MR 63316

EMTP-RV Investigation of a Mho Relay Model for Protection
of 500 kV Series Compensated Transmission Lines

Abhaykumar Babulal Shah
A Thesis
In
The Department
of
Electrical and Computer Engineering
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of Master of Applied Science at
Concordia University
Montreal, Quebec, Canada
April 2009
Abhaykumar Babulal Shah, 2009
1*1
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ABSTRACT
EMTP-RV Investigation of a Mho Relay Model for Protection of 500 kV
Series Compensated Transmission Lines
Abhaykumar Shah
Extra High Voltage (EHV) transmission lines are designed to transfer large
amounts of electrical power from one place to another. The lines being left open to the
environment (wind and bad weather) constitute a major reason for incidence of faults on
the lines. The stability of the entire power system is influenced by the occurrence of
faults on the high voltage transmission lines. Once a fault occurs on such a system, a
delay in clearing the fault is usually not allowable; therefore, protective relays are
installed to protect the lines. On the other hand, many methods have been investigated to
increase the power transfer capability of existing transmission line systems. Due to the
cost and environmental concerns, a number of series compensated lines and parallel lines
are being employed in power system. Series compensation has been widely used for
upgrading existing power systems to compensate for the inductive reactance of long
transmission lines. Adding series capacitors makes sense because they are relatively
inexpensive, simple and could be installed for 20% to 30% of the total cost of the
installation of a new transmission line. They can also provide the advantages of better
voltage regulation, increased system capability and reduced system losses.
This thesis presents the detailed development of a Mho distance relay model and
the residual current compensation in EMTP-RV. The Mho distance relay model is tested
iii
for the protection of two parallel 500 kV, 280 km long transmission lines which are 40%
compensated by fixed series capacitors installed at their remote end. A current
compensation technique is used to compensate for the error and detects correct fault
location under earth fault conditions. The relay model detects faults by measuring and
comparing phase angles between two input (voltage and current) signals through a phase
comparator, using four specially shaped characteristics (three forward zones and one
reverse zone) and applying appropriate logic functions. This thesis presents the
simulation results of improving the measuring accuracy of distance protection under
various fault types, fault locations, fault resistances (Rf) and MOV reference voltages
(V
re
f). The proposed techniques provide protection at high speed and discriminate
between internal and external faults. The fault location based Mho distance relay works
satisfactorily in most cases.
Index terms: Series compensated line, distance algorithm, transmission line protection,
EMTP-RV, simulation, current compensation
IV
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I would like to express my gratitude and deep appreciation for Dr.
Vijay K. Sood for the supervision of this work. His intellectual advice and
encouragement, extraordinary experience and knowledge, freedom of work, patience and
financial assistance in the preparation of this thesis is thankfully acknowledged.
For being a wonderful supervisor, I would like to thank Dr. Venkat
Ramachandran for his comments and financial support throughout this research.
I would also wish to thank Dr. Donald McGillis for providing helpful comments
and guidance for the completion of this manuscript. My hearty thanks to Omar Saad,
Lewis Vaughan, Venkatraman Sundharesan and Jacobson David for their useful
suggestions. Kind acknowledgments are conveyed to my closest and dearest friend
Nikunj Shah for his moral support, unselfish friendship and helpful suggestions and
discussions when needed.
I am greatly indebted to my wife Rupal Shah and children Parshva Shah and
Dhiya Shah for their continued loving support, inspiration, patience and encouragement
to compete this research project. Special thanks to my parents, my in-law and all other
family members and friends who helped in making this project.
v
With honour and love, dedicated to
my beautiful wife Rupal Shah,
my dear children Parshva Shah and Dhiya Shah and my family.
You are the inspiration of my life.
VI
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LI ST OF FIGURES xi
LI ST OF TABLES xv
LI ST OF ACRONYMS xvi
CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 THE NECESSITY FOR PROTECTION [1-4] 1
1.2 OBJECTIVE OF THE THESIS 2
1.3 METHODOLOGY 3
1.4 EMTP-RV: OVERVIEW [5-6] 3
1.5 LITERATURE REVIEW 4
1.6 OUTLINE OF THE THESIS 7
1.7 SUMMARY 9
CHAPTER - 2 POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION 10
2.1 INTRODUCTION 10
2.2 BASIC PROTECTION REQUIREMENTS [26] 12
2.3 TRANSMISSION LINE FAULTS 13
2.3.1 Causes of Faults [2, 4] 15
2.3.2 Effects of Faults [2, 3, 4] 16
2.4 THE IMPORTANCE OF A PROTECTION RELAY 16
2.4.1 Connection of Protective Relay 17
2.4.2 Tripping Arrangement 19
2.5 CLASSIFICATION OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS 19
2.5.1 Over Current Relay [2, 3, 27] 19
2.5.2 Differential Relay [3, 4, 27] 20
vii
2.5.3 Distance Relay [1 - 4, 27] 20
2.5.4 Directional Relays [4] 25
2.6 AUTO-RECLOSING [2, 31] 26
2.6.1 Single-phase Auto-reclosing 26
2.6.2 Three-phase Auto-reclosing 27
2.6.3 Single-shot Auto-reclosing 27
2.6.4 Multi-shot Auto-reclosing 27
2.7 SUMMARY 28
CHAPTER-3 SERIES COMPENSATION 29
3.1. INTRODUCTION 29
3.2 THE PURPOSE OF SERIES COMPENSATION 30
3.3 THE COMPENSATION DEGREE AND LOCATION 31
3.4 TRANSMISSION LINE WITH SERIES COMPENSATION 32
3.5 PROTECTION SCHEMES FOR THE SERIES CAPACITORS 33
3.5.1 Single-Gap Protection Scheme Device 34
3.5.2 Dual-Gap Scheme Device 35
3.5.3 Zno Scheme Device 36
3.6 RELAYING PROTECTION PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH SERIES
CAPACITORS COMPENSATION [1,26, 32] 38
3.6.1 Voltage Reversal (Voltage Inversion) 39
3.6.2 Current Reversal (Current Inversion) 41
3.6.3 Other Protection Problems 41
3.7 SUMMARY 43
CHAPTER-4 MODELING OF MHO RELAY 44
4.1 INTRODUCTION 44
viii
4.2 CONVENTIONAL MHO RELAY MODELING 45
4.3 FAULT DETECTION (BLOCK A) 48
4.3.1 Data Acquisition 48
4.3.2 Calculation 50
4.3.3 Detection Circuit 52
4.4 ZONE AND FAULTY PHASE DETECTION (BLOCK B) 56
4.4.1 Zone Detection 57
4.4.2 Faulty Phases Detection 59
4.4.3 Time Delay 62
4.4.4 Zone Representation 64
4.5 LOGIC CIRCUIT (BLOCK C) 67
4.5.1 Logic Sequence 67
4.5.2 Reclosing 69
4.6 POWER SYSTEM TEST MODEL 71
4.7 SUMMARY 72
CHAPTER - 5 SIMULATION RESULTS 73
5.1 INTRODUCTION 73
5.2 SIMULATION STUDIES 74
5.2.1 Assessment of Relay under Permanent Fault 75
5.2.2 Assessment of Relay under Temporary Fault 115
5.3 SIMULATION RESULTS ANALYSIS 126
5.3.1 Permanent Faults 127
5.3.2 Temporary Faults 130
5.3.3 Capacitor and MOV Operation 131
ix
5.3.4 Ground Faults for Different Fault Resistances 132
5.4 SUMMARY 133
CHAPTER-6 CONCLUSION 135
6.1 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 135
6.2 SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH 137
REFERENCES 139
APPENDIX-A MHO RELAY DATA 144
APPENDIX - B TRANSMISSION LINE DATA 146
APPENDIX-C RELEVANT DEFINITIONS [2, 4, 26] 147
APPENDIX - D LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 150
x
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Zones of protection 11
Figure 2.2: Symmetrical faults (a) Three phase fault (b) Three phase-to-ground fault... 13
Figure 2.3: Unsymmetrical faults (a) Phase-to-Phase fault (b) One phase-to-ground fault
(c) Two phase-to-ground fault (d) Single open conductor (e) Two open
conductors 15
Figure 2.4: Basic connections of a protective relay 17
Figure 2.5: Tripping arrangement 19
Figure 2.6: Operating principle of the distance relay 21
Figure 2.7: Characteristic of impedance relay 22
Figure 2.8: Characteristic of reactance relay 22
Figure 2. 9: Characteristic of Mho relay 22
Figure 2.10: Stepped time-distance characteristics for three zone protection 24
Figure 3.1: Single-line diagram of a series compensated transmission line 32
Figure 3.2: Single-line diagram of aparallel transmission line 33
Figure 3.3: Single-gap scheme device model 35
Figure 3.4: Dual-gap scheme device model 35
Figure 3.5: Zno scheme device 36
Figure 3.6: Typical MOV voltage-ampere characteristic 37
Figure 3.7: Mid-compensated line with fault 39
Figure 3.8: Series compensated transmission line with line side measurement 40
Figure 3.9: Series compensated transmission line with source side measurement 41
Figure 3.10: (a) Line with 50% series compensation (b) Apparent impedance versus position of
fault on line 41
xi
Figure 4.1: Block diagram of conventional Mho relay model 45
Figure 4.2: Capacitor voltage transformer 46
Figure 4.3: Block diagram for fault detection model 48
Figure 4.4: Block diagram of data acquisition model 49
Figure 4.5: Magnitude transfer function v/s frequency for a band-pass filter 49
Figure 4.6: Single line diagram for voltage and current measurement 50
Figure 4.7: Block diagram for voltages and currents detection model 52
Figure 4.8: Compensation model 55
Figure 4.9: Polar multiplication 56
Figure 4.10: Zone and faulty phase detection model 57
Figure 4.11: Zone detection model 58
Figure 4.12: Faulty phase detection model 59
Figure 4.13: Block diagram to obtain the impedance trajectory for each phase 60
Figure 4.14: Phase comparator 61
Figure 4.15: Block diagram for time delay model 63
Figure 4.16: Timeout model 64
Figure 4.17: Zone representation 65
Figure 4.18: Zone characteristic 66
Figure 4.19: Block diagram for the logic circuit model 67
Figure 4.20: Logic sequence 68
Figure 4.21: Logic diagram for the reclosing model 69
Figure 4.22: Mho relay model 70
Figure 4.23: Power system model 71
xii
Figure 5.1: Simulation power system model 73
Figure 5.2: Single phase-to-ground (a-g) fault (a) Trip signals for phases a, b and c
(b) 3-phase currents in Line LI (c) 3-phase voltages in Line LI (d)
Impedance (R-X) diagram (e) 3-phase currents in Line L2 (f) 3-phase
voltages in Line 2 80
Figure 5.3: Two phase-to-ground (a-b-g) fault (a) Trip signals for phases a, b and c
Impedance (R-X) diagram 83
Figure 5.4: Three phase-to-ground (a-b-c-g) fault (a) Trip signals for phases a, b and c
XIII
Figure 5.14: Capacitor voltage (top), capacitor current (middle) and the MOV current
(bottom) for phase a 131
Figure 5.15: Impedance diagram for single phase-to-ground (a-g) fault after capacitor
with different fault resistance 132
XIV
LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1: Equations for phase-to-phase and phase-to-ground voltage and current
measurements 51
Table 5.1: Permanent fault cases for relay assessment 76
Table 5.2: Analysis of the relay operation for permanent fault, fault resistance (Rf) = 20
Q and MOV reference voltage (V
ref
) = 200 kV 105
ref
) = 200 kV 106
Table 5.4: Analysis of the relay operation for permanent fault, fault resistance (Rf) = 5 Q.
and MOV reference voltage (V
ref
) = 200 kV 107
Table 5.5: Analysis of the relay operation for permanent fault, fault resistance (Rf) = 0 Q,
ref
) = 200 kV 108
D, and MOV reference voltage (V
ref
) = 100 kV 109
re
f) = 75 kV 110
re
f) = 5 kV HI
Q and different MOV reference voltages 112
Table 5.10: Analysis of the relay operation for permanent fault, MOV reference voltage
(V
ref
) = 200 kV and different fault resistances (R
f
) 113
Table 5.11: Analysis of the permanent fault for secure, unsecure and missing operation
of the relay 114
Table 5.12: Analysis of the relay operation for temporary fault, fault resistance (Rf) = 10
Q, and MOV reference voltage (V
ref
) = 200 kV 125
xv
LIST OF ACRONYMS
HV
MV
EHV
UHV
EMTP-RV
BPA
IEEE
PR
CB
TCSC
GCSC
OC
OV
pu
PLC
CT
CVT
kV
kA
Hz
ms
High Voltage
Medium Voltage
Extra High Voltage
Ultra High Voltage
Electro Magnetic Transient Program-Restructure Version
Bonneville Power Administration
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
Protective Relay
Circuit Breaker
Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor
Gate Controlled Series Capacitor
Over Current
Undervoltage
Per Unit
Power Line Carrier
Current Transformer
Capacitor Voltage Transformer
Kilovolts
Kiloamperes
Hertz
Millisecond
MOV Metal Oxide Varistor
XVI
FACTS Flexible AC Transmission System
RO Zero Sequence Resistance of the Protected Line
Rl Positive Sequence Resistance of the Protected Line
LO Zero Sequence Inductance of the Protected Line
LI Positive Sequence Inductance of the Protected Line
I
ctp
, ^ Primary and Secondary Current Respectively of the CT
Primary and Secondary Voltage Respectively of the CVT
Impedance of the Line
Angle of the Line Impedance
Zone Delay Time
Compensation Current
Phase Current
Residual Current (Zero sequence current)
Conventional Average Compensation Factor,
Magnitude Compensation,
Angle Compensation
Resistance in Fault Path
Single Line-to-Ground (Single Phase-to-Ground)
Two Line-to-Ground (Two Phase-to-Ground)
Three Line-to-Ground (Three Phase-to-Ground)
ZR11, ZR12, ZR13 Reach Impedances of Zones 1, 2 and 3 Respectively
ZR1, ZR2, ZRl a, kj, k2, ai , 012, 61, 02 Comparator Design Constants
cvtp> cvts
Wangle
tzone
Icomp
tpn
Io
k
c
K-mag
Krad
Rf
SLG
2LG
3LG
XVII
CHAPTER- l
INTRODUCTION
This thesis is concerned with power system protection. Protection is a key to the
successful operation of a power system which can be affectuated by the detection of
abnormal conditions and the initiation of appropriate remedial actions.
1.1 T HE NECESSITY FOR PROTECTION [i-4]
An electrical power system consists of generators, transformers, transmission
lines and substations. The purpose of the electric power system is to provide electricity in
a secure, reliable and economical manner. Electric power systems are one of the largest
and most complex systems ever built. Short circuit and other abnormal conditions
frequently occur on a power system causing the large short circuit currents that have the
possibility to damage equipment if suitable protective devices (protective relays, circuit
breakers) are not provided for the protection of each component of the power system.
In order to generate electric power and transmit it to customers, a huge amount of
money must be spent on equipment to develop the system and, therefore, it is essential to
protect it against accidents and abnormal conditions. Unfortunately, certain kinds of
faults are inevitable due to insulation deterioration or unforeseen events, such as lightning
strikes, entry of birds into the equipment and external bodies falling on the lines.
Protection systems are sets of equipment, schemes and policies dedicated to detect
faults on the protected elements of the power system. Protection systems minimize the
damage by locating the fault, isolating the faulty circuit and re-establishing the service.
1
Protection systems must provide various equipment and schemes to detect and react to
most fault scenarios.
In general, protective systems monitor conditions, such as power in and out of a
bus or transformer bank, current flow, current unbalance, current at the both ends of the
line and frequency. If any abnormal condition occurs, the relay will sense such
abnormality and send a tripping signal to isolate the affected line or equipment.
In connection with the relay monitoring, there exists and is available a simulator
that can monitor the relay reading of current, voltage, power and frequency and convert
them into system parameters as time-dependent variables, such as di/dt, dv/dt, dp/dt and
df/dt.
The purpose of monitoring the system parameters is to provide an early-warning
system that indicates the development of a stressful condition in the vicinity of the relay
location and leads to the possibility of remedial action.
1.2 OBJECTIVE OF THE THESIS
Following are the major objectives of the work reported in this thesis:
1 To propose a generalized approach for the protection of a series compensated
transmission line by monitoring the variation in system parameters, such as
bus voltage and line current at the relay located at the beginning of the
transmission line.
2 To determine the zone of protection and location of a fault on the protected
transmission line from the information contained in the voltage and current
readings.
2
3 To design a Mho relay and an appropriate algorithm for detecting and locating
transmission line faults.
4 To validate the dynamic performance of the proposed protective Mho relay
and algorithm with a typical system composed of two parallel 500 kV
transmission lines, compensated by fixed series capacitors installed at the
remote end of the lines, using the simulation package Electro Magnetic
Transients Program-Restructured Version (EMTP-RV).
1.3 METHODOLOGY
It is intended to use the EMTP-RV program to carry out the following functions:
1) To model the series-compensated two parallel transmission line installation,
2) To simulate the required performance,
3) To verify the required characteristics, and
4) To prepare a specification of the protection system
The expected results of the EMTP-RV simulations will be used to prepare a
general electrical specification of the protection system for tendering purposes.
1.4 EMTP-RV: OVERVIEW [5-6]
EMTP-RV was originally developed by the Bonneville Power Administration
(BPA), Portland, Oregon. This present version was developed at IREQ, Hydro-Quebec
under the agreement with the Direct Coordination Group (DCG). This program is widely
used in power utilities and research institutes for transients simulation studies around the
world, and is a circuit-based power system simulator. It will be used here for the study of
the protection of a series compensated transmission line and associated relay
3
characteristics in this thesis. The EMTP-RV is the enhanced computational engine and
EMTPWorks is its new Graphical User Interface (GUI).
Power system networks can be modeled using EMTP-RV to represent practical
systems and large numbers of models are available in EMTP-RV for this purpose. These
models can be used for the steady state and transient state phenomenon simulation in
power networks. The power network can be modeled using voltage or current sources,
machines, multiphase circuits, distributed or lumped parameter line models and switches.
The simulated model can be used to represent a specified power system. There are
different subroutines in EMTP-RV that solve the mathematical equations and provide
solutions to such models. Another advantage of the EMTP-RV is that it can handle very
large and complex power system networks. Its uses include switching and lightning surge
analysis, insulation coordination and power electronic applications in power systems.
Further information about EMTP-RV can be obtained from the website www.emtp.com.
1.5 LITERATURE REVIEW
In order to acquire background knowledge of distance relaying, especially as it
relates to the protection of a series compensated transmission line, number of texts were
consulted. A brief discussion of some of the well known papers on this topic and other
related topics are presented below.
In 1990, F. Andersson and W. A. Almore presented a paper on the protection of a
series compensated line which covers a number of important topics in the study of this
complex problem. First, they checked the basic problems related to the capacitor-
compensated schemes. These problems included spark-gap flashover, distortion of the
apparent line impedance seen at the relay location, Metal Oxide Varistor (MOV)
4
operation, voltage reversal, current reversal, power reversal in case of parallel lines, and
delayed impedance swing due to a low-frequency transient component. They provided a
graph which showed the apparent impedance of a single line with a fault at the far end
and also suggested using a band-pass filter to eliminate the high-frequency components
and low-frequency oscillations [7].
Several books and papers [8-11] have been published mentioning the overvoltage
protection of series capacitors used for the protection of series compensated transmission
lines. This overvoltage protection of the series capacitor consists of Metal oxide varistors,
spark gap etc. generally called a ZNO protection system. A. T. Johns and Q. Y. Xuan
presented a thyristor control series capacitor (TCSC) compensated EHV transmission
system [10]. E. H. Watanabe, L. F. W. de Souza, F. D. de Jesus, J. E. R. Alves and A.
Bianco developed a gate controlled series capacitor (GCSC): a new facts device for the
series compensated transmission lines [11].
In 2001, P. G. McLaren, K. Mustaphi, G. Benmouyal, S. Chano, A. Girgis, C.
Henville, M. Kezunvoic, L. Kojovic, R. Marttila, M. Meisinger, G. Michel, M. S.
Sachdev, V. Skendzic, T. S. Sidhu and D. Tziouvaras (working group CI of the Systems
Protection Sub-committee of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
Power System Relay Committee (PSRC)) presented software models for relays. This
paper reviewed past and present uses of relay models and discussed the different types of
relay models, model validation processes and the information required to build such relay
models. It also provided the examples of present and possible future use of software
models [12].
5
In 1981, R. J. Marttila proposed a new method of analysis of directional
characteristics of Mho distance relays using two-input comparators and tested with
different types of faults in 1981 [13, 14]. In 1997, he also presented the evaluation and
testing of distance protection for series compensated and adjacent lines with the use of a
fundamental frequency phasor model of the relays [22].
In 1985, Z. Peng, M. S. Li, C. Y. Wu, T. C. Cheng and T. S. Ning developed a
dynamic state space model of a Mho distance relay. Relay analysis is entirely based on
instantaneous values of the variables involved, thus becoming a general transient analysis
method [15].
In 1987, R. K. Aggrawal, A. T. Johns and D. S. Tripp proposed a high-speed
numerical method for series compensated transmission systems, based on the directional
comparison principle. In this method, communication channels extracted voltage and
current waveform information from both ends of the protected lines. The algorithm
evaluates this information and determines the location of the fault [16].
In 1987, M. S. Abou-El-Ela, F. Ghassemi and A. T. Johns implemented the phase
modified Fourier transform principle to estimate the impedance of the series compensated
transmission lines. The effect of resonance phenomena and series capacitor flashover was
investigated on the performance of distance relay [17]. In 1990, F. Ghassemi and A. T.
Johns modified the topology suggested in [17] and proposed a technique for eliminating
the source of error in measurement of phase-to-ground fault due to a residual
compensation factor [20].
In 1988, W. O. Kennedy, B. J. Gruell, C. H. Sinh and L. Yee proposed a new
6
method of field testing cross and quadrature polarized Mho distance relays with three
different case studies [18, 19].
In 1992, D. W. Thomas and C. Christopolos developed an algorithm for series
compensated transmission systems based on travelling wave techniques. The algorithm
uses correlation techniques to identify transient components, which leave from the
relaying points and return to that point later after a direct reflection from the fault. The
location of the fault can be found from the departure and arrival timing of these signals at
the relaying point [21].
In 2004, A. Y. Abdelaziz, A. M. Ibrahim, M. M. Mansour and H. E. Talaat
proposed two approaches based on travelling waves and artificial neural networks (ANN)
for fault type classification and faulted phase selection of series compensated
transmission lines [23].
In 2006, D. McGillis, K. El-Arroudi, R. Brearley and G. Joos presented a new
approach to the process of system collapse based on areas of vulnerability. The relation
between the states of a system and the contingencies has been covered widely in this
paper. Three concepts, namely abnormal contingency, areas of vulnerability and systems
on the verge of collapse are combined to represent the process of system collapse [24].
In 2007, K. M. Silva, W. L. A. Neves and B. A. Souza presented the use of
distance relay EMTP model to evaluate the performance of distance protection schemes
applied to a three-terminal line of a 230 kV three-bus power network [25].
1.6 OUTLINE OF THE THESIS
This thesis is organized into six chapters and four appendices. A brief summary of
these six chapters and four appendices is given in this section.
7
The first chapter (Introduction) provides information about the necessity of the
protection system, the objectives of this thesis, the methodology adopted and the
expected results, an overview of the simulation tool EMTP-RV and a literature review.
The second chapter (Power System Protection) summarizes present day power-
system protection philosophies. It begins with the basic requirements of the protection
system, various types of faults which occur in transmission lines, causes of the faults and
the effects of such faults. The importance of the protective relay in terms of protection
and different types of protective relays with their operating characteristics are also
explained in this chapter. Most of the faults in transmission lines are transient; therefore
the chapter describes various types of auto-reclosing schemes utilized in the protection of
transmission lines.
The third chapter (Series Compensation) deals with series compensation as part of
the new control technology of transmission systems (e.g. Flexible AC Transmission
System (FACTS)). This chapter explains the purpose of series compensation in
transmission lines, examples of transmission lines with series compensation and the
protection schemes for series capacitors. Relaying protection problems due to series
compensation at various locations are also explained in this chapter.
The fourth chapter (Modeling of Mho Relay) presents the design of the Mho relay
used in this project. The Mho relay model comprises three fundamental blocks and each
block is further divided into sub-blocks. The internal calculations and logic circuits for
associated blocks and sub-blocks are described for detecting and locating faults on a
transmission line. The residual current compensation algorithm for eliminating the source
of error for various earth faults is also explained in this chapter. This chapter also
8
presents the 500 kV series compensated transmission line test system, modeled in EMTP-
RV to generate data for evaluating the performance of the proposed Mho relay and
algorithm.
A total of 294 simulation tests are carried out in the fifth chapter (Simulation
Results); to validate the operation of the Mho relay with 500 kV two parallel series
compensated transmission lines. Simulation tests are run in EMTP-RV by varying the
different parameters, such as fault types, fault locations, fault resistances and MOV
reference voltages. Results of some cases, achieved by processing the data in the
proposed Mho relay, are also discussed.
Finally, conclusions drawn from the work reported in the thesis along with the
future direction of the research is provided in chapter six.
Appendices A and B list the data for the relay and series compensated
transmission line model, respectively, to test the performance of the relay. Appendix C
presents the relevant definitions and Appendix D presents the list of publications.
1.7 SUMMARY
This chapter covers the following topics:
A brief explanation of the necessity of protection for power systems to obtain
high efficiency under different abnormal conditions.
An overview of the objectives of this thesis.
A discussion about the methodology to carry out various functions with an
overview of the EMTP-RV is provided.
A literature review and a summary of the outline of the thesis.
9
CHAPTER - 2
POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION
This chapter deals with the basic characteristics of a reliable protection system
that responds to the disturbances that occur in the power system.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The main goal of the power system is to generate, transmit and distribute
electrical energy to the different kinds of customers without obstruction, in an efficient,
economical and safe manner. To obtain these goals, power systems are divided into four
subsystems.
Generation: Convert different forms of energy such as nuclear, thermal etc. to electrical
energy.
Transformation: Convert the generated voltage to a convenient high voltage level for
transmitting and distributing electrical energy.
Transmission: Transmit electrical energy from the generation station to distant load
centres.
Distribution: Distribute electrical energy to the customers at a convenient voltage level.
Huge investments are involved in the modern electrical power system, therefore,
proper operation and protection of all subsystems is very important to reduce the
consequences of disturbances.
Each element of the power system requires a separate protection arrangement [2,
26], such as generator protection, transformer protection, transmission line protection,
distribution line protection, bus bar protection, etc. Fig. 2.1 shows the protection zones of
10
a simple power system. The entire power system is divided into a number of zones of
protection, where each zone covers a single element of the power system. Adjacent
protective zones must overlap each other, so the entire power system is covered, and no
unprotected spots are left. Without overlap, no circuit breaker would trip if the fault
occurs at a boundary of the zone; thus overlap between adjacent zones cannot be avoided.
Generator
Protection
Circuit
Breaker
Transformer
H.V. Switchgear
Protection
Transformer
Protection
* EHV Switchgear
Protection
Transmission
Line Protection
EHV Switchgear
Protection
Figure 2.1: Zones of protection.
Most of the time, the power system operates in a steady state, but temporary and
permanent faults occur occasionally in power systems due to human errors, aging and
natural calamities. An incident of a fault in the power system can cause loss of
synchronism, severe reduction in voltage, very high current flow and eventually loss of
revenue due to interruption of service; therefore, it is essential to protect the power
11
system equipment to avoid such collapse and its related results. This is obtained by
protective devices, installed at various locations in the power system to detect faults and
initiate operation of the associated circuit breaker to isolate the faulted element from the
remaining system. Such protective devices are known as protective relays. In this thesis,
the focus is on the protection of series compensated transmission lines.
2.2 BASI C PROTECTION REQUIREMENTS [26]
1. Selectivity or discrimination: Selectivity is the ability of a protective device to
isolate only the faulty section of the protection system. In other words, it is the
duty of the protective device to discriminate between faulty and normal
conditions.
2. Reliability: Reliability is the ability of the protective device to work properly
during the time it is in service. The protective device must operate reliably when a
fault occurs in its zone of protection. Reliability can be defined as:
(a) Dependability: This is the ability of the protective scheme to work correctly
if an internal fault (fault within the protected system) occurs, i.e. to remove
fault selectively.
(b) Security: This refers to the ability of the protection relay not to send a
tripping signal, if there is no internal fault.
3. Sensitivity: Sensitivity is the ability of the protection device to react correctly to
small disturbances.
4. Availability: Availability is defined as the protection device working properly
according to its service time. A high degree of availability is obtained by periodic
12
maintenance, use of high quality electromechanical devices for the relays, self-
checking capability of modern protection relays etc.
5. Speed: As mentioned earlier, fast fault clearing is very important. The time
period from the fault inception to the protection relay sends a tripping signal to its
corresponding circuit breaker is the fault detection time, while the time period
between fault inception and fault clearing is referred to as fault clearing time.
Fault clearing time includes the tripping time and the time needed for the circuit
breaker to open. Modern circuit breakers open within approximately two to three
periods of the power frequency after receiving a tripping signal and high speed
breakers require only one and a half cycles of the fundamental frequency.
2.3 TRANSMISSION LINE FAULTS
Transmission line faults can be split into:
(a) Symmetrical faults
(b) Unsymmetrical faults
Symmetrical faults: Fig. 2.2 shows the symmetrical faults. A three-phase (3-0) fault is
called a symmetrical fault. Fig. 2.2(a) shows all three phases short circuited without
ground and Fig. 2.2(b) shows all three phases short circuited with ground.
a
Fault
b (
c
9
1
i
i
b
c
9
Fault
f

(
-i

i
i
(a) (b)
Figure 2.2: Symmetrical faults (a) Three phase fault (b) Three phase-to-ground
fault.
13
Unsymmetrical faults: Phase-to-phase (L-L) fault, single phase-to-ground (L-G), two
phase-to-ground (L-L-G) and single or two phase open circuits are unsymmetrical faults.
Fig. 2.3 shows different unsymmetrical faults.
Phase-to-phase (L-L) short circuit fault (Fig. 2.3(a)): A short circuit that occurs
between any two phases is called a phase-to-phase or line-to-line fault.
Single phase-to-ground (L-G or SLG) fault (Fig. 2.3(b)): A short circuit between any
one phase and earth is called a single phase-to-ground fault. It may be due to any line
conductor breaking and falling to the ground or failure of insulation between a phase
conductor and the earth.
Two phase-to-ground (L-L-G or 2LG) fault (Fig. 2.3(c)): A short circuit between any
two phases and the earth is called a two phase-to-ground or a double line-to-ground fault.
Single or two phase open circuit fault (Fig. 2.3(d) and (e)): Such faults occur when
one or two phase conductors break, cable or overhead line joints fail, the circuit breaker
or the isolator opens the phases but fails to close one or two phases, which means
breaking the conducting path. Unbalanced current flows into the system due to the
opening of one or two phases. Protective schemes must be used to deal with such
abnormal conditions.
Multiple or Simultaneous faults: Two or more (same or different type) faults that may
occur at the same or different points on a system simultaneously are known as multiple or
simultaneous faults.
14
a
b -
c
g - -
g
b
g - -
Fault
~~1
(a)
Fault
a
b -
c
g -
b -
g -
Fault

_4
(b)
Fault
3
Fault
b *
c
g
(c)
(d) (e)
Figure 2.3: Unsymmetrical faults (a) Phase-to-phase fault (b) One phase-to-ground
fault (c) Two phase-to-ground fault (d) Single open conductor (e) Two open
conductors.
2.3.1 Causes of Faults [2, 4]
Generally, faults are caused by conduction path failures due to a broken conductor
or by insulation failures that result in short circuits, which is dangerous because it may
damage power system equipment. The opening of one or more lines makes the system
unbalanced and it is generally not allowed in the power system operation. In transmission
and distribution lines, most of the faults occur due to lightning surges, power swings or
external bodies falling on the line, which create overvoltages. Such overvoltages cause
the short circuit by flashovers on the surface of insulators.
Short circuits also occur by tree branches or other conduction paths falling on the
overhead transmission lines. If the bodies of birds touch one of the phases and the
ground, then this also causes faults. Other reasons for faults on overhead lines are: ice
and snow loading, storms, earthquakes, abnormal loading, lightning strokes, etc.
Some faults occur due to faulty design or lower quality of components.
Sometimes circuit breakers may trip due to wrong connections, testing or maintenance
15
work, defects in protective devices, etc. Hence, such faults can be minimized by using
higher quality components, improving system design and the proper operation and
maintenance of equipments.
2.3.2 Effects of Faults [2, 3, 4]
Short circuits are the most dangerous types of fault and if they are not cleared,
may have the following effects on a power system:
1. Heating of rotating machines due to unbalancing the supply current and voltage.
2. Loss of industrial loads due to reduction in the healthy feeder supply voltage.
3. A heavy short circuit current may damage equipment or other system components
due to overheating and high mechanical force.
4. Fire hazards may occur due to the arcs associated with short circuits. If a fault is
not cleared quickly, then there is a chance of fire extending to other system
components.
5. There is a chance of loss of system stability; individual generators may lose
synchronism resulting in a complete power system shutdown.
6. Loss of revenue due to the interruption of consumers supply occurred by above
faults.
Good quality, high speed and reliable protective devices are necessary in the
power system to reduce the effects of faults and other abnormal conditions.
2.4 THE IMPORTANCE OF A PROTECTION RELAY
The most important equipment used for the protection of power systems are
protective relays. These are the most economic, well-known and flexible devices that
provide fast, reliable and inexpensive protection. Reliability, sensitivity, high speed
16
operation and selectivity are the most desirable qualities of a protective relay. A
protective relay is a device which responds to abnormal conditions on an electrical power
system to control a circuit breaker, so as to isolate the faulty section of the power system
with minimum interruption to the existing service. To achieve this function, the relay
must be able to decide promptly which circuit breakers are to trip in order to isolate only
the faulted section.
Protective relays recognize and locate faults by constantly measuring electrical
quantities, such as current, voltage, frequency and phase angle from the power system at
the relay location. These quantities will change between normal and abnormal conditions.
It is necessary to provide relays responding to more than one of these quantities, because
the fault current with minimum generation may be less than the load current during
maximum generation and the power factor may be as low during a power swing as a
fault.
2.4.1 Connection of Protective Relay
b
c
Tripping
direction
Circuit
Breaker
\ \ \
II
o
Protected
Circuit
Station bus
Trip
Coil
Relay
1
?T
to
m
J
Figure 2.4: Basic connections of a protective relay.
17
v-O L * J <AJ 3 g
on on on | |
CD
Secondary
potential bus
Basic connections of the protective relay are shown in Fig. 2.4. During normal
conditions the relay contacts are open. Whenever a fault occurs, the protective relay
contacts become closed and the relay controls the power supply to the protected circuit by
providing the signal to the trip coil of the circuit breaker. Due to a fault, when the
protective relay contacts are closed, the high L/R ratio of the circuit breaker trip coil
delays to the build-up of current, therefore, the circuit breaker is tripped quickly before
the current reaches its steady value. Due to only a few cycles duration of the circuit
breaker trip coil current, the relay contacts need a small continuous rating, such as only 5
amperes, and still operates a higher rating around 30 amperes circuit breaker trip coil
many times without maintenance [4].
Immediately after the circuit breaker has tripped by getting the signal from the
protective relay, its auxiliary switch "a" opens the highly inductive trip coil circuit. The
relay can be reset by opening of the circuit breaker. Relay contacts will be burned in a
bad way if the relay contacts are chattering when the current is flowing through it. For
proper operation, it is essential that the relay contacts do not chatter. This is obtained
either by seal-in-relay or by bounce-free designs. The reliability of protective relays
depends on their contact performance. Low contact resistance, freedom from corrosion,
high contact pressure, bounce-free, dust-proof, self-cleaning action and freedom from
sparking are the essential requirements of good contacts.
18
2.4.2 Tripping Arrangement
Current
Transformer
r Circuit J
Breaker (c
^ Voltage
j Transformer
Distance Protection
i '
Measuring
Unit
i
>
Trip
Re lay
*'
Fault
Detector
Reach
Adjustment
Time
Delay
0.4 Sec.
i
Figure 2.5: Tripping arrangement.
Fig. 2.5 shows the basic tripping arrangement [1]. When a fault occurs in Zone 1,
the measuring unit and fault detector operate and tripping takes place without time delay.
For a fault beyond Zone 1 but within Zone 2, fault detector operates first and triggers the
time delay unit. After 0.4 sec. delay, the measuring unit is extended to Zone 2 values to
reach the fault location and provide tripping signal for Zone 2. If the fault is beyond Zone
2 but within Zone 3, the relay provides a tripping signal after 0.8 sec.
2.5 CLASSIFICATION OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS
There are different types of protective relays, but the most important relays are
classified here depending upon the operation they are required to execute, under the
headings of over current relay, directional relay, distance relay and differential relay.
2.5.1 Over Current Relay [2, 3, 27]
The protective relay, which operates when the load current exceeds a preset or
pick-up value is called an over current relay. Such a relay is used for less important
19
circuits, such as distribution lines and large motors, where the cheapest relay is justified.
In such cases, only the local current magnitude is checked, so the relay is simple and
cheap. This method is possible in most low voltage distribution networks because the
short circuit current is large compared with the full-load current. These relays are also
used for back-up protection of transmission lines.
2.5.2 Differential Relay [3, 4, 27]
The basic principle for the operation of a differential relay is the circulating
current principle. Mostly these relays are used for the protection of generators,
transformers, bus zones and large size motors. This relay makes the direct comparison of
phase angle and magnitude for a current entering the machine and leaving it. To achieve
this, Current Transformer's (CT's) with suitable ratios are placed at both ends of the
protected equipment. Under normal conditions or external fault conditions, the current
entering and leaving the equipment is equal but during a fault condition it is not equal.
2.5.3 Distance Relay [1 - 4, 27]
The most important types of distance relay include impedance relay, reactance
relay, Mho relay, angle impedance relay, quadrilateral relay, elliptical and other conic
section relays.
In this thesis, Mho distance relay is used for the protection of a series
compensated transmission line.
Distance relay compares the local current with the local voltage in the
corresponding phase. Since impedance is equal to the ratio of voltage to current (Z=V/I),
the relay is known as an impedance relay. Distance relays measure the impedance or
some components of the impedance at the relay location. The measured quantity is
20
proportional to the line length between the relay location and where the fault has
occurred. Since the impedance of the line is proportional to the distance along the line
length, it is called a distance relay.
The operating principle of the distance relay is shown in Fig. 2.6, It shows how a
relay is set for line impedance (Zi
ine
). When a fault occurred in the transmission line, the
local voltage of the relay will be the IZ drop of the line [27]. The relay will not trip if the
fault is beyond the protected line section because V/I>Zu
ne
and if the fault is within the
protected line section, then it will trip because V/I < Zii
ne
.
Source
Impedance (Zs)
Line
mpedance (Zn
n
e)
Bl ock Region
Trip Regi oon
nternal Relay External
fault setting fault
Figure 2.6: Operating principle of the distance relay.
A more useful way to draw the impedance relay characteristic is the R-X diagram,
which is shown in Fig. 2.7 [3]. As the relay characteristic is a circle, the relay operation is
independent of the phase angle between voltage (V) and current (I), but depends on the
magnitude of impedance (Z). The zone within the circle is the tripping zone of the relay
and the region outside the circle is a blocking zone.
21
i
X
Block /
_R 1 Tripping
r* zone
-X,
i
J R

Figure 2.7: Characteristic of impedance relay.
X
/
Operating
Characteristic
"
R
-X
Block
t
1
Trip
R
Figure 2.8: Characteristic of reactance relay.
Figure 2.9: Characteristic of Mho relay.
Instead of comparing local current I with local voltage V, sometimes it is
necessary to compare local current I with the component of V or V with the component
of I. For instance, one kind of distance relay operates when I>Vsin0, where 0 is the
phase angle between voltage (V) and current (I). Here ratio Vsin0/I = X (reactance) so,
22
the relay measures the reactance of the line at the relay location and therefore distance
measurement is not affected by the fault resistance. Its characteristic in the R-X diagram
is a straight line and parallel to the R-axis as shown in Fig. 2.8. Such a relay is used for
ground faults and very short lines.
For long lines, the relay is more suitable when comparing V with a component of
I. In these cases, the relay measures the ratio V/Icos(0-6), where 0 is the phase angle
between V and I and 0 is the value of 0 for maximum sensitivity and hence the angle of
impedance circle relative to the R axis. This is called a Mho relay. Its characteristic in the
R-X diagram is a circle passing through the origin. It measures a component of
admittance | Y| Z0. It detects a fault only in one direction (forward direction); therefore,
Mho relay is inherently a directional relay. It is also called an admittance or angle
admittance relay. It is very selective between internal faults and any other conditions. Fig.
2,9 shows the characteristic of the Mho relay.
2.5.3.1 Three Zone Protection
Selectivity in a distance relay is provided by using different impedance reaches in
conjunction with different time delays associated with these settings. The combination of
an impedance reach and its associated time delay is known as a protection zone. The
incident of a fault within a protection zone of a distance relay must initiate and complete
the relay operation.
For three zone protection, usually three distance measuring units are required at a
particular location [1]. The setting value of each unit is expressed as a percentage of the
line length. Generally, the first unit is set to cover up to 80% to 90% of the protected line
length. This is known as the first zone protection. Its operation is high speed, about 1 to 2
23
cycles and instantaneous, which means Zone 1 relay trips without any intentional time
delay and therefore used for the primary protection. This unit is not set to cover 100 % of
the entire protected line length to avoid undesirable tripping due to overreach which
means, it is normal to keep a margin for the relay of 10-15% to avoid overreach situation
and it is acceptable. Overreach may occur due to transients during fault conditions. Fig.
2.10 shows the stepped time-distance characteristics for three zone protection.
1
0)
E
H-
D)
C
*
CO
CD
O
O
v
A
7nnp ^
_
1
, +
1
T
<-d
Zone 2 = Li + C
).5L
2
+ 0 95! Q
Zone 1 = 0.85 Li *
Li
Distance
L
T2 = 0.3 sec
'
-
<f
B
i
L
2
,
T3 = 0.8 sec
r
c
*
L
3
Figure 2.10: Stepped time-distance characteristics for three zone protection.
The second zone unit is to protect the rest of the protected line length which is not
covered by the first unit and also provide back-up to the adjacent line section which is up
to about 50% of its line length. The second unit should be adjusted in such a way that it
initiates the relay even for an arcing fault at the end of the protected line section. The
second unit has more time delay than the first unit and it is operated after a certain time
delay; the operating time is about 0.2 sec. to 0.5 sec.
The main objective of the third zone unit is to provide back-up protection for
faults in the adjoining line. It covers the protected line, plus the second line, plus 25% of
the third line. It is operated after a further time delay and the operating time is about 0.4
sec. to 1 sec. Zone 2 and Zone 3 have some intentional time delays added to coordinate
24
with the relays at the remote bus, before providing an output. Time delays may vary
depending on the circumstances.
2.5.3.2 Comparators for Distance Protection
The phase angle between voltage and current as well as an amplitude of current
and voltage may alter during fault conditions; therefore, these quantities are not similar
during normal and fault conditions. The relay circuitry is developed to detect such
changes and discriminate between normal and faulty conditions. The section of the circuit
which compares two actuating quantities either in phase angle or amplitude is known as a
comparator. There are two types of comparators:
Phase comparator: A phase comparator compares the phase angle of two input
quantities, regardless of their amplitude, and the output appears when the phase angle
between them is lying within specified limits (< 90). Examples are directional relays,
distance relays excluding impedance type relay and other phase comparison relays.
Amplitude comparator: One of the input quantities is an operating quantity and the
other is a restraining quantity. The amplitude comparator compares the amplitude of two
input quantities, regardless of the phase angle between them. The relay sends a tripping
signal when the operating quantity exceeds the restraining quantity. The function is
represented by a circle in the complex plane with its centre at the origin, which defines
the boundary of the operation. Examples are biased relays and impedance type distance
relays.
2.5.4 Directional Relays [4]
Impedance relay and over current relay are responses to the disturbance in either
forward or reverse direction. These relays are monitored by directional relay to prevent
25
undesired tripping of unfaulted line. Directional relays respond only in one direction with
the current flowing from the bus to the line. Therefore, directional relays are used to
obtain directional sensitivity of the above mentioned relays. Directional relays are not
used for protection on their own but only increase the performance of the above
mentioned relays.
2.6 AUTO-RECLOSING [2, 31]
Continuity of service cannot be maintained by quickly eliminating the faulted
circuit from the remaining power system if faults are transient in nature. According to
statistical evidence, about 80% to 90% of faults on overhead transmission and
distribution lines are transient in nature and creates arcs. These arcs disappear if the
circuit breakers are tripped momentarily to achieve disconnection of the line. The
isolation of the line by opening the circuit breaker for a short time permits the arc to be
extinguished. Immediately after this, the line is re-energized again by reclosing the circuit
breakers automatically to minimize the service interruption and restore the power supply.
Reclosing the circuit breakers automatically is known as auto-reclosing.
2.6.1 Single-phase auto-reclosing
In a single-phase auto-reclosing, only the faulty phase pole of the circuit breaker
is tripped and reclosed, but at the same time, synchronizing power still flows through the
healthy phases. For any multi-phase fault, all the three-phases are tripped and reclosed
simultaneously. In this scheme, each phase of the circuit breaker is separated and
provided with its own tripping and closing mechanism. As compared to the three-phase
auto-reclosing scheme, this scheme is more costly and complicated because it requires a
more complex relaying scheme to detect and choose the faulty phase. The main drawback
26
of this scheme is a longer de-ionization time of the arc; on the other hand, improvement
in transient state stability, system reliability and availability, and reduction of switching
overvoltages are the benefits of the single-phase auto-reclosing scheme.
2.6.2 Three-phase Auto-reclosing
In a three-phase auto-reclosing, all the three phases are tripped and reclosed
simultaneously for any types of fault. This scheme requires less de-ionizing time of the
arc; therefore, its relaying scheme is faster, easier and cheaper when compared to the
single-phase auto-reclosing.
2.6.3 Single-shot Auto-reclosing
Most of the faults on EHV lines are due to lightning or external objects (i.e. tree
branches, birds etc.) falling on the line. Due to the height of EHV lines, tree branches are
not expected to cause faults. If any objects are dropped by birds on EHV lines, they are
vaporized immediately because of the large amount of power in the arc. EHV lines need
only one reclosure. The reclosure should be made as fast as possible to avoid any
noticeable variation in phase angle between the open line voltages of the two ends. In a
single-shot auto-reclosing scheme, only one reclosure is made.
2.6.4 Multi-shot Auto-reclosing
For lines up to 33 kV, the disturbances might be caused by external objects, such
as tree branches falling on the line due to pole heights. External objects may not be burnt
at the first reclosure and may need additional reclosures. Three reclosures at 15 to 120
second intervals, are often made to clear the fault. According to statistical data, about
80% of faults are cleared after first reclosure, 10% of faults are cleared after second
27
reclosure and less than 2% of faults require a third reclosure. If a fault is not cleared after
three reclosures, then this scheme indicates the fault is permanent in nature.
2.7 SUMMARY
The following points have been explained in this chapter:
A discussion about the number of zones of protection to protect the each element
of the power system. These zones are overlapped to avoid any unprotected spots.
The basic protection requirements, such as selectivity, sensitivity, speed etc. for
the protection of transmission line are discussed together with their definitions.
Different types of symmetrical and unsymmetrical faults in transmission line are
presented. Reasons for causes of the faults and its effects in the power system are
also discussed.
A brief overview about the importance of the protective relay, including its
connection strategy and tripping arrangement. This chapter also includes a
classification of various kinds of protective relays, depending upon the operation
they have to execute for the protection of power system including transmission
line. Operating characteristics of each relay are also presented.
Necessity of auto-reclosing for transmission lines with different types of auto-
reclosing scheme is also described in this chapter.
28
CHAPTER - 3
SERIES COMPENSATION
3.1. INTRODUCTION
In recent decades, series compensation has been widely used on power systems to
compensate the inductive reactance of a long transmission line. Adding series
compensation is one of the simplest ways of increasing transmission line capacity, power
transfer capability, system stability, lowering losses and improving voltage regulation. It
can maximize the usage of a transmission system by optimizing the sharing of real power
between alternative paths connected to the same busbars [17].
The advantages of series capacitors for the power system are well recognized and
difficulties for their protection are also well identified. Nowadays, utility companies have
difficulties in obtaining approval for new generation power plants and transmission lines
due to environmental concerns and the huge cost involved. Therefore, they must better
utilize their existing systems and provide better power quality at lower cost to the
consumer. To achieve these goals, the series compensation technique is being
increasingly used to compensate for the inductive reactance of long transmission lines. It
is evident that with the growing power system, more and more series compensated lines
will be put into the system. Finally, series compensation reduces the financial burden of a
utility company by not installing a costly additional transmission line.
Series capacitors are usually placed either at the middle or end of the transmission
lines. The range of series compensation is from 20 to 70 percent referred to the inductive
reactance of the transmission line. Today's technology on series compensation has been
29
improved and there has also been improvement in capacitors and auxiliary equipment,
such as protective devices and signaling linkages. The recent or latest technology on
series compensation using capacitors involves MOV which improves the reliability of the
system and also shortens the time period needed for reinsertion of the capacitor into the
system after clearing the fault.
3.2 THE PURPOSE OF SERIES COMPENSATION
A literature review has shown wide spread application of series capacitors over
the past many years, mostly in the long-distance, high-voltage lines, such as the 500 kV
peace river development of British Columbia Hydro and 735 kV lines of Hydro-Quebec.
Capacitive reactance of the series capacitors compensates the inductive reactance of the
transmission line.
Series compensation reduces the number of required transmission lines for power
system development and also minimizes the cost by increasing the existing transmission
line capacity and power transfer capability. A particular case has been made for the use of
series capacitors in asymmetric operation where the series capacitors can be used in
single-phase operation of transmission line.
With respect to the 735 kV system of Hydro Quebec, series capacitors have
allowed the shunt reactors to remain in the system at all times since the reactive power is
supplied by the series capacitors, thus controlling the level of the temporary overvoltages.
This represents a novel application of series capacitors since it permits the transmission
system to cope with a three phase fault at any location.
As already noted, series compensation has been very effective in improving the
performance of power systems, especially for high-voltage systems. These applications
30
have all used conventional fixed capacitor. For this purpose, varying capacitance is now
being introduced, as a FACTS device to increase the capacity of a power system without
limiting its security. The introduction of series compensation as a FACTS controller
basically involves varying the impedance of the static compensation to response to the
requirements of the power system usually for power flow control.
FACTS devices provide maximum advantage from their stabilized voltage
support when placed at the middle of the transmission line. In case of reactive power
control, the mid-point location is also most effective. When compared to the
uncompensated transmission line, the power transfer capability is increased to double for
the series compensated transmission line [33].
3.3 THE COMPENSATION DEGREE AND LOCATION
The ratio of the effective series capacitive reactance (Xc) to the series line
reactance (XL) is called the compensation degree [28].
Degree of series compensation = Xc / XL (3.1)
If the ratio is less than one then it is said to be undercompensated; if the ratio is
greater than one then it is said to be overcompensated, while if the ratio is unity then it is
completely compensated. Series capacitors are usually placed either at the middle or end
of the transmission lines. In power systems, usually the compensation degree is less than
70% as referred to the inductive reactance of the transmission line. For the line-end
arrangement, either located at one end or both ends, the compensation degree for each
end is usually 35% or less. For extra-high-voltage (EHV) systems, series capacitors are
basically used in the range of 100 to 1000 MVAr in size [29].
31
3.4 TRANSMISSION LINE WITH SERIES COMPENSATION
As discussed earlier, series capacitors can increase the system stability, power
transfer capability and can also optimize the sharing of real power between parallel lines.
The series capacitors compensate the inductive reactance of the line so as to maximize
the power transfer capability in a long transmission line. A single-line diagram of a series
compensated transmission line is shown in Fig. 3.1.
Busbar A
Busbar A
voltage Vi
Busbar B
X
L
Xc
Ps-
Qs-
Busbar B
voltage V
2
PR-
QR-
Figure 3.1: Single-line diagram of a series compensated transmission line.
The real power flowing towards busbar B without series compensation is [29]
P
R
= (VI * V
2
/ X
L
) * Sine (3.2)
and the real power flowing towards busbar B with series compensation is
P
R
= (VI * V
2
/ (X
L
- X
c
)) * SinG (3.3)
Here, 6 is the phase angle difference between two busbar voltages V] and V
2
. It is
apparent that series capacitors can increase the real power transfer in a transmission line
by compensating the line inductance. The difference in phase angle between two busbar
voltages Vi and V
2
can be reduced by keeping the real power transferred fixed. This will
increase the transient stability of the transmission line.
Fig. 3.2 shows the single-line diagram of a parallel transmission line system with
only one line using series compensation. In such a system, the flow of power is separated
32
according to the impedance of the different transmission lines. The sharing of the power
flow in a transmission line is set by the impedance or length of each line section. In Fig.
3.2, Line CD] is longer than Line CD2, the difference in length between Line CDi and
Line CD
2
has determined the condition of the power flow. If a series capacitor is placed
in Line CDi the power flow strategy (even if the line is longer) can be set by the
economic point of view.
Busbar C Busbar D
X
L
i Xc
LineCDI rY~Y~Y~^\ I I
(With compensation)
XL2
Line CD2 O ^ V ^ O
(Without Compensation)
Figure 3.2: Single-line diagram of a parallel transmission line.
Finally when the line with the lowest power transfer capability reaches its limit,
the flow of power cannot be increased on other unsaturated lines, which leads to a waste
of money and power. Therefore, the power transfer capability of the complete system can
be increased with the help of series capacitors by rearranging the line impedance
distribution. With series compensation and neglecting line charging, the net transfer
impedance of the line is X
L
-Xc, where X
L
is the series line reactance and Xc is the
effective series capacitive reactance [28]. System losses can be reduced by the proper
distribution of current between the parallel transmission lines.
3.5 PROTECTION SCHEMES FOR THE SERIES CAPACITORS
Since series capacitors are established on a transmission line, they have to work in
harmony with other parts of the power system. In order to obtain this goal and protect the
33
capacitors against damages, suitable protective devices as well as protection schemes are
required to ensure that the capacitors are bypassed effectively during fault conditions. On
the other hand, after clearing the fault, protection schemes have to reinsert the capacitors
into the system instantaneously. Three types of protective schemes, such as single-gap,
dual-gap and Zno have been developed for the protection of series capacitors.
3.5.1 Single-Gap Protection Scheme Device
The single-gap protection scheme device model is shown in Fig. 3.3. The
capacitor bank, airgap and bypass breaker are connected in parallel. The capacitor bank is
comprised of a number of capacitor modules which are in series or parallel. The capacitor
bank is designed for a certain voltage, which is usually 2 to 3 times the rated voltage or
current for a short duration. The rated capacitor current is usually chosen as the
maximum load current passing through the capacitor and the rated capacitor voltage is
the voltage across the capacitor when the maximum load current is passing through it. In
most cases, the fault current is three times greater than the load current. During a fault,
when the voltage across the capacitor bank reaches a particular level, the airgap Gl will
ignite. The airgap itself cannot usually take the fault current for a long time. This will
close the bypass breaker SI, which operates more slowly than the airgap so as to
extinguish the airgap consequently. When the voltage across the capacitor reaches to a
preset level, the bypass breaker will open and the capacitor will operate at the pre-fault
voltage level. After clearing the fault, a single-gap scheme takes 0.2 to 0.4 second to
reinsert the capacitors into the system. This delay is because of the airgap, which has to
cool down before reinsertion of the capacitor. Airgap and bypass breaker serve as a back-
34
up protection. A damping circuit (inductor) between the airgap and the capacitor limits
the current flowing through the airgap when it fires.
CAPACITOR (C)
INDUCTOR AIRGAP
BYPASS BREAKER S1
Figure 3.3: Single-gap scheme device model.
3.5.2 Dual-Gap Scheme Device
CAPACITOR (C)
INDUCTOR
AIRGAP
S2
- 9-
AIRGAP
BYPASS BREAKER S1
Figure 3.4: Dual-gap scheme device model.
Dual-gap scheme model, shown in Fig. 3.4, uses an extra lower setting airgap G2
which can be isolated by opening a bypass breaker S2. The bypass breaker S2 is closed
during normal condition. Higher setting airgap Gl works as a back-up protection after the
capacitor insertion. When a fault occurs in the system, the voltage across the capacitor
will ignite the lower setting airgap G2, then bypass breaker SI will close before the
bypass breaker S2 opens. After the fault is cleared, bypass breaker SI will open and most
significantly, the lower setting airgap G2 has enough time to cool down. Operation does
not affected by the cooling of the airgap G2; therefore, reinsertion time of the capacitor
35
can be effectively decreased. In dual-gap scheme, reinsertion of capacitors takes
approximately 60 milliseconds.
3.5.3 Zno Scheme Device
Zno scheme model is shown in Fig. 3.5, which is also known as Metal Oxide
Varistor (MOV), is placed directly parallel with the capacitor. The airgap, bypass breaker
and MOV provide total protection scheme for the capacitor. MOV is a nonlinear resistor
[18] and provides the main protection.
CAPACITOR (C)
a:
O
h-
o
z >
Q
MOV
AIRGAP
BYPASS BREAKER S1
Figure 3.5: ZnO scheme device.
A typical voltage-ampere characteristic of the MOV is shown in Fig. 3.6 and it is
an important property of the MOV scheme. The voltage-ampere characteristic for the
MOV (Fig. 3.6) is approximated by equation 3.4 [30].
IMOV= P*[ v/ V
REF
]
q
(3.4)
Where, i
M
ov and v = MOVs current and voltage, respectively
P = Reference current
VREF
=
Reference Voltage
q = Exponent of the characteristic
P and VREF are coordinates of the knee-point.
36
V/ VR F *
in pu
1 Q
i
M
ov/P P
u
Figure 3.6: Typical MOV voltage-ampere characteristic.
When a fault occurs and line current surges significantly higher than normal, then
there is a chance of damaging the capacitor. When the voltage across MOV is below a
threshold level then the MOV resistance appears to be very high. However, when the
voltage exceeds a certain level set for the device, the MOV resistance drops very rapidly
and acts to short the capacitor terminal to protect the capacitor. The resistance of the
MOV varies as the voltage on the capacitor terminals varies, thus the MOV operates with
respect to the type of fault and fault current level.
During a fault condition, the voltage across the capacitor will build up and a fault
current will pass through the MOV instead of capacitor, therefore, the capacitor will not
be damaged by high voltage and still will be working as a part of the system. The MOV
has a thermal limit and cannot withstand heavy currents for a long duration. During fault
condition, the energy absorbed by the MOV will be monitored and if it exceeds a certain
thermal limit, the airgap will ignite. The airgap protects the MOV when exceeding its
energy capacity. Again, if the duration of the fault current in the airgap reaches a certain
level, the bypass breaker SI will operate.
When the line fault is cleared, the capacitor reinsertion takes place without time
delay, which improves the system stability. The main benefit of the MOV is reinsertion
37
time of the capacitor, which is nearly zero because the capacitor stays within the system
during most fault conditions.
3.6 RELAYING PROTECTION PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH SERIES
CAPACITORS COMPENSATION [1, 26, 32]
As modern transmission systems become heavily loaded, the advantage of series
compensation for many transmission lines becomes more apparent. Capacitors with their
own protection are mostly used for series compensation, but they can reduce or weaken
the effectiveness of many of the protection schemes used for long distance transmission
lines. In order to determine the distance to the fault from the relaying point, the relay will
measure the ratio of voltage to current and decide whether the fault is either inside or
outside its zone of protection.
Placing the capacitance in series with line reactance adds a certain complexity to
the necessary application of impedance based distance relays. When it is known that the
capacitor is going to be a part of the fault circuit, then it is necessary to correct the relay
setting, but this is not always known. Relay settings are based on no capacitor in the fault
circuit, but when a capacitor is switched into the transmission line, it cancels some of the
line inductive reactance. Thus, series compensation can make the remote forward faults
appear in zone one of the relay and cause the relay to 'overreach'. Under these situations,
close-in faults can appear to be reverse faults. Since series compensation was introduced,
different protection problems on series compensated transmission lines have arisen.
These include voltage inversion, current inversion, self-excitation, negative damping,
sub-synchronous resonance, positive determination of whether the capacitor is involved
38
in a fault loop or not, and successful calculation of the compensated line current for
phase-to-ground faults.
3.6.1 Voltage Reversal (Voltage Inversion)
If the effective reactance (impedance) from the relay location to the fault location
is capacitive rather than inductive, the fault current will lead the measured voltage. This
phenomenon is called "voltage reversal". In such a situation, the source voltage leads the
fault current. As a result, the voltage applied to the relay will be 180 out-of-phase, which
would be considered the "normal" position. Basically, distance relays are designed to
work on inductive systems. Distance relays are most affected by the voltage reversal
because they can lose their direction in steady state. The direction function can be
designed with compensating features to overcome the effect of voltage reversal. Voltage
reversal can have an adverse effect on the relay performance. To overcome the voltage
reversal problem, it is possible to reinforce the design of the capacitor application, such
that the net effective reactance from the relay location to the fault location is inductive
rather than capacitive.
3.6.1.1 Mid-Compensated Line
Fault F
I M X F
jXs
->
-
CM
v
jX
L1
*\ -jXc h jX
L2
A
Figure 3.7: Mid-compensated line with fault.
39
Fig. 3.7 shows the mid-compensated transmission line. An inductive impedance
will only be measured for a fault at point F where XLI+XF>XC, otherwise the relay will
see the fault as a reverse fault. In such a scheme, it is important to make sure that Xu and
XL2 are greater than Xc.
3.6.1.2 End-Compensated Line
The impedance measurement can be done on either the line side or the source side
of the series capacitor. It is very important to consider the choice of voltage and current
signals location for impedance measurement.
jXs
l
V
Hi
-jXc
JXi
Fault F
Figure 3.8: Series compensated transmission line with line side measurement.
When a measurement is taken from the line side of the capacitor, it does not
cause any problem for a forward fault on the line. But for the reverse fault shown in Fig.
3.8, just beyond the busbar, the impedance measure by the relay is inductive, which
means reverse fault will appear as a forward direction to the relay.
For the second case, when a measurement is taken from the source end of the
capacitor shown in Fig. 3.9, the impedance measurement is capacitive if Xc is greater
than XF, and inductive if Xc is less than XF. In the case of a fault point where Xc = X
F
,
the relay will see any fault to the left side of point F in a reverse direction because the net
reactance is negative.
40
jXs
I V JXP
Fault F
-jXc
JXL
Figure 3.9: Series compensated transmission line with source side measurement.
3.6.2 Current Reversal (Current Inversion)
If the source reactance is lower than the compensation system capacitance, the
fault current will lead to the source voltage, which means the fault current will flow
towards the bus in case of internal fault and refuse to clear the internal fault. This
phenomenon is called "current inversion". From a protection point of view, it is
preferable for the series capacitor location and size to be selected such that the source
reactance is always larger than the capacitive reactance. When series capacitor is located
some distance away from the line terminal; it will reduce the chances of the source
reactance being lower than the capacitive reactance.
3.6.3 Other Protection Problems
Figure 3.10: (a) Line with 50% series compensation (b) Apparent impedance versus
position of fault on line.
41
Fig. 3.10(a) shows a line with 50% series compensation; in such a case, line
inductive reactance is jX and capacitive reactance is -j(0.5*X). Fig. 3.10(b) shows a
graph for apparent impedance versus position of fault on the line from the relay.
According to the graph, it is clear that when the relay has been set without series
compensation, then the relay will see many of the faults as reverse faults and will not
operate. In such a situation, a fault occurring at 125% of the line will appear as a Zone 1
fault. It must be necessary to look at another scheme to protect this line.
One approach is to slow down the operation of the relay so that the capacitor
overvoltage protection system in use, which consists of MOV, airgap and a bypass circuit
breaker will have time to operate and isolate the capacitor (or short circuit its terminal)
from the service. The Mho relay will function properly in such cases. Basically,
increasing the fault clearing time may lead to creating instability in the system.
A successful way to protect the series compensated line is by the use of phase
comparison relaying [38]. A phase comparison scheme compares the phase angle of the
current entering at one end with the phase angle of the current leaving at the other end of
the protected transmission line section and decide whether the fault is in the protected
line section or not. A communication channel compares the phase angles of the currents
between the protected line sections. A carrier signal is employed as a blocking pilot (the
carrier signal is used to prevent the relay operation). If the carrier signals from both ends
are 180 degrees or close to 180 degrees, this means no fault in the particular line section,
but if the carrier signal from both ends are in-phase, this means a fault occurs in the
particular protected line section. Communication links are basically costly to install and
also provide a weak link in a protection system.
42
Out of these problems, voltage reversal has been a major problem for distance
protection due to the inductive current flowing through the capacitive impedance. From a
relaying point of view, the maximum magnitude of voltage reversal happens at a
measuring location directly adjacent to a capacitor installation.
3.7 SUMMARY
Advantages of the series compensation using capacitors for power system
planning and operation to increase the power transfer capability of the
transmission lines.
Different schemes for the protection of series capacitors against overvoltage,
which includes single-gap protection scheme, dual-gap protection scheme and
most importantly, Zno protection scheme or MOV scheme.
A brief description about the location of series capacitors in the transmission line
and the degree of compensation obtained due to series capacitors.
A brief explanation about various problems in the relaying protection due to the
installation of series capacitors for compensation in the transmission line.
43
CHAPTER - 4
MODELING OF MHO RELAY
4.1 INTRODUCTION
A conventional Mho relay is modeled in EMTP-RV to investigate its behaviour
under different fault conditions at various locations in the 500 kV, 280 km long series
compensated two parallel transmission lines. The model of a conventional Mho relay is
comprised of three fundamental blocks: a Fault Detection Block, a Zone and Faulty Phase
Detection Block and a Logic Circuit. Each block has various sub-blocks. Distance relays
are basically used to protect high voltage, long transmission lines by detecting short
circuit faults on the protected line and thereafter initiating the remedial action by tripping
the circuit breakers related to the particular section of the line covered by the relay.
According to statistical evidence, a single phase-to-ground fault is the most
common fault experienced on a transmission line. Different algorithms and models have
been put forward to protect the transmission lines [34]-[48]. The Mho relay has a circular
operating characteristic with directionality, correct phase selection and easy criterion. The
coverage of the fault resistance is small, especially when the setting impedance of the
Mho relay is small. On the other hand, basically for heavy load and long line, the relay
has less stability, when the setting impedance is high. Whenever the earth resistance
increases, the Mho relay decreases its sensitivity and in the worst cases, refuses to trip.
Therefore, to overcome the earth resistance effect, it is an essential necessity to improve
44
the sensitivity of the Mho relay. The stability (ability of the protection relay not to send a
tripping signal, if there is no internal fault) is also essential at the same time [49].
A transmission line demonstrates predictable impedance, which increases with the
length of the line. A distance relay has a pre-established impedance setting, which
determines the size of the relay's impedance characteristic, which is typically in the form
of a circle in the impedance (R-X) diagram and matched to the length of the line to be
protected by the relay. The distance relay is capable of detecting faults rapidly on the
transmission line; this means that the relay is capable of detecting faults when the
impedance of the line is inside the impedance (R-X) characteristic of the relay.
In this thesis, a Mho relay model based on the residual current compensation
algorithm is proposed. The operation boundary of the Mho relay can be adjusted to
provide consistent zone coverage over the area of interest.
4.2 CONVENTIONAL MHO RELAY MODELING
Input to the relay
From CVT
115V
# treset #
# treclose #
Fault Detection Zone and Faulty Phase
Block Detection Block
Logic Circuit
Block
Amont_a
Amont_b
Amont_c
Zonel
Zone2
Zone3 decl_a
decl b
Phase_a
Phase_b
Phase c
decl c
Presencejr
treset
treclose
Output from
the relay
Dec
Figure 4.1: Block diagram of conventional Mho relay model.
The block diagram of a conventional Mho relay model for a series compensated
transmission line is shown in Fig. 4.1. The Mho relay has two 3-phase inputs, (1) the
45
three phase voltages from the capacitor voltage transformers (CVT's) and (2) the three
line currents from the current transformers (CT's), and provides one logical output which
gives a trip indication to the protection system.
(1) Capacitor Voltage Transformer: CVT's are used to step-down extra high voltage
signals and provide low voltage signals to operate a protective relay. A simplified
diagram of the CVT is shown in Fig. 4.2
High Voltage
lerminal
Cl =
C2 =
Ground _
Terminal
= L
Transformer
" )
c Secondary
C_ Terminals
Figure 4.2: Capacitor voltage transformer.
The CVT consists of three parts:
(a) Two capacitors (capacitive divider) which divide the voltage signal.
(b) A compensation coil L (inductive element) used to tune the device to the supply
frequency.
(c) An intermediate transformer used to isolate and further step-down the voltage for
the protective relay.
CVT's are single-phase devices used for measuring voltages in excess of one
hundred kilovolts where the use of ordinary voltage transformers would be expensive;
therefore, from a cost point of view, CVT's are more implemented in EHV lines [50]. In
practice, the first capacitor (CI) is often replaced by a stack of capacitors connected in
series, resulting in a large voltage drop across the stack of capacitors that replaces the
46
first capacitor, and a comparatively smaller voltage drop across the second capacitor (C2)
and hence the secondary terminals.
The CVT has at least four terminals, a high voltage (HV) terminal for connection
to the high voltage signal, a ground terminal and one set (two) of secondary terminals for
connection to the protective relay.
(2) Current transformers: CT's are used to reduce the large current flowing in the
power system to a value low enough to suit the operation of the protective relay.
Reset time (treset): Most of the faults in the transmission line are transient, therefore,
after the reset time; the relay will check the status of the fault. If the fault is still there,
then the relay will trip the circuit breaker. If the fault has disappeared during that period,
then the relay will restore the line or service.
Reclose time (treclose): Most faults on EHV lines are caused by lightning, which means
the faults are transient in nature. Overvoltage caused by the lightning exists for a short
duration so, after the reclose time, the relay is used to reconnect the system to the normal
operation.
The Mho relay model is comprised of three principal blocks:
Block A - Fault Detection Block,
Block B - Zone and Faulty Phase Detection Block, and
Block C - Logic Circuit Block.
47
4.3 FAULT DETECTION (BLOCK A)
Calculation
Detection circuit
Van
Vbn
Vcn
Ian
Ibn
Icn
Presence Ir
Figure 4.3: Block diagram for fault detection model.
Fig. 4.3 shows the block diagram for the fault detection, which has inputs from
the CVT and CT. Internal computations within this block provide both phase-to-phase or
phase-to-ground voltages and currents as outputs. The fault detection block has three sub-
blocks:
Data Acquisition Sub-Block,
Calculation Sub-Block, and
Detection Circuit Sub-Block.
4.3.1 Data Acquisition
The basic block diagram of the data acquisition model is shown in Fig. 4.4. Input
voltages (Va, Vb and Vc) and input currents (la, lb and Ic) are filtered with a second
order band-pass filter to remove harmonics from the three phase voltages and currents.
48
Band-pass filter: A band-pass filter passes frequencies within a certain range and
attenuates (rejects) frequencies outside that range, allowing signals between two specific
frequencies to pass through.
Va
Vb
Vc
la
lb
Ic
f(u)
K .
(1/3)*(u[1]+u[2]+u[3])
Va Vaf
Vb Vbf
Vc Vcf
laf
Ibf
Icf
lo lof
Band Pass
Filter
Vaf
Vbf
Vcf
laf
Ibf
Icf
K> iof
Figure 4.4: Block diagram of data acquisition model.
Fig. 4.5 illustrates the magnitude v/s frequency graph of a band-pass filter. The
lower and upper cutoff frequencies, fl and f2, are the frequencies at which the output
signal falls to 0.707 of the peak value. The range of frequencies between fl and fl is
called the filter pass band.
3
(
Bandwidth ,
Peak value
0.707 of the peak or
gain-0.3 dB
fl = lower cutoff frequency
2 = upper cutoff frequency
fl fn a
Frequency
Figure 4.5: Magnitude transfer function v/s frequency for a band-pass filter.
49
In this relay, the band pass filter has the following data:
Initial values: f
n
= 60 Hz and Zeta = 0.707
f
n
= Resonance (Tuned) frequency in Hz
Zeta = Damping ratio
W
n
= 2*7t*f
n
w = Resonance frequency in radians
If la, lb and Ic are the input currents, then the fraction of residual current (Io) is derived
as:
I
0
= (l/3)*(Ia+Ib+Ic) (4.1)
The residual current, which is obtained from the above equation, is used to
compensate the phase current for the correct distance measurement.
4.3.2 Calculation
Inputs
Va
Vb
Vc
la
lb
Ic
~Wi
-EHi
u[1] - u[2]
f(u)
flu)
flu) >-
^ L f(u)
flu)
>-
-3a f(u)
Outputs
- K> Va b
H X > Vbc
K > V c a
Van
Vbn
Vcn
K>
lab
K> Ibc
K > lea
- C> Ibn
I en
Figure 4.6: Single line diagram for voltage and current measurement.
50
The single line diagram of phase-to-phase and phase-to-ground voltage and
current measurements is shown in Fig. 4.6. Since a fault may or may not involve the
ground connection, input voltages and currents, after being filtered, are converted into
phase-to-phase and phase-to-ground values by the calculation sub-block. Since this sub-
block receives only phase-to-ground values, phase-to-phase values are obtained by
subtracting two voltages or two currents. Fig. 4.6, f(u) shows that the output is a function
of inputs; thus the output is the difference of the two input values (u[l] - u[2]). Table 4.1
provides the equations for phase-to-phase and phase-to-ground voltage and current
measurements.
Table 4.1: Equations for phase-to-phase and phase-to-ground voltage and current
measurements.
Phase-to-phase
voltages
Vab = Va-Vb
Vbc = Vb-Vc
Vca = Vc-Va
Phase-to-ground
voltages
Van = Va-Vn
Vbn = Vb-Vn
Vcn = Vc-Vn
Phase-to-phase
currents
lab = la-lb
Ibc = Ib-Ic
lea = Ic-Ia
Phase-to-ground
currents
Ian = Ia-In
Ibn = Ib-In
Icn = Ic-In
51
4.3.3 Detection Circuit
Va b [
Van
V b c l
Vbn
VcaF
Vcn
l ab[
Ian [
IbcE
Ibn
l ca[
Icn
1Ey
-tP
ABS(u[1])>#seuil_lr#*#ln#
2 SUM D>Min out> 1 &|l f(u) > -
EH in out ^-
rms
0)in oul"t>-
rms
EH in outt>-
f(u) b>
1 LJL.
f(u) b>
f(u) b>
rms (ABS(u[1]>1e-6)*(u[1]) u[2]>=u[1]
- C S >
SUM
~W2
Hin out >-
inst to phasor
- ^
p ^j in out^
i nst t o phasor
1
^2 h~7
i Hi
'
1
"'l>
Q Van
<IVbn
Q Vcn
i nst t o phasor
1
> Nin QUI): frini out)>{X]lan
inst to phasor
- ^
>C?j in out ^"*"
i nst t o phasor
- i
1
out|>
i nst t o phasor
Select a
o
Logic AND
Select b
Compa
Comp_ b
- Select_c Comp_ e
- i - l o
t>in2
phasor add
&firvi out b^2l bn
phasor add
E>Trvi out[>fXllcn
PH> in2
phasor add
> Presence Ir
Compensat i on
Figure 4.7: Block diagram for voltages and currents detection model.
Depending on the type of fault, this sub-block provides either phase-to-phase
voltages and currents or phase-to-ground voltages and currents as outputs. The block
diagram for voltages and currents detection is shown in Fig. 4.7. The selection is carried
out based on the current flowing through the circuit. During a fault condition, current in
each phase varies depending on the type of fault. The selection of the output is achieved
through an input selector control device.
Input selector: output = selected input. Selection is determined by the control signal
"select". The value of "select device" is trimmed to the (1, n), n being the number of
52
inputs, in our case n=2. This control device selects one of the inputs (Vab or Van, Vbc or
Vbn, Vca or Vcn, lab or Ian, Ibc or Ibn, lea or Icn) as an output. A total of six outputs are
determined by the value of the selection control signal.
To get a control signal for ground faults, the sum of the three input currents are
carried out (Ian+Ibn+Icn) and the output value is fed to the RMS meter which calculates
the RMS value over a sliding time window of period (T=l/f). When the ABS (Absolute
value (output value = |w/?w?|)) of RMS meter current is greater than the product of seuil_ir
(reference current) and I
n
(neutral current) then output is obtained from the function f(u).
Summation of the absolute value of the RMS output with constant value (1) is carried out
to get the signal "2" for "select device"; otherwise, "select device" will provide only
constant " 1 " as an output signal during normal condition.
The output voltage and the current of the input selectors are instantaneous values.
The instantaneous-to-phasor device converts the first harmonic of the instantaneous value
of a signal to a phasor representation. The phasor representation is a 2-signal bundle of
the polar coordinates (magnitude and angle) of the phasor. To obtain the actual distance
measurement for the series compensated line, in this thesis, the residual current
compensation algorithm is used. The complete process of the compensation algorithm is
explained in the next section.
4.3.3.1 Compensation
The impedance seen by the relay is given by the ratio V/I (=Z). An important
feature of designing a distance protection scheme is to select appropriate values of bus
voltage (V) and line current (I) signal, so that the impedance measurement and
computation by the relay during a fault condition is the positive phase sequence (p.p.s.)
53
impedance from the relay location to the fault location [1]. The values of phase voltage
(V) and line current (I) are different with/without series capacitor in the transmission line.
Compensation methods are utilized to permit the relay to measure the p.p.s. impedance
from the relaying location to the fault location. The impedance measure by the relay is
influenced by the fault type and also by a number of power system parameters, such as
MOV rating, series capacitance etc. In this thesis, an algorithm called "residual current
compensation" is employed, where the compensation current (I
com
p) is added to the phase
currents (I
pn
) to derive corrected impedance measurements and finally, the distance from
the relay location to the fault location.
The basic circuit diagram for the compensation is shown in Fig. 4.8. After
compensation, the current seen by the relay for impedance measurement is given by:
Here, I
com
p = k
c
*Io and Conventional average compensation factor (k
c
)= k ^ Zk
d
2 2
Magnitude compensation (k
mag
) =
( R Q
~
R 1 ) +
(
L 0
~
L 1
) (4.3)
\ (R1)
2
+(L1)
2
Angle compensation (k
rad
) = tan"' f
( L 0
~
L 1 )
| - tan"'() (4.4)
^R0-R1)J {RlJ
The residual current compensation algorithm uses a composite relay current signal
made up of faulted phase and compensation currents at the relay location. An
instantaneous residual current is converted into a polar representation (magnitude and
angle) by means of an instantaneous-to-polar conversion device. The parameters RO, LO,
Rl and LI are the zero and positive sequence resistance and inductance, respectively of
the protected line.
54
Compensation_a
Select_a
10
Select b
kmag I c
krad Lsl
Select c
Select
10
kmag
krad
I0_comp' ( Comp_a
Compensation^
Select
10
kmag
krad
I0_comp'
I Comp_b
Compensations
Comp_c
Select K >
Compensation
10 K> < H
i n m
*>9
rad>
inst to polar
kmag [
krad [
n1_mag out_mag >
n1_rad out_radp
n2_mag
n2 rad
ti*
polar multiply
n_mag out >*
I WH
*
t
^|
n rad
polar to phasor
IO_Comp
Figure 4.8: Compensation model.
The output magnitude and angle from the residual current phasor and the k
mag
and
k
ra
d are obtained with the help of a polar multiplication device. Fig. 4.9 shows the single
line diagram for the polar multiplication. With this device, the output magnitude is
obtained by the product of two input magnitudes and the output angle is obtained by the
sum of two input angles.
out_mag = in 1 mag * in2_mag
out_rad = inljrad + in2_rad
If Zl and Z2 are the magnitudes and 01 and 92 are the angles, then:
Output magnitude = (zi|Z6l)*(Z2|Z02) = (zi|*|Z2|)zei+e2
55
in1_mag
in1 rad
in2_mag
in2 rad
- E>1
"C>2
PROD t > out_mag
-|X> out_rad
Figure 4.9: Polar multiplication.
Finally, this polar representation is converted into a phasor through a polar-to-
phasor conversion device and provides the compensation current for the faulted phase(s).
As shown in equation (2) that such compensation current is add with the phase current
and provide the appropriate current value, which is used to find the correct zone, faulty
phase(s) and finally distance to the fault.
Polar to phasor conversion: out mag = i nmag
out_rad = in_rad
4.4 ZONE AND FAULTY PHASE DETECTION (BLOCK B)
After computations on the inputs received from Block A, the output from this
block provides information about the faulted phase(s) and the zone where the fault has
occurred. The block diagram for the zone and faulty phase detection model is shown in
Fig. 4.10. A total of nine outputs are obtained from this block: one each for Zones 1, 2
and 3, one each for the phases a, b and c, and three for reverse zone with respect to the
three phases a, b and c. Block B has four sub-blocks:
Zone detection sub-block,
Faulty phases detection sub-block,
Time delay sub-block, and
Zone representation sub-block.
56
Zone Detection
Van
Vbn
Vcn[
Ian
Ibn
len
treset
treclose
Van
Vbn
Vcn
Ian
Ibn
len
Amont_a
Amont_b
Amont_c
Zone1_a
Zone2_a
Zone1_b
Zone2_b
Zonel c
Zone2 c
Van
Vbn
Vcn
Ian
Ibn
len
Ordrea
Ordre_b
Ordre c
Faulty Phase
Detection
Time Delay
Amont_a
Amont_b
Amont_c
Zone1_a
Zone2_a
Zone1_b
Zone2_b
Zone1_c
Zone2 c
Ordre_a
Ordre_b
Ordre_c
treset
treclose
Amonta
Amontb
Amontc
Zonel
Zone2
Zone3
Phase_a
Phase_b
Phase c
Zone Representation
Amont_a
Amont_b
Amont_c
Zonel
Zone2
Zone3
Phase_ a
Phase_ b
Phase c
Figure 4.10: Zone and faulty phase detection model.
4.4.1 Zone Detection
Phase comparators are employed for the zone detection. The 3-phase input
voltages and currents are fed to the phase comparators to detect the zone. Fig. 4.11 shows
the basic diagram for the zone detection sub-block. We know that V/I = Z and the
impedance of the line is proportional to the length of the line to be protected. During fault
condition, the impedance measured by the relay is given by:
z =
V.
pn
I
p
+ k
c
* I
(4.5)
The role of equation (4.5) is to keep Z
r
invariant with the types of faults, such as
Single Line-to-Ground (SLG), Two Line-to-Ground (2LG), Three Line-to-Ground (3LG)
etc. During a fault condition, the voltage and current values will change and, therefore,
57
impedance will be affected. In this model, the faulty zone detection is carried out based
upon the difference in phase angles between two input quantities (Current and voltage)
through the phase comparator.
Van
VcnE
IcnR
Detection_ Phase a
Detection Phase C
V Zonel
. Zone2
Amont
Zone1_b
Zone2_b
Amont b
> Zbne1_c
> Zone2_c
' Amont c
V
IE
Phase Comparator
Sequence
Phase Comparator
4v Sequence
Phase Comparator
Sequence!
Zonel
- | E> Zone2
-g> Amont
Figure 4.11: Zone detection model.
Zone 1 primary impedance magnitude = Zonel *Zij
ne
and
Zone 1 primary impedance angle, Z
ang
i
e
= tan"'(Ll/Rl)
Here, Zonel = 0.85 (85% of the protected line length), and
Ziie = Length* V(R1)
2
+(L1)
2
* ^
CtS'
(
V
cvtp
/V
cvts)
I t and I . = Primary and secondary current, respectively of the CT, and
V + and V
t
= Primary and secondary voltage, respectively of the CVT
58
(4.6)
The setting value of each zone is expressed as a percentage of the line length.
Normally, the first zone covers only up to 80% to 90% of the protected line length. The
second zone covers the remainder of the line left unprotected by the Zone 1 setting, plus
50% of the adjacent line section. The third zone is used for back-up protection and covers
the first and second line sections, plus 20% to 25% of the adjacent line. The output
signals are based on the each phase and zone such as Zonel_a, Zonel_b, Zone2_a etc.
For instance, if the fault occurs on phase a and Zone 2, then Zone2_a gives the output
signal for further processing and the other output signals provide a zero signal. During
this process, the relay can detect the zone where the fault has occurred.
4.4.2 Faulty Phases Detection
Impedance Trajectory
Van
lan[Xh
-i>Zxa
-l>Zya
Phase Comparator
Sequence_
Sequence
Vbn[
Ibn [
M M | I
-E>Zxb
H>Zyb
Phase Comparator
Sequence_b
Sequence
V c n ^ -
Icn g j -
Zx
zy
->ZXC
-OZyc
Phase Comparator
Sequence
Sequence_c
Figure 4.12: Faulty phase detection model.
59
The block diagram for the faulty phase detection model is shown in Fig. 4.12.
Phase comparators are employed for the faulted phase detection. The output of this sub-
block provides the sequence of phases a, b or c through the phase comparators and the
impedance trajectory of each phase in the impedance (R-X) diagram.
4.4.2.1 Impedance Trajectory
Fig. 4.13 shows the block diagram to obtain the impedance trajectory for each
phase in the impedance (R-X) diagram.
(t< =#period#)*#Zr_init_mag#
+(t>#period#)*u[1] ^-f(t)
in1_mag out_mag
in1_rad out_ rad|>
in2_mag
in2 rad
polar divide
>-
f(t)
ABS(u[1]) >= 5*#zline#
(t< =#period#)*#Zr_init_ang#
+(t>#period#)*u[1]
-o\i m t>
1
Hold
- Nmag x S -
-C>|rad yp~
polar t o xy
Output value:
is reset to reset value (rv) when reset control (rc)>0
else is held to output (t-deltat) when hold control (hc>0)
else is value of input
Figure 4.13: Block diagram to obtain the impedance trajectory for each phase.
Three phase input voltages and currents from the previous block (Block A) are
fed to this sub-block, which converts a polar (magnitude and angle) representation of a
phasor or vector (voltage and current) to its (x, y) coordinates. Polar coordinates
(magnitude and angle) of the voltage and current (phases a, b and c) are fed to the polar
division device. This device divides two vectors or phasors represented by their polar
coordinates. The output of the polar division device is calculated as follows:
out mag = inl_mag/in2_mag
60
out rad = inl rad - in2 rad
The output of the polar division device affects the mathematical operation f(u),
which gives an output as a function of its inputs, and that value passes through the hold
component. Here, if the hold control he is greater than 0, then the output maintains its
previous value and if the reset control re is greater than 0, then regardless of he, the
output takes the reset value rv. Finally, these polar representations convert into its (x, y)
coordinates through the polar-to-(x, y) conversion. This sub-block provides the
location/trajectory of each phase in the impedance (R-X) diagram. The necessary
conditions which need to be satisfied for the operation are shown in fig. 4.13.
4.4.2.2 Phase Comparator
Comparator* I c >
{(u[1]>-tialf_pi) AND
halfji))*(t>2
,
#pefiod#)
Output
Sequence
polar multiply
Figure 4.14: Phase comparator.
The block diagram for the phase comparator is shown in Fig. 4.14. A phase
comparator compares the two input quantities in phase angle and operates if the phase
angle between them is less than or equal to 90 [2]. If current is an operating quantity and
voltage is a restraining quantity, then the relay sends a trip signal when the operating
quantity exceeds the restraining quantity. It is important to determine the zone as well as
61
the phase(s) for the protection line where the fault has occurred. The magnitude and angle
of the voltage and current are different during fault and normal conditions.
In this sub-block, the angle of two electrical quantities (current and voltage) is
compared to find out whether a fault has occurred in a particular phase. The necessary
conditions which need to be satisfied for the operation are shown in Fig. 4.14. The same
sub-block is used for two different purposes: one, to find the zone and the second, to find
the faulted phases. Typical values for the phase comparator design constant parameters
i.e. ki, k2, cii, (X2, 0i, 62, ZR1 and ZR2 are shown in the Appendix A.
4.4.3 Time Delay
Fig. 4.15 shows the block diagram for the time delay model. When signals about
the different zones and the different phases are received from the zone detection and
faulty phase detection block, they pass through a logical OR function to determine the
zone where the fault has occurred. This sub-block receives signals like Zonel_a, which
means Zone 1 of phase a; Zonel_b, which means Zone 1 of phase b; Zone2_a, which
means Zone 2 of phase a, etc. The zone involved in the fault is received through the
logical OR function, and the output signal is used for further processing.
62
Zone2_a f
Zone2_b <
zone2 c )
Sequence,
Sequence.
Sequence,
Q> [delay |
Detect
#tzone1#
-Ml
Timeout
#tzone2#
Ml O
. , "o H Detect
delay |
Timeout
Q> [delay |
#tzone3#
In
y Detect
Outputs
{>> Amonta
{ g> Amontb
Amontc
-K>Zone1
>Zone2
>Zone3
-g>Phase_a
-{g>Phase_ b
-)>?> Phase c
Figure 4.15: Block diagram for time delay model.
After the detection of the faulted zone, it is necessary to add the delay time before
getting the final signal. For Zone 1, the relay trips instantaneously. However, Zone 2 and
Zone 3 have some intentional time delays added to coordinate with the relays at the
remote bus, before providing an output. Zone 3 has more time delay than Zone 2. Most of
the faults in transmission lines are transient, so after a zone time delay, it is necessary to
provide the reset and reclose time to see the condition of the fault. This will allow the
relay to trip the circuit breakers or put the line back into service.
If reclose time is greater than the reset time, then the relay trips the circuit
breakers after the reset time, but if the reclose time is lesser than the reset time, then the
relay does not provide the trip signal after the reset plus the reclose time.
63
4.4.3.1 Timeout
Inf
Delay W2
Output = time integral of input signal
Output is limited dynamically (no windup) to low and high limits (see limits)
Output is reset to reset value (rv) when reset control (re) is > 0.
treset F
trecloset
E > 1
i > 2
i > 3
((u[2]+u[3]>0)*
(u[1]>(u[2]+u[3]
i>D
E> CLK
!>set
1> dear
!> toggle
t>hold
Q
notQ
D flip-flop
Detect
Figure 4.16: Timeout model.
The block diagram for the timeout function is shown in Fig. 4.16. When the zone
and the faulty phases are decided, then it is necessary to determine whether the fault is
temporary or permanent before tripping the circuit breakers. This sub-block adds the time
delay based on the selection of zone, where the fault has occurred. After the zone time
delay and the reset time, the relay again checks the status of the fault (whether the fault is
still in the line or not). If the fault is not found then the relay puts the line back into
service but if the fault is found then the relay sends a signal to trip the three phase circuit
breakers and isolate the protected line.
4.4.4 Zone Representation
The zone representation function, which draws a distance relay characteristic on
an impedance (R-X) diagram. With internal mathematical calculations, this sub-block
decides the centers and radii of the circles on an impedance (R-X) diagram for different
zones (Zone 1, Zone 2, Zone 3 and Zone a) according to the data chosen for the system.
64
Selected values for the different parameters are shown in the Appendix A. The basic
block diagram for the zone representation is shown in Fig. 4.17.
Inputs
#ZR11#
#k1#
#theta1#
#ZR21#
#k2#
#theta2#
#ZR12#
#ZR22#
#ZR13#
#ZR23#
#ZR1a#
#theta1a#
#ZR2a#
#theta2a#
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
^ c
c
c
c
c
c
c
v
Zonel
Characteristic
ZR1
t het ay
V
" ) c.
_y C*
k2 Cy
theta2
Comparator
Zone2
Characteristic
ZR1
thetaV'
\
^ *
_ ^
c
"
k2 Cy
theta2
Comparator
Zone3
Characteristic
ZR1
t het ay
V
^ c
__J Cx
k2 Cy
theta2
Comparator
Zonea
Characteristic
ZR1
thetay
\i
^ c
_ y
CA
ZR2
k2 Cy
theta2
Outputs
Cx1
Cy1
Cx2
Cy2
Cx
Cy
Cxa
Cya
Figure 4.17: Zone representation.
4.4.4.1 Zone Characteristic
With selected input data, this sub-block provides the centers and radii of the
circles for different zones. Internal mathematical equations for Zone 1 are shown in Fig.
65
4.18, which is identical for other zones. These circles pass through the origin and have
different radii for different zones. Each circle denotes a particular length of the line.
u[l]/(l*u[2]==0)+u[2])
ZR1
k1
thetal
ZR2
k2
theta2
~{>2
f(u)
- j >1
~J>2
&H -* f(u> (>-
mag x >-
rad y >-
polar t o xy
mag x b -
lEslrad yp>-
polar t o xy
{> mag x >
{> rad y >
polar t o xy
Circle Centre 0.5*u[1] Comparator
in1_x out_x >-
in1_y out_y >-
1^ in2_x
i>| in2_y
W1 f(u)
OhJinL
xy add
Circle Radius
-t>i
->2
-t>3
- 04
f(u) b-
0.5*SQRT((u[1]-u[3])
A
2
+ (u[2]-u[4]r2)
u[l]+
C0S(64*pi*t)*u[2]
n ) >~K>Cx
SIN(64*pi*t)*u[2]
f(u) k-K>Cy
Figure 4.18: Zone characteristic.
The diameters of the circle are proportional to the impedance of the line or
indirectly the length of the line to be coved by each zone. The setting value of each zone
is expressed as a percentage of the total line length. For instance, if the length of the line
is 280 km and if Zonel=0.9 is selected, it means that circle 1 will cover 90% of the
protected line length. When a fault occurs within that area, this can be located within
Zone 1 circle in the R-X diagram.
After such a process, this device converts a polar (magnitude, angle)
representation of a vector or phasor to its (x, y) coordinates,
x = magnitude * cos(angle) and
y = magnitude * sin(angle).
66
4.5 LOGIC CIRCUIT (BLOCK C)
Inputs
Amont_a
Amont_b
Amont_c
Zonel
Zone2
Zone3
Phase_a
Phase_b
Phase_c
Presence ir
treset
treclose
Logic Sequence
Amont_a
Amont_b
Amont_c
Zonel
Zone2
Zone3
Phase_a
Phase_b
Phase_c
Presencejr
treset
Fire_a
Fire_b
Fire c
Reclosing
fire a decl a
fire_b ~ g decl_b
fire_c <g $ decl_c
Outputs
7S decl_a
< S decl_b
<*> decl c
Figure 4.19: Block diagram for the logic circuit model.
The output of this block determines the final decision of the relay for tripping a
circuit breaker based on the input data received from the previous block about different
zones and phases. If the fault is temporary and can be isolated within the reset time of the
relay, then this block will not send a trip signal. However, if the fault is permanent, then
it will send a trip signal for the circuit breaker. The block diagram for the logic circuit
model is shown in Fig. 4.19. The logic circuit has two sub-blocks:
Logic sequence sub-block, and
Reclosing sub-block
4.5.1 Logic Sequence
Fig. 4.20 shows the block diagram for the logic sequence. The signals of Zones 1,
2 and 3 from the previous block pass through a logical OR function, the output gives the
final zone decision and identify where the fault has occurred. Now, as information about
the zone and the faulty phase(s) are available, a logical AND function provides an output
based on the combination of faulted zone with faulted phase.
67
Inputs
Zonel
Zone2
Zone3
Amont_ aE
Phase a [
Amont_ bR
Phase bO
Amont_ cD
Phase cC
:
E^=T>
1
1J
Logic OR
Logic AND
Logic OR
& ^ >
Logic AND
Logic OR
to
Logic AND
Pr esence_ l r [ >0
j gi c NOT r ~ ~ = T "
Logic AND
-WD Q p -
H> CLK 1 notQp
|> set
i> clear
D flip-flop
WCLK .;' nolQ
D* clear
W toggle
D flip-flop
N D Q
NCLK f notQ
clear
toggle
hoW
D flip-flop
time step
Logic NOT Outputs
> Fire_a
Logic NOT
[>-HE>
Logic NOT
^P>K>
Fire b
Fire c
Logic NOT
1
sc re rv
Sampler
u[1]>u[2]
d
Figure 4.20: Logic sequence.
Flip-flop: This device is an implementation of a D flip-flop with a rising-edge clock and
full override controls. The initial value of Q must be defined if the device is possibly
holding or toggling at t=0. When the device operates in clearing or setting mode at t=0,
the initial value is ignored. The three outputs from the flip-flop are entered into the
logical OR function and the output is used to obtain the control signal for the select
device, as well as to send a signal back to the flip-flop after the processing of the sampler
and if the condition (u[l]>u[2]) is satisfied. The logic sequence for the select device
operation is shown in Fig. 4.20. After getting the "select" control signal, the circuit
breaker receives the firing signal. Before firing, it is necessary to know whether the fault
is still present in the line or not. After the next sub-block, the final decision has been
taken by the relay. For "sampler", output value:
Is reset to reset value (rv) when reset control (re) >0,
68
Else is selected sampling when sample control (sc) >0,
Else is held to output(t-At)
4.5.2 Reclosing
(reset K > '
trecloseE>
lire a g > -
Logic NOT \
Sampler
Sampler
Sampler
u(1]==0 OR
u[]1>u[2]
u(1]==0OR
u[]1>u[2]
\ V do l i yb
1
Logic NOT
D Q
CLK ,. notQ
N toggle
D flip-flop
time step
Logic NOT
^Sampler
u|2J>u[1]
U3>w
^Sampler
H'"' t^
(Ml2l/u[3))>u[1]>*1
p h .i p-
iLh K
EH
u[1)+u[2]+u[3]>=2
Logic NOT
Logic NOT
HP-
u( 1] " 0 OR
u[)1>u[2l
Logic NOT
H>
Logic NOR
l T \ K> decl_a
Logk: NOR
Z ^ D * K>decl_b
Loge NOR
h j ^ K> *cl_c
Figure 4.21: Logic diagram for the reclosing model.
A single-phase auto-reclosing scheme is employed to detect the permanent or
temporary fault and its logic diagram is shown in Fig. 4.21. In a single-phase auto-
reclosing scheme, for single phase-to-ground fault, only the faulted phase pole of the
circuit breaker is tripped and reclosed. At the same time, synchronizing power still flows
through the healthy phases. For a multi-phase fault, all the three phases are tripped and
reclosed simultaneously. When the zone and faulted phase(s) are decided, then it is
necessary to determine whether the fault is temporary or permanent in nature before
tripping the three phase circuit breakers. Whenever this block receives the information
about zone and faulted phase(s) where the fault has occurred, the relay sends a trip signal
69
for the faulted phase(s). The relay checks the status of the fault again after a reset time.
Depending upon the permanent or temporary fault, either the relay sends a trip signal for
the three phase circuit breakers or restores the line after reset time, respectively. The logic
sequence and mathematical equations for different devices are shown in Fig. 4.21. For the
relay operation, it is essential to satisfy all necessary conditions.
Fig. 4.22 shows the Mho relay model with three blocks and their sub-blocks.
CVT
i
CT input to the
IE:
relay
Data Acquisition
Vpn I I Ipn
Calculation
Vppj
v
P
n
j jfoP jlpn
Detection and
Compensation
Vpp or Vpn
S
Zone
Detection
Ipp or Ipn
Faulty Phase
Detection
Zone Phase
Time delay and Zone
representation
Zone with delay Phase selection
Logic Sequence
j Fire
Reclosing
Trip Signal
o
o
CO
00
o
_o
CO
o
XL
o
a
CO
Figure 4.22: Mho relay model.
70
4.6 POWER SYSTEM TEST MODEL
Numerous simulation tests were carried out in the power system test model as
shown in Fig. 4.23. The test system, modeled in the simulation package EMTP-RV [51],
is comprised of two 500 kV parallel transmission lines LI and L2. The line lengths are
indicated in the figure. The two lines are paralleled at Buses A, B and C. Series
compensation capacitors are located just ahead of the Bus B.
Ralay f Fault I
Figure 4.23: Power system model.
The series capacitors are protected by a parallel MOV, airgap and breaker. The
transmission lines are 40% compensated. Transmission Line LI of the power system is
protected with the Mho distance relay, which is placed at the beginning of Line LI, next
to Bus A. In order to evaluate the relay performance during different faults, in this thesis,
the EMTP-RV program is used to replay events and analyze problems. The relay
monitors the phase voltage and phase current through a CVT and CT, respectively.
71
4.7 SUMMARY
The conventional Mho relay is modeled in the EMTP-RV with three fundamental
blocks and sub-blocks to investigate its behavior under different fault conditions
at various locations.
The residual current compensation algorithm is proposed to obtain the actual
distance from the relay location to the fault location.
The description of the faulty phase detection and zone detection with its internal
calculations and basic block diagrams are included in this chapter.
The single-phase auto-reclosure scheme is modeled with its internal calculations
to investigate the temporary and permanent faults.
The zone representation and its characteristics, time delay circuit for different
zones and logic circuit to obtain the final decision for the tripping signal are also
explained in this chapter.
The test circuit of the two 500 kV parallel transmission lines with 40% series
compensation located at the remote end of the protected line is modeled in the
EMTP-RV to investigate the behavior of the above mentioned relay.
72
CHAPTER- 5
SIMULATION RESULTS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
In order to evaluate the performance of protective systems, the use of EMTP-RV
simulation provides a good understanding of both relay performance and power system
dynamics during transient conditions. The test system, comprising conventional Mho
relay model and 500 kV, 280 km parallel line, explained in the preceding chapter is
simulated to investigate the operating behaviour of the Mho relay model and distance
protection algorithm under different fault conditions at various locations on the protected
line. The simulated power network is depicted in Fig. 5.1 and its parameters are
summarized in Appendices A and B.
RELAY
CV
TL
500 kV
CT
BUS A
F3
Line L1 . , _ . . _
r
MOVj-c^z5-
AIRGAPT-
BREAKER ~
no/
LineL2 '
4 0 %
Damping Circuit
280 km
s
BUSB BUSC
220 km
Figure 5.1: Simulation power system model.
73
Series capacitors are located at the end of the protected lines or just ahead of the
Bus B. The series capacitors, whose capacitive reactance Xc, equals approximately -39.2
Q, compensate for approximately 40% of the transmission line inductive reactance. The
Mho distance relay is placed at the beginning of Line LI, next to Bus A, and protects the
Line LI. The distance relay monitors the line current and phase voltage through a CT's
and CVT's, respectively. The relay operation and algorithm are checked for permanent
and temporary fault conditions with different cases, such as types of faults, fault
locations, fault resistances (Rf) and MOV reference voltages (V
re
f). Different
specifications of the faults are considered in the study. Although many simulations were
done, only a few representative results are shown next.
5.2 SIMULATION STUDIES
Using the developed EMTP-RV model, a number of fault cases have been
studied. A vast variety of the cases was obtained by changing the status of the fault
(permanent or temporary), type of fault, fault location, fault resistance (Rf) and MOV
reference voltage (V
re
f). A total of 294 fault cases were studied for parallel line operation.
The following changes were created in the power system model to investigate the
performance of the relay:
(a) Status of fault
(1) Permanent or (2) Temporary
(b) Type of fault
(1) Single phase-to-ground fault,
(2) Two phase-to-ground fault, and
(3) Three phase-to-ground fault.
74
(c) Fault Location
Fault locations are shown in fig. 4.22, in which,
(1) Fault Fl is generated at the remote end after the capacitor bank,
(2) Fault F2 is created at the remote end but before the capacitor bank, and
(3) Fault F3 is created at the beginning of the protected line,
d) Fault Resistance (Rf)
(1)20Q (2) 10 Q ( 3) 5Q (4) 0 Q,
(d) MOV Reference Voltage (V
ref
)
( l ) 200kV (2)100kV (3) 75 kV (4) 5 kV
In order to investigate the performance of the Mho relay model, a simulation of
the power system model (Fig. 4.22) is carried out with above mentioned changes. The
simulation study is divided into two parts: with either permanent fault or temporary fault.
5.2.1 Assessment of Relay under Permanent Fault
In this section, the distance relay performance for permanent fault is assessed
interactively under various fault types, fault locations, fault resistances (Rf) and MOV
reference voltages (V
re
f). The representation for operating time of the relay, trajectories of
impedances and 3-phase voltage and current waveforms are shown under different cases.
The fault occurs at time=0.06s, and the simulation is run for a total time period of 0.7s.
Table 5.1 shows that a variety of fault cases have been generated and used in testing the
behaviour of the relay and distance protection algorithm.
75
Table 5.1: Permanent fault cases for relay assessment.
Fault type
SLG, 2LG and 3LG
SLG, 2LG and 3LG
SLG, 2LG and 3LG
SLG, 2LG and 3LG
SLG, 2LG and 3LG
SLG, 2LG and 3LG
SLG, 2LG and 3LG
Fault location
Fl,F2andF3
Fl,F2andF3
Fl,F2andF3
Fl,F2andF3
Fl,F2andF3
Fl,F2andF3
Fl,F2andF3
Fault resistance
RfOhms
20
10
5
0
10
10
10
MOV
V
r
efkV
200
200
200
200
100
75
5
The new distance protection algorithm was tested with the above test cases and
the following results were obtained for the relay. Figures 5.2 to 5.10 show the
representation of the three different types of faults at three various locations. Tables 5.2
to 5.5 show the analysis of the relay operation for 20 Q., 10 Q, 5 Q and 0 Q. fault
resistances, respectively, with 200 kV MOV reference voltage (V
re
f). Tables 5.6 to 5.8
show the analysis of the relay operation for 10 Q. fault resistance with 100 kV, 75 kV and
5 kV MOV reference voltages (V
re
f), respectively. The above mentioned tables include
different fault locations, fault types, operating time of the relay with delay, operating time
of the relay with delay and reset period and number of operating cycles with delay.
(1) Single phase-to-ground (a-g) fault at location Fl (280 km after capacitor)
Fig. 5.2 shows results from a permanent single phase-to-ground (a-g) fault placed
at 280 km from the relay, after the capacitor (at location Fl) with fault resistance (Rf) =
76
10 Q and MOV reference voltage (V
re
f) = 200 kV. The fault occurs at time=0.06s, and the
simulation is run for a total time period of 0.7s.
Fig. 5.2(a) shows the trip signals for phases a, b and c. For phase "a" the trip
signal is generated after 0.3952s (including 0.3s Zone 2 delay). The relay checks the
status of the fault after 0.18s (reset time) and due to it being a permanent fault, all three
phase circuit breakers are tripped after 0.5928s.
Fig. 5.2(b) and (c) show the Line LI, 3-phase current and voltage waveforms,
respectively, measured at the relay location. When the fault occurs at 0.06s, the current
for phase "a" increases and at the same time voltage decreases. The relay trips the phase
"a" breaker at 0.3952s, therefore, no current passes through the phase "a". Due to a
permanent fault, after 0.18s (reset time), the relay trips the three phase circuit breakers at
0.5928s and the protected line is completely disconnected from the service.
The impedance (R-X) diagram (Fig. 5.2(d)) shows the 3 circles covering Zones 1,
2 and 3 and another smaller circle covering reverse zone operation. The impedance
trajectories for phases a, b and c are also shown. The trajectory of phase "a" indicates that
the fault involved phase "a" and is depicted by the Zone 2 circle.
Fig. 5.2(e) and (f) show the Line L2, 3-phase current and voltage waveforms,
respectively, measured at the beginning of the Line L2 near bus A. When the fault occurs
at Line LI, phase "a" current in Line L2 increases and the voltage decreases. High
current passes through the Line L2 after the Line LI is disconnected from the service.
77
1.2
a
0.6
t
Operating time of the relay - Phase a-to-ground fault
o.i
1 1 . i
Phase b
Phase c
0. 3952s
I 1 i
t
i 0. 5752s
X
i
i
i ;
1;
ii
1
i i
i ;
ii
ii
/ T ~~"
_ __
"
0. 5928s
0.2 0.3 0.4
Time (Second)
0.5 0.6
(a)
0.7
(1) Phase a current
L z
1
?
1 1
mwmm
i \i
0.5752s
f\
0.06$ 0.3952s 0.5928s
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
(2) Phase b current
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
(3) Phase c current
0.6 0.7
0.6 0.7
J^
0.06s
N.
!L
0.5928s-|
0.1 0.3 0.4 0.5
Time (Second) >
(b)
0.6 0.7
78
, l p u
(1) Phase a voltage
'WW
- 2
L 0.06s
0.3952s
V V V V V V V V
0.5928s ,
D.l 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
(2) Phase b voltage
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
(3) Phase c voltage
0.6
0.3 0.4
Time (Second)
(C)
0.7
30 r
Impedance diagram
25 V
20
S 15
a
O
S io
&
1
5
^
8 o^
-5 -
-10
Zone 3
Zone 2
Phase a
Impedance
Trajectory
Zone 1
v
Phase c
Impedance
Trajectory
Reverse Zone
Phase b
Impedance
Trajectory
-15 L
-10 5 10 15
Resistance (R) in Ohms
(d)
79
Three phases current waveform for unfaulted line
0.3 0.4
Time (Second)
(e)
Three phases voltage waveform for unfaulted line
-Phase a
-Phase b
Phase c
0.2 0.3 0.4
Time (Second)
(b) 3-phase currents in Line LI (c) 3-phase voltages in Line LI (d) Impedance (R-X)
diagram (e) 3-phase currents in Line L2 (f) 3-phase voltages in Line L2.
(2) Two phase-to-ground (a-b-g) fault at location Fl (280 km after capacitor)
Fig. 5.3 shows results from a permanent two phase-to-ground (a-b-g) fault placed
at 280 km from the relay, after the capacitor (at location Fl) with fault resistance (Rf) =
80
re
Fig. 5.3(a) shows the trip signals for phases a, b and c. The trip signal for phase
"b" is generated after 0.0822s and for phases "a" and "c" is generated after 0.0852s. For
any two phase-to-ground faults, all three phases are tripped together and the relay does
not check the status of the fault after reset time, which means that faults of this kind
permanently trip the three phase circuit breakers once the relay senses the fault with this
relay model. The relay operates in Zone 1 instead of Zone 2 (overreach) due to the
capacitor and measured impedance at the relay location.
for phase "a" and "b" increases and at the same time voltage decreases. The relay trips
the phase "b" breaker at 0.0822s and phases "a" and "c" breakers at 0.0852s, and the
protected line is completely disconnected from the service.
trajectories for phases a, b and c are also shown. The trajectory of the phases "a" and "b"
indicates that the fault involved phases "a" and "b" and is depicted by the Zone 1 circle.
81
1.2
Operating tune of the relay - Phases a and b-to-ground fault
o.s
2 0.6
5 -
4
0.2
0.3 0.4
Time (Second)
1 - 1 i !
f :
1! 1
- u
11 :
m
Phase 1
i
3
Phase c
'f'
;
!!
;
i ;
I !
f : o.iissis
o.0822s : ;
i i i i !
(a)
(1) Phase a current
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
(2) Phase b current
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
(3) Phase c current
0.3 0.4
Tune(Second)
(b)
0.6
0.6
0.7
0.7
82
(1) Phase a voltage
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
(2) Phase b voltage
0.06s 0.pS22s
o.i
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
(3) Phase c voltage
0.3 0.4
Time (Second)
( C)
0.7
30
25
20
15 h
s
a
O io
=
& 5
| 0

-5
-10
-15
Impedance diagram
-20
Zone 2
Zone 1
Reverse
Zone
Zone 3
^ Phas e a
\j^^ Impedance
Trajectory
Phase b
Impedance
Trajectory
Phase c
Impedance
Trajectory
-10 0 5 10 15 20 25
Resistance (R) in Ohms >
30
(d)
diagram.
83
(3) Three phase-to-ground (a-b-c-g) fault at location Fl (280 km after capacitor)
Fig. 5.4 shows results from a permanent three phases-to-ground (a-b-c-g) fault
placed at 280 km from the relay, after the capacitor (at location Fl) with fault resistance
(R
f
) = 10 D. and MOV reference voltage (V
re
f) = 200 kV. The fault occurs at time=0.06s,
and the simulation is run for a total time period of 0.7s.
Fig. 5.4(a) shows the trip signals for phases a, b and c. The trip signals for three
phases are generated after 0.0832s. The relay checks the status of the fault after 0.18s
(reset time) and due to the permanent fault, all three phase circuit breakers are tripped
after 0.2766s. The relay operates in Zone 1 instead of Zone 2 (overreach) due to the
capacitor and measured impedance at the relay location.
for three phases are increased and at the same time voltage decreases. The relay trips the
three phase's circuit breakers at 0.0832s; therefore, no current passes through the
protected line. Due to a permanent fault, after 0.18s (reset time), the relay trips the three
phase's circuit breakers at 0.2766s and the protected line completely disconnects from the
service.
trajectories for phases a, b and c are also shown. The trajectory of the three phases
indicates that the fault involved phases "a", "b" and "c" and is depicted by the Zone 1
circle.
84
1.2
0.8
o.a
0.4
0.2
Operating time of the relay - Three phase-to-ground fault
-0.2
!
j
1
1
I
!
1
i
!
I
S
/
0.0832s
0.2631
i
[T' l
i \
i i :
1 !
i I :
! ^
1
1
; s j | 0.2766s
i
- r i -
l'nase
Phase
Phase
i
a
b
c
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Time (Second)
(a)
0.5 0.6 0.7
(1) Phase a current
1 pu
-2
0.0832s
IAA
0.06s 0.2632s
0.2766s ,
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
(2) Phase b current
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
(3) Phase c current
2 -
S.
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Time (Second)
0.5
(b)
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.7
2
0
-2
t / 1
\nl\l\ .
0.06s
0.2632s 1
^
,0.0832s
0.2766s
J ^ "
i i i i
0.7
0.06s
X pu
0.0832s
0.2632s
, 0.2766s
Y
' i i i i
0.7
85
(1) Phase a voltage
a
a.
0.0832
O.Q6s
":0.2766s
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
(2) Phase b voltage
0.6
S.
0. 06s i 0. 0832s , 0.2766s ,
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
(3) Phase c voltage
0.5
0.06s 0.2766s
0.6 0.7
1
5 o
0. 0832s
0.2 0.3 0.4
Time (Second)
(C)
0.6 0.7
Impedance diagram
Phase b
Impedance
Trajectory
0 5 10 15 20
(d)
Figure 5.4: Three phase-to-ground (a-b-c-g) fault (a) Trip signals for phases a, b
and c (b) 3-phase currents in Line LI (c) 3-phase voltages in Line LI (d) Impedance
(R-X) diagram.
86
(4) Single phase-to-ground (a-g) fault at location F2 (280 km before capacitor)
at 280 km from the relay, before the capacitor (at location F2) with fault resistance (Rf) =
\0 Q, and MOV reference voltage (V
re
Fig. 5.5(a) shows the trip signals for phases a, b and c. The faulted phase current
u[2] compared with the addition of input currents u[l], and the condition u[2]>=u[l] is
not satisfied, therefore, the relay fails to operate for single phase-to-ground fault. With
minor changes in the existing equation for the above comparison (u[2]>=0.8*u[l]), the
relay operates for all fault cases except higher fault resistance (20 T).
for phase "a" increases and at the same time voltage decreases. Higher current passes
through the protected line after the fault occurred at 0.06s.
the fault involved phase "a" and is not depicted by any of the zone circle, which means
the relay fails to operate.
87
1.2
Operating time of the relay - Phase a to ground fault
.S-
e 0.4 ^
0.2
0.1 0.3 0.4
Time (Second)
(a)
(1) Phase a current
0.5
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
(3) Phase c current
0.3 0.4
Time (Second)
!'
- 1 1
Relay fails
i i
to operate
- P h a s e a
Phase b
Phase c

(b)
88
(1) Phase a voltage
/wwvwwwvwwwyvwwwvw
0.1
0.3 0.4
(2) Phase b voltage
0.5
0.3 0.4
Time (Second)
( C)
0.6
30
25
20
E 15
a
O
S io
a 5
tf
-10
-15
Impedance diagram
-i r
, Phase a
Impedance
Trajectory
Zone 3 / "
N=,
Zone 2
Zone 1 \ ....
Phase c
Impedance
Trajectory
) , / "
\
a
v_ A
J
Reverse
Zone Phase b,
Impedance
Trajectory
_l l_
20 25 30 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
(d)
diagram.
89
(5) Two phase-to-ground (a-b-g) fault at location F2 (280 km before capacitor)
at 280 km from the relay, before the capacitor (at location F2) with fault resistance (Rf) =
re
phases are generated after 0.4476s (including 0.3s Zone 2 delay). For any two phase-to-
ground faults, all three phases are tripped together and the relay does not check the status
of the fault after reset time, which means that faults of this kind permanently trip the
three phase circuit breakers once the relay senses the fault with this relay model.
for phases "a" and "b" increases and at the same time voltage decreases. The relay trips
the three phases circuit breakers at 0.4476s and the protected line is completely
disconnected from the service.
90
1.2
1
| O.S
C 0.4
0.2
0
Operating time of the relay - Phases a and b-to-ground
F
i
i
i
i ;
i
i
i
| \ 0.4476s
|/1
I
fault
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Time (Second)
0.5 0.6
(a)
0.7
(1) Phase a current
2
S o
^mimimi
\\t\USL
0.4476s
P.06s
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
(2) Phase b current
0.6
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
(3) Phase c current
0.3 0.4 0.5
Time (Second) >
0.7
0.7
0.7
(b)
91
(1) Phase a voltage
0.4476s
m
\mmmwywM^f^mMh%
p.06s
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
(2) Phase b voltage
0.3 0.4
Time (Second)
(C)
0.6 0.7
30
25
20
te 15
s
a
O io
.5
J o

-5
Impedance diagram
-10
-15
-20
-15
Zones ^<^L^\ l-j,.
Zone 2 ^ %/M' " ^ ''-
Zone 1 ^ / p **'*
Phase b
Impedance-
Trajectory
Phase a "
Impedance
Trajectory
Reverse
Zone
Phase c
Impedance
Trajectory
-10 0 5 10 15 20
25 30
(d)
Figure 5.6: Two phases-to-ground (a-b-g) fault (a) Trip signals for phases a, b and c
diagram.
92
(6) Three phase-to-ground (a-b-c-g) fault at location F2 (280 km before capacitor)
Fig. 5.7 shows results from a permanent three phase-to-ground (a-b-c-g) fault
placed at 280 km from the relay, before the capacitor (at location F2) with fault resistance
(R
f
) = 10 Q, and MOV reference voltage (V
ref
) = 200 kV. The fault occurs at time=0.06s,
after 0.4454s. The relay operates in Zone 1 instead of Zone 2 (overreach) due to fault
resistance, measured impedance at the relay location and parallel line operation. The
relay has a longer operating time due to the fault being detected near the boundary of the
characteristic.
service.
93
circle.
1.2
0.8
2 0.6 -
C 0.4
0.2
-0.2
i
1
1
I
:' 1
i ;
1
1
: 1
j ; 0.4308s
i
:
\
: i
A : .
0.2508s
""1
|
i
j . .
i
i
i
Phase b
Phase c
' I " :
i ! ;
i !
:
j I
| | | 0.4454s :
. i i /
\ 1 \ / :
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Time (Second)
0.5 0.6
(a)
0.7
(1) Phase a current
/
PU
ft s ' 0.2508s
M^m--x
0.06s ,
t
0.4398s
0.4454s
0.2 0.3 0.4
(2) Phase b current
0.5 0.6 0.7
1 pu
0.06s\,
0.4308s
kr-
1 2
^
0.2508s 0.4454s
0 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.5
(3) Phase c current
0.6 0.7
0.06s
pu
0.4308s 0.4454s
* -
0.2508s
0.1 0.3 0.4
Time (Second)
(b)
94
(1) Phase a voltage
0.2508s 0.4454s
ft(l(yV^AA/vAW^
0.06s
0.1 0.3 0.4
(2) Phase b voltage
0.5
0.2 0.3 0.4
(3) Phase c voltage
0.5
0.3 0.4
Time (Second)
(C)
0.6
wiiw
.OT
W
0.06s ,
0.2508s
AAAAAAA/mlA A
^
0.4308s
AAAAAAA/VAAAAAAAAAAAA
;VVv VvvvvwvvvVVV\/\/lj\
0.4454s
1
1
1
11
1
i
\l
n
0.7
30
Impedance diagram
Phase b
Impedance
Trajectory
Phase c
Impedance
Trajectory
0 5 10 15
Resistance (X) in Ohms
30
(d)
(R-X) diagram.
95
(7) Single phase-to-ground (a-g) fault at location F3 (Beginning of the protected
line)
at the beginning of the protected line (at location F3) with fault resistance (Rf) = 10 Q,
re
signal is generated after 0.0750s. The relay checks the status of the fault after 0.18s (reset
time) and due to it being a permanent fault, all three phase circuit breakers are tripped
after 0.2601s.
permanent fault, after 0.18s (reset time), the relay trips the three phase circuit breakers at
0.2601s and the protected line is completely disconnected from the service.
the fault involved phase "a" and is depicted by the Zone 1 circle.
96
1.2
O.S
a 0.6
38
= 0.4
0.2 -
Operating time of the relay - Phase a to ground fault
-0.2
! 1
- - ; - - - ; - -
0.2550s!
' * .
0.0750s
\
i
i
!
|
I
I
i
V
1 1 !
__
Phas
Phas
0.2601s!
/ ;
i i
e a
e b
e c
-
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Time (Second)
0.5 0.6 0.7
(a)
(1) Phase a current
l
P
u
f\ 0.0750s
0.06s
0. 2550s
Ps
' 0.2601s
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
(2) Phase b current
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
(3) Phase c current
0.3 0.4
Time (Second)
(b)
0.6
0.6
0.7
s
a.
10
0
-10
/ 1 PU
. 0.06s
i
' \
0.2601s
0.7
97
(1) Phase a voltage
0.06s
0.3 0.4 0.5
(2) Phase b voltage
0.3 0.4
Time (Second)
( C)
0.7
30
25
20
15
Impedance diagram
0 io
=
& 5
0

-5
-10
-15
-20
Phase a
Impedance
Trajectory
Impedance / , - - , r"y>
/
Trajectory / / '
-i#
Reverse Zone
Phase b'
Impedance
Trajectory
v x
x
\ V f/'|:
;
: : : : ..^'3 >
-10 5 10 15
Resistance (R) hi Ohms
20 25 30
(d)
diagram.
98
(8) Two phase-to-ground (a-b-g) fault at location F3 (Beginning of the protected
line)
at the beginning of the protected line (at location Fl) with fault resistance (Rf) = 10 Q.
re
phases are generated after 0.0728s. For any two phase-to-ground faults, all three phases
are tripped together and the relay does not check the status of the fault after reset time,
which means that faults of this kind permanently trip the three phase circuit breakers once
the relay senses the fault with this relay model.
for phases "a" and "b" increases and at the same time voltage decreases. The relay trips
the three phases circuit breakers at 0.0728s and the protected line is completely
disconnected from the service.
99
1.2
1
0.8
0.4
0.2
0
Operating time of the relay - Phases a and b-to ground
!
!
i
!
" I " "
-
:
I
i
i
i
" t " " :
1
|
1 /
0.0728s

_.
Phas
fault
e a
eb
;
0.3 0.4
Time (Second)
0.6 0.7
(a)
(1) Phase a current
o.i
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
(2) Phase b current
0.6 0.7
/
p u
. 0.0728s
-0.06s4
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
(3) Phase c current
0.3 0.4
Time (Second)
(b)
100
(1) Phase a voltage
,
^ .'0.0728s
S M
0
X
.06s
1
'
in
1 L.
'
Will
,
H i
>
1 -
0
-1 -
-2
0
0.2 0.3 0.4
(2) Phase b voltage
0.5
, 4. 06s
0.07,28s
0.3 0.4 0.5
(3) Phase c voltage
0.6 0.7
0.7
0.3 0.4
Time (Second)
(C)
0.5 0.7
25
20
15
Impedance diagram
M 10
S
A
O 5
a
& o
tf -10 I
-15
-20
-25
-30 -20
Phase b
Impedance^
Trajectory
Z o n e S ^ X ^ N
Zone 2 - L' / / T '
r .- i A* / '
Zonel\>i Xtf'"'
-J/
Reverse Zone
Phase a
Impedance
Trajectory
Phase c'
Impedance i
Trajectory '
-10 0 10
20 30
(d)
Fi gur e 5. 9: Two phases-to-ground (a-b-g) fault (a) Trip signals for phases a, b and
c (b) 3-phase currents in Line LI (c) 3-phase voltages in Line LI (d) Impedance (R-
X) diagram.
101
(9) Three phase-to-ground (a-b-c-g) fault at F3 location (Beginning of the protected
line)
Fig. 5.10 shows results from a permanent three phase-to-ground (a-b-c-g) fault
placed at the beginning of the protected line (at location F3) with fault resistance (Rf) =
10 Q. and MOV reference voltage (V
re
after 0.2597s.
service.
The impedance (R-X) diagram (Fig. 5.10(d)) shows the 3 circles covering Zones
1, 2 and 3 and another smaller circle covering reverse zone operation. The impedance
circle.
Tables 5.2 to 5.11 show the analysis of the relay operation for different cases of faults.
102
1.2
33
s-
0.6
0.4
-0.2
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Time (Second)
(a)
! 1 1
1
': U '
1
: !i :
! . . . . . . . Ij ,:
1
'l
' : l i
" '"": !f
! : Ij
j : 0. 2524s | i 0.2597s
0.0727s '
i i i
-Phase a
Phase b
Phase c
0.5 0.6 0.7
(1) Phase a current
oy
-10
7
U
ft 0.0727s
0.06s 0.2,524s
10
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
(2) Phase b current
/
0 W
1 pu
-10
0.0727s 0. 2597s
0.06s
0.2524s
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
(3) Phase c current
0.6 0.7
-10
0.06s
V
\
1 pu
\
0.2524s 0.2597s
0,.0727s
...W. .........
0.3 0.4
Time (Second)
0.5
(b)
0.6 0.7
103
(1) Phas e a vol t age
0.Q6S 0. 2597s
0.3 0.4
(2) Phas e b vol t age
0.06s
0.0727s.
0.3 0.4
(3) Phase c voltage
0. 2597s"
0.7
-IF
-M .'
0.2524s
0.1
0.2 0.3 0.4
Time (Second)
(C)
0.5
0.6 0.7
Impedance di agram
-:o
Phas e b
Impedance
Traj ect ory
, Phas e c
s^ Impedance
>"- " Trajectory
_ l L_
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
Resi st ance (R) in Ohms >>
25 30
(d)
(R-X) diagram.
104
Table 5.2: Analysis of the relay operation for permanent fault, fault resistance (Rf)
= 20 n and MOV reference voltage (V
ref
) = 200 kV.
Fault
location
Fl
F2
F3
Fault
type
a-g
b-g
c-g
a-b-g
b-c-g
c-a-g
a-b-c-g
a-g
b-g
c-g
a-b-g
b-c-g
c-a-g
a-b-c-g
a-g
b-g
c-g
a-b-g
b-c-g
c-a-g
a-b-c-g
Zone
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
Relay
operating time
with delay (s)
0.3247
0.3224
0.3210
0.0252
0.0276
0.0273
0.258
Fail to operate
Fail to operate
Fail to operate
0.356
0.391
0.3885
0.3346
0.0158
0.0122
0.0153
0.0141
0.0135
0.0158
0.014
Relay operating
time with delay
and reset (s)
0.5182
0.5165
0.5188
No reset time
No reset time
No reset time
0.4505
No reset time
No reset time
0.5691
0.5283
0.2004
0.1973
0.2031
No reset time
No reset time
No reset time
0.2028
No. of
cycles with
delay time
< 19 (1/2)
< 19 (1/2)
< 19 (1/2)
1 (1/2)
> 1 (1/2)
> 1 (1/2)
15 (1/2)
a 21 (1/2)
a 23 (1/2)
a 23 (1/4)
20
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
Remarks
Zone 2 delay
0.3s & reset
time 0.18s
105
= 10 a and MOV reference voltage (V
ref
) = 200 kV.
Fault
location
Fl
F2
F3
Fault
type
a-g
b-g
c-g
a-b-g
b-c-g
c-a-g
a-b-c-g
a-g
b-g
c-g
a-b-g
b-c-g
c-a-g
a-b-c-g
a-g
b-g
c-g
a-b-g
b-c-g
c-a-g
a-b-c-g
Zone
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
Relay
operating time
with delay (s)
0.3352
0.3332
0.3177
0.0252
0.0231
0.0236
0.0232
Fail to operate
Fail to operate
Fail to operate
0.3876
0.3843
0.3836
0.1908
0.0150
0.0126
0.0131
0.0128
0.0125
0.0146
0.0127
Relay operating
time with delay
and reset (s)
0.5328
0.5311
0.5118
No reset time
0.2034
0.2041
0.2166
No reset time
No reset time
No reset time
0.3854
0.2001
0.1972
0.2014
No reset time
No reset time
No reset time
0.1997
No. of
cycles with
delay time
- 2 0
20
~19
1 (1/2)
< 1 (1/2)
< 1 (1/2)
< 1 (1/2)
~23
= 23
= 23
11 (1/2)
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
Remarks
Zone 2 delay
0.3s & reset
time 0.18s
Relay can
operate with
minor changes
106
= 5 Q and MOV reference voltage (V
ref
) = 200 kV.
Fault
location
Fl
F2
F3
Fault
type
a-g
b-g
c-g
a-b-g
b-c-g
c-a-g
a-b-c-g
a-g
b-g
c-g
a-b-g
b-c-g
c-a-g
a-b-c-g
a-g
b-g
c-g
a-b-g
b-c-g
c-a-g
a-b-c-g
Zone
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
Relay
operating time
with delay (s)
0.03
0.0266
0.3170
0.0215
0.0231
0.0228
0.0212
Fail to operate
Fail to operate
Fail to operate
0.3475
0.3487
0.3492
0.3385
0.0141
0.0119
0.0129
0.0123
0.0118
0.0129
0.0121
Relay operating
time with delay
and reset (s)
0.2256
0.2229
0.5113
0.2019
No reset time
No reset time
0.2142
No reset time
No reset time
No reset time
0.5322
0.1997
0.1969
0.2018
No reset time
No reset time
0.1931
0.1989
No. of
cycles with
delay time
<2
= 1 (1/2)
19
< 1 (1/2)
< 1 (1/2)
< 1 (1/2)
< 1 (1/2)
- 21
- 21
= 21
< 20 (1/2)
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
Remarks
Relay can
operate with
minor changes
107
= 0 ft and MOV reference voltage (V
ref
) = 200 kV.
Fault
location
Fl
F2
F3
Fault
type
a-g
b-g
c-g
a-b-g
b-c-g
c-a-g
a-b-c-g
a-g
b-g
c-g
a-b-g
b-c-g
c-a-g
a-b-c-g
a-g
b-g
c-g
a-b-g
b-c-g
c-a-g
a-b-c-g
Zone
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
Relay
operating time
with delay (s)
0.4136
0.4111
0.3651
0.0215
0.0209
0.0186
0.0192
Fail to operate
Fail to operate
Fail to operate
0.3477
0.0207
0.3741
0.3159
0.0128
0.0111
0.0127
0.009
0.0112
0.0132
0.0114
Relay
operating time
with delay and
reset (s)
0.6085
0.6057
0.5611
0.2019
No reset time
No reset time
0.2120
No reset time
0.2124
0.5705
0.5097
0.1995
0.1968
0.2014
No reset time
0.1917
No reset time
0.1971
No. of
cycles
with delay
time
<25
~ 24 (1/2)
-22
< 1 (1/2)
< 1 (1/2)
~1
= 1
- 21
< 1 (1/2)
22 (1/2)
- 1 9
<1
<1
<1
= (1/2)
<1
<1
<1
Remarks
Zone 2 delay
0.3s & reset
time 0.18s
Relay can
operate with
minor changes
108
= 10 2 and MOV reference voltage (V
ref
) = 100 kV.
Fault
location
Fl
F2
F3
Fault
type
a-g
b-g
c-g
a-b-g
b-c-g
c-a-g
a-b-c-g
a-g
b-g
c-g
a-b-g
b-c-g
c-a-g
a-b-c-g
a-g
b-g
c-g
a-b-g
b-c-g
c-a-g
a-b-c-g
Zone
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
Relay
operating time
with delay (s)
0.3217
0.3193
0.318
0.0237
0.0237
0.0258
0.0293
Fail to operate
Fail to operate
Fail to operate
0.3641
0.3620
0.3665
0.2092
0.0156
0.0126
0.0132
0.0129
0.0125
0.0130
0.0127
Relay
operating time
with delay and
reset (s)
0.5175
0.5147
0.5121
No reset time
No reset time
No reset time
0.2237
No reset time
No reset time
No reset time
0.4032
0.2012
0.1983
0.2014
No reset time
0.1931
No reset time
0.1995
No. of
cycles with
delay time
< 19 (1/2)
~19
19
< 1 (1/2)
< 1 (1/2)
= 1 (1/2)
<2
- 2 2
<22
~22
12(1/2)
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
Remarks
Zone 2 delay
0.3s & reset
time 0.18s
Relay can
operate with
minor changes
109
= 10 ft and MOV reference voltage (V
ref
) = 75 kV.
Fault
location
Fl
F2
F3
Fault
type
a-g
b-g
c-g
a-b-g
b-c-g
c-a-g
a-b-c-g
a-g
b-g
c-g
a-b-g
b-c-g
c-a-g
a-b-c-g
a-g
b-g
c-g
a-b-g
b-c-g
c-a-g
a-b-c-g
Zone
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
Relay
operating time
with delay (s)
0.3219
0.3195
0.3195
0.0250
0.0265
0.0269
0.0776
Fail to operate
Fail to operate
Fail to operate
0.3772
0.3763
0.3803
0.2309
0.0155
0.0121
0.0133
0.0129
0.0125
0.0131
0.0128
Relay
operating time
with delay and
reset (s)
0.5166
0.5149
0.5146
0.2055
0.2062
No reset time
0.2719
No reset time
No reset time
No reset time
0.4244
0.2011
0.1972
0.2016
0.1930
0.1927
No reset time
0.1996
No. of
cycles with
delay time
- 1 9
- 1 9
= 19
1(1/2)
-1(1/2)
-1(1/2)
- 4(1/2)
-22(1/2)
-22(1/2)
- 2 3
- 1 4
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
Remarks
Zone 2 delay
0.3s & reset
time 0.18s
Relay can
operate with
minor changes
110
ref
) = 5 kV.
Fault
location
Fl
F2
F3
Fault
type
a-g
b-g
c-g
a-b-g
b-c-g
c-a-g
a-b-c-g
a-g
b-g
c-g
a-b-g
b-c-g
c-a-g
a-b-c-g
a-g
b-g
c-g
a-b-g
b-c-g
c-a-g
a-b-c-g
Zone
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
Relay
operating time
with delay (s)
0.3219
0.3192
0.3202
0.3186
0.3180
0.3195
0.1838
0.3362
0.3341
0.3201
0.3186
0.3178
0.3195
0.1812
0.0151
0.0123
0.0134
0.0127
0.0123
0.0131
0.0126
Relay
operating time
with delay and
reset (s)
0.5167
0.514
0.5181
No reset time
No reset time
No reset time
0.3775
0.5333
0.5306
0.5178
0.4989
No reset time
No reset time
0.3749
0.1997
0.1969
0.2017
No reset time
No reset time
No reset time
0.1990
No. of
cycles with
delay time
< 19 (1/2)
= 19
< 19 (1/2)
~19
= 19
= 19
11
= 20
20
< 19 (1/2)
= 19
19
= 19
<11
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
Remarks
Zone 2 delay
0.3s & reset
time 0.18s
111
= 10 II and different MOV reference voltages.
Fault
type
SLG
2LG
3LG
MOV
V
r
ef(kV)
5
75
100
200
5
75
100
200
5
75
100
200
Fl
Zone of
operation
2
2
2
2
2
No. of
cycle
19(1/2)
19
19(1/2)
20
19
1(1/2)
1(1/2)
1(1/2)
11
4(1/2)
<2
< 1(1/2)
F2
Zone of
operation
2
No. of
cycle
20
Fail to operate
Fail to operate
Fail to operate
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
19
22(1/2)
22
23
11
14
12(1/2)
11(1/2)
F3
Zone of
operation
No. of
cycle
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
112
Table 5.10: Analysis of the relay operation for permanent fault, MOV reference
voltage (V
re
f) = 200 kV and different fault resistances (Rf).
Fault
type
SLG
2LG
3LG
Rf ohms
0
5
10
20
0
5
10
20
0
5
10
20
Fl
Zone of
operation
2
1
2
2
No. of
cycle
24
<2
20
19(1/2)
1(1/2)
<l(l/2)
1(1/2)
1(1/2)
1
<l(l/2)
1(1/2)
15(1/2)
F2
Zone of
operation
No. of
cycle
Fail to operate
Fail to operate
Fail to operate
Fail to operate
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
21
21
23
23(1/2)
19
20(1/2)
11(1/2)
20
F3
Zone of
operation
No. of
cycle
<1
<1
<1
<1
< 1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
113
Table 5.11: Analysis of the permanent fault for secure, insecure and missing
operation of the relay.
Fault type
1 Phase-G
2 Phase-G
3 Phase-G
Total
1 Phase-G
2 Phase-G
3 Phase-G
Total
1 Phase-G
2 Phase-G
3 Phase-G
Total
1 Phase-G
2 Phase-G
3 Phase-G
Total
1 Phase-G
2 Phase-G
3 Phase-G
Total
1 Phase-G
2 Phase-G
3 Phase-G
Total
1 Phase-G
2 Phase-G
3 Phase-G
Total
Fault
resistance
20
20
20
10
10
10
5
5
5
0
0
0
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
MOV reference
voltage (V
re
f)
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
100
100
100
75
75
75
5
5
5
Out of 147 faults
Total percentage
Secure
operation
6
6
2
14
6
6
1
13
4
6
2
12
6
5
2
13
6
6
1
13
6
6
1
13
9
9
1
19
97
66%
Insecure
operation
0
3
1
4
0
3
2
5
2
3
1
6
0
4
1
5
0
3
2
5
0
3
2
5
0
0
2
2
32
21.76 %
Missing
operation
3
0
0
3
3
0
0
3
3
0
0
3
3
0
0
3
3
0
0
3
3
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
18
12.24 %
114
5.2.2 Assessment of Relay under Temporary Fault
In this section, the distance relay performance for temporary fault is assessed
under various fault types, fault locations, 10 Q fault resistance (Rf) and 200 kV MOV
re
f). The representation for operating time of the relay, trajectories of
impedances and three phase voltage and current waveforms are shown under different
cases. The fault occurs at time=0.06s, and the simulation is run for a total time period of
0.7s. The following varieties of fault cases have been generated and used in testing the
behaviour of the relay, distance protection algorithm and auto-reclosure scheme.
(a) Three types of faults (SLG, 2LG and 3LG) at three distinct locations (Fl, F2 and
F3) with fault resistance (R
f
) = 10 Q, and MOV reference voltage (V
ref
) = 200 kV.
The new distance protection algorithm was presented and the following results
have been obtained for the relay.
Figures 5.11 to 5.13 show the representation of the two different types of faults at
two locations with 10 1 fault resistance (Rf) and 200 kV MOV reference voltage (V
re
f).
Table 5.12 shows the analysis of the relay operation for fault resistance (Rf) = 10 Q and
MOV reference voltage (V
re
f) = 200 kV. This table includes different fault locations, fault
types, operating time of the relay with delay, operating time of the relay with delay and
reset and finally auto-reclosure operation.
(1) Single phase-to-ground (a-g) fault at location Fl (280 km after capacitor)
Fig. 5.11 shows results from a temporary single phase-to-ground (a-g) fault
(R
f
) = 10 Q and MOV reference voltage (V
ref
115
signal is generated after 0.3952s (including 0.3s Zone 2 delay). The relay checks the
status of the fault after 0.18s (reset time) and due to the temporary fault; the phase "a"
circuit breaker closes after 0.5752s and the system returns to the service including the
faulted phase.
for phase "a" increases and at the same time phase voltage decreases. The relay trips the
phase "a" breaker at 0.3952s, therefore, no current passes through the phase "a". Due to a
temporary fault, after 0.18s (reset time); the protected line completely returns to normal
service at 0.5752s.
the fault involved phase "a" and is covered by the Zone 2 circle, but due to the fault being
temporary in nature, the impedance trajectories for three phases are returned to the initial
position.
116
a
0.6
5 -4
-0.2
Operaring time or the relay - Phase a-to-ground fault
o.i
!
^ *
Phase b
Phase c
i
1
0.3952s
i
Tempo rary Fault
:0.5752s
0.3 0.4
Time (Second)
(a)
0.7
(1) Phase a current
1 pu
w
0-PSs
0.5752s
0.3952s
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
(2) Phase b current
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
(3) Phase c current
o.i
0.2 0.3 0.4
Time (Second)
0.5
(b)
0.6
0.6
0.7
0.7
2
0
2
,0l06s . . .
0.7
117
(1) Phase a voltage
IP
0.06s
mm w
i
0.3952s,
III
,
Hi
"
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
(2) Phase b voltage
0.5
0.3 0.4
Time (Second)
( C)
0.6 0.7
30
Impedance diagram
A 20
S io
a
0
s
g o
u
i
v
8 -ID
-20
-30
-10
Zone
Phase b
Impedance
Trajectory
Reverse Zone
Phase a
Impedance
Trajectory
0 5 10 15 20 25
(d)
diagram.
118
(2) Three phase-to-ground (a-b-c-g) fault at location Fl (280 km after capacitor)
Fig. 5.12 shows results from a temporary three phase-to-ground (a-b-c-g) fault
(R
f
) = 10 Q and MOV reference voltage (V
ref
(reset time) and due to the temporary fault, all three phase circuit breakers closes after
0.2632s and the system returns to normal service.
for three phases are increased and at the same time phase voltage decreases. The relay
trips the three phase's circuit breakers at 0.0832s; therefore, no current passes through the
protected line. Due to a temporary fault, after 0.18s (reset time); the protected line
completely returns to normal service at 0.2632s.
indicates that the fault involved phases "a", "b" and "c" and is covered by the Zone 1
circle, but due to the fault being temporary in nature the impedance trajectories for three
phases are returned to the initial position.
119
1.2
0 . 8 -
2 O.d -
g 0.4
0.2
0.2 0.3 0.4
Time (Second)
(a)
1 1 r I
1 Temporary Fault ;
M i :
i i !
i ; i :
i i '
1 : !
" r
r
: ! :
1 i : i :
M ! ; i
! : : ! ;
i : !
i 0. 0832s : ' ;
i K. _ i . i ! 1
0.2632s
i i i i ...
i
Phase a
Phase b
Phase c
0.5 0.7
(1) Phase a current
I pwj 0. 0832s
2
-2
0.06s 0.2632s
A\Aw^mH mws-
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
(2) Phase b current
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
(3) Phase c current
ft
-0< s 0.0832s
^ 4 f, /
0.(5 0.7
2h
0B
-2h
1 pn' 0.2632s
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Time (Second)
0.5
(b)
0.6 0.7
120
(1) Phase a voltage
0.2632s
0.0832s
0.06s
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
(2) Phase b voltage
0.5 0.6 0.7
0.06s 0.0832s 0.0832s
(
2
1
0
-1
) 0.1
0.06s
. , ^ .
V
- 9''
0.0832s
0.2
1
0.3 0.4
(3) Phase c voltage
0.0832s
I - '
0.5
'
0.6
'
0
-
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Time (Second) *
( C)
0.6 0.7
30
20
Impedance diagram
S io
a
0
.5
S o
-10
-20
-30
-10
hase b
Impedance
Trajectory
Reverse Zone
Phase a
Impedance
Trajectory
Phase c
Impedance
Trajectory
0 5 10 15 20
25 30
(d)
(R-X) diagram.
121
(3) Single phase-to-ground (a-g) fault at location F3 (Beginning of the protected line)
Fig. 5.13 shows results from a temporary single phase-to-ground (a-g) fault
placed at the beginning of the protected line (at location F3) with fault resistance (Rf) =
10 Q. and MOV reference voltage (V
re
signal is generated after 0.0750s. The relay checks the status of the fault after 0.18s (reset
time) and due to the temporary fault; the phase "a" circuit breaker closes after 0.2550s and the
system returns to normal service including the faulty phase.
temporary fault, after 0.18s (reset time); the protected line completely returns to normal
service at 0.2550s.
the fault involved phase "a" and is covered by the Zone 1 circle, but due to the fault being
temporary in nature, the impedance trajectories for three phases are returned to the initial
position.
Table 5.12 shows the analysis of the relay operation for different cases of faults.
122
1.2
Operating time of the relay - Phase a-to-ground fault
a
0.8
D.6
SI3
.&
0.4
-0.2
1 1
0.0750s;
i i i
; Temporary Fault i
0.2550s \
i i i
__ e a
Phase b
Phase c
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Time (Second)
0.5 0.6
(a)
(1) Phase a current
10
a.
-10
k/Vv\i
,0750s
0. 06s,
0.2550s
$\j\rs\f'>sj\f^\j\r^r\f^.r^r\f*>rSsrs/x^r\/\'\A
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
(2) Phase b current
o.s 0.7
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
(3) Phase c current
0.6 0.7
0.3 0.4
Time (Second)
(b)
123
(1) Phase a voltage
0.2 0.3 0.4
(2) Phase b voltage
0.7
-1
0.0750s,
,0.2550s
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
(3) Phase c current
0.7
-1
0. 0750s'
* .
\
0.255,0s
0.3 0.4
Time (Second)
(C)
0.5 0.6 0.7
30
-30
Impedance diagram
Phase a
Impedance
Trajectory
/
Trajectory
Phase c
Impedance
Trajectory
-10 5 10 15
20
25 30
(d)
diagram.
124
Table 5.12: Analysis of the relay operation for temporary fault, fault resistance (Rf)
ref
) = 200 kV.
Fault
location
Fl
F2
F3
Fault
type
a-g
b-g
c-g
a-b-g
b-c-g
c-a-g
a-b-c-g
a-g
b-g
c-g
a-b-g
b-c-g
c-a-g
a-b-c-g
a-g
b-g
c-g
a-b-g
b-c-g
c-a-g
a-b-c-g
Zone
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
Relay
operating time
with delay (s)
0.3352
0.3332
0.3177
0.0252
0.0231
0.0236
0.0232
Fail to operate
Fail to operate
Fail to operate
0.3641
0.3620
0.3665
0.2092
0.0150
0.0126
0.0131
0.0128
0.0125
0.0146
0.0127
Relay
operating time
with delay
and reset (s)
0.5152
0.5132
0.4977
No reset time
No reset time
No reset time
0.2032
No reset time
No reset time
No reset time
0.3892
0.1950
0.1926
0.1931
No reset time
No reset time
No reset time
0.1927
Auto-
reclosure
operation
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
Remarks
Relay sense the
fault and trips 3-
phases breakers
Relay sense the
fault and trips 3-
phases breakers
Relay sense the
fault and trips 3-
phases breakers
125
5.3 SIMULATION RESULTS ANALYSIS
A total of 294 results were obtained with the test system. Different faults were
considered in the study. The findings of these evaluations are summarized in Tables 5.2
to 5.12. The performance of the relay operation and the algorithm scheme with two
parallel, 500 kV series compensated lines were tested for SLG, 2LG and 3LG permanent
and temporary faults at three different locations Fl, F2 and F3 is shown in Tables 5.2 to
5.12. At Fl, the fault is located at the remote end, after the capacitor. At F2, the fault is
located at the remote end, before the capacitor. At F3, the fault is located at the beginning
of the protected line. The relay operation and algorithm are tested with different fault
resistances (20, 10, 5 and 0 Q) and different MOV reference voltages (200, 100, 75 and 5
kV).
Tables 5.2 to 5.8 and 5.12 provide analysis of the 21 faults with particular fault
resistances and reference voltages, respectively. Fault locations, type of faults, zone of
operation, relay operating time with delay and relay operating time including delay and
reset are listed in columns 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, respectively, in Tables 5.2 to 5.8 and 5.12 for
each fault case. For permanent faults, the number of cycles with delay time is listed in
column 6 of Tables 5.2 to 5.8. For temporary faults, auto-reclosure operation is listed in
column 6 of Table 5.12. The Zone 1 covers 85% of the protected line, therefore, the fault
within this area has been taken care of by the first zone for secure operation of the relay
and the relay has to trip without any intentional time delay. Above 85% of the protected
line length covered by the second zone, which means any fault beyond 85% of the length
is taken care of by Zone 2 for secure operation of the relay. As expected, the trajectories
of the faulty phase impedances enter the tripping zone region of the relay and the healthy
126
phase impedance trajectories are located outside this region depending upon the type of
the fault.
5.3.1 Permanent Faults
Table 5.2 shows results for permanent fault, fault resistance (Rf) = 20 Q. and MOV
re
f) = 200 kV. When the fault occurs at location Fl, the relay operates
in Zone 1 instead of Zone 2 (overreach) due to the capacitor, impedance measurement at
the relay location and parallel line operation for 2LG and 3LG faults. As mentioned
earlier, the series capacitor makes the electrical line look shorter. The operating time for
the SLG fault is less than 1.5 cycles excluding the Zone 2 time delay. For faults at
location F2, the relay fails to operate for SLG faults. The relay operation is satisfactory
for close-in faults. The relay operates securely and the operating time is less than 1 cycle
for close-in faults.
Table 5.3 shows results for permanent fault, fault resistance (Rf)= 10 Q. and MOV
re
earlier, the series capacitor makes the electrical line look shorter. The operating time for
the SLG fault is around 2 cycles excluding the Zone 2 time delay. For faults at location
F2, the relay fails to operate for SLG faults and for the 3LG fault, the relay operates in
Zone 1 instead of Zone 2 (overreach) due to impedance measurement and parallel line
operation. The relay operation is satisfactory for close-in faults. The relay operates
securely and the operating time is less than 1 cycle for close-in faults.
127
Table 5.4 shows results for permanent fault, fault resistance (Rf) = 5 Q and MOV
re
in Zone 1 instead of Zone 2 (overreach) for majority of the faults, due to parallel line
operation and the capacitor. As mentioned earlier, the series capacitor makes the
electrical line look shorter. The operating time is between 1.5 to 2 cycles for most of the
faults. For faults at location F2, the relay fails to operate for SLG faults, but for all other
faults, the relay operates securely and the operating time is around 3 cycles excluding the
Zone 2 time delay. The relay operation is satisfactory for close-in faults. The relay
operates securely and the operating time is less than 1 cycle for close-in faults.
Table 5.5 shows results for permanent fault, fault resistance (Rf) = 0 Q and MOV
re
earlier, the series capacitor makes the electrical line look shorter. For faults at location
F2, the relay fails to operate for SLG faults, but for the majority of faults, the relay
operates securely. The relay operation is satisfactory for close-in faults. The relay
Tables 5.6 and 5.7 show results for permanent fault, fault resistance (Rf) = 10 Q
re
f) = 100 kV and 75 kV, respectively. When the fault
occurs at location Fl, the relay operates in Zone 1 instead of Zone 2 (overreach) due to
the capacitor, impedance measurement at the relay location and parallel line operation for
2LG and 3LG faults. As mentioned earlier, the series capacitor makes the electrical line
look shorter. The operating time for the SLG faults is less than 1.5 cycles excluding the
128
Zone 2 time delay. For faults at location F2, the relay fails to operate for SLG faults and
for the 3LG fault, the relay operates in Zone 1 instead of Zone 2 (overreach). The relay
operation is satisfactory for close-in faults. The relay operates securely and the operating
time is less than 1 cycle for close-in faults.
Table 5.8 shows results for permanent fault, fault resistance (Rf) = 10 CI and MOV
re
f) = 5 kV. When the fault occurs at location Fl, the relay operates in
Zone 1 instead of Zone 2 (overreach) due to the capacitor, impedance measurement at the
relay location and parallel line operation for the 3LG fault. As mentioned earlier, the
series capacitor makes the electrical line look shorter. The operating time for SLG faults
is less than 1.5 cycles excluding the Zone 2 time delay. For faults at location F2, the relay
operates securely for SLG and 2LG faults, but for the 3LG fault, the relay operates in
Zone 1 instead of Zone 2. The relay operation is satisfactory for close-in faults. The relay
Table 5.9 shows the analysis of the relay operation for permanent faults, fault
resistance (R
f
) = 10 Q. and different MOV reference voltage (V
ref
) (5, 75, 100 and 200
kV). The type of faults and different MOV V
re
f are listed in columns 1 and 2,
respectively. Columns 3, 4 and 5 show the three different fault locations, which include
the zone of operation and number of cycles for each fault case. The data shown in the
Table 5.9 indicates that the relay operates securely and correctly for all close-in faults
(F3). For close-in faults, the relay operates in Zone 1 and an average tripping time is less
than 1 cycle or 16.7 ms.
Table 5.10 shows the analysis of the relay operation for permanent faults, MOV
re
f) = 200 kV and different fault resistances (0, 5, 10 and 20 Q.). The
129
type of faults and different fault resistance (Rf) in ohms are listed in columns 1 and 2,
respectively. Columns 3, 4 and 5 show the three different fault locations, which includes
the zone of operation and number of cycles for each fault case. The data shown in the
Table 5.10 indicates that the relay operates securely and correctly for all close-in faults
(F3). For close-in fault, the relay operates in Zone 1 and an average tripping time is less
than 1 cycle.
Table 5.11 shows the analysis of the permanent fault for secure, insecure and
missing operations of the relay. The types of faults, different fault resistance (Rf),
different MOV reference voltage (V
re
f), secure, insecure and missing operations are listed
in columns 1 to 6, respectively, for each fault case. The data shown in the table indicates
that the relay operates more securely operations with Rf = 10 Q. and MOV V
re
f= 5 kV.
In most cases, for faults at location F2, the relay fails to operate for SLG faults,
but with minor changes in the comparison equation (u[2]>=u[l]) inside the relay model,
the relay operates for most of the fault cases, except fault resistance 20 Q.
5.3.2 Temporary Faults
Table 5.12 shows the results for the temporary faults, fault resistance (Rf) = 10 Q.
re
f) = 200 kV. When the fault occurs at location Fl, the
relay operates in Zone 1 instead of Zone 2 (overreach) due to the capacitor, impedance
measurement at the relay location and parallel line operation for 2LG and 3LG faults.
Due to a temporary fault, after the reset time (0.18s), the protected line is completely
returned to the service for SLG and 3LG faults. For faults at location F2, the relay fails to
operate for SLG faults, but with minor changes mentioned in the previous section, the
relay operates for SLG faults. The auto-reclosure scheme also fails to operate for 2LG
130
faults at all locations. In case of 2LG faults, the relay sends trip signals whenever it
senses a fault and does not check the status of the fault after reset time.
5.3.3 Capacitor and MOV Operation
In order to investigate the operation of the capacitor and MOV, single phase-to-
ground fault (a-g) is generated at the remote end, after the capacitor (at location Fl) with
10 Q. fault resistance (Rf) and 75 kV MOV reference voltage (V
re
f). Fig. 5.14 shows the
capacitor voltage (top trace), capacitor current (middle trace) and the MOV current
(bottom trace) for phase 'a". The results show that when the fault occurs at 0.06s, the
capacitor voltage and current increase. The voltage increase is enough to trigger the
MOV after a half cycle from the fault occurrence to conduct the MOV and protect the
capacitor against overvoltage. The capacitor and the MOV take turns conducting currents
till the line is disconnected from the service.
Voltage across capacitor for phase a
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Capacitor current for phase a
,d.06s
1 pu
0. 5627s' 0.5668s
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
MOV current for phase a
0.6 0.7
0.3808s
A'
0.0677s
</
0.5668s i 0.5753s
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Time (Second)
0.5 0.6 0.7
Figure 5.14: Capacitor voltage (top), capacitor current (middle) and the MOV
current (bottom) for phase a.
131
5.3.4 Ground Faults for Different Fault Resistances
Fig. 5.15 shows the fault trajectories of phase "a" for single phase-to-ground fault
generated at the remote end with different fault resistances and the effect of an increasing
fault resistance to the impedance measurement. The fault resistance (Rf) varies from 0 Q.
to 50 Q. The network data, the relay location and the fault location are the same for each
case. Clearly the error in the impedance measurement increases with increasing fault
resistance.
30
25
20
Impedance diagram for differnt fault resistance (a-g fault)
o
.3 is
10
8
as
5h
Rf = 10 ohms
-15 0 5 10 15
Resistance (R) in Ohms -
30
Figure 5.15: Impedance diagram for single phase-to-ground (a-g) fault after
capacitor with different fault resistance.
The fault trajectory enters the trip area during the transition from pre-fault to post-
fault for a fault resistance of up to 30 Q,. Higher fault resistances cause the impedance
trajectories to settle inside the trip area, resulting in an insecure response of the relay.
132
Since the Rf increases, the resistive part of the impedance measurement increases
too. Depending on the network and trip area setting, if the fault resistance becomes too
high, then the resistive part of the impedance measurement is greater than the trip area;
therefore, the impedance fault trajectory of an external high resistive ground fault will not
enter the trip area.
If the Rf is so high, then the fault trajectory does not enter the trip area for an
internal fault, therefore, the relay loses its dependability. The corrected fault trajectory
cannot improve the dependability in this case because the resistive parts of the fault
trajectories are too high.
The greater the impedance indicating a greater distance to the fault, the longer the
operating time. If the impedance falls below a specified value, the relay trips as quickly
as possible without any intentional time delay. The effect of the fault resistance is to
increase the magnitude of the impedance and make the fault appear more remote.
5.4 SUMMARY
(1) The analysis and test results, which have been obtained from computer
simulations with relay model and 500 kV series compensated parallel
transmission lines have been shown in this chapter.
(2) Assessment of the relay under permanent and temporary faults is also
presented in this chapter.
(3) The analysis and simulation results for single phase-to-ground, two phase-to-
ground and three phase-to-ground faults at three different locations are shown
in this chapter.
133
(4) The relay performance is tested with different fault resistances (0, 5, 10 and
20 ohms) as well as different MOV reference voltages (5, 75, 100 and 200
kV).
(5) This chapter investigated the capacitor and MOV operation with simulation
results.
134
CHAPTER - 6
CONCLUSION
6.1 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
Electric power systems experience faults due to aging of equipment and adverse
environmental conditions. A fault can cause excessive currents to flow resulting in
extensive damage in power system equipments and consequential interruption of power
supply to consumers. To maintain the continuity of the power supply, the power
equipment should be protected with protective relays and circuit breakers. When the fault
occurs, the protective relay plays a vital role to minimize the damage and keep the power
system safe.
This thesis describes the detailed design of the Mho relay model, logic operation
and the residual current compensation algorithm in EMTP-RV. The EMTP-RV is used to
evaluate the performance of a Mho relay model and algorithm for two parallel 500 kV,
280 km series compensated transmission system. An algorithm scheme based on the
residual current compensation is used to compensate the error. The phase comparators are
employed to detect faulted phase(s) and zone by measuring and comparing phase angle
between input voltage and current signals.
The assessment of a Mho relay model and its algorithm is carried out for
permanent and temporary faults. A total of 294 (147 permanent and 147 temporary) fault
cases were studied for parallel line operation. Out of 147 permanent faults, the relay has
97 (66 %) secure operations (i.e. the relay operated in the expected zone),
135
32 (21.76 %) insecure operations (i.e. the relay operated in a different zone than
the expected zone), and
18 (12.24 %) missed operations (i.e. the relay failed to operate).
For temporary faults, numbers of secure, insecure and missing operations are the
same as permanent faults.
The simulation results show that the relay model detects the faults correctly and
generates trip signals with regards to the location of the fault in the majority of fault
cases. However, the relay may not be as secure on certain unbalanced fault types
generated at the remote end, behind the capacitor. The results show that the auto-closure
does not work for two phase-to-ground faults (the relay trips the protected line
completely when senses a fault) and the relay fails to operate for most SLG faults
generated at the remote end, before the capacitor. With minor changes in the
mathematical equations (u[2]>=0.8*u[l]) before compensation, for the comparison
between the summation of input currents and the individual phase current, the relay
operates for most SLG faults generated at the remote end, before the capacitor; therefore,
the number of missed operations can be minimized. Finally, for close-in faults,
satisfactorily relay performance was obtained and the average tripping time was less than
1 cycle.
The MOV protects the capacitor against overvoltage during fault conditions.
Furthermore, it is noted that the operating time of the relay is a function of the distance to
the fault. Extensive tests of the relay with different data selection have revealed that the
relay can be used in a wide variety of power systems to protect transmission lines. The
136
tests were conducted to show that the relay performs satisfactorily for most faults
occurring in a power system.
The Mho relay proposed in this thesis can be successfully used in a variety of
power systems to protect transmission lines. It is found that an algorithm principle works
in most cases, but it would give a wrong zone operation for some remote end unbalanced
faults. The relay works satisfactorily with changing the relay setting and does not lose its
directionality.
Simulation results and analysis show that the relay model and the residual current
compensation scheme are well suited for the series compensated transmission line and
works well for the majority of fault conditions.
6.2 SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
As a continuation of this work, future research could be suggested as follows:
1. The relay model and its algorithm were tested using EMTP-RV simulations. Their
validation should be tried by laboratory implementations and then followed by
field tests.
2. The effects of CT's such as CT burden, saturation of CT's and consequent
distortion of the secondary current etc. and also the effects of CVT on the
performance of the proposed algorithm have yet to be investigated.
3. The relay model and its algorithm need to be tested for
Faults beyond the remote end and reverse faults.
Capacitor and its overvoltage protection located at the middle and
beginning of the protected line.
Multiple line networks.
137
4. The proposed relay model and its algorithm have been tested for SLG, 2LG and
3LG faults. Its response to disturbances, such as power swings, line charging etc.
should also be included in future research.
5. Further investigation in the algorithm is necessary, because the relay fails to
operate after reset time in two phase-to-ground faults.
6. There should be a study of alternative logic control strategies or algorithms to
further improve the performance of the proposed relay model.
138
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143
APPENDIX - A
MHO RELAY DATA
Protected line length = 280 km
I
ct p
=1074A
lets = 5 A
V
cvtp
= 410kV
V
ovt s
=115V
Comparator = 1 (1 for Phase and 2 for Amplitude)
R0 = 0.06162 Q/km
L0= 1.05 ft/km
Rl = 0.0205 ft/km
LI = 0.35 Q/km
I
n
(Neutral Current) = 5 A
Seuillr (Reference current) = 0.1
Zonel = 0.85 (85% of the protected line)
Zone2 = 1.5, Zone3 = 2
tzonel = 0.001 sec
tzone2 = 0.3 sec
tzone3 = 0.8 sec
tamont = 2.5 sec
treset (reset time to see the status of the fault, permanent or temporary) = 0.18 sec
treclose = 0.18 sec
k, =l , k
2
= l
CXi = 71, (X2 = 0
144
01
_
Zangle, 02 "~ 0> 01a ~ Z
an
gle + 71, 02a ~ 0
ZR1 = Ziine, ZR2 = 0, ZRla = Zi
ine
/2
Initial load (ohm)
Zr i ni t mag = 200 Q,
Zr i ni t ang = 0.1 rad/s
The initial impedance load (magnitude and angle) is provided only to avoid weird R-X
points during the first 0.03s, the time require by the phase transformation to translate
properly the 60 Hz sinusoidal waveform.
Frequency = 60 Hz
Rules
Reach of the relay for three zones
ZR11 = ZRl*Zonel=ZRl*Z
line
= 5.026 2
ZR12 = ZRl*Zone2 = ZR1* Z
hne
= 8.869 1
ZR13 = ZRl*Zone3 = ZR1* Z
(ine
= 11.825 Q
ZRla = (Zi
ine
)/2 = 2.956 Q
ZR21 =ZR2*Zonel=0
ZR22 = ZR2*Zone2 = 0
ZR23 = ZR2*Zone3 = 0
ZR2a = 0
Ziine = Length* J ( R1)
2
+( L1)
2
*
Ct p CtS
= 5.908 Q
(
V
ctp
/ V
cts)
Zangle - t a n
-ITLO
v
Rl y
Period = 1/frequency
86.65 or 1.51229 rad
145
APPENDIX - B
TRANSMISSION LINE DATA
Rated voltage = 500 kV
Rated Power = 1450 MW
Total line length = 500 km
Protected line length = 280 km
Number of parallel line = two
R0 = 0.06162 ft/km, L0 = 1.05 Q/km
Rl = 0.0205 ft/km, LI = 0.35 ft/km
Fault resistance (R
f
) = 0 Q, 5 ft, 10 Q and 20 Q
Capacitor bank protection scheme = Zno
Zno reference voltage (V
ref
) = 5 kV, 75 kV, 100 kV and 200 kV
Series compensation = 40%
Series capacitance = 67.66 uF per phase
146
APPENDIX - C
RELEVANT DEFINITIONS [2,4,26]
Relay: A relay is an automatic device, which opened or closed and makes changes in the
same or another electrical circuit.
Protective Relay: Like a relay, the protective relay is also an automatic device, which
detects an abnormal condition in the electrical circuits and makes a circuit breaker to
isolate the faulty element from the system. In some cases, it may give an alarm or the
visual indication to alert the operator.
Protective System: It is a combination of the protective equipments, such as protective
relays, P.T., C.T. and auxiliary equipment to secure the isolation of the faulty equipment
under predetermined conditions (abnormal and/or alarm signal).
Protective Scheme: Several protective systems are covered under the protective scheme.
It is designed to protect one or more power system elements.
Fault Detector or Starting Relay: This relay detects abnormal conditions and initiates
the operation of other protective scheme elements.
Coordination of Protection: The process of selecting protection devices setting or zone
time delay characteristics, such that operation of the devices will happen in a specified
order to minimize power system isolation and customer service interruption due to a
disturbance in the power system.
Setting: The relay is set to operate for a particular value of the actuating quantity.
Reach: It is the maximum line length up to which the relay can protect. This word is
commonly used in relation with distance relays. A distance relay begins its operation
147
when the impedance or the component of the impedance seen by the relay is less than a
preset value. This preset value of the impedance or a component of the impedance or
corresponding distance is called the reach of the relay.
Overreach: Sometimes a relay may initiate its operation even when the fault occurred
beyond its protected length. This phenomenon is called overreach.
Underreach: Opposite to the overreach, sometimes a relay may fail to initiate its
operation even when the fault occurred within its protected length or reach, but it is at the
far end of the protected line. This phenomenon is called underreach.
Primary Protection: The primary protection acts as a first order defense. It is the duty of
the primary protection to clear the fault without any intentional time delay, if the fault
occurs within the protected line length. If it fails to operate, the back-up protection clears
the fault.
Back-up Protection: The back-up protection is designed to clear the fault if the primary
protection fails to operate. It is basically time delayed and removes more system elements
than required by the primary protection operation. It acts as a second order defense.
Distance Zones: In a power system, the reaches of the measuring elements of distance
protection is called distance zones.
Grading Time: The delay times setting of the back-up zones.
Step Distance: A non-pilot distance relay scheme using multiple zones with different
time delay to distinguish between the zones of protection.
Operating Time: It is the time interval between the moments at which the actuating
quantity exceeds the relays pick-up value and the relay closes its contacts.
148
Reset Time: It is the time internal between the moments at which the actuating quantity
falls below its reset value and the relay return to its initial position.
Operating Torque or Force: A torque or force which tends to close the contacts of the
relay.
Restraining Torque or Force: A torque or force which opposes the operating
torque/force.
Dual Polarization: The polarization of the relay using voltage and current sources.
Distance Relay: A protective relay in which the response of the electrical input quantities
(voltage and current) is primarily a function of the distance between the relay location
and the fault location.
Ground Distance Relay: A distance relay designed to detect phase-to-ground faults
(SLG, 2LG and 3LG) is called ground distance relay.
Phase Distance Relay: A distance relay designed to detect phase-to-phase and three-
phase faults is called phase distance relay.
Mho Unit: A distance relay unit having a circular impedance characteristic that passes
through the origin in the R-X diagram.
Source Impedance: The Thevenin equivalent impedance of an electrical system at the
transmission line terminal. In network application, this impedance varies depending on
the fault location on the transmission line and the status of other terminals (opened or
closed) related with the transmission line.
Fault Impedance: An impedance, resistive or reactive, between the power system faulty
phase conductors or faulty phase conductor(s) and the ground.
149
APPENDIX - D
LI ST OF PUBLICATIONS
Conference papers
1. A.B. Shah, V.K. Sood and O. Saad, "Mho Relay for Protection of Series
Compensated Transmission Lines," IPST 2009 in Kyoto, Japan, June 3-6, 2009.
(Accepted)
2. A. B. Shah, V. K. Sood, O. Saad and V. Ramachandran, "Modeling Mho Relay
for Protection of Series Compensated Line," IEEE TIC-STH 2009, Toronto,
Canada, September 27-29, 2009. (manuscript under preparation)
150

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EMTP-RV Investigation of a Mho Relay Model for Protection

of 500 kV Series Compensated Transmission Lines

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