1 ECX 4233 Communication 2013/2014

ECX 4233 Communication

Academic Year 2013/2014

TMA #1 Answer Guide

1. (a) What were the three main developments in communication technologies during the last 20
years? By Giving reasons, justify your answer. Refer dayschool note 1

Analog Digital
Wired Wireless
Narrowband Broadband
Circuit Switching Packet Switching
2.

(b) http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-T/gsc/Pages/default.aspx

The ANSI (American National Standards Institute)
The EIA (Electronics Industry Alliance)
TIA (Telecommunications Industry Association)
IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers)
ATIS (The Association for Telecommunications Industry Solutions)
ISO (International Organization for Standardization)
The ITU (International Telecommunications Union)


main parties interest in Standerization process
Standerization Institutions mentioned above
Researches
Equipment manufactures
Venders
Telecommunication service proiveders
Field experts (Managers, Engineers, technicians..etc)
Academia
Government officials

Advantages
- Able to design and build networks efficiently, interoperability and compatibility.
- Greatly help to enable the interconnection of systems equipment and networks from
different manufactures, vendors and operators.

Refer dayschool note 1 and following note for more details.
http://www.etsi.org/standards/why-we-need-standards







(c) Draw a block diagram of hierarchical PSTN and state number planning procedure for the same
network.


The levels of the hierarchy depends on the size of the country. For small countries the number of
levels can be less.
Local Exchange :Connects the customers to their local exchanges or connects them directly if fall
under the same local exchange.
Primary Switching Center:
It connects calls between local areas or passes calls to the secondary switching center.
(Interconnects local exchanges to a trunk exchange.
Secondary Switching Center : Connects primary switching centers to Tertiary switching centers.
Tertiary Switching Center : Connects long distance calls between local areas throughout the
country. Also passes International calls to the International Gateway.


Tertiary Switching
Centre
Secondary
Switching
Centre
Primary
Switching
Centre
Local
Exchanges
International
Gateway
3 ECX 4233 Communication 2013/2014

In the case of international numbering the first part of the number is international prefix. This is
usually 00 or +. If this is dialed by a subscriber, the exchange gets to know that the user is trying an
international number. Next part is the country code. This is an internationally agreed code by all the
telephone operators in the world. Sri Lanka has the country code 94. Country codes are not needed
for national or local calls made by subscribers. The final part of the telephone number is the
subscriber number which identifies the user in a particular area. STD prefix 0 is omitted in an
international call.

(d) Consider a telephone call, which is made between A and B, who belongs to the same
telecommunication service provider. Considering telecommunication hierarchical structure
described in section (c), indicate routing paths for the following cases.
(i) If A and B are in the same local area.
(ii) If A and B are in different local areas but in the same secondary switching center area.
(iii) If A and B are in different local areas and in different secondary switching center areas.



Anwer is depend on the structure you have drawn under section (c)

(e) Discuss advantages and disadvantage of the NGN architecture over hierarchical networking
structure.

Advantages
- Packet based network able to provide multiple services. Voice, fax, internet, video etc Quality
of serive is high Qos
4 ECX 4233 Communication 2013/2014

- With in one platform, user can select the service
- Support mobility

Disadvantages

- Always switching or service requests done thorugh main center.
- If Main center fail, entire network will fail.
- Difficult to intergrate with existing PSTN infrastructure.


Q2. (a) Draw a complete block diagram of a subscribers electronic telephone set and explain its
operation.


We can summarize the basic operation of a telephone as follows.
In telephones, voice is converted into electrical signals by using a microphone whose resistance
changes depending on the sound wave. The telephone is biased with a negative battery voltage (-
48V) and therefore the varying resistance of the microphone is converted into a varying current. This
current allows the signal to be transmitted along the telephone line to the central office or PABX for
redistribution. Communication from the exchange involves electrical signals that are sent back to the
telephone and converted into voice by the speaker in the handset. Generating the electrical signals
to allow speech to be sent to the telephone is achieved by using a Subscriber Line Interface Circuit
(SLIC) that is essentially a line driver.
We can identify the main circuits of the subscribers telephone instrument as given below:
1. ON/OFF hook switch
2. Transmitter (Microphone)
3. Receiver (Speaker)
4. Dialling circuit
5. Ringing circuit
6. Hybrid network
7. Equalizer circuit

(b) What is a 2W/4W hybrid and why it is needed at the end of the subscriber line?

Digital exchanges require receive and transmit signals on separate two-wire circuits.
This calls for two-wire to four-wire conversion. Such a conversion is normally
5 ECX 4233 Communication 2013/2014

required for trunk transmissions in analog exchanges. The circuit that performs 2-wire to
4-wire conversion is called Hybrid.

The 2W/4W hybrid performs the following operations:
separates the transmitting and receiving signals
matches the impedance of the 2W local loop to the network circuit
provides a loss to signals arriving on the receiving path, preventing them from entering
the transmitting path, which would cause echo.

(c) Explain the subscriber loop signaling and list the sequence of operations occur along with the
corresponding signals interchanged among the calling subscriber, telephone exchange and the
called subscriber during a successful call.
Refer dayschool note 1.

Q3. (a) Tabulate the main features of the following switching systems:
1. Manual switching
2. Electromechanical switching
3. Electronic switching
4. Digital switching
5. Soft switching
-

Switching
System
Operation
Method of
Switching
Type of Control
Type of
Network
Mannual 1878 manual
operator
manual space/analog human plug/cord/jack
Electro-
Mechanical
1892 step-by-step electromechanical space/analog
distributed stage-
by-stage
stepping switch
train
1918 cross-bar electromechanical space/analog common control X-bar switch
Electronic 1960 ESSfirst
generation
semielectronic space/analog common control reed switch
1972 ESS
second generation
semielectronic space/analog
stored program
control
reed switch
Digital 1976 ESSthird
generation
electronic time/digital
stored program
common control
pulse code
modulation
http://hyperline-cables.com/info/fund_telecom/index.php?id=3
6 ECX 4233 Communication 2013/2014


Please check the link given below. This book gives more in detail explanation of switching systems.
Indeed, it's a good book to study about switching systems.
http://books.google.lk/books?id=ghCiNHzWvL4C&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r
&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false

Classical Switching systems.


Switching system
Manual
Automatic
Electromechanical Electronic (SPC)
Space Division
Switching
Time Division
Switching
Digital Analog
Space
Switch
Time
Switch
Combination
Switch
Strowger or
Step by Step
Crossbar




Softswitching
Softswitch is a central device in a telecommunications network which connects telephone calls from
one phone line to another, across a telecommunication network or the public Internet, entirely by
means of software running on a general-purpose system. Most landline calls are routed by purpose-
built electronic hardware however, soft switches using general purpose servers and VoIP technology
are becoming more popular.
Nowadays, many telecommunications networks make use of combinations of softswitches and more
traditional purpose-built hardware.

A softswitch is also a VoIP server, providing a soft switch platform with full IP PBX call features. The
most difference from IP PBX is its enormous numbers of users.

refer
http://www.voip-info.org/wiki/view/softswitch
http://www.wifinotes.com/mobile-communication-technologies/what-is-soft-switch.html
7 ECX 4233 Communication 2013/2014



(b) Draw a block diagram of Electronic switch and explain the functions of each block. What is
stored program control (SPC)? Discuss the advantages of SPC automation in telephone switching.
Basically electronic switch consist with four modules.
Access module subscribers connect to this module
Switching module switching is done by this module
Control module main controller of exchange
Maintenance module maintenance tasks doing through this module
Refer dayschool note.

This diagram shows basic structre of a local exchange for a wired network. In tandom exchange
MDF segment is not available.

Access Module
From MDF to subscriber is known as the access Network. MDF is the flexible point that subscriber
lines connected to exchange. From MDF, subscriber lines connected to subscriber connection Unit
(SCU). There are two types of subscriber connection units called local & remote.
If the SCU is installed in the same Premises with exchange, then its called as a local SCU. SCU
connected to switching matrix via PCM trunks. If the demand is far away from (3 -4km) the
exchange area, then it is a remote SCU. Then it is called RSU (Remote Subscriber Unit). RSU is a like a
small exchange itself. Main Controller in exchange controller the local controller in SCU.

Since RSU is located far away from an exchange, it is necessary to add line coding techniques to PCM
trunks in order to eliminate transmission errors. Therefore, there is additional equipment in
between RSU & exchange. The main responsibility of that interface is to add and remove line coding
& error corrections in PCM transmission.
8 ECX 4233 Communication 2013/2014


Figure: RSU
Main task performs by SCU
Concentration: all the subscriber usually not taking calls simultaneously. Statistically found that it is
sufficient to keep the ratio 8:1 between analog lines and PCM lines.
Power supply: loop voltage -48V are supplied with analog subscriber lines
A/D & D/A conversion: voice calls are analog and exchange is working for digital signals. Conversion
is done by the SCU.
Ringing Current Provision: when the subscriber receives a call, that signal is sent via AC voltage. Since
exchange work in DC current, SCU inverts DC to AC current and sending ringing current when it is
needed.
Line testing: Subscriber to exchange line testing done by SCU.
Switching Module
The main function of switching module is to make switching between lines. Switching matrix is
performing circuit switching and this is done by electronic circuits in the exchange. The switching
capacity depends on the Manufacture and model.
Control module
Control module is the basically brain of the exchange. All the decision taken by this module. This is
normally a microprocessor subsystem. Call desiccation taken by using an exchange database. The
data base contains all the data referred to call routing & subscribers and number planning etc.
Controlling signals needed to operate Subscriber connecting modules also send by this module. Also
signal controlling, tone generation & receiving done by this subsystem. The control module may
consist with several sub modules that specifically to particular tasks.
Maintenance module
The entire maintenance task should go through this module. This module basically consists with
several terminal PC, storage devices and printers. Call routing, adding, deleting data from the
9 ECX 4233 Communication 2013/2014

database, adding or removing hardware components and all other interaction with switch is done
thorough this module.

In stored program control systems, a program or set of instructions to the computer is
stored in its memory and the instructions are executed automatically one by one by the
processor. Carrying out the exchange control functions through programs stored in the memory of a
computer led to this name.
There are two approaches to organizing stored program control:
1. Centralized: In this control, all the control equipment is replaced by a single processor which
must be quite powerful.
2. Distributed: In this control, the control functions are shared by many processors within the
exchange itself.
Advantages of SPC:
o Easy to control
o Easy to maintain
o Flexible
o Wide range of services can be provided to customers.
o Increase level of automotive in switching
Typical Centralized SPC Organization












(c) Describe the three forms of signaling are involved in a telecommunication network.
1. Subscriber loops signaling.
2. register signaling
3. inter register signaling
Refer extra material for more information.
(d) Write short notes in following topics.
1. Common channel signaling
2. Channel associated signaling
3. No 7 signaling
4. R2 signaling

Processor
Signal Distributor Scanners
Maintenace
console
Memory
Secondary storge :
Call Recording, Program
storage etc
From Lines To Lines
10 ECX 4233 Communication 2013/2014

Channel Associated signaling CAS (in channel signaling)
With this method of signalling each traffic channel has a dedicated signalling channel. In other words
the signalling for a particular traffic circuit is permanently associatedwith that circuit. This makes CAS
inflexible and slow
Common Channel Signalling - CCS
uses a dedicated link between Stored Program Controlled Exchanges for the transmission of
signalling information.CCS only requires one signalling channel for up to 1000 traffic channels. It is
able to do this by only signalling when required, unlike CAS which signals even if nothing has
happened. CCS is faster, more flexible and allow greater services.
Fore more information refer following link.
https://drive.google.com/folderview?id=0B5TcsbqiGCkhNTZqWVBqREFVRGs&usp=sharing

Signaling System No. 7 (SS7)
Signaling System No. 7 (SS7) is a telecommunications protocol suite defined by the ITU-T which is
used by the telephone companies for interoffice signaling. SS7 uses common-channel signalling (CCS)
techniques and it uses a separate packet-switched network for the signalling purpose. Other names
used to call SS7 are CCSS7, C7, Number 7, CCIS7 etc.
The primary function of SS7 is to provide call control, remote network management, and
maintenance capabilities for the inter-office telephone network. SS7 performs these functions by
exchanging control p between SS7 telephone exchanges (signalling points or SPs) and SS7 signalling
transfer points (STPs). Basically, the SS7 control network tells the switching office which paths to
establish over the circuit-switched network
SS7 applications
SS7 is often used for applications such as basic call set up in public switched telephone network
(PSTN), wireless infrastructure, IP signaling gateways, and a wide variety of in-network enhanced
services, including voice and fax messaging, one-number/follow-me, number portability, and pre-
paid services.
R2 Signaling
R2 signalling is part of the CAS (Channel Associated Signalling) protocols where dedicated channels
are assigned to each traffic channel. R2 or Region Two signalling was originally envisaged to apply to
Europe where R1 or Region One would apply to the US.

Q4. (a) What is meant by Grade of Service? Briefly explains its significance in planning the equipment
of a telephone exchange.

Grade of Service can be defined as a measure of the service provided.
Grade of service =


= proportion of the time which congestion exists
= probability of congestion
= probability that a call will be lost due to congestion
11 ECX 4233 Communication 2013/2014

An ideal automatic telephone exchange means an exchange which contains the facility to enable any
caller to make a successful call at any time. That is equipment must be provided to allow this even
at the busiest peak of the busy hour. In such exchange, plant is not efficiently used most of the time
and hence very uneconomical. Therefore, in order to provide service at a reasonable cost, some part
of traffic in the busy hour is allowed to be lost. This recognized standard of service is called as the
grade of service. When planning equipment in an exchange, it must be done in order to provide the
service described by its grade of service.

(b)
(i) Grading & Trunking
Grading - The arrangement of switches and interconnecting trunks in an exchange.
Trunking - Trunking is the connection of switches and circuits within a telephone exchange.
Trunking allows a group of inlet switches to receive several calls on some inlet group and
route them to a limited no. of outlets.
(ii) Smooth and Pure chance traffic
PURE CHANCE TRAFFIC

The number of calls in progress varies from one instant to the next, the actual number depending on
the time of origin and the duration of each call. In practice, although not theoretically correct, the
traffic originated by subscribers is assumed to be of a pure chance nature.
Pure chance traffic is defined as traffic in which a call is as likely to originate at one moment as at
any other; this implies that the number of sources from which calls originate is infinite. In practice
the number of sources is always finite and if all the sources originated calls simultaneously there
would be no liklihood of any further calls occurring. However, the proportion of the number of
sources to the number of calls in progress at any one time is usually very small, consequently it is
reasonable to assume that subscribers' traffic is originated on a basis of pure chance.

SMOOTH TRAFFIC

Where the traffic on a group of circuits does not at any time differ greatly from the average traffic
measured over a period of time, it is said to be 'smooth'. Smooth traffic conditions apply

(a) when the number of sources from which the calls originate is small and the traffic large,
since in such circumstances the chance of a further call being originated diminishes as the
number of calls in progress grows larger.

(b) at a particular stage in a series of stages when the peaks of the originating traffic have been
spread over a number of groups of circuits by the interconnexion arrangements. The
smoother the traffic the fewer the number of circuits required to deal with a given volume
of traffic at the same grade of service.


(c) We can use Erlangs B formula to find the solutions for this question.

=
=
=
N x
x
x
r
x
A
r
A
r P
0
!
!
) ( where, A = Average offered traffic , N=no. of outlets
12 ECX 4233 Communication 2013/2014

r = no. of simultaneously occupied outlets or circuits
P(r) = probability of r outlets are simultaneously occupied (busy)

Grade of service =

=
=
= =
N x
x
x
N
x
A
N
A
B A N P
0
!
!
) , (

(i) Grade of Service = P(N,A) =
! 10
4
.......
2
4
1
4
1
! 10
4
10 2
10
+ + + +
= 0.005

(ii) the prob. That only 2 trunks are busy = = ) 2 ( P
! 10
4
.......
2
4
1
4
1
! 2
4
10 2
2
+ + + +
=0.147

(iii) the prob. That at least 2 trunks are free = 1 -P(9)-P(10) (i.e. maximum of 8 trunks
are busy)
=
! 10
4
.......
2
4
1
4
1
! 10
4
! 10
4
.......
2
4
1
4
1
! 9
4
1
10 2
10
10 2
9
+ + + +

+ + + +
=0.9946
(iv)

=
=
=
N x
x
x
N
x
A
N
A
A N P
0
!
!
) , (

=
=

=
1
0
1
!
)! 1 (
) , 1 (
N x
x
x
N
x
A
N
A
A N P
If one trunk is out of service,

=
=
=
9
0
9
!
4
! 9
4
) , 9 (
x
x
x
x
A P = 0.0133
(v) If 10% increase in offered traffic,
New offered traffic A = 4 x 110/100 = 4.4

Grade of Service = P(N,A) =
! 10
4 . 4
.......
2
4 . 4
1
4 . 4
1
! 10
4 . 4
10 2
10
+ + + +
= 0.00925

13 ECX 4233 Communication 2013/2014




Question (5) has small corrections. It should be corrected as follow. Full marks given to (b) 4.
Q5.
(a) Define the Erlangs B formula and give the main assumptions made in deriving this.
(b) A trunk line goes from a central switching office to a PBX contains 4 circuits. If the average
call duration is 3 minutes and offered traffic intensity during the busy hour is 2 Erlangs,
determine each of the following.
1. Busy hour calling rate
2. Grade-of-service
3. Amount of lost traffic
4. Probability that no circuits are occupied
5. Probability that less than 3 circuits are occupied
(a)
This formula applies to a full availability group in a loss system, under the following assumptions.
1. The traffic is pure change ie. calls originate individually and collectively at random and if all
circuits are busy then they are rejected and do not return.
2. There are infinite number of inlets (sources) and a finite number of outlets (servers)
Then, the probability that r outlets are simultaneously held is;

=
=
=
+ + + + +
=
N X
X
X
r
N
r
X
A
r
A
N
A A A A
r
A
r P
0
3 2
!
!

!
.....
! 3 ! 2 ! 1
1
!
) (
Where:
A = Average offered traffic
N = No of outlets (circuits)
r = No of simultaneously occupied outlets or circuits
And, for a full availability group of outlets (or circuits) where the above assumptions are valid;
The probability of loss (ie proportion of lost calls or grade of service or the probability of blocking is;

=
=
=
+ + + + +
= =
N X
X
X
N
N
N
X
A
N
A
N
A A A A
N
A
B A N P
0
3 2
!
!

!
.....
! 3 ! 2 ! 1
1
!
) , (
This is called the Erlang's B formula, and gives the time congestion of system.

14 ECX 4233 Communication 2013/2014

(b)
From Erlangs formula, we get the probability that r circuits are simultaneously held as,

( )

=
=
N
x
x
x
A
r
r
A
r P
0
!
!
) (
Where A= average offered traffic.
N= No .of circuits & r= No .of simultaneously occupied circuits.
4 cicuits N = 4 , Average call duration, h = 3 min
Offered traffic = 2E
(i). Let busy hour calling rate = x

1
60
3
2

=
x

x = 40 calls per hour or 10 calls/ hour/line
(ii) The Grade Of Service (G.O.S.)=
( )
( )
( )
095 . 0
3 7
2
!
2
! 4
2
!
!
) (
4
0
4
0
=

= = = =

= = x
x N
x
x
x x
A
N
N
A
N P
(iii) Lost traffic = Offered traffic carried traffic
G.O.S. =
offered traffic
lost traffic



2
lost traffic
095 . 0 =
Traffic lost = 0.19E
(iv) Probability that no circuits are occupied =
( )

=
=
4
0
!
2
! 0
0
2
) 0 (
x
x
x
P = 1/7 =0.143
(iv). Probability that less than 3 circuits are occupied = ) 2 ( ) 1 ( ) 0 ( P P P + + or
) 4 ( ) 3 ( 1 P P
) 2 ( ) 1 ( ) 0 ( P P P + + =
( ) ( )
714 . 0
7
5
7
2
7
2
7
1
!
2
! 2
2
2
!
2
! 1
1
2
) 7 / 1 (
4
0
4
0
= = + + = + +

= = x
x
x
x
x x