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Hydraulics

Hydraulic systems use fluid in a pipe to transmit and increase force so that pilots can operate controls and
systems remotely and at loads far above their capacity.

An active hydraulic system (powered system), have pumps which provide the operating power. Pilot just
controls the system.

The passive hydraulic systems are without pumps. Pilot produces the pressure.

Pascal's Law: In an enclosed container, the pressure is equal throughout the fluid and acts in every
direction and at right angles to the container walls.

Pressure is the energy raised in the fluid. By acting on an area it produces a force. Mathematically:
Force = Pressure x Area or Pressure = Force / Area

A perfect fluid is incompressible which in reality does not exist as there is a little bit of compressibility
involved. However fluid can be considered incompressible if it compresses only about 10% of its volume
when a force of 32 tons per square inch is applied. This is about 70,000 psi which is well above the max
operarting pressures (3000-5000 psi) of aircraft systems.


Finding the Input or Output Distance
An input force of 100 lbs is acting on a piston of 2 sq in with a stroke of 3 in. What will the output distance
be for a piston area of 10 sq in?
Formula:
Input Force x Input Distance = Output Force x Output Distance
100 x 3 = Output Force x Output Distance
Output Distance = 300 / Output Force
We can find the output force from the formula:
Force = Pressure x Area
Area is 10 (given) and Pressures can be calculated by:
Presusre = Force/Area = 100/2 = 50 psi
Output force = 50 x 10 = 500 lbs
Thus putting in the value of output force:
Output Distance = 300/500 = 0.6 inch
The output distance for a larger piston will always be less than the input distance for a small piston.
It can also be solved by using the formula:
Volume = Area x Length
For the input piston
Volume = 2 x 3 = 6 cubic in
For the ouput piston
Length = Volume/Area
Length = 6 / 10 = 0.6 inch
If the force is required, use F = A x P

Components of an Active (Powered) Hydraulic System include pumps, selector valves, non return valves
and actuators. More complex systems will need a reservoir of fluid and an accumulator to act as a store of
energy for emergencies and to smooth out the power delivery.

Hydraulic Pumps: Spur gear and rotor type pumps are generally used in lower pressure systems of light
aircraft whereas piston pumps are used in larger aircraft.

Actuators turn the hydraulic pressure into movement. There are three types of actuators:
1) Single Acting: Hydraulic pressures moves them in one direction only. Return movement being
under spring action.
2) Double Acting Balanced: Hydraulic pressures moves them in both directions. The actuator will
give equal force of extension and retraction.
3) Double Acting Unbalanced: Hydraulic pressures moves them in both directions. The actuator
will give different forces of extension and retraction.
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Hydraulic leaks can result in drop or loss of system pressure and a rise in the temperature of the
remaining fluid creating a fire hazard. Thus hydraulic components have to be sealed to prevent both
internal and external leakage. Seals that are fitted between moving surfaces are termed dynamic seals and
those between two fixed parts are termed static seals. Backing rings are fitted to dynamic seals to prevent
them rolling out.

A four port rotary selector has two fluid paths (one into the actuator and the other to the reservoir) and is
used with a double acting actuator.

A two port rotary selector has one fluid path and is used with a single acting actuator.

Spool (pilot) valve is cylindrical and forms a sliding fit in its housing. Valve movement causes fluid flow.

Hydraulic Lock: When there is no fluid movement (in or out of the actuator) then the actuator piston gets
locked.

The Open Centred System
In this system only one actuator can be operated at a time.
The fluid is pumped continuously (by the spur gear EDP) around the system through the centre of the
open centred selectors.
On selection of a service, pump's output is diverted into the selected actuator.
When the pressure reaches a set level the selector automatically returns to the open position (locking the
actuator).
A pressure relief Valve is installed just incase the selector fails to return to the open position.

A common design of a pressure relief valve (PRV) consists of a ball valve held onto a valve seat by spring
pressure. At normal working pressure the valve remains firmly seated. A rise in pressure will unseat the
ball, allowing the fluid to return to the reservoir. The pressure at which the ball first lifts is called the
cracking pressure. If the valve can relieve the total output of the pump it is called a full flow relief valve.
The valve will start to close when the pressure drops. The pressure at which the valve seats is called the
re-seating pressure, which will always be below the cracking pressure.

The pressure relief valve can also act as a Thermal Relief Valve (TRV), tapping off system pressure caused
by thermal expansion. This condition may occur when a hydraulic lock is formed and there is very little
fluid flow. As a thermal relief Valve, it operates at higher pressures than a pressure relief valve.

Non Return Valves (NRV): A common design is a ball valve held on to a seat by spring force. Fluid pressure
only in one direction will unseat the ball allowing flow.

A shuttle valve is used to allow one service to be operated by two independent supplies at different times.
e.g. If the primary supply fails, the secondary supply will push the shuttle across automatically connecting
the service to it and isolating the primary port.

Restrictor or Choke Valves are used to reduce the flow of fluid in order to reduce the speed of operation of
a service. A one way restrictor has full flow (shown by bold arrow on the case) in one direction and
reduced flow (shown by arrow made of dots) in the return direction.
Two way restrictor slows the flow in both directions.

Throttling valves (form of restrictors) ensure correct fluid flow rate to and from a component. As the
supply flow rate increases the valve closes down throttling, or reducing the output.

Flow control valves are used upstream of the hydraulic motors to ensure an even flow rate to maintain
constant speed.

Pressure Reducing Valves reduce the operating pressure supplied to sub-systems. As the pressure rises
the valve is forced up against the spring, reducing the size of the inlet until the proper combination
(flow/inlet size) produces the required sub system pressure. Large increase in sub system pressure can
completely close the inlet and open the outlet to return. e.g. these valves are use to supply pressure to
brakes.

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Sequence Valves: Hydraulic sequence valves work by directing system fluid into one service ensuring its
complete operation before the fluid is able to enter the second service e.g. landing gear doors open before
the landing gear extends.

Hydraulic Fuses: Fitted upstream of components to shut off flow and prevent total loss of system fluid
incase there is a leak. The service will be inoperative but the rest of the system will function as normal.

Modulators: It is fitted between the brake control valve and the single acting pistons of the brake unit and
provides fine control of brake pressure in the maxarets.

Priority Valve or Pressure Maintaining Valve (PMV): If the pressure drops below a set limit, the priority
valve (PMV) closes and isolates the non-essential services. Remaining pressure will go to the primary
services.

Types of Hydaulic Fluids:
Mineral Based - DTD 585
o It is made from kerosene and is coloured red for identification.
o It must be used with synthetic rubber seals and hoses only.
o It has a kerosene base and is thus flammable. However it has high boiling and flash point
temperatures.
o It is chemically stable to a high temperature and has good resistance to foaming.
Synthetic Base Skydrol
o Modern transport aircraft use synthetic based (base is phosphate ester) fluid generically
known as Skydrol.
o It comes in three grades, the common one being 500A, which is coloured purple.
o It is fire resistant and do not support combustion.
o It has a lower viscosity meaning less probability of cavitation.
o It must be used with butyl rubber, ethylene propylene or teflon seals and hoses.
o It meets all the requirements for aircraft hydraulic fluids (low viscosity, foaming resistant,
high lubricity, corrosion resistant, heat resistant, chemically stable, low freezing point, hight
boiling point and non-flammabale).

Different types of hydraulic fluid must not be mixed and used together.

Colours specified are for fluid identification. They apply to new fluids only. While in use the colour
darkens and may eventually appear the same for all fluids.

Temperature regulation of hydraulic fluids: To maintain the optimum fluid temperature it is passed
through a heat exchanger before entering the reservoir. Heat exchanger can be a ram air unit or (more
commonly) a fuel/fluid one. Over heated fluid will discolour by darkening and becoming more viscous.

Filtration:
The hydraulic fluid is filtered to remove any debris greater than 25 microns.
Filter is installed downstream of the pump, considering the pump being a likely source of contamination.
This is referred to as a full flow micronic pressure filter (FFMPF).
Some systems fit a filter unit into the return line before the reservoir and in some systems both
installations are made (FFMPF + before the reservoir).
When the filter element starts to clog a differential pressure actuates a light as an indication.

At a set level the differential will operate the bypass valve allowing unfiltered fluid to flow through the
system. On some filters this (bypass activation) will be indicated by a red button, referred to as "filter
popping". It is an indication of impending operation.

The security of the hydraulic system comprises of:
o Filters
o Pressure Relief Valves
o By-pass valves
o Shut-off valves (Incase of pump failure or engine fire), will prevent hydraulic fluid being delivered
to and out of the pumps.

Fixed Volume or Constant Displacement Pumps: are high-pressure engine driven pumps (EDP) and move
a constant volume of fluid into the system for each revolution regardless of the system pressure. The
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reciprocating action of the piston is achieved by angling the body of the pump. To regulate the system
pressure and reduce wear on the pump an automatic cut out valve (ACOV) and its associated accumulator
must be used. Cooling and lubrication is by done by allowing fluid leakage. The fluid exits through the case
drain to return to the reservoir.

Automatic Cut-Out Valve (ACOV)
The automatic cut-out valve (ACOV) is used to regulate the pressure in the system between a high setting
and a low setting when a constant volume pump is used to power the hydraulic system.
When system pressure builds up, the poppet valve opens and the NRV closes.
The opening of the poppet valve allows the fluid to flow to the reservoir.
This now provides an idling circuit for the pumps total output and the ACOV is said to be "Kicked Out"
Operation of any service will cause a drop in the system pressure.
When it falls to the value of the lower setting, the spring snaps the poppet valve closed.
The pump output is directed back into the system. This is referred to as the 'Kick In' pressure (which is
lower than kick out pressure).
An accumulator is always used in conjunction with the ACOV to prevent the ACOV cutting In and Out
rapidly (called ACOV or hydraulic hammering which can be caused due to a leak).

Accumulators:
o Store fluid under pressure (energy)
o Provide a limited supply of pressure in an emergency
o Dampen out pressure fluctuations
o Allow for thermal expansion
o Cater for small internal leaks
One side of the container is connected to the hydraulic system and the other is charged with nitrogen gas.

Variable Volume or Constant Pressure Pumps:
The pump self regulates and only supplies the fluid needed to maintain the constant working pressure
within the system.
Unlike the fixed volume pump the drive and cylinder block are directly in line.
ACOV and its associated accumulator are not required in systems using a variable volume pump.
A movable "swash plate" controls the piston travel. So at neutral position the pistons will not pump any
fluid providing an idle condition for the pump.
The swash plate is controlled by a piston (hanger piston). Spring pressure moves it towards the maximum
deflection or "on stroke' and system pressure moves it towards the neutral position or "off stroke".
On start up of the engine (no system pressure) the pump will be at maximum stroke, trying to pressurise
the whole system on starter motor power.
To offload the starter motor a blocking valve is used.
The pump is lubricated and cooled again by internal fluid leakage to the case drain.

Blocking Valve:
A blocking valve is used to keep starting loads on the engine to a minimum by setting a variable output
EDP to zero output.
The blocking valve is closed by a spring and opened by system pressure.
In the hydraulic depressurisation mode (during engine starting) a solenoid is energised. The blocking
valve remains shut thus blocking the output.
The pump pressure developed helps the control piston to move the swash plate to the neutral position
thus offloading the pump.
In the hydraulic pressurisation mode (engine at idling RPM) the solenoid is de-energised. The blocking
valve opens and the pump goes to maximum deflection.
Actuation of the fire handle operates the de-pressurising solenoid and the fluid supply valves are operated
to isolate the EDPs. Both valves use 28 volts DC.

Backup Hydraulic Power
1) Power Transfer Unit (PTU): With more than one hydraulic system, back up power to a system in
the event of failure of the main pump can be obtained by use of hydraulic motor in one system to
operate a hydraulic pump in another system. A flow of fluid enters the motor creating rotary
motion which in turn drives the pump. Fluid does not transfer from one system to the other. Only
the power is transferred thus referred to as power transfer unit.
2) Air Turbine Motors: Bleed air of a gas turbine engine is used to run an Air Turbine Motor which
drives a hydraulic pump.
3) Electric (AC) Pumps: Driven by electric motors. Output is less than EDPs.
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4) Ram Air Turbines (RAT): When the RAT is deployed, the blades will windmill in the slipstream
and drive a hydraulic pump. A speed sensor will control the pitch of the blades to prevent over
speeding. A RAT's flow rate is much smaller that the EDP thus it's use is usually limited to
primary flying controls.
5) Hand Pumps.

Pressure Gauges:
1) Direct Reading Gauges: Have a curved "Bourdon" tube inside them which is filled with hydraulic
fluid. Increase in the system pressure will also increase the pressure in the tube causing it to try
and straighten. This movement is translated into a reading.
2) Pressure Transmitters: Based on pressure transducers which sense pressure and convert the
signal into an electrical output.

Hydraulic pressure sensors are fitted at pump's outlet.

Pressurized Reservoirs: As compared to reservoirs which are vented to atmosphere, pressurised
reservoirs prevent fluid boiling at high altitude and provide a positive pressure at the inlet to the EDPs to
prevent cavitation.