilst a fridge may use 1kW,
it is constantly switching itself on and off by thermostatic
control and therefore isn't using as much energy as
initially assumed. Looking back over old electricity bills
will give us an idea of the average usage over a month
but doesn't indicate the peak load.
In the tables below we have tried to show an estimate of
the loads in relation to each case study and energy
usage/week. With this information we will then look at
the various types of renewable energy and assess their appropriateness to
aquaculture.

8

Equipment Rated Load
Hours used
per week
Total Load per
week
Purification
System
400W 84 33.6 kWh
Holding Pond
Aerator
2.2kW 7 15.4 kWh
Grader
System
600W 15 9 kWh
Water Pumps 2kW 2 4 kWh
Power Washer 200W 2 0.4 kWh
Lighting 300W 15 4.5 kWh
General
Domestic
Kettle
Fridge
Microwave
2.4kW
100W
800W
-
-
-
1.2 kWh
5 kWh
0.2 kWh
Office Computer
Heater, etc.
300W 20 6 kWh
Total 9.3kW 79.3kWh

Fig 1.1 Energy Load of Pacific Oyster farm

The maximum load is 9.3kW and the weekly load is 79.3kWh. This loading is low
and consumption is on par with an average family home. The purification system
uses the most power followed by the holding pond aerator. Interestingly the kettle
has the highest load of all the appliances.

9

C A S E S T U D Y 2 : R A I N B O W T R O U T F A R M

Hours used
per week
Total Load per
week
Aeration
System
14kW 17 238 kWh
Fish Pump 2.2kW 7 15.4 kWh
Grader
System
400W 4 1.6 kWh
Water Pumps 2kW 2 4 kWh
Hatchery

400W 10 4 kWh
Power Washer 400W 2 0.8 kWh
Lighting 300W 15 4.5 kWh
General
Domestic
Kettle
Fridge
Microwave
2.4kW
100W
800W
-
-
-
1.2 kWh
5 kWh
0.2 kWh
Office Computer
Heater, etc.
300W 20 6 kWh
Total 23.3kW 280.7kWh

Fig 1.2 Energy Load of Rainbow Trout Farm

The aeration system uses the highest amount of power. The system is used
generally during the summer months, but in this case we have spread the energy
load over the full year.

10

C A S E S T U D Y 3 : M A R I N E R E C I R C F A R M

Hours used
per week
Total Load per
week
Recirc System 80 kWh 168 13,440 kWh
Grader
System
600W 15 9 kWh
Ancillary
Equipment
6kW 50 300 kWh
General
Domestic
Kettle
Fridge
Microwave
2.4kW
100W
800W
-
-
-
1.2 kWh
5 kWh
0.2 kWh
Office Computer
Heater, etc.
600W 20 12 kWh
Total 90.5kW 13,767 kWh

Fig 1.3 Energy Load of Marine Recirc Farm

The marine recirc facility has by the far the biggest energy consumption of the
three case studies. Energy costs run into thousands of pounds per annum. To
separate out all the power ratings for the system would require a long list so the
ratings are grouped. Energy usage is constant throughout the year to ensure a stable
growing environment for the fish.

Having an estimate of the power consumption of the three case studies we can
now look at the different renewable energy systems with an appreciation of just
how much power is required.

11

Economical water heating system for fish
farm

The Centre for the Analysis and Dissemination of Demonstrated Energy
Technologies ran a research project in conjunction with Alleghanys Inc.
fish farm, testing a new heating system on its Trout production unit in
Quebec, Canada.

Project Aim
To raise the water temperature of the farm allowing
enhanced salmonid growth. Increase production, lower
heating costs by recovering heat from effluent.
Demonstrate the reliability and the economic advantages
of a heat pump system in this application. Allow thermal
control in respect with energy saving goals.

The Principle
The system heats water from a natural source
(groundwater) and carries it to two breeding pools. Two
steps are used in the heat recovery process. Firstly a
passive heat exchanger with the outgoing used water from
the breeding pools heats the incoming groundwater
(pumped from four supply wells each 30m deep with a
flow rate of 94.5 l/s). The second step is an active heat
exchange through a heat pump. This device is connected
to the exhaust side of the used water heat exchanger from
the first step. By this means heat is progressively taken
from the used water that is carried out of the system, and injected into the
fresh water. The heat pump operates with HCFC-22, a non CFC
refrigerant.

The Result
The overall system reduced energy consumption to 184.6MWh saving
approximately 87% over a conventional system. Moreover an increase in
production of 40% has been estimated as a result of the increased and
constant temperature. There is also a reduction of CO
2
emissions of 218
ton/year. The initial investment for the system was $85,000, which
includes the passive heat exchanger, filter, pumps, heat pump and piping.
The specific energy cost is $26.4/(m
3
/h)/
0
C/year.

Source: CADDET
Result

Energy
Consumption
reduced by 87%

Savings of $23,657
and $14,035
compared
respectively to
electrical and fuel
oil systems

Payback period
less than 1,5 years

Use of non-CFC
refrigerants
12
4
WIND POWER
"Take care, your worship, those things over there are not giants but
windmills." CERVANTES
P
ower from the wind is probably the most familiar of all renewable energy
sources. The Middle Ages saw wind being harnessed to pump water and
mill grain and this continues in many parts of the world where the
mainstream electricity grid is unavailable or prohibitively costly. While most
wind power applications in Europe concentrate on electricity generation, the
potential for wind pumps is also applicable to aquaculture and so will be reviewed
here as well. The technology being developed to harness wind power has
accelerated at a great pace over the last 10 years bringing costs down and efficiency
up.
WIND TURBINES
By far the most common method of harnessing the wind in Europe is by using
horizontal axis wind turbines. Wind turns a rotor or blade, which converts the
energy to electricity through a gearbox and
generator situated in the windmill tower. This
form of electricity generation has been used
since the 19
th
century but only began to receive
serious attention in the 1970s when the oil crisis
amongst other things resolved the global
communities minds to developing renewable
sources of energy. In the past 20 years,
therefore, there has been a dramatic decrease in
the cost of wind machines and significant
improvements in system performance, making
wind power the most commercially viable of all
renewable sources in grid connected electricity-
generating applications.
The basic structure of a horizontal axis windmill
can be seen in the diagram opposite.
Wind Turbine components (Courtesy of
Irish Energy Centre)
13
European & Irish Production overview
In 1995, electricity production in the EU amounted to 2384TWh. The estimated
annual wind potential is 588 TWh (land based resource), which is adequate for a
20% penetration of supply. This excludes the annual offshore resource estimated to
be in excess of 2500 TWh.
2

Current government policy is to increase the use of renewable energy sources to
generate electricity through the Alternative Energy Requirement (AER)
3
- a series
of competitions in which prospective generators tender for contracts to sell
electricity to electricity companies. It is envisaged that much of the new capacity
will derive from wind farm developments, which so far have been the major
beneficiary from AER schemes and are expected to be so in the future. Ireland
didn't have its first wind farm until 1992 when a 6.45 MW farm with 21 turbines
was opened in Co. Mayo supplying approximately 3,000 homes. Ireland intends to
increase annual production to 470MW by 2010 from its present production of
90MW. Some of this increase will be through offshore farms, which will be
discussed later in this section.

Large Wind Turbines have become an increasingly common site on the
Irish Landscape

2
Source: European Commission - Directorate- General for Energy. Wind Energy - The Facts
3
AER The Dept of Public Enterprise invite tenders for CHP (Combined Heat and Power) generation
through renewable energy. Grant assistance is available and successful tenders sell power to the ESB.
14
Country Electricity
Production 2000
(TWh/annum)
Technical wind
potential Wijk and
Coelingh
4

(TWh/annum)
Realistic potential
= lesser of 20%
consumption and
technical potential
(TWh/annum)
Ireland
UK
Austria
Belgium
Denmark
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Italy
Luxembourg
The Netherlands
Portugal
Spain
Sweden
Total EU
17
379
60
82
31
66
491
534
41
207
1
89
32
178
176
2384
44
114
3
5
27
7
85
24
44
69
0
7
15
86
58
588
3.4
75.8
3
5
6.2
7
85
24
8.2
41.4
0
7
6.4
35.6
35.2
343.2

FIG 2.1 The European wind energy potential and electricity consumption. EC Directorate-General
for Energy.

OFFSHORE WIND ENERGY

Offshore wind has the potential to deliver substantial quantities of energy - at a
price which is cheaper than most of the other renewable energies, but dearer
than onshore. Offshore wind energy has the added attraction that it has
minimal environmental effects and, broadly speaking, the best European
resources are reasonably well located relative to the centres of electricity
demand. Wind speeds are generally higher offshore than on land, although the
upland regions of Ireland, Scotland, Italy and Greece, do yield higher speeds.

4
Van Wijk AJM and Coelingh JP " Wind Potential in the OECD countries" 1993
15
Recently in Ireland applications have been made for numerous offshore wind
farms, particularly on the East Coast. These farms have the potential to supply
up to 10% extra electricity to the grid alone substantially increasing Irelands
use of renewable resources. New foundation technologies, using steel rather
than concrete have improved the economics of offshore wind technology
dramatically. Wind turbines at sea would have a longer design lifetime due to
lower mechanical fatigue loads.

There is no doubt that European
wind technology has advanced at
a dramatic pace. In a matter of a
decade and a half it has evolved
from an industry making small,
simple and sometimes unreliable
machines into a technology,
which can compete with the
well-established conventional forms of power generation. Irelands potential is great
given the abundance of exposed sites, which lend themselves to high and constant
wind speeds. Wind turbines in farms of 4 to 50 machines, which supply the
national grid, are beyond the scope of this report given the large scale necessary to
supply cost effectively and the prohibitive cost to a small sector such as
aquaculture. It is however important to have highlighted the policy of the EU to
wind energy and the Irish governments commitment to the AER in further
explaining the potential that smaller wind turbines can play in energy production
for aquaculture.
An offshore wind farm in Denmark
Wind Power System
Components

Wind Turbine
Tower
Cable to Battery
Battery
Fusebox
Shunt Regulator
Inverter
Safety Earthing
System Controller
Standby Generator
Battery Charger

Small Scale Wind Turbine Systems
There are many different types of small scale wind systems in use in the UK and
Ireland, and to explain the different benefits of them all would take numerous
chapters, so we will just concentrate on the basic components of the system, which
are very similar. The main problem in harnessing the wind is that it carries very little
energy when blowing lightly and an abundance when it blows strong as in a gale.
Most parts of Ireland have various degrees of wind strength, having calm days with
little or no breeze and days when it's dangerous to stick your head out the door. It's
precisely because of this inconsistency in wind power that small units have battery
systems. The batteries store energy when the wind is blowing and provide a back
up for a period during times of little or no breeze.
Basic principle of windpower
As already mentioned wind turbines consist of a rotor or set of blades, which turns
when faced into the wind. This is achieved by a hinged tail vane or rotor design,
which steers the blades to get the maximum force from the wind. This also has the
effect of steering the blades out of the wind in a gale where the strength of the
16
wind may cause damage to the turbine. As the blades turn they rotate a generator
through a gearbox. The generator, which is situated in the nacelle or outer casing,
generates AC power, which travels down a cable to the battery. The AC power
must then be converted to DC, which is what the battery stores. This is done quite
simply through a semiconductor system called a rectifier. A device called a shunt
regulator stops a battery from overcharging when there is a surfeit of wind.
The power that is stored in the battery is as we have said in DC form. Some
equipment can be run off DC, but all mains equipment runs off AC, so we need to
convert the power back to AC to run items such as pumps, graders etc. To do this
we need a device called an inverter. Inverters are widely used on windpowered
systems to run mains powered equipment from batteries. An inverter can be an
expensive piece of the system but plays a crucial role in converting wind energy
into usable power.
How much power a wind turbine can provide depends
on a number of factors, but generally rotor diameter
and windspeed. Rotor diameters vary from model to
model. Measured in metres, the diameter is the size of
the circle swept by the blades measured from one side
to the other. Diameters vary from 0.5m to 50m and
consequently so does the power output from just 20W
to current plans for a 3MW wind turbine, which would
provide enough power for a staggering 1,500 homes
alone. This report is concentrating on the use of smaller
turbines (<4.5Kw), which have a rotor diameter of
between 0.5m to 6.1m. The number of blades can also
affect the efficiency of the turbine. This also varies with
up to six blades being used. In practice most wind
turbines use 2-3 blades.
A 3 bladed 1.5 MW windmill in
Denmark
Windspeed
Windspeed obviously has a great effect on the amount of energy that can be
produced. In general Ireland has abundant wind, but this varies significantly from
place to place, depending on weather systems and local topography. It is important
to note that wind energy increases with height above sea level. Trees, buildings and
other structures slow down and deflect the wind. As with
most aquaculture operations site is everything and this is
no different with windpower. The most important criteria
when determining whether a site is suitable is the average
windspeed measured in metres per second (m/s).
Windspeed figures can be got from the meteorological
service but these figures will most likely not be site specific.
A site appraisal looking at the surrounding area and siting
an anemometer (windspeed measuring instrument) for a
period of time will give you an indication of the average
windspeed.
17
Tower height and position is of critical importance and even more so in sheltered
areas where extra height may give access to up to 30% more windspeed. Sites for
small wind turbines are nearly always near some small buildings or trees and so the
simplest advice is to try and place the windmill in the most exposed area possible
and to have the tower as high as possible.

FIG 2.2 Frequency of wind directions for groups of wind speeds at selected stations. Met Eireann.

18
The majority of small wind turbines will work at their most efficient at windspeed
of 6-12m/s. Nearly all wind turbines will however provide some power in winds as
light as 3m/s. These figures emphasise the importance of battery storage and/or
back up supply whether from the mains, diesel generator or another source of
renewable energy.
Energy Outputs of Wind Turbines
Turbine Rotor Diameter Average
Windspeed
1m 2m 3m 5m
3m/s 0.5 2.5 6 16
4m/s 1.5 6 15 40
5m/s 3 12 25 75
6m/s 4 17 40 110

Fig 2.3 Energy Output of Wind Turbines in kWh

Using the loads calculated in chapter 3, lets look at our case studies and the use of
various wind systems.

We know from chapter 3, that the load associated with the pacific oyster farm is
9.3kW with an average weekly consumption of 79.3 kWh. The load, however,
varies at various times in the
year and during the week. The
farm is in a windy place, being
beside the sea, with prevailing
winds from the southwest. We
can estimate an average
windspeed of 6m/s at a height
of 20m. From the output table
we can estimate that a 5m-
diameter wind turbine should
give adequate cover. The cost of
this type of machine including
batteries is shown. Whilst this
may seem prohibitively costly,
grant aid is available.
Nevertheless, a long payback
time is involved (>10 years) and wind power is not viable in this case unless grid
Item Cost (estimate)
Wind Turbine 6,500
Tower 3,600
Battery & Cable 4,000
Inverter 3,800
Shunt Regulator 1,300
19,200

19
electricity is not available. A smaller system just powering a number of appliances
may make more financial sense.
We know from chapter 3, that the load associated with the Rainbow Trout farm is
23.3kW with an average weekly consumption of 280.7 kWh. The load varies at
various times in the year and during the week. The farm is situated inland and the
average windspeed is 4m/s. Given the relatively low wind speed it would take a
wind turbine of 8m diameter and larger to power the site. Using a wind turbine in
this situation is uneconomical. A smaller system could be used to power just part of
the energy needs.

The farm has high energy usage running at around 13.67MWh per week. Installing
a small scale system is again uneconomical. The development of offshore wind
generating systems has dramatically improved the cost of wind energy. It is possible
to have a 20% increase in windspeed with an offshore turbine, This would result in
a 75% increase in electricity generation. 600kW 1.5MW machines generate
elctricity at a cost of around 4-6 cent per kWh. If the marine recirc facility used an
offshore wind turbine it could in theory pay for itsself in 8-10 years. The machines
have a lifespan of 25 years giving plenty of energy savings over a twenty year
period.

As a guideline land based wind turbine systems cost around 1,700 - 5,000 per
kW installed depending on size. They are obviously more economical on a larger
scale when it is also viable to sell excess wind energy into the grid. One of the big
drawbacks on this side of the Atlantic is that if using renewable energy you are not
allowed to run your meter backwards by your power supplier. This is known as net
metering and is currently being lobbied for by the Irish Wind Energy Association
among others. If it was possible, most businesses could have small-scale units,
running back units used off the mains and reducing their bills.
Windpowered turbines may have a part to play in aquaculture and this is solely site
dependent. Any of the windpower companies will do a thorough site assessment
and calculate just how much power can be generated and at what cost. It is
certainly worth exploring the possibility if you feel your site has wind speeds of
6m/s or higher.
Note: Power from wind is extremely sensitive to wind speed, being a function of the wind speed
3
,
therefore conclusions here are dependant on the assumptions regarding wind speeds at the three case
study sites.
20
WINDPUMPS
Windpumps (water pumping windmill) aren't the most common site in the Irish
landscape and most people when asked first would find it hard to recall ever seeing
one. Yet think of an old western movie or conjure up images of the outback or
Mongolia and windpumps go hand in hand with the landscape. These rusty old
pumps with their large multi-bladed heads have been pumping water from wells
worldwide for generations. Reliable and hardy they
bring water to the surface in areas where the nearest
grid electricity may be thousands of miles away.
Why these were never common in Ireland could be
due to the abundance of rainwater and springs, but
they may yet have a part to play in aquaculture.
As with wind turbines, wind moves the blades,
which are faced to the wind by a hinged tail vane.
There are more blades on a windpump than a
conventional wind turbine, around 18-20. As the
blades turn they usually drive a piston pump, which draws the water from the well,
borehole or river (other pumps may be also be used). Windpumps are very low
maintenance and may just require a bearing greasing once a year. They can operate
in winds as low as 2m/s and swing out of action in winds over 15m/s. Most
windpumps are built on conventional lattice towers but some German and Dutch
designs are similar to the tubular steel towers of modern wind turbines.
The windpump shown below is of conventional construction and stands around
9m tall with a 5.0m rotor diameter. Typical output for these types of waterpumps is
93m
3
/day to 301m
3
/day at a 5m head. They can, however, pump water from up to
140m depth. This type of water pumping may have an application in numerous
types of aquaculture from marine
hatchery and recirc facilities to low
volume freshwater operations such as
perch farming.
Windpumps need to be situated over
the water source. For aquaculture
purposes this may mean digging a
feeder channel to bring source water
directly underneath the pump. The
wind pump is able to pump water up
to 1km and a height of around 50m.
As with wind turbines, the higher the
tower, the greater the performance.
However, planning restrictions may
restrict the user to a standard 9m
tower.
The Broads authority in the UK has
trialled a Dutch design wind pump
19
for low head application. This pump is only 4.5m tall and can pump up to 60m
3

/hr. This type of pump could be suitable where planning restricts traditional lattice
type installations.
In America and Canada windpumps are also used to aerate dugouts (watering
holes). Up until the 1980s farms used electrically powered air compressors.
However more recently, bank mounted windpumps have proven to be a reliable
low cost alternative. Similar systems could be used in aquaculture installations to
provide aeration to pond water. A system trialled in Alberta, Canada used a 3-blade
high-speed propeller driving a 6-inch diaphragm pump. A system of 2 check valves
and a 3/8-inch diameter air hose delivered air below the water surface. The pump
delivered on average 3.3 cubic feet per minute. This is around 3 times the airflow
needed to maintain dissolved oxygen necessary in a one acre perch pond and so
has great potential in eliminating the need for expensive 2.2kW paddle aerators
which use up more of your farms power. The windpump in this case started
rotating at a windspeed of just 3 miles/ hr and reached 400 revolutions per minute
at wind speeds of 16 miles / hr.
Let us now look at the application of windpump technology for our three case
studies.

The oyster farm purifies its product in a simple batch purification system. The
system holds 1,200 l of water and this is replaced every 42 hrs. A mains powered
pump pumps this water into the tanks through a header tank, which is filled at high
tide. The farm also has two storage and holding ponds in which stock is placed
after grading when ready for sale. These holding ponds have a capacity of 60m
3

each and are filled by a mains powered pump at high water. The water is replaced
once a week.
No. Of Pumps 2
Pump load 4kW
Volume
pumped/week
124.8m
3
Cost/week 0.55
The farm pumps relatively little water and so any
application of windpump technology is unlikely
to be cost efficient in the short to medium term.
A shellfish hatchery or nursery may find it viable
to use windpumps and aerators, as the quantities
of water used are far higher. As is the case with
wind turbines the coastal nature of this case study
makes it very well positioned to exploit wind
energy.

20

The trout farm is situated on a river and takes approx. 36 million litres/day by
gravity flow. Pumping such a huge volume of water would be financially
prohibitive. An aeration system on the farm operates during the summer when
dissolved oxygen is low. From the table we can see that a not inconsiderable
amount is spent providing energy for the aeration system during the summer. The
installation of a windpump system would
provide the same amount of aeration but at a
fraction of the cost. The existing aeration
system could be used during times of low wind
speed
5
.
No. of aerators 7
Pump load 14kW
Aeration
amount
1,638Kg
O
2

added
Energy
Cost/week
30

Using a windpump may be viable on a site not
fed by gravity flow and where the water could
be reused and recycled in order to reduce the
daily intake.


The marine recirc farm replaces 5% of its water volume per day amounting to 864
m
3
/day. The pumping costs in order to achieve this replacement are in the order of
20/week. A windpump unit could replace this volume over a payback period of
20 years and even at that the supply would be variable. A smaller windpump could
be used to pump non-time restrictive water such as in a settlement tank. The cost
viability for this particular type of unit is still prohibitive.
One area of aquaculture where windpumps could be used is perch farming.
Although relatively new, perch farming requires low water exchange and
windpumps could be used in fields, which are a distance from the nearest electricity
point. The viability of such a system has yet to be proven.

5
Aeration calculations based on 'Technical Talk', Pisces Aquacultural engineers
21
5
HYDRO POWER
"Let not one river or stream or rivulet reach the sea without yielding its
energy potential." John Seymour
H
ydro power (water power) is one of the most reliable methods of using
renewable energy. It is used by power companies world wide because of
its availability, consistency and cost effectiveness. Hydro schemes whilst
expensive to build often go hand in hand with water reservoir projects so
the benefits are two fold. Unfortunately for power companies it is only viable to
dam the bigger rivers for hydro use. For the average householder, however, that
stream at the bottom of the garden may be able to power the electricity needs and
it may even be possible to sell some electricity back to the power company. Power
companies may purchase energy made from renewable sources and many old mills
have turbines working away happily, making money for their owners.
D I D Y O U
K N O W ?
Over 99% of Norway's
electricity is produced by
Hydro power.
Hydropower of course first came to prominence long before electricity was
discovered. At one
time hydropower
was employed on
many sites in
Europe and North
America. It was
primarily used to
grind grain where
water had a vertical
drop of more than a
few feet and
sufficient flow. Less
common, but of no
less importance,
was the use of
hydro to provide
shaft power for
textile plants, sawmills and other manufacturing operations. Hydropower provides
20% of the worlds electricity and is by far the biggest contributor of renewable
energy contributing over 97% of all renewable energy. With the advances in
modern turbines, hydropower is up to 90% efficient at converting energy
compared with 50% efficiency at the most for fossil fuel use.
Ballyshannon Hydrostation, Co. Donegal with the salmon hatchery in
foreground
22
Top Hydroelectric Producing Countries
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Canada USA Russia Brazil China Norway Japan Sweden India France
B
i
l
l
i
o
n

k
W
h
Fig 3.1 Top Hydroelectric Producing Countries

Basic Principles of Hydropower
Whilst hydropower can be used for mechanical means such as milling grains we
will concentrate on the use of hydropower for electrical generation. Hydropower
plants capture the energy of falling water to generate electricity. A turbine converts
the kinetic energy of the falling water into mechanical energy. Then a generator
converts this mechanical energy into electrical
energy. Hydro plants range in size from 'micro-
hydro' that power a home or business to giant
dams like the Hoover Dam in America, which
provides electricity for millions of people.
Most hydro schemes include the following
components:
Parteen Hydro station
Dam- Raises the water level of the river to create falling water. Also controls
the flow of water. The reservoir that is formed behind the dam is, in effect,
stored energy.

Turbine- The force of falling water pushing against the turbines blades causes
the turbine to spin. A water turbine is much like a windmill, except the energy
is provided by falling water instead of wind. The turbine converts the kinetic
energy of falling water into mechanical energy.

23
Generator- Connected to the turbine by shafts and possibly gears, so when the
turbine spins it causes the generator to spin as well. This converts the
mechanical energy from the turbine into electric energy. Generators in
hydropower plants work just like the generators in other types of power plants.
The use of hydro plants on rivers is not
without its detractors. There is no doubt that
large scale hydro schemes impact on the
landscape, environment and fisheries, not least
by flooding thousand of acres of land.
Promoters of such schemes believe the
benefits far outweigh the negative impacts and
power companies have spent millons
regenerating wetlands and improving fisheries.
For instance the ESB have developed their
own fish farms for restocking areas affected by their schemes.
Generators inside a Hydropower station
How much electricity a hydropower plant produces depends on two factors
How far the water falls vertically- The further the water falls the more power
it has and subsequently the more energy. The height of the dam usually dictates
this. This vertical height is known as the head of water and is quoted in metres.

The amount of water falling- Quite simply the volumetric flow rate of the
river, although dams can back up the water supply thereby increasing the water
flow for short periods.
Micro-Hydro systems
Micro-Hydro systems could be of particular benefit to aquaculture and especially
freshwater-based farms. Many trout and salmon farms are based on rivers with
great volumes of water passing through each day. This energy could be harnessed
to provide valuable energy to the farm. Micro-Hydro
systems can be of various designs depending on site
and flow, and it is possible to have a series of turbines
on the one river system or farm.
Siting a hydro system is much more site-specific than
a wind or photovoltaic (PV-solar) system. A sufficient
quantity of falling water must be available. More head
is usually better because the system uses less water
and the equipment can be smaller. The turbine also runs at a higher speed. Since
power is the product of head and flow, more flow is required at a lower head to
generate the same power level.
A Micro-Hydro turbine on a small
stream

24
The power or kW that can be obtained from a Micro-Hydro system can be
calculated using a simple equation.
Power (kW) = (Head * River Flow * Efficiency) *9.92
Where
Head = Distance water falls to turbine in metres (m)
River flow = amount of water flowing in river or raceway measured in m
3
/s
Efficiency = This depends on how well the hydro plant converts kinetic energy to
mechanical energy to electricity. Can vary from 59% (0.5) to 90% (0.90).
9.92 is a factor to convert units of metres and seconds to kilowatts
Let us assume that we want to place a micro hydro system on the inlet channel to
our trout farm. The head is 1.5m and the flow is 4m
3
/s. We will assume an
efficiency rating of 80%.
(1.5 * 0.4 * 0.8) * 9.92 = 4.76kW
4.76 kW could be enough energy to supply for aerators or a feeder system and
would save this farm over 3,000 /annum. The system would probably pay for
itself within 3 years.
Hydro systems can be used for direct power or to charge batteries similar to
systems used in conjunction with wind turbines.

The oyster farm as we have already seen does not pump large amounts of water
and doesnt have access to flowing water on site. Hydropower is therefore not
applicable.

The rainbow trout farm is ideally placed to harness energy from hydropower. Large
volumes of water are continuously flowing through the site with an overall head
between inlet and outlet of 3 metres. Rather than place one large turbine on the
raceway it may be more beneficial to install a series of micro turbines on the farm,
which could power much of the sites energy needs. If a large turbine was placed
on the site it could supply electricity for sale to the local Power Company.
Electricity companies are obliged to try and purchase electricity made from
renewable energy. There would be little disadvantage in installing turbines on site.
25
The entrance grid has to be cleared of leaves anyway during the winter months and
this would adequately protect the turbine. The water being used is still available to
the farm and the water quality will remain the same. The initial capital cost may be
high but systems could pay for themselves in 3-4 years time. Many old millraces,
which have not been utilised by fish farms, are used for electricity generation
already, and with slight modification existing civil works may be used for energy
production, thus reducing capital costs substantially.

The use of hydropower in this system is uncertain. There is no natural head on the
site as all water is pumped except for water returning to the sea. It may be possible
to place a small turbine unit somewhere in the system to recoup energy used by the
pumps but this might need extensive redesign and is likely to be more troublesome
and not cost effective. If large volumes are returned to the sea, a small turbine
could be placed at the outflow, which could contribute to the energy needed for
the inflow pump.

26
Ocean Energy
The ocean and seas can produce two types of energy: thermal energy from the
suns heat, and mechanical energy from the tides and waves.
The oceans cover more than 70% of the earths surface, making them the worlds
largest solar collectors. The suns heat warms the surface water a lot more than the
deep ocean water, and this temperature difference creates thermal energy. Ocean
thermal energy is used for many applications, including electricity generation. There
are three types of electricity conversion systems: closed-cycle, open cycle, and
hybrid. Closed cycle systems use the oceans warm surface water to vaporise a
working fluid, which has a low-boiling point, such as ammonia. The vapour
expands and turns a turbine. Open-cycle systems actually boil the seawater by
operating at low pressures. This produces steam that passes through a turbine.
Hybrid systems combine both methods.
Ocean mechanical energy is quite different from thermal energy. Even though the
sun affects all ocean activity, tides are driven primarily by the gravitational pull of
the moon, and waves are driven primarily by the winds. As a result, tides and waves
are intermittent (though predictable) sources of energy, while thermal energy is
fairly constant.
A barrage (dam) is typically used to convert tidal energy into electricity by forcing
the water through turbines, activating a generator. For wave energy conversion
there are three basic systems: channel systems that funnel the waves into reservoirs;
float systems that drive hydraulic pumps; and oscillating water column systems that
use the waves to compress air within a container. The mechanical power created
from these systems either directly activates a generator or transfers to a working
liquid, water, or air, which then drives a turbine/generator. Tidal power plants
generally need a large tidal range and are costly.
The only major tidal power scheme
operating anywhere in the world is in the
Rance estuary between Dinard and Saint
Malo in France, where a barrage with
240 MW of turbines was completed in
1966, as a pilot scheme for a prospective
larger barrage across the Mont Saint
Michel bay. The scheme has operated
regularly and reliably for 25 years. The
larger scheme was never completed as
the French concentrated their resources on nuclear power. Large schemes have
been suggested for the Severn estuary in the UK, which could yield 8640
MWhs per annum, and in the Bay of Fundy, Canada, yielding
1400MWhs/annum. The scale of the environmental implications of these
projects can be shown at the shelved Canadian project. If the waters had been
stored from an incoming tide, the tidal changes would still have been
measurable in New York harbour, some 800km south!
La Rance Tidal Station in Brittany, France
27

The environmental implications as well as the
huge capital cost of such large schemes have
prohibited the development of this resource.
However, less mature technologies have been
moved from laboratory tests to field trials in
the open sea recently, with Engineering
Business installing a prototype of its Stingray
tidal stream generator off the Shetland Islands
in September 2001. At the same time,
Marine Current Turbines (MCT) and Tidal
Hydraulic Generators are installing devices off Pembrokeshire and Devon.
La Rance schematic, courtesy of MARE 25
Development of wave energy is also at a crucial state. German and British
scientists are currently developing an underwater power generator, which uses
the currents as well as tides and the Gulf Stream to produce electricity. They
employ the same principles as behind a wind turbine: the oncoming water
turns the blades of a rotor. Because the density of water is so much higher
than the airs, even very low tidal flow can produce electricity.
The pilot project Seaflow will be installed next year in the Bristol channel off
the coast of Cornwall. The tidal current here measures around 8km/h. Rotors
of 15m width will produce 350kW. The project is
made viable by its low installation costs. The
technical specifications derive from wind power, they
only need to be water proofed. Another advantage
of these underwater generators is that they are not
influenced by storms.
Under water the tidal currents never change. From an
environmental point of view the siting of these
underwater rotors should not have a high impact on
biodiversity either areas with high currents generally do
not provide comfortable spawning grounds or a habitat
for an extensive number of species. Another advantage
is the low visual impact, which usually restricts the
development of land based wind farms. Having
analysed 106 possible sites in Europe, scientists
concluded that generators at sites such as Pentland Firth in Scotland or the Street
of Messina between Sicily and Italy could contribute around 12000 MW to
electricity production which would render 12 nuclear power stations unnecessary!
Seaflow Generator, courtesy of
MARE 25
The Irish coast has some of the highest wave energy density in the world,
higher than many parts of Australia and Americas western seaboard. Current
wave energy installations are mostly built into the shore and have the same
environmental effect as other shore-based utilities. The majority of wave
energy turbines produce from 75kW upwards but the development of smaller
machines may also be viable. Work is in particular being carried out in
providing energy for oil platforms. A development unit at Queens University
has been at the forefront in wave energy research for the past 20 years. One of
the worlds biggest manufacturers of wave energy machines is based in
28
Scotland and builds systems that have been placed worldwide. The biggest
problem of wave energy generators is the unpredictability of waves one day
the sea is as flat as a pancake, the next you might be swept of your feet if you
stand too close. In August 1995 the British wave energy machine Osprey
sunk due to too much wave action, without having produced even 1 kWh
electricity.
So far only two wave energy generators have been installed for high
production, one in Norway, the other
on the Scottish island of Islay. Here, in
November 2000 a more robust version
of the Osprey was connected to the
mains. Limpet, a 500kW wave
converter, sits snugly like its relative in
the mollusc world on a rocky wall and
uses the changing water levels to
produce electricity. The generator
consists of a hollow body, which opens
below the water line. The rising water of
a wave pressurises the air out of the
hollow body through a turbine, the falling water sucks it back. The turbine is
constructed as such that it turns both ways.
Limpet supplies electricity to 400 households,
picture courtesy of MARE 25
In 2003 two English wave power developers plan on installing shoreline
devices. Wavegen, already having a small device in Islay, are planning another
1MW floating device for installation over the summer, while Ocean Power
Delivery (OPD) plan their 750kW Pelamis device on a similar timescale. A new
Government-backed test centre on Orkney will provide useful testing
resources to both developers.

The main UK wave power developers

Wavegen
Operated the 500kW Limpet shoreline oscillating water column on Islay since
November 200
Received a 1.67 million DTI grant to test a 1MW floating device off Orkney in
summer 2003, also based on oscillating water column
Expects to receive a further 2.3 million for the first of three devices to be
installed off the Western Isles
Hopes to install hundreds of MW by 2010, mostly later in the decade
Predicts initial costs of 4p/kWh for a floating device, falling to 2.7p/kWh over
ten years
Ocean Power Delivery
Proposes 150-metre long Pelamis seasnake device with several hydraulic joints
driving electric generators
Testing one-seventh scale model in the Firth of Forth, using 700,000 of DTI
grants
Hopes to test full-scale prototype in Orkney in summer 2003
First commercial development, planned for 2004-2005, could be in UK or
Canada
Intends to install several hundred MW of wave devices off the UK by 2010
Predicts costs of 2.4-4.3p/kWh for a 25MW installation by 2010
29

Orecon
Multiple oscillating water column device on buoy
Consortium of Plymouth University, fabricator Cornish Steel, marine
engineers Plimsoft, and German turbine manufacturer IBK
Completed one-year trial off Plymouth Sound funded by 292,500 EU grant
and 49,800 DTI grant
Plans a 10MW array by 2006 if all goes well
Hopes to build a 100MW array by 2015, possibly before 2010
Predicts cost of about 5p/kWh

The main UK tidal stream developers

Marine Current Turbines
Shareholders include Seacore, IT Power, Bendalis Engineering and Corus
UK
Use twin turbines mounted either side of a pile driven into the sea bed
300kW prototype to be installed off north Devon by November using 1.6
million in UK and EU grants
Intends to develop a 700 kW prototype by 2004 and a tidal farm of four
1MW devices by 2005, leading to 100MW of installed capacity by 2008 and
300 MW by 2010
Predicts costs of 4.5-6.0p/kWh by 2005, eventually reducing to 3p/kWh
London Electricity has invested 3.5 million in the company
The Engineering Business
Stingray device converts tidal flows into an oscillating motion via hydrofoils
attached to an extendable arm
Installed a single hydroplane prototype (not connected to grid) off Shetland
in September 2002, using DTI grant of 1.1 million
Intends to build a 5MW cluster of 5 to 10 devices by 2004/2005
Deliberately vague cost predictions of 4-14p/kWh
Tidal Hydraulic Generators
Companies involved include pump and turbine manufacturers Gilbert
Gilkes and Gordon, and Bennet Associates which contributed on hydraulic
design
A rig of turbines hydraulically pump fluid to a central underwater generator
Received a 50,000 grant from the Welsh Assembly for barge-based testing
of turbine design off the Pembrokeshire Coast in 2001
Due to install 3kW test rig on sea floor by early October 2002, using further
22,950 grant
Intends to build a generating station of fifty 1MW rigs at an undisclosed site off
Wales before 2010. Expects to receive a DTI grant shortly
Expects costs to be around 4p/kWh
Source: ENDS Report No 332, September 2002, p.28ff

30

In Ireland, the Marine Institute and Sustainable Energy Ireland are currently
jointly undertaking a consultation exercise with a view to building a consensus
around a strategic approach to wave energy development in Ireland. This
consultation exercise will run from November 2002 to February 28th 2003.

The farm is of course right on the coast in an exposed site. If wave energy systems
develop enough in the coming years it might be of benefit to have a system in place
on the shore below the holding tanks. Such a system would have negligible visual
impact, as the farm would conceal it. The electricity generated could be used by the
farm and excess sold to the grid. The development of small-scale systems like this
may be a few years off yet, but will be possible.

Not applicable as the farm is inland.

Wave energy may have a lot to contribute to this farm in the future. The high-
energy costs make large-scale projects such as a wave energy turbine more viable.
Again because of the farm location the turbine would not have any visual impact
and could be recessed in against the shore. Such systems are already used in
desalination plants and on isolated islands, so the technology is proven. The cost
would add a not insignificant amount to the already expensive project but payback
could be within 8 years given the potential to sell to the local grid. Electricity is in
short supply in coastal areas especially in the northwest of Ireland.
Wave energy offers real potential for coastal-based aquaculture facilities. The
technological advances being made in this field should be keenly observed in the
future. The University of Limerick has begun a major project assessing the
potential of this technology in partnership with Japan.

31
Water Powered Pumps
There are two types of water powered pumps, which we will discuss in this section,
Hydraulic Ram Pumps and High Lifter Pumps. Both types use the pressure of
falling water to pump a percentage of that water elsewhere. These types of pumps
are commonly used worldwide to fill cattle troughs and domestic water supplies in
hilly areas. They have an advantage over electrically powered pumps in that they
dont suffer the same wear and tear, as well as operating during power shortages
and cuts.
Hydraulic Ram Pumps use the inertia of moving water rather than water
pressure to lift water to a higher elevation. The pump operates in a cycle as follows:
1. When the waste valve is opened, water flows from the source through the
intake pipe and out the waste valve.
2. After a short time, the velocity of the flow is high enough to force the waste
valve closed. The water, due to its inertia wants to continue past the valve and
as the pressure increases it forces the check valve open allowing water into the
air chamber, compressing the air bubble inside the chamber. It is this air
bubble that will force the water out through the outlet pipe.
3. When the check valve opens the pressure surge is spent and the water will try
and flow backwards, but the check valve closes again preventing this from
happening. The water flows out through the outlet pipe.
4. The waste valve now opens again and the whole cycle starts again.

Water Inlet
4. 3.
1. 2.
Check Valve
Outlet pipe
Waste Valve
Air Chamber
32
The hydraulic ram can deliver around 4m
3
of water/day, which is relatively small
for aquaculture purposes. It can, however, deliver water to an elevation 100m
above its source and is virtually maintenance free.
High Lifters can pump larger volumes of water than hydraulic ram pumps. They
can move volumes of up to 200m
3
/day depending on the head. High lifters are also
generally quieter in operation than hydraulic ram pumps. The high lifter uses head
pressure instead of momentum in a downhill pipe. It uses a large volume of low-
pressured water to pump a smaller volume
of water at a higher pressure. A large piston
acts with a smaller one to gain mechanical
advantage. A collar inside the pump controls
the inlet valve. As the pistons reach the end
of their stroke, they contact this collar,
pushing it until it directs a small amount of
water to the end of the spool in the pilot
valve, thereby shifting it and changing the
direction of the water flow in the pump. The
flow moves the two-way pistons in the
opposite direction until they again contact
the collar, which shifts the pilot valve again, and the process repeats itself. The high
lifter has a number of advantages over the hydraulic ram pump including its ability
to be used in low flow situations. It could possibly be used on trout farms with a
high head for diverting water back through the system.
A High Lifter Pump
How applicable this technology is to aquaculture has yet to be seen and is certainly
site dependent. However, the application of new pumping technology is something
definitely worth keeping abreast of.

33
SOLAR POWER
"Following the sun, we left the Old World." Christopher Columbus
T
he amount of solar energy, which reaches the earths surface each year, is
around 20,000 times current global energy consumption. Whilst it is not
practical to convert all of this to usable energy, if we could just convert a
fraction of this solar radiation there would be no more energy problems.
Many people presume that our climate in the Northern Hemisphere is not suitable
to solar power, yet in Ireland and the UK
it is possible to achieve
1000kWh/annum per m
2
of photovoltaic
(PV) cells. In fact, the amount of solar
energy that falls on the UK and Ireland
every year is equivalent to more than 700
times our total electricity needs. Solar
panels produce electricity all year round.
They work best when the sun is at its
brightest, but also produce electricity on cloudy days, in the winter, in the snow and
even when its raining. There are two predominant methods of extracting energy
from the sun, solar water heating and the use of photovoltaic cells.
D I D Y O U
K N O W ?
The German government
has invested 280 million
in solar power.
6
A Solar PV cell
Solar Water Heating

In Ireland each square metre of south-facing roof receives around 1000kWh of
solar radiation during a year. This means that the roofs of many of our homes,
offices and buildings receive more energy from the sun in a year than we need to
provide for heating and hot water. It is possible to provide most of our hot water
requirements from May to September and
provide some pre-heating for the
remaining months. Shellfish hatcheries are
already well aware of the need for sunlight
in growing algae, yet much of the water
used is heated by gas or oil fired burners.
Solar water heaters are made up of
collectors, storage tanks and, depending
on the system, electric pumps. A solar
water heating system consists of a solar
collector situated on the roof of the
A Solar Collector situated in a garden
34

building or in a position to get full sunlight. There are basically three types of
collectors: flatplate, evacuated-tube and concentrating. A flatplate collector, the
most common type, is an insulated weatherproofed box containing a dark absorber
plate under one or more transparent covers. Evacuated-tube collectors are made
up of rows of parallel, transparent glass tubes. Each tube consists of a glass outer
tube and an inner tube or absorber covered with a selective coating that absorbs
solar energy well but inhibits radiative heat loss.
The air is withdrawn (evacuated) from the space
between the tubes to form a vacuum, which
eliminates conductive and convective heat loss.
Concentrating collectors are usually parabolic
troughs that use mirrored surfaces to concentrate
the suns energy on an absorber tube containing a
heat-transfer liquid.
Most commercially available solar water heating
systems require a well-insulated storage tank.
Some solar water heaters use pumps to recirculate warm water from storage tanks
through collectors and exposed piping. This is generally to protect the pipes from
freezing when outside temperatures drop to freezing or below. A system could pay
Solar collectors on roofs in a
housing estate in Scotland

Solar Water Heating at Salmon Hatchery

At Rosewall Creek salmon hatchery and smolt unit in Canada, a solar
heating system has been integrated with a conventional propane heating
system. Groundwater is heated with solar energy and stored in two tanks
(seen in picture). The warm water is blended with cool water or is heated
by an auxiliary propane boiler to deliver constant temperature water (12-
14
o
C) to the salmon. A heat exchanger is also used to reclaim heat from
the effluent water. Energy cost savings run at 11,500 per year with a pay
back time of 6 years.

Source: CanREN, Natural Resources, Canada
35
for itself in 2-3 years and dramatically reduce your heating bill
thereafter. Whilst these collectors can be purchased they can also be made using
standard materials. The recent surge in the number of swimming pools heated by
solar water heating systems indicates the viability of heating large volumes of water
using this type of energy.

Solar Electricity
The most common form of solar power is in converting sunlight directly into
electricity. This is achieved by the use of what are called photovoltaic cells (photo =
light, voltaic = electricity; PV for short). When sunlight strikes a PV cell, electrons
are dislodged, creating an electric current. Photovoltaic cells are made primarily of
silicon, the second most abundant element in the earths crust, and the same
semiconductor material used for
computers. When the silicon is
combined with one or more other
materials, it exhibits unique
electrical properties in the presence
of sunlight. Electrons are excited by
the light and move through the
silicon. This is known as the
photovoltaic effect and results in dc
electricity. PV cells power many of
the small calculators and
wristwatches in every day use. More
complex systems provide electricity
to pump water, power
communications equipment, light
homes and business and run
appliances. Because electricity is produced in the form of dc current it can be fed
directly into a battery, as in the case of a calculator, or can be converted with an
inverter into ac for powering mains fed appliances. Whilst solar power in temperate
climates is often the most expensive of
options for those seeking to convert to
renewable energy, the cost of PV
technology has fallen by 80% in the last
ten years. PV cells are not only now
cheaper but are far more efficient at
converting sunlight into electricity. As with
solar water heating systems the PV cells
are situated facing south to absorb as
much sunlight as possible. PV cells are also
very reliable. This stems from the fact that
the first cells were used in space and had to
A PV array at an electricity generating station in
California
A Solar powered navigation buoy
36

be virtually maintenance free. Modules have no moving parts and a life expectancy
of 20-30 years.
There are three basic categories of photovoltaic systems with several types in each
category.
Crystalline silicon flat plate collectors are the most developed and prevalent
type in use today. These include single crystal silicon and polycrystalline silicon that
is either grown or cast from molten silicon and later sliced into its cell size. They are
often assembled into a flat surface and no lenses are used.
Thin film systems are inherently cheaper to produce than crystalline silicon but
are not as efficient at converting sunlight. They are produced by depositing a thin
layer of photovoltaic material on to a substrate like glass or metal. This group
includes amorphous silicon like the kind found in calculators and watches.
Concentrators use much less of a specialised photovoltaic material and employ a
lens or reflectors to concentrate sunlight on the photovoltaic cell and increase its
output. They can be produced
more cheaply due to the reduced
amount of expensive PV
material. However, they can only
use direct sun, so they must
track the sun precisely.
37

A solar powered pump being used on a cattle farm
S O L A R G L O S S A R Y
PV Photovoltaic, meaning
Light electricity.
PV cell The semiconductor
device that converts light into
dc electricity.
Module A group of PV cells.
Array A group of modules.
Solar Tracker Device which
allows the panels to constantly
adjust to the suns position
gaining maximum sunlight.
Flat plate Array A PV array
in which the incident solar
radiation strikes a flat surface
and no concentration of
sunlight is involved.
Fresnel Lens A
concentrating lens, positioned
above and concave to a PV
material to concentrate light on
the material.
Insolation The amount of
sunlight reaching an area,
usually expressed in watts per
square meter per day.
Solar power could be used on the farm to power a number of the appliances. A
typical 75W panel can provide 70kWh per annum in our climate. Whilst this could
be used to power something like the purification system, it is not efficient given the
high capital cost and long payback time (A 75W panel costs in the region of 500).
Solar water heating could be of advantage in keeping the purification tank at a
constant temperature. Solar water heating would be of further benefit in a shellfish
hatchery where algae is cultured and larvae raised at elevated temperatures.
Commercial hatcheries already harness natural light in growing algae but this use of
the suns energy could be greatly increased where solar collectors are installed.


It may be possible in a few years time to have aeration systems running off solar
panels. Aeration systems are used mainly during the summer months when the
panels are at their most effective. Solar collectors could also be used to heat the
water in the hatchery. The growth and development of fish eggs and fry is
intrinsically linked to water temperatures. Increasing the water temperature by just a
few degrees using solar collectors could reduce valuable growing time leading to a
more efficient hatchery operation. All hatcheries have roof areas on which the solar
collectors could be placed.

Producing solar electricity is unlikely to greatly reduce the large energy bills
associated with the recirc unit. Solar collectors could be used, however, as with the
previous case study to increase water temperature. Water temperature is not only
critical in such a unit for fish growth rate but also for the efficient operation of the
biofilters where bacteria break down the waste compounds. Solar collectors are
relatively cheap to construct and are virtually maintenance free. Again consideration
of the use of solar collectors is better made at the design stage to greatly increase
their effectiveness.

38
7
OTHER ENERGY
SOURCES
"Irrigation of the land with seawater desalinated by fusion power is ancient. Its called
'rain'." Michael Mc Clary
A
Number of energy sources, which are not as widespread in use as the
ones previously mentioned but none the less have potential for use in
aquaculture, are now addressed.

Bioenergy
Bioenergy is the process of using biomass (plant and organic matter) to produce
energy. Biomass has been used for lighting, cooking, and heating ever since
humans first discovered fire. Today modern biomass generating plants can produce
hundreds of megawatt-hours of electricity in a manner similar to generating
electricity using fossil fuels. In essence, the fossil fuels are simply replaced with
plant matter as a fuel source, creating a cleaner, renewable energy alternative.
The main sources of biomass for biopower are agricultural waste, forestry waste,
municipal and industrial waste and energy crops. The waste produced each day by a
pig for example would provide enough gas to boil 5 kettles of water!
There are at least three different types of biofuel systems:
Direct firing involves burning biomass (feedstocks) directly to produce steam.
This steam is then captured and directed to spin a turbine that produces electricity.
Alternatively the system can be just used to create hot water for direct use.
Although direct-fired biopower systems produce air pollution emissions, they are
cleaner than coal-fired power plants because they do not release sulphur dioxide, a
key pollutant contributing to acid rain. Furthermore, bioenergy systems have
nowhere near the global warming impacts of fossil fuel plants. They are referred to
as carbon dioxide neutral, given that the plant material absorbs as much carbon
dioxide during its life as is released when burned. This is a key element of the ethos
of using biopower.

39
Co-Firing is similar to direct firing except for the fact that biomass materials are
burned in combination with a fossil fuel, most often coal, in a high efficiency
boiler. This method is a step towards renewable energy but still relies on fossil
fuels.

Gasification systems are different from the other two methods, in that high
temperatures are used in an oxygen-starved environment to convert biomass into
gas (a mixture of hydrogen,
carbon monoxide and
methane). This gas can
then be used to fuel a gas
turbine or a modified IC
engine, which turns an
electrical generator. A
system in use at the ECOS
centre in Ballymena is an
example of a gasification
system where coppice
willow is grown sustainably
to provide biomass for a
The author examining a willow powered gasification system in use at
the ECOS centre, Ballymena.

Biomass Technology on the Farm

With support from the Iowa Department of Natural Resources, Sunrise
Energy Co-operative of Blairstown, Iowa, has developed a computer
model and business plan for a hypothetical integrated energy farm. The
energy farm uses by products from each of the farms endeavours. An
ethanol plant is at the hub of the system, producing ethanol and heat,
carbon dioxide and animal feed. The heat is used in an aquaculture facility
for raising commercial fish such as Tilapia. High protein feed is fed to
cattle. In turn, cattle
produce manure that can
fertilise the corn. Methane
captured from the manure
is used as a supplemental
energy source for ethanol
production. Integrated
energy farm software is
designed to be adaptable
for any agribusiness and is
available from Iowa Department of Natural Resources.

Source: Energy Bureau, Iowa Department of Natural resources
40
50kW CHP plant. The plant produces electricity and heat in a carbon neutral
manner for use in the centre. A simpler gasification system often in use on
smallholdings uses a methane digester to convert animal waste into methane for
direct use.
Methane Digesters
Methane is a gas, which is produced by the anaerobic fermentation of organic
matter. Methane is odourless as it is the associated Hydrogen Sulphide produced by
rotting material that gives the distinctive smell (Bubbling this gas through Calcium
Carbonate removes the Hydrogen Sulphide, gas companies then add an odour so
leaking methane can be detected). Methane (CH
4
) has an octane rating of 110 and
produces around 1,000 BTUs (British Thermal Units) of heat per cubic foot of gas.
Methane is made with a methane digester, which breaks down animal wastes but
isnt as effective with bulky vegetable matter.
A digester is an insulated tank,
which allows the waste product
to break down in the absence of
oxygen and produce methane.
The process takes from around
14-35 days depending on
temperature. Digesters can
operate in two temperature
ranges depending on the bacteria
involved in the digestion process.
T
The optimum temperature for mesophilic
digestion is around 38
o
C (100
o
F), for
thermophilic digestion around 55
o
C (130
o
F). The
gas given off can be collected in a gas holder and
used. Methane digesters are used world wide and
run effectively if there is a good source of waste
nearby i.e. pig slurry, chicken litter, cow slurry.
They are currently being used for the digestion of
solely fish offal in countries like Canada and the
U.S.A.
A Digester at De Montfort University, Leicester
Biotherm International, New Brunswick CA
However, some plants emphasize the production of liquid fertiliser instead of
biogas through the digestion process. Given the predominant agriculture sector in
Ireland, sourcing animal waste should not pose too many logistical problems.
Indeed it would be novel for slurry to be welcome on a fish farm, and there are
already several anaerobic digesters in Ireland.
Landfill sites are also a source of free methane gas although most aquaculture
operations are sited well away from landfill for obvious water quality reasons.
It may be possible to use compacted sludge from fish farm effluents to power a
methane digester. This could be of particular benefit in high load recirculating units
41
farming species such as eels. The resulting methane could be used to heat water
giving higher growth rates, or generate electricity to offset energy costs involved in
the pumping. One of the main reasons that methane digesters are not yet
commonly found in Ireland is the high capital investment necessary for the setting
up of a viable unit.
At De Montfort University in the UK, the

Applied Sustainable Technologies group has
built a digester, which utilises pig slurry. 8 m
3
of
pig waste is added per week, which gives up to
1.5m
3
of biogas each hour. The gas is held in a
bag before being used in a CHP unit. At its
height the unit can give 40kW of electricity
running on 20m
3
of gas/hour. This type of unit
would pay for itself in 3-5 years and would be
suitable for a high load facility like a
recirculation unit.
A biogas bag at De Montfort University
Biopower use is very popular in China and India and is slowly gaining acceptance
as a competitive form of energy production in the United States.

42
Hydrogen Power
The use of hydrogen power may seem like something confined to sci-fi films and
NASA, but the potential is now right on our doorstep. Hydrogen power has also
been associated with weapons of mass destruction but thankfully efforts these days
are on adapting hydrogen power to everyday energy production. Hydrogen power
in this context does not refer to splitting its atom but using hydrogen gas as an
energy source.
One of the benefits of using hydrogen power in the aquaculture industry is that a
by-product is pure oxygen. Hydrogen and oxygen can be produced from water
using electricity with an electrolyser. Making and storing oxygen and hydrogen is
not kids stuff, remember it literally is rocket fuel. Although electricity is used to
generate the fuel this can be supplied from any of the sources we have already
discussed such as wind or sun.
The basic principle in producing hydrogen is that an electrolyser separates the
hydrogen and oxygen atoms in
water molecules. Two clusters of
nickel electrode plates act as an
anode and cathode. When placed
in water and an electrical current
is passed through, the larger
hydrogen bubbles escape from
the negative electrode (cathode)
and the smaller oxygen bubbles
evolve from the positive
electrode (anode). The bubbles
are kept separate and pass
through purifiers. The resultant
gas is then stored.
A theoretical 1kW electrolyser
can produce 1m
3
of hydrogen
and 0.5m
3
(500 litres) of oxygen
in around 6 hours. The fuel,
water, is of course pretty handy
to come across on a fish farm,
and although the technology in
producing hydrogen hasnt been
fully utilised yet, many of the large petroleum companies have spent millions in
research for hydrogen powered vehicles for use when their oil supplies run dry.
Principle of an electrolyser
Load
Oxidant In Fuel In
Electrolyte
Cathode Anode
Depleted
Oxidants Out
Depleted Fuel Out
H2O
O2
H
+

H2

43
GEOTHERMAL POWER
Geothermal power is another
energy source, which we are
not too familiar with in
Ireland. The geothermal
resources of Iceland and
Hawaii are well known and
utilised heavily in those
countries for a myriad of uses
including aquaculture. There
are also geothermal resources
in Ireland. The geological
department of UCC has
conducted numerous tests on
geothermal water in a hidden
valley underneath the city of
Cork. The water is some 4
o
C
warmer then normal groundwater and they are now examining the possibility of
harnessing this heat in new buildings in the city.
The Blue Lagoon, Iceland with a geothermal power plant in the
background
There are approx. 29 geothermal springs in Ireland where warm water has risen
through faults in the earths crust. The temperature of these springs ranges from
13-22
o
C. A spring in Mallow comes to the surface at 20
o
C and is used to heat the
local swimming pool. The system is essentially an open loop system in that water is
pumped from the spring to an internal heat exchanger. In Dublin buildings in the
east end of Trinity College are heated by heat pumps drawing on 12
o
C water
beneath the bedrock. The energy saving is estimated at 2GWh/annum. Cities and
large towns are thought to add up to 3
o
C to the temperature of their underground
water through heat transfer. Ireland is currently part of an EC THERMIE project
entitled the Promotion of the use of Geothermal Energy from proven
Aquifers and matching of this energy to existing or potential heat users.
Aquaculture has long realised the importance of tapping into groundwater supplies
given the constant temperature and sterility of
the water. Imagine if a facility could access
water at 15
o
C all year around. Heating and
energy costs would be dramatically reduced
and growth rates optimised.
The geothermal resource in Ireland exists due
to the effects of the ice age, retreating glaciers
raised sea levels and flooded river valleys.
Geothermal energy is also found in the form of
geopressured brines. These brines are hot
pressurised waters that contain dissolved
methane and lie at depths of about 3km to
more than 6 km. Exploiting this resource is somewhat more of a challenge!
The Spa House Mallow
44
8
Environmental
Considerations
"Global warming is no longer a distant threat, its as real, as clear and
present an issue, with profound effects on peoples lives, as war and peace or
recession and poverty and the effects are only just beginning to be felt."
Al Gore
W
e all use electricity but rarely stop to think about how it is generated
and the impact it has on the environment. Without the exploitation
of fossil fuels over the past 200 years the rise of the Western
economies and societies would not have been possible. However, burning
fossil fuels, such as coal, oil and gas, lies at the heart of global climate change,
acid rain and other more localised pollution problems. Experts such as the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) have predicted that the
average temperature around the world will increase by between 1 and 3.5
degrees Celsius by 2100, a rate of warming greater than at any time over the
last 10,000 years. Action needs to be taken to prevent this climate change, and
the combustion of fossil fuels should be the first aspect to consider, as it
accounts for about 85% of global CO2 emissions. The consequences of the
Kyoto Protocol are probably the most important driver for the use of
renewable energy now and for the foreseeable future.
The majority of electricity produced in Ireland and the UK is coal, oil and gas
powered with use of turf and hydropower as well. Apart from hydropower,
which is renewable, all these other methods of producing electricity have a
profound effect on our environment. As the world warms, the climate in the
UK and Ireland will change. Without major changes it is estimated that by
2020 the climatic zones in the UK will shift 200km northward. This means a
northward shift of natural habitats, wildlife species and farming zones by about
50-80km per decade! There will be an average temperature increase of 1 degree
and annual precipitation will increase by 5%, leading to more droughts in the
drier southeast and flooding in the wetter northwest. Though these changes
might benefit some industries, such as tourism, the changes for others such as
aquaculture could have adverse effects, e.g. on water resources. Currently, the
UK and Ireland are blessed with the warm effects from the Gulf Stream.

45
Changes in water currents could lead to the disappearance of the Gulf Stream
and leave Ireland and the UK in a weather system more akin to Newfoundland
than the Mediterranean. This precarious position makes Ireland and the UK
particularly vulnerable to sudden climate changes.
Carbon dioxide is only one of the by-products from burning fossil fuels.
Nitrogen and sulphur dioxide contribute to the problem of acid deposition
causing forests to die, lakes to become acid, as well as widespread damage to
upland landscapes. These pollutants also lead to health problems for humans.
Research on the impact of pollutants linked to fossil fuel burning suggests that
breathing urban air costs each city dweller, on average, a year from their lives.
Additionally the problem of resource depletion has to be considered.
Estimates show that every year as much oil is used as it takes nature to create
in 1 million years.
Ireland and the UK are prime locations for developing renewable energy
generation such as wind or wave power. The UK wind resource is 28 times
larger than that of Denmark, though only six times bigger in size. However,
Denmark is far ahead in producing electricity through wind, having set a target
of supplying 10% (1500MW) of its total demand by 2005 as part of a total
renewable energy target of 12%. The UK currently produces only 0.25% of its
electricity from wind, but it could reach a target almost twice as high as
Denmarks.
As we have shown, wind is not the only renewable energy source, and even
with Irelands climate solar power is a significant resource. There is large scope
for using photovoltaic cells, and examples such as roof-mounted PVs in Berlin
suggested that 30% of the citys current electricity needs could be met from
this source. Solar shingles have been developed in Michigan, USA by Energy
Conversion Devices. 100 times thinner than traditional solar panels, they are
easily installed on roofs at an estimated half the prize of conventional PVs.
The methods described in this report show the utilisation of renewable energy
in a sustainable and environmentally friendly manner. Hydropower, which is
the most controversial of renewable energy sources, only has an impact with
large-scale operations and these are not the type for consideration by an
aquaculture farm. Aquaculture operations are only too aware of environmental
concerns and have strived in the recent past to improve the image of the
industry. Aquaculture is amongst the most stringently policed industries, and
licensing is the strictest in any food production sector. The positive
environmental image that coincides with the use of renewable energy furthers
the claim of aquaculture to be one of the greenest food producing operations
in the world. It is one further step into an even greener future and wider public
acceptance of the sector.
Using renewable energy reduces greenhouse gas emissions contributing to a
healthier environment. Renewable energy provides the sustainable platform for
energy production in the future.

46
9
Conclusion
"We want to inherit a clean earth. Why shouldnt we be allowed to live as
you did when you were little? Childrens Conference Bergen 1990
R
enewable energy is not a quick fix for any aquaculture operation. It will not
reduce your energy costs and supply all the electricity you need without a
great deal of planning, patience and time. Most renewable energy
technologies are installed by individuals or companies with a passion for
striving to help the environment in the long term.
We have seen that certain technologies lend themselves to different sites and
aquaculture operations. The pacific oyster farm has low energy usage and therefore
low electricity costs. Ensuring that the premises and equipment are efficient may
reduce the energy bill by 10%, which is more than any renewable technology could
do at present on the farm. A small wind turbine or solar collector may reduce costs
further. Marine base shellfish hatcheries may benefit further by using solar
collectors for their warm water needs.
The Rainbow Trout farm is unlikely to benefit from solar electricity until PV units
become more effective. The farm could benefit by using solar collectors to heat the
water for its hatchery or even fry. The largest potential lies in the utilisation of
hydropower given the volume of water available on site. Whether one turbine or a
series of smaller turbines is more effective depends entirely on site and energy
requirements.
The marine recirc facility has by far the greatest energy demand and usage. Wind
and wave power may be viable given the operating cost of energy per annum. The
installation of such systems requires a large capital outlay but this can be recouped
within a period as short as 6 years.
A characteristic of natural sources of energy is that they lend themselves much
more to small-scale use than to large-scale exploitation. In this context renewable
energy has many applications in aquaculture. As with all these methods, the fuel is
virtually free. It is the initial capital cost that puts most people off developing
renewable energy systems. Capital costs have however been reduced by up to 50%
in the past 10 years and continue to fall. The use of hybrid systems could be
considered in each of the case studies, using two or three different methods such as
solar, hydro and wind power. Small wind/solar hybrid systems may compensate
for seasonal variations in wind and sun availability each year to some extent.
47
The employment of renewable energy sources on aquaculture sites needs to be
thoroughly assessed for its suitability in each particular situation. Renewable energy
will be more attractive in remote locations with some distance to the nearest
electrical infrastructure. An economic analysis needs to compare the cost of
connection as well as the use of alternative sources such as RE or diesel generation.
It is also important to consider the consequences of power outages and to ensure
that a facility is not totally relying on an intermittent renewable energy source and
that a back up is accessible.
Renewable energy development is here to stay given the governments
commitment to the Madrid declaration, the Kyoto Protocol and AER. To support
the implementation of the governments sustainable energy policy by Sustainable
Energy Ireland (SEI) funding provisions of 222m have been made in the National
Development Plan. Sustainable Energy Ireland promotes and assists economically
and environmentally sustainable production, supply and use of energy in Ireland.
Under the governments policy, SEI have established a 16.25m programme
supporting research, development and demonstration of renewable sources of
energy and related sources. A strategy detailing the objectives, content and priorities
for this programme is available at www.irish-energy.ie, along with a Call for
Proposals Information Pack.
Whether renewable energy has a role to play in aquaculture in Ireland is still up for
discussion. Implementing renewable energy sources in aquaculture operations
could be used as very positive PR to improve the public image of aquaculture.
Promoting a green image can have considerable benefits. If nothing else, however,
aquaculture installations should strive to be energy efficient and thus reduce costs,
saving money and increasing profit.

48
10
Useful Contacts

Agores, the European Commissions Website for Renewable Energy Sources,
Website: http://www.agores.org Overview of renewable energy including section on
global warming.

Airtricity National Management Centre, Clonard, Sandyford, Dublin 16, Tel: 01
2130400, Fax: 01 2130444, Webpage: http://www.eirtricity.ie, airtricity is a joint
venture between Future Wind Partnership and NTR. Future Wind Partnership was set up
with its aim being to develop Ireland's wind energy resources.

American Wind Energy Association, 122 C Street, N W Fourth Floor,
Washington DC 20001, USA. Tel. +1 202 383 2500, Fax, +1 202 383 2505. Email.
Windmill@mcimail.com Website: http://www.econet.org/awea
An umbrella organisation for the American wind industry.

Ark Nursery, Burdatien, Clones, Co. Monaghan, Tel: 047 52049, Fax: 047 52295,
Website: www.ecoflo.ie. The authors would like to thank Marcus McCabe for kindly
providing the windmill photograph for the CD cover.

Bord Gis, Webpage: http://www.bge.ie

Bord na Mna, Bord na Mna Plc., Main Street, Newbridge, Co Kildare,
Ireland, Tel: 045 439000, Fax: 045 439001, Webpage: http://www.bnm.ie

CADDET- Energy Efficiency, Webpage: http://www.caddet-ee.org/index.php
CADDET stands for Centre for Analysis and Dissemination of Demonstrated
Energy Technologies. It is an international information network that helps managers,
engineers, architects and researchers find out about renewable energy and energy-
saving technologies that have worked in other countries.

Centre for Alternative Technology, Machynlleth, Powys Sy20 9AZ. Tel. (01654)
702400, Fax. (01654) 702782. Email. Info@catinfo.demon.co.uk Website:
http://www.cat.org.uk
An excellent source of information on all types of renewable energy. Publish
information booklets and hold training weekends.

49
Centre for Biomass Technology, http://www.videncenter.dk/uk/index.htm
Danish information network, which, amongst other things, disseminates information
to interested parties in Denmark and around the world about Danish experiences in
bioenergy. Specificly the Centre works with solutions to problems in the energy sector
both related to technology, economy and environment.

Centre for Sustainable Technologies, University of Ulster, Jordanstown,
Newtownabbey, BT37 OQB, Northern Ireland. Email: cst@ulst.ac.uk
Website: http://www.engj.ulst.ac.uk
Information on the activities of the centre for sustainable technologies including solar
energy.

CODEMA City of Dublin Energy Management Agency, Guinness
Enterprise Centre, Unit 32, Taylors Lane, Dublin 8, Ireland, Tel: + 353 (0)1
410 0659, Fax:+ 353 (0)1 410 0576, Website: http://www.codema.ie

Cork City Energy Agency, The Lord Mayors Pavilion, Fitzgeralds Park,
Mardyke Walk, Cork, Tel/Fax: +353 21 363749, Website:
http://www.corknrgy.com/
The main aims of the agency include promoting rational use of energy in all sectors of
Cork city and encouraging the development of renewable energy. The targeted sectors
are the domestic, transport, industrial/commercial and schools sector.

CREST Centre for Renewable Energy Systems Technology, AMREL,
Loughborough University, Loughborough, Leicestershire LE11 3TU, Tel:
+44 (0) 1509 223466, Fax: +44 (0) 1509 610031, Webpage:
http://www.lboro.ac.uk/departments/el/research/crest/index.htm
Run an MSc in Renewable Energy Systems Technology.

Danish Wind Industry Association, Vester Voldgade 106, 1552
Copenhagen V, Denmark, Tel: +45 3373 0330, Fax: +45 3373 0333, Webpage:
http:// www.windpower.org/core.htm Information includes a guided online tour
on windpower.

Danish Wind Turbine Manufacturers Association, Website
http://www.windpower.dk
An excellent site for up to date information on wind technology.

Department of Transport, Sustainable Energy Division, 44 Kildare St, Dublin 2,
Tel: 01 6041282, Wepage: http://www.irlgov.ie/tec/energy/renewable/

ECOS Millennium Environmental Centre, Kernohans Lane, Broughshane
Rd, Ballymena, BT43 7QA., Northern Ireland, Tel. 028 25 664400.

Electricity Supply Board, Lr. Fitzwillam St, Dublin 2, Ireland. Tel 1850 372
372.Website: www.esb.ie , Email goldmine@mailesb.ie

Energy and Environment Research Unit, Faculty of Technology, The Open
University, Milton Keynes MK7 6AA UK, Tel: +44 (0)1908 653335, Fax: +44
(0)1908 858407, Webpage: http://technology.open.ac.uk/eeru/
50
Energy Saving Trust, Contact through Belfast Energy Efficiency Advice Centre,
1-11 May Street, Belfast BT1 4NA, Tel: 02890 240 664, Fax: 02890 246 133, Email:
Ireland@est.co.uk; Webpage: http://www.est.org.uk
The Energy Saving Trust (EST) was set up after the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro,
to help reduce CO2 emissions in the UK. It is a non-profit organisation funded by
governments and the private sector.

European Wind Energy Association, 26 Spring St, London W2 1JA. Tel. (0171)
402 7122, Fax. (0171) 402 7125. Website: http://www.ewea.org

Evans Engineering, Trecarrell Mill, Trebullett, Launcester, Cornwall, PL15
PQE, UK. Tel. (01566) 782255, Fax. (01566) 782793. Email:
info@microhydro.com
Suppliers of micro hydro systems, design and advice.

Galeforce Wind Turbines Ltd., Unit P8 Enkalon Ind Est, 25 Randalstown Rd,
Antrim, BT41 4LD. Tel. (028) 94 464301, Fax. (028) 428835. Email:
info@galeforce.nireland.co.uk Website: http://www.galeforce.nireland.co.uk
Agents for the Fortis range of wind turbines.

GB Windpumps, 22 Innox Hill, Frome, Somerset, BA11 2LW, UK. Tel. (01373)
454633. Email: gbwindpumps@supanet.com
Install wind pump systems.

Gilbert Gilkes & Gordon Ltd., Canal Head, Kendal, Cumbria, England LA9
7B2. Tel. +44 (0) 1539 720028, Fax. +44 (0) 1539 732110. Website:
http://www.gilkes.com
Suppliers of micro hydro systems.

Grundfos Pumps Ltd, Unit 34, Stillorgan Industrial Pk, Blackrock, Co.
Dublin. Tel. (01) 2954 926.
Suppliers of solar powered pump systems.

Home Power Magazine, 312 North Main St, Phoenix, Oregon 97535, UUSA.
Tel +1 541 512 0201, fax. +1 541 512 0343. Website:
http://www.homepower.com
An excellent magazine and website with downloadable articles on building your own
renewable energy systems.

Institute of Energy and Sustainable Development, De Montfort University,
Scraptoft Campus, Leicester LE1 9BH, UK, Tel: +44 (0)116.255 1551, Fax: +44
(0)116.255 0307, Webpage: http://www.iesd.dmu.ac.uk/index.htm
Run an MSc Course on Climate Change & Sustainable Development.

Irish Bioenergy Association, Education Centre, Church St., Cahir, Co.
Tipperary, Tel: 052 43090, Fax: 052 43012, Webpage:
http://homepage.eircom.net/~tippenergysal/IrBEA/ The aim of the association is
to promote biomass as an environmentally, economically and socially sustainable
indigenous energy resource and also promote its non-energy related benefits.

51
Irish Wind Energy Association, Arigna, Carrick-on-Shannon, Co. Roscommon,
Ireland. Tel.(078) 46229, Fax. (078) 46016. Email. Iwea@indigo.ie
Produce quarterly newsletter In the Wind.

Marlec Engineering Products Ltd. Tel. (01563) 543020. Website:
http://www.marlec.co.uk
Manufacturer of small wind turbine systems.

Mayo Energy Agency; Unit 1, The Quay, Ballina, Co Mayo, Tel: +353 96
74034, Fax: +353 96 72950, Website:
http://www.hompage.eircom.net/~mayonrg

Met Eireann, Glasnevin Hill, Dublin 9, Ireland. Tel. (01) 8064200, Fax. (01) 806
4247.
The Irish Meteorological Service. Provide information on wind speed and sunlight hours
for specific stations.

Neale Consulting Engineers, 43 Downing Street, Farnham, Surrey, GU9 7PH,
UK. Tel (01252) 722255, Fax. (01252) 737106. Email ncel@tribology.co.uk
Website: http://www.tribology.co.uk
Design and install windpumps worldwide.

NEF Renewables- National Energy Foundation, Davy Avenue,
Knowhall, Milton Keynes, MK5 8NG. Tel. (01908) 665555, Fax. (01908)
665577. Website: http://www.greenenergy.org.uk
Information on all toes of renewable energy including micro hydro systems.

Northern Ireland Electricity, 120 Malone Rd, Belfast BT9 5HT, Northern
Ireland. Tel (028) 90661100, Website: www.nie.co.uk

Pre-Cast Products Ltd, Ballindud, Tramore Rd, Waterford, Ireland. Tel. (051)
374048, Fax. (051) 371077.
Agent for Poldaw windpumps. 3.5m and 5.0m

Proven Engineering Products Ltd., Moorfield Industrial Estate, Kilmarnock,
Ayrshire KA2 OBA. Tel. (01563) 543020, Fax. (01563) 539119
Manufacturers of wind turbines 600W to 6kW.

Quasar Solar Electric Company, Screggan, Tullamore, Co. Offaly. Email:
quasar@tinet.ie
Suppliers of PV systems.

Renewable Energy Office (N.I), 1 Nugents Entry, Off Townhall St, Enniskillen,
Co. Fermanagh, BT74 7DF, Northern Ireland. Tel 048 66328269, Fax 048
66329771. Email: reoni@dial.pipex.com.

Renewable Energy Information Office, Contact: Irish Energy Centre, Shinagh
House, Bandon, Co. Cork. Tel: 023 42193, Fax: 023 41304, Email:
renewables@reio.ie, Web: www.irish-energy.ie/reio.htm

52
Scoraig Wind Electric, Hugh Piggot, Scoraig, Dundonnell, Ross shire, Scotland
IV23 2RE. Tel. (01854) 633286. Email. Hugh.piggot@enterprise.net
Author of numerous books including the excellent Its A Breeze! and Windpower Workshop.
(Essential reading for those considering using windpower). Specialist in small scale wind
turbine systems.

Solar Sense, c/o The Environment Centre, Pier St, Swansea SA1 1RY. Tel.
(01792) 371690, Fax. (01792) 371390.
Suppliers of solar heating and electrical systems

Solaris, Kilnarovanagh, Toames, Macroom, Co. Cork. Tel/Fax. (026) 46312
Suppliers of solar heating and PV systems.

Solar Twin Ltd, 15 King Street, Chester, CH1 2AH, England, UK,
Tel: +44 (0) 1244 403 404 Fax: +44 (0) 1244 403 654, Webpage:
http://www.johnston.u-net.com/ UK based company selling domestic solar
heating systems.

Sonairte - National Ecology Centre, The Ninch, Laytown, Co. Meath, Ireland.
Tel. (041) 9827572, Fax. (041) 9828130. Email: sonairte@drogheda.edunet.ie
A renewable energy park and ecology centre.

Sustainable Energy Ireland, Shinagh House, Bandon, Co. Cork, Ireland. Tel
(023) 42193,Fax (023) 41304. Website http://www.irish-energy.ie
An excellent website and the first port of call for anybody interested in renewable energy.
Numerous leaflets and explanatory booklets available on everything from hydropower to
anaerobic digesters; free publications.

Tipperary Energy agency Ltd, Education Centre, Church St., Cahir, Co.
Tipperary, Ireland, Tel: 052 43090, Fax: 052 43102, Website:
http://www.homepage.eircom.net/~tea/savenergy/

UK Solar Energy Society, c/o School of Engineering, Oxford Brookes
University, Gipsy Lane Campus, Headington, Oxford, OX3 OBP. Tel. (01865)
484 367, Fax. (01865) 484 263. Email: uk-ises@brookes.ac.uk Website:
http://www.brookes.ac.uk
Information and facts on solar energy. Organise conferences on renewable energy.

U.S. Department of Energy Photovoltaics Program. Website
http://www.eren.doe.gov/pv/

Wavegen, 50 Seafield Rd, Longman Industrial Estate, Inverness, IV1 1LZ.
Tel (01463) 238094, Fax. (02463) 238096. Website http://www.wavegen.co.uk
World leaders in wave energy turbines. A good website for information on wave
energy.

Wim Lunne. Website:
http://www.geocities.com/wim_klunne/hydro/link.html
Links to hydropower sites around the world. A great source of information.

53
World Power Technologies, 19 North Lake Avenue, Duluith, MN 55802, USA.
Tel. +1218722 1492, Fax.+1 218 722 01791.
Manufacturers of the Whisper range of wind turbines.

54

Renewable Energy Potential for Aquaculture Farms

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RES OURCE DEVELOPMENT /ENVI RONMENT & QUALI TY S ECTI ON

The Potential for Renewable Energy Usage in

The recent UN World Summit on Sustainable Development held in South Africa

Use energy efficient equipment.

OFFSHORE WIND ENERGY

Solar Water Heating

At De Montfort University in the UK, the

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