A New Isothermal Theory For Stirling

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Engineering Science
Engineers, Part C: Journal of Mechanical
Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical
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DOI: 10.1243/0954406981521178
225
1998 212: Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part C: Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science
T Finkelstein
'ancillary' and 'tidal' domains
A new isothermal theory for Stirling machine analysis and a volume optimization using the concept of
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225
A new isothermal theory for Stirling machine analysis
and a volume optimization using the concept of
ancillary and tidal domains
T Finkelstein
Stirling Associates International, Beverly Hills, California, USA
Abstract: Theoretical studies of Stirling cycle machines have always utilized a topological system
view that goes back to Schmidts isothermal analysis, where the process is analysed by reference to
the expansion space volume variations. Due to this idiosyncrasy in the formulation, it has been
dicult to deduce meaningful design criteria from the results. In this paper an alternative visualization
is presented, using the newly introduced concepts of a tidal phase angle and overlapping tidal and
ancillary domains. With vectorial parameters and a centralized reference basis, a non-dimensional
parameter R
tcr
, the tidal compression ratio, equal to the ratio of the average masses in the tidal and
ancillary domains, is derived. This number uniquely characterizes the operation of equivalent
machines and is therefore akin to the compression ratio in internal combustion engines. On the basis
of this, a second new parametric grouping emerged to enhance the usefulness of the resultant inte-
grated equations for use with dimensional analysis. It was dened as the specic performance N
sp
and is proportional to the output per unit mass, the gas constant and the operating temperature
range. It is applicable to engines, heat pumps and refrigerators.
Prior attempts at optimizing the proportions of a Stirling engine have not yielded usable results
and consequently nearly all Stirling cycle machines built up to the present time have expansion and
compression spaces of equal size. The new analysis shows that this is not the most appropriate
conguration and it readily yields an optimization of the component volumes. One single analytical
conditional equation for the optimum relative sizes of the constituent spaces was obtained from the
new formulation for performance that quanties the condition for an optimized proportioning of
any Stirling cycle machine. It has three distinct usable solutions, one of which is an analytical conr-
mation of a postulate that has previously been published by the author without proof, equating
V
E
/V
C
and also V
h
/V
k
to the temperature ratio T
E
/T
C
.
A numerical verication of this rule based on the proportions of the United Stirling V-160 engine
compares it with 12 equivalent re-proportioned derivative engines, all with equal charge masses and
operating at precisely the same conditions. This shows a substantial increase in the ideal performance
through the use of the derived criteria. The main conclusion is that this theory may lead to a
re-examination of the overall layout of Stirling cycle machines and the emergence of a new class of
machines with superior performance.
Keywords: Stirling cycle machines, tidal compression ratio, specic performance, isothermal theory,
volume optimization
NOTATION Latin symbols (dimensional quantities)
M mass of gas (kg)
Capitalized symbols are constants and lower-case
P, p gas pressure (Pa)
parameters are variables in either space or time.
R gas constant (J/gm K)
S ancillary mass parameter [equation (9)] (m3/K)
T temperature ( K)
U tidal mass parameter [equation (10)] (m3/K)
V, v volume (m3)
The MS was received on 12 February 1996 and was accepted for
W cyclic work (J) publication on 10 October 1997.
C00696 IMechE 1998 Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 212 Part C
226 T FINKELSTEIN
Greek symbols (non-dimensional quantities) optimization that could condently be applied in prac-
tice (2, 6, 7).
A tidal phase angle
Current investigations have included the detailed
B beta phase angle
analysis of the aerodynamic and thermodynamic pro-
X gamma phase angle
cesses inside the various parts of Stirling cycle machines.
DT temperature range=T
E
T
C
This introduced various new concepts, such as ushing
E, e derivative counter
ratio, cumulative mass, tidal mass, tidal amplitude
H pressure phase angle
and thermodynamic mid-plane (811). Many of these
P pressure ratio
could not be related directly to the Schmidt represen-
t temperature ratio=T
E
/T
C
tation. Emphasis has also shifted from the previously
w crank angle
universal Eulerian approach of analysis to alternatives,
such as the Lagrangian treatment. As shown, for
example, in the description of the comprehensive Stirling
Gothic symbols (non-dimensional characteristic
engine thermodynamic computer program SetCap, this
groupings)
cannot easily be reconciled with a static xed-in-space
representation (12).
R
tcr
tidal compression ratio=a sin(U/S)
While investigating this paradox the author found one
N
sp
specic performance=W/MR DT
reason for this was the biasing of the Schmidt formu-
lation to the expansion space, which resulted in an asym-
metry in the equations. Therefore a new method had to
Additional subscripts and identiers
be established. This was based on two new ground rules:
a ancillary
rstly, that the reference plane should be the thermo-
C, c compression space
dynamic mid-plane instead of the moving expansion
D derivative engine
space surface and, secondly, that there must be a dier-
E, e expansion space
ent treatment for the constituent spaces in accordance
h heater
with whether these spaces are constant or variable. In
I, i computational indices
recognition of the wave eect in the system, a tidal phase
k cooler
angle A dening lead and lag of the principal spaces was
m time-averaged mean
introduced into the equations. It was associated with
n counter or index
tidal and ancillary domains with negative as well as
O optimized engine
positive values.
P prototype engine
This paper presents a generic analysis of the Stirling
r regenerator
process of universal applicability to design variants,
s swept
operating modes and the number of conservation laws
t tidal
utilized in the analysis. In this paper it is idealized so as
T total
not to include any loss mechanism whatever merely in
order to make the derivations simple. It therefore
replaces the Schmidt analysis by an equivalent, but
1 BACKGROUND
streamlined, approach. The assumption of isothermal
and loss-less operation is made only because closed solu-
tions can be obtained. The basic procedure, however, is The basic idealized isothermal and loss-free process of a
Stirling cycle machine was rst modelled realistically as equally applicable to more advanced treatments because
similar techniques can also be applied to more compre- early as 1871 by Schmidt (1). This analysis was updated
in 1961 (2) and in this form and with a corresponding hensive theories. The treatments of losses can be added
in the future, but are at present beyond the scope of this notation has become the foundation and cornerstone of
all subsequent treatments of Stirling cycle machines. It investigation. This paper describes in detail the pro-
cedures that were developed for this and derives all rel- assumes entirely ideal conditions, isothermal operation
and no losses due to practical shortcomings, such as heat evant equations from rst principles.
loss, friction, leakage, etc. In essence, the system is nor-
malized with reference to the expansion space and its
operating conditions and the other spaces are referenced
2 A NEW NORMALIZED SYSTEM VIEW
to it by ratio and by phasing (35). This topological
system view of Stirling cycle machines has become
entrenched among investigators. Although this approach The basis of the analysis presented here is the concept
of a tidal phase angle A dened as either the lead angle has produced usable formulae for mass content, pressure
variation and work output, it has not yet been possible of the expansion space or the lag angle of the com-
pression space, both measured from the central reference to derive meaningful conclusions relating to machine
227 A NEW ISOTHERMAL THEORY FOR STIRLING MACHINE ANALYSIS AND A VOLUME OPTIMIZATION
vector. This, along with the use of negative as well as in time such as static enclosures, or cylinders with
displacers that cause no net volume change. This com- positive volume increments, is dened in Fig. 1.
As shown by previous researchers, the Stirling cycle prises volumes that are constant with respect to time
plus one half of variable volumes, all being positive can be realized either by two pistons and two cylinders
(the alpha conguration) or by one piston and one dis- scalars.
placer in one cylinder (the beta conguration) or by one
These two newly dened domains, tidal and ancillary
piston and one displacer and two cylinders (the gamma
respectively, are indicated in Fig. 1a by dashed frames
conguration) (4, 5). The conventions used in the fol-
in the linearized diagrammatic views of the three gen-
lowing analysis to correlate with actual Stirling cycle
eralized Stirling cycle machines. These diagrams are
machines of the three principal design variants are illus-
representative of all functionalities of Stirling cycle
trated, to cover nearly all known two-temperature
machines including engines, heat pumps and refriger-
Stirling cycle machines.
ators, single- or multi-cycle congurations, and kin-
The cyclic process occurs in ve distinct regions:
ematic and free piston machines. Topologically the
(a) the variable-volume expansion space v
e
, (b) the
system is shown divided into the traditional ve regions,
heater V
h
, (c) the regenerator V
r
, (d) the cooler V
k
and
with the dead spaces of three heat exchangers in the
(e) the variable-volume compression space v
c
. In Fig. 1
middle, and either two pistons, or alternatively one
all the cylinders are indicated diagrammatically with the
piston and one displacer, at the ends.
same diameter, so that the axial scale becomes pro-
All vectors used in this analysis rotate counter-
portional to the swept volume. From an analytical point
clockwise with the rotational angle w measured from a
of view the most important change proposed here is the
horizontal positive zero position. To introduce the pro-
replacement of the static cellular representation of the
cedure, the alpha-type layout is dealt with rst and
system by a functional subdivision into the following
equivalent algebraic formulation for the beta-type and
two overlapping major domains:
gamma-type machines are included later. The vector
O
e
B is shown above V
e
rotating in a counter-clockwise 1. The tidal domain v
t
. Spaces in cylinder/piston arrange-
ments that change the total volume occupied by the direction from an origin O
e
A
e
, dening the tidal volume
variations as O
e
B, or mathematically as the positive or working uid cyclically. This comprises volumes that
are functions of time, can conveniently be represented negative scalar | O
e
B|. Similarly, for V
c
the vector
O
c
A
c
is used in the same manner. as vectors referenced to a centralized angle and may
be either positive or negative. The two tidal volumes shown in Fig. 1a are treated
pictorially as vectors, by analogy to a crank that may 2. The ancillary domain V
s
. Spaces that remain constant
Fig. 1 Denition of the ancillary and tidal domains for the three basic types of Stirling engine and of the
phase angles A, B and X as dened in the text. Vector diagrams are lined up vertically with the
operative face of the piston or displacer above or below
228 T FINKELSTEIN
or may not be part of the mechanism under consider- The static domain, as indicated in Fig. 1 for all three
basic layouts, comprises the following ve spaces from ation. Their position and phasing with respect to the
time-variable angle of rotation w is dened by the tidal left to right: half the swept volume of the expansion
space, heater, regenerator and cooler volumes and phase angle A and is shown with reference to the pistons
by vector diagrams aligned vertically with the pistons half the swept volume of the compression space, as
expressed by: for the tidal, or swept, volumes. These vectors are then
converted to scalars for algebraic statements. The tidal
domain comprises the two swept cylinder spaces quan- Ancillary domain:
tifying either positive or negative tidal volumes, which
can be written as:
V
a
=
V
e
2
+V
h
+V
r
+V
k
+
V
c
2
(5)
Tidal domain:
For the visualization of the algebraic and trigono-
metric relationship that makes the analysis much clearer,
v
t
=v
e
+v
c
=
V
E
2
cos(w+A)+
V
C
2
cos(wA) (1)
Fig. 2 shows how equations (3) to (5) can also be derived
geometrically from a combined vector diagram. The vec-
where the phasing for the alpha type of machine is tors OB and OC are again proportional to the tidal gas
expressed as the tidal phase angle A, a lead of the expan- volumes in the expansion and compression space respect-
sion vector and a lag of the compression vector, each ively, and the vector OD to their combination by vec-
relative to a central reference vector, as indicated in torial addition. Equations (3) and (5) can now also be
Figs 1 and 2. Thus 2A corresponds to the one single lag derived more simply by inspection from the vector dia-
of the compression piston movement behind that of the gram shown in Fig. 2. This procedure will also be used
expansion piston as used in the Schmidt analysis. in the next section for the derivation of the somewhat
Equation (1) is directly applicable to the alpha con- more complicated mass and pressure relationship. From
guration. For beta congurations one single piston pro- the geometry of the vector diagram in Fig. 2, AO and
duces the same total volume variation and the phasing OD respectively represent the parameters in equations
is determined by the beta angle B. Equation (1) can be (1) and (2) and the phasing of vector OD is read as
replaced algebraically by
tan B=
DE
OE
=
BFBG
OF+EF
v
t
=
V
t
2
cos(w+B) (2)
and corresponds geometrically to equation (5).
where
V
t
=(V2
e
+V2
c
+2V
e
V
c
cos 2A) (3)
3 EQUATIONS FOR THE IDEAL, LOSS-LESS
ranging through positive and negative values and where CASE
tan B=
V
e
V
c
V
e
+V
c
tan A (4)
All the schematics, vector diagrams and derived equa-
tions above apply to all Stirling cycle machines. As an
illustration of the utilization of these equations, the ideal, being the phasing of an equivalent single tidal volume,
such as the piston in a beta machine. For gamma con- loss-less case is treated rst, applying only one single
conservation law. The derivation of the pressure vari- gurations the angle X can be derived similarly to the
angle B, but the additional dead space of the split com- ation is dealt with rst. With no leakage, the mass of
working uid in the machine is constant. From the ideal pression space must be taken into account.
Fig. 2 Vector diagram showing the variable cylinder volumes and the total volume
gas law and equations (1) and (4) the sum of the mass Static mass parameter:
content of the seven tidal and static constituent spaces
is in sequence from the expansion to the compression
S=
1
T
E
A
V
e
2
+V
hB
+
V
r
ln T
T
E
T
C
+
1
T
C
A
V
c
2
+V
kB
(9)
space in Fig. 1:
The vectors OB and OC are proportional to the tidal
M=
pV
e
2RT
E
cos(w+A)+
pV
e
2RT
E
+
pV
h
RT
E
+
pV
r
ln(T
E
/T
C
)
R(T
E
T
C
)
gas masses in the expansion and compression space
respectively. The combination of these two vectors is
OD. It is proportional to the time average of the tidal
+
pV
k
RT
C
+
pV
c
2RT
C
+
pV
c
2RT
C
cos(wA) (6)
gas mass of the system, and can be written as:
using a logarithmic mean temperature for the regener-
Tidal mass parameter:
ator. The total mass of working uid M is constant while
each of the seven masses m
n
varies continuously, so that
U=
1
2
S
CA
V
e
T
E
B
2
+
A
V
c
T
C
B
2
+
2V
e
V
c
T
E
T
C
cos 2A
D
(10)
p=
MR
n=7
n=1
v
n
/T
n
(7)
The pressure is shown as the vector OM in line with
OD, which is not sinusoidal and is shown in Fig. 3 as
where n is a counter for the seven items in equation (6).
the locus of the vector OM and wherein H happens to
Writing this equation in full:
be negative. The orientation H is determined from Fig. 3
p=
MR
(1/T
E
)(V
E
/2+V
h
)+V
r
ln T/(T
E
T
C
)+(1/T
C
)(V
C
/2+V
k
)+(V
E
/2T
E
)[cos(w+A)] +(V
C
/2T
C
)[cos(wA)]
(8)
Figure 3 shows a vector diagram of the algebraic and
as the angle between this vector and the reference vector
trigonometric relationship which makes the analysis
w, which can be written as
much clearer. The vector AO in Fig. 3 is proportional
to the time average of the ancillary gas mass in the
tan H=
DE
OE
=
FCGC
OF+GD system, expressed as:
Fig. 3 Vector diagram showing the derivation of the variable pressure
230 T FINKELSTEIN
which yields: by the substitution of equation (14). The pressure ratio
P follows from equation (15) as the ratio between the
maximum and minimum pressures, or alternatively from Denition of pressure phase angle:
Fig. 3 as ON/OP. This yields:
tan H=
V
E
/T
E
V
C
/T
C
V
E
/T
E
+V
C
/T
C
tan A (11)
Pressure ratio:
The pressure phase angle measures the phase lag
P=
1+sin R
tcr
1sin R
tcr
(16)
between the pressure vector and the central reference
vector. It will be shown below that for the principal
optimized design this pressure phase angle becomes zero.
The tangent OP may be drawn to the circular path of
4 IDEAL CYCLE WORK
D and the important parameter R
tcr
derived, named here
the tidal compression ratio and expressed as:
The preceding derivations can now be utilized to com-
pute the cyclic ideal work by integrating an indicator
Denition of tidal compression ratio:
diagram, using substitutions from equation (15) for the
pressure and equation (3) for the tidal volume:
R
tcr
=a sin
A
U
SB
(12)
W=
P
2p
0
p dv
t From equations (9), (10) and (12) it can be seen that
U/S is a positive scalar between 0 and 1. In practical
machines it may be of the order of 0.3. This parameter
=
P
2p
0
P
m
cos R
tcr
1+sin R
tcr
cos(w+H)
V
t
2
R
tcr
has a special signicance in dimensional analysis,
since it represents the ratio between the time averages of
sin(w+B) dw (17)
tidal mass and ancillary mass. Also all the important
This integration calls for expansion into two separate relational conditions can be formulated in terms of it.
integrals and reduction to standard listed forms (note Substituting equations (10) and (12) into equation
that this procedure is lengthy and tedious but mathemat- (8), it can now be transformed algebraically to the fol-
ically routine). The result of this is lowing scalar expression for p:
Formula for pressure, mass-based: W=
2pP
m
V
t
sin(B+H) cos B(1cos R
tcr
)
sin R
tcr
(18)
p=
MR
S[1+sin R
tcr
sin(w+H)]
(13)
Substituting equations (5), (11) and (12) into the above
reduces it to:
Equation (13) in its present form is not useful in practice,
since M cannot be measured directly. By integrating
Work per cycle, pressure-based:
equation (13) over one cycle and then dividing the result
by 2p, the mean pressure P
m
can be derived:
W=
T
E
T
C
T
E
pP
m
V
e
V
c
(1cos R
tcr
) sin 2A
2UT
C
sin R
tcr
(19a)
P
m
=
1
2p P
2p
0
MR
S[1+sin R
tcr
cos(w+H)]
dw
where the rst fractional multiplier will be recognized as
the Carnot eciency (1T
C
/T
E
), the highest possible
which yields:
eciency of any heatwork convertera result not
unexpected in view of the assumptions made. By substi-
Mean pressure:
tution from equation (14), this can be restated in terms
of mass M instead of P
m
:
P
m
=
MR
S cos R
tcr
(14)
Work per cycle, mass-based:
This last equation can now be used to transform other
equations from a quantity M, which is not easily meas-
W=
T
E
T
C
T
E
pMRV
e
V
c
(1cos R
tcr
) sin 2A
2U2T
C
cos R
tcr
(19b)
ured, to one which can, namely P
m
. Thus, as a leading
example, equation (13) is more useful when rewritten in
For general use, especially with reference to dimen-
the form:
sional analysis (9), the performance must be stated in
terms of dimensionless parameters to quantify the good-
Formula for pressure, pressure-based:
ness of any given machine or design. The area of the
indicator diagram area W is taken as a measure of
p=
P
m
cos R
tcr
1+sin R
tcr
cos(w+H)
(15)
the energy conversion and for generality this is related
to the total mass of working uid in the system and the mass contents on either side of the regenerator equal:
not to any reference volume. This is the best approach
M
em
+M
hm
=M
km
+M
cm
(22)
for applicability to the entire range of Stirling cycle
For substitution into this equation the mean mass con- machines from engines to refrigerators and heat pumps,
tents of the four spaces are quantied next. Starting with and from alpha to gamma designs (13). Lastly the tem-
the expansion space, from equations (1) and (13): perature range, and not any base temperature, is used
as the reference level. This characteristic performance
parameter is then dened as: M
em
=
1
2p P
2p
0
p
RT
E
v
e
dw
Denition of specic performance:
=
MV
e
4pST
E
P
2p
0
[1+cos(w+A)] dw
1+sin R
tcr
cos(w+H)
Integrating and simplifying gives [see the note following
equation (17)]
N
sp
=
A
cyclic
energy
conversion
B
A
total
mass of
working fluid
B
A
gas
constantB
A
operating
temperature
range
B
M
em
=
MV
e
[sin R
tcr
+(cos R
tcr
1) cos(AH)]
2UT
e
cos R
tcr
(23)
=
W
MR DT
(20)
and applying a similar procedure to the heater, cooler
and the compression space respectively:
Either equation (19b) or else equations (19a) and (14)
can be substituted for W in equation (20) to obtain
M
hm
=
MV
h
UT
E
tan R
tcr
(24)
the end result in terms of the primitive machine
specications:
M
km
=
MV
k
UT
C
tan R
tcr
(25)
Formula for the specic performance:
M
cm
=
MV
C
[sin R
tcr
+(cos R
tcr
1) cos(A+H)]
2UT
C
cos R
tcr
N
sp
=
pV
e
V
c
(1cos R
tcr
) sin 2A
2T
e
T
c
U2 cos R
tcr
(21)
(26)
The above non-dimensional characteristic number so that substituting equations (23) to (26) into (22) and
quanties the capability of the machine to accomplish simplifying gives
heatwork conversion per unit mass of working uid
with a given overall temperature dierence. When a
V
E
2T
E
C
1
(1cos R
tcr
) cos(AH)
sin R
tcr
D
+
V
h
T
E
prototype machine is available for testing it can therefore
be used for development of machines with changed speci-
cations using the classic methods of dynamic similarity =
V
C
2T
C
C
1
(1cos R
tcr
) cos(A+H)
sin R
tcr
D
+
V
k
T
C
(27)
in dimensional analysis.
and substituting for H from equation (11) and simplify-
ing, the conditional equation for a central thermo-
dynamic mid-plane is
5 FOUR OPTIMIZATION CRITERIA
V
e
2T
e
C
1
V
e
(1cos R
tcr
)
2UT
e
sin R
tcr
D
+
V
h
T
h
The author has postulated in previous publications that
the thermodynamic mid-plane of the whole engine
should be located at the thermodynamic mid-plane of
=
V
c
2T
e
C
1
V
c
(1cos R
tcr
)
2UT
c
sin R
tcr
D
+
V
k
T
c
the regenerator (811). This axiom stipulates that con-
tact of working uid with regions at dierent tempera-
Factorizing the above equation for a numerical solu-
tures needs to be minimized. It was therefore desirable
tion gives:
that the thermodynamic mid-plane should bisect the
machine into a hot half on one side and a cold half
Criterion for optimization:
on the other side of the regenerator. Analytical proof
for this postulate was still lacking but a numerical
A
V
e
T
E
V
c
T
C
B C
1
A
V
e
T
E
+
V
c
T
C
B
1cos R
tcr
2U sin R
tcr
D
=
V
k
T
E
V
h
T
C
proof is now presented in this section. This investigation
also produced two additional alternative criteria as an
(28)
unexpected fall-out.
The fundamental condition for the cited postulate may Equation (28) can be satised by any one of the fol-
lowing four sets of equations or constraints: be stated quantitatively by making the time average of
232 T FINKELSTEIN
Solution A: 6 NUMERICAL EXAMPLE
V
k
T
C
=
V
h
T
E
(29a) In this section it is shown that maximum output is indeed
obtained if the condition for symmetry in equation (28)
is satised. To illustrate the methodology, a typical V
E
T
E
=
V
C
T
C
(29b)
current state-of-the-art machine, the Swedish United
Stirling V-160 Model 1370-10024-24 Series E, will be
used as an example. [ This reference model (the proto-
Solution B:
type) was selected for three reasons: (a) it is represen-
tative of current designs, (b) it has been developed
V
k
T
C
<
V
h
T
E
(30a)
extensively (over one hundred pre-production proto-
types have been built and tested) and (c) reliable draw-
ings and specications were available. For brevity it will
A
V
E
T
E
V
C
T
C
B C
1
A
V
E
T
E
+
V
C
T
C
B
1cos R
tcr
2U sin R
tcr
D
be referred to as the V-160.] It is a single-cycle alpha-
type machine with an advertised output of 5 hp. There
=
V
k
T
C
V
h
T
E
(30b) are two single-acting pistons in a V-conguration to
compress, expand and distribute the working uid within
the machine enclosure. The two main working spaces,
Solution C:
e and c for expansion and compression respectively, are
each bounded by reciprocating pistons of equal size. V
k
T
C
>
V
h
T
E
(31a)
Between them are the three main heat exchangers with
manifolds or connecting ducts between the components.
The nine relevant primitive parameters needed for the
A
V
E
T
E
V
C
T
C
B C
1
A
V
E
T
E
+
V
C
T
C
B
1cos R
tcr
2U sin R
tcr
D ideal isothermal analysis presented in this paper are all
listed in Table 1. The rst six parameters are measures
of the dimensions, or the layout of the mechanism, and
=
V
k
T
C
V
h
T
E
(31b)
the next three are selected standard operating conditions
for the machine. It should be noted that the rst eight
Solution D:
of these are unique, but the ninth is optional: instead of
selecting the mean pressure as the ninth parameter, the
V
h
T
E
=
V
k
T
C
(32a) product MR could have been taken instead because of
the interrelationship in equation (14). This is not done
here because P
m
is relatively easy to measure while M
1
A
V
E
T
E
+
V
C
T
C
B
1cos R
tcr
2U sin R
tcr
=0 (32b)
cannot be determined directly.
A derivative machine is dened as a machine that
The rst solution, as stated in equations (29a) and has the same operating cycle as the prototype machine.
(29b), is also identical with the prior postulate in refer- Stated dierently, this implies that the equivalent par-
ences (8) to (10). For this rst and principal solution it ticles along the entire operating enclosure undergo pre-
will be noted that the pressure phase angle H in equation cisely the same thermodynamic processes during each
(11) is equal to zero so that the pressure vector is in cycle. To obtain derivative machines that will perform
phase with the reference vector. The other three solutions the same thermodynamic cycles in the various regions,
also satisfy the condition of symmetry in equation (28). only the tidal compression ratio R
tcr
has to be the same
Solutions A to C oer three distinct sets of volumes, as in the prototype. For the purpose of comparison in
each of which increases performance to approximately this analysis an additional restriction is stipulated that
the same extent. Lastly, there is a fourth solution, D, the two machines should also have the same MR prod-
which was found to be inapplicable because it results in uct. This implies that either they work with the same
working uid, in which case the charge mass M is the negative values for V
h
and V
k
.
Table 1 Nine dening machine characteristics (the primitives) for the prototype engine, the United Stirling V-160. [Data by
courtesy of Dr Paolo Lista, Rome University, Italy]
Machine design characteristics Machine operating conditions
V
E
106 V
h
106 V
r
106 V
k
106 V
C
106 A T
E
T
C
P
m
107
(m3) (m3) (m3) (m3) (m3) (deg) ( K) ( K) (Pa)
159.8 71.2 83.8 96.9 159.8 55 993 288 1.25
same anyway, or, alternatively, if they do not, then mass (29b) for satisfying the condition of symmetry for the
thermodynamic mid-plane. The method of solution used will be in inverse proportion to R. To accomplish this
latter constraint, the requirement is that the values of S for these four simultaneous non-linear equations was by
the LevenbergMarquardt algorithm (14) together with and U should also be the same for the derivative
machines. the denitions for V
e
, V
h
, V
k
and V
c
in terms of their
temperatures. The results for this optimization are The values in Table 1 are now used as input to equa-
tions (9), (10) and (12) to calculate S, U and hence the shown in Table 3, where the rst row lists the computed
values for the prototype and the second row for the tidal compression ratio R
tcr
for the prototype which will
also dene all derivative engines. Additionally, from derivative according to solution A. By comparison with
Table 3 it is seen that the cyclic work W is increased equations (14) and (16) the mass M with air for the
working uid and the pressure ratio P are computed. from 668 to 1452 J and the specic performance N
sp
from
0.2820 to 0.6145. It will be noted that V
E
/V
C
=T
E
/T
C
All these values will next be used for the computed
derivative engines and are summarized in Table 2 for and that V
h
/V
k
=T
E
/T
C
, as required by equations (29a)
and (29b). Specic performance N
sp
increases from further use.
On this basis, the variational parameters for the proto- 0.2820 to 0.6145.
The other three solutions are computed next. Rows 3 type are now compared with those of the four derivative
machines optimized in accordance with solutions A to and 4 show the next two solutions according to the cri-
teria in equations (30a) to (31b), with the right-hand D. Of the nine parameters in Table 1, the four volumes
V
E
, V
h
, V
k
and V
C
or their temperature-normalized side being positive and negative respectively. Row 5
shows solution D, which is inadmissible, because two of equivalents are allowed to vary for this optimization,
but all the other ve primitives in Table 1 remain the the volumes are negative. After obtaining the pro-
portions for all four possible equivalent symmetrical same. To calculate the new dimensions, equations (29a),
(29b), (30a), (30b), (31a), (31b) and (32a), (32b) derivative engines, the cyclic work W is calculated from
equations (19a) or (19b) and also the non-dimensional respectively are required, using a method of seeded iter-
ation as the non-linear criteria for these four derivative specic performance N
sp
from equation (21) for the
prototype and the four derivatives. engines. In Table 3 the rows refer to the prototype as P
and to the four optimized derivatives as DA, DB, DC The next step was to compute a series of 11 additional
derivative engines, as part of a progressive range of and DD respectively and give the computational results
in the rst four columns. machines including the prototype as well as the optim-
ized machine according to solution A. Thus the gas par- Consider rst solution A. The following four equa-
tions have to be solved simultaneously: equations (9) ticles in the whole series of 13 engines undergo the same
process and operate with identical thermodynamic and (10) to retain the same tidal compression ratio R
tcr
and the same charge mass M and equations (29a) and cycles, so that the variance of selected parameters can
be displayed. This requires once more that they share all
the same parameters as listed in Table 2. To keep to these
Table 2 Parameters derived for the prototype engine that are
stipulated restrictions, the new input dimensions for each
also used for all the derivative engines
derivative engine were computed as follows: 11 inter-
S107 U107 M
mediate values taken from the prototype P (as shown in
(m3/K) (m3/K) R
tcr
(kg) P
the rst row of Table 3) and the principal symmetrical
Equation (9) (10) (12) (14) (16) derivative DA according to solution A (as shown in the
Value 9.1318 2.6810107 0.2980 0.03802 1.831
second row of Table 3) were calculated. The entire pro-
cedure requires solving a set of the following four equa-
tions simultaneously 11 times: two sets of intermediate
Table 3 Comparison of the V-160 (the prototype P) with the
values for the expansion side volumes according to
four optimized derivative engines DA, DB, DC and
DD
V
eD
=
e
i
E
V
eP
+
1e
i
E
V
eO
(33a)
V
E
106 V
h
106 V
k
106 V
C
106 W
(m3) (m3) (m3) (m3) (J) N
sp
H
e
i
=1, .. . , 12
P 159.8 71.2 96.9 159.8 668 0.2820
V
hD
=
e
i
E
i
V
hP
+
1e
i
E
V
hO
(33b)
DA 437.2 161.7 46.9 126.8 1452 0.6145
DB 376.3 217.2 38.1 152.1 1195 0.5057
DC 441.3 130.8 63.5 85.9 1182 0.5003
and the solutions for the two transposed equations (9)
DD 1774 506.5 146.9 514.4 * *
and (10):
* Indeterminate, signicant value cannot be computed.
V
cD
=T
C G
V
eD
T
E
cos A+
S
C
4U2
A
V
eD
T
E
sin A
B
2
DH
As an alternative, equations (9) and (12) or equations (10) and (12)
could have been selected with the same result, but with some increase
in computational work. (34a)
234 T FINKELSTEIN
There is a maximum of 1452 J for the optimized machine
V
kD
=T
C C
S
A
V
eD
2
+V
hkB
1
T
C
V
r
ln T
T
E
T
C
V
cD
2T
C
D
versus 668 J for the unmodied V-160.
(34b)
7 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
The four equations (33a), (33b) and (34a), (34b) were
solved simultaneously, again using the Levenberg
Marquardt method (14) to nd the four unknown vari- The concept of tidal and ancillary domains introduced
in this paper is a new method of visualizing and analys- ables for each of 11 derivative engines, in addition to
the optimized engine and the prototype. The results of ing Stirling cycle machines. It discriminates between the
active and passive regions within the system. A cen- these calculations appear in columns 5, 6, 8 and 9 of
Table 4 as input parameters, along with the rest of the tralized denition of phase angles is applied together
with a centralized system structure that is not biased primitive machine characteristics in columns 2, 3 and 7
for each derivative engine, being dictated by the con- towards the expansion space. The analysis implies a vec-
torial representation with a computational acceptance of stants from Table 2. Lastly, the two nal calculations in
Table 4 are performed and listed in the last two columns. negative volumes.
Initially these procedures were thought to be particu- In Fig. 4 the end result of this numeric calculation is
shown graphically. On the left the dimensions of the four larly suitable for use with the more advanced analytical
approaches that are based on the multiple conservation spaces in the prototype and all the derivatives, including
the optimized machine, are plotted. On the right the laws of mass, momentum and energy (5, 12). When
they were rst utilized for the simplest case of a single work output W for the 13 equivalent machines is plotted.
Table 4 Constants and computed values for the primitive machine characteristics of the prototype P, the symmetrical derivative
O1 and 11 other derivatives Dn
T
E
T
C
A V
E
106 V
h
106 V
r
106 V
k
106 V
C
106 P
m
107 W
( K) ( K) (deg) (m3) (m3) (m3) (m3) (m3) (Pa) (J) N
sp
D1 993 288 55 132.0 62.1 83.8 103.0 159.8 1.25 552 0.2338
P 993 288 55 159.8 71.19 83.8 96.9 159.8 1.25 668 0.2829
D2 993 288 55 187.5 80.2 83.8 90.5 159.3 1.25 782 0.3310
D3 993 288 55 215.3 89.3 83.8 84.3 158.3 1.25 892 0.3776
D4 993 288 55 243.0 98.3 83.8 78.3 156.8 1.25 998 0.4224
D5 993 288 55 270.8 107.4 83.8 72.8 154.8 1.25 1098 0.4645
D6 993 288 55 298.6 116.4 83.8 67.4 152.2 1.25 1190 0.5035
D7 993 288 55 326.3 125.5 83.8 62.4 149.0 1.25 1272 0.5385
D8 993 288 55 354.1 134.5 83.8 57.8 144.9 1.25 1343 0.5686
D9 993 288 55 381.8 143.6 83.8 53.6 140.0 1.25 1400 0.5924
D10 993 288 55 409.6 152.6 83.8 49.9 134.1 1.25 1438 0.6085
O1 993 288 55 437.2 161.7 83.8 46.9 126.8 1.25 1452 0.6145
D11 993 288 55 465.1 170.7 83.8 44.8 117.8 1.25 1434 0.6070
V(cm
3
)
W(J)
a. Volumes of Main Working Spaces b. Cyclic Work
Fig. 4 Graphic comparison of the characteristic data for the V-160 (the prototype), the optimized machine
and 11 further equivalent engines
conservation law, that of mass only, they resulted in an ow would have an especially deleterious eect when
heat transfer is less than ideal; isothermal conditions alternative to the classic Schmidt analysis, i.e. not biased
towards the expansion space. In this paper the iso- minimize this. It is therefore surprising that such a sub-
stantial increase in performance was found. A possible thermal and loss-less operation of Stirling cycle machines
is applied from rst principles. reason for this may be the improved allocation of regions
of temperature zones and the consequent increased As a by-product of this analysis, two new dimen-
sionless analytical parameters were formulated. The rst ability of the working uid to perform useful work. For
example, it should be noted that the lead or lag angle H of these is the tidal compression ratio R
tcr
, a unique
characteristic parameter that quanties the nature of the for the pressure, which usually has a positive or negative
magnitude for Stirling cycle machines whose volumes cyclic process within a Stirling engine. It is analogous to
the compression ratio used routinely with internal com- have not been optimized, becomes equal to zero for the
primary symmetrical machine. bustion engines as a standard of comparison.
The second of these is the specic performance N
sp
, The Beale number is only valid for one particular
design, that of the beta machines. Additionally, it was similar to the W/(MRT) parameter rst proposed in
reference (2). It is a compact characteristic parameter designated by the originators, Berchowitz and Urieli, as
an empirical experimental correlation and not an ana- proportional to the ratio between cyclic work and the
working uid charge mass. The function is to quantify lytical derivation [see pages 47 and 48 of reference (4)].
As shown in Fig. 5, volume-normalized performance the goodness of the machine in terms of the charge
mass and the temperature dierential and it can there- criteria are not appropriate. For the reference V
e
, the
output is monotonically increasing with V
e
for the 11 fore be used for dimensional analysis and an analytical
optimization of various machines. derivatives computed. Similarly for V
c
, it increases with
V
c
. Using V
s
, as in the Beale number, there is a maxi- One postulate for the proportions of the working
spaces and the heat exchangers to maximize the perform- mum but its signicance is merely that for the beta
design, and therefore for all Beale machines the stroke ance of Stirling cycle machines has previously been pub-
lished by the author in references (5), (7) and (8). By of the displacer is minimized at the expense of other
advantageous machine characteristics. algebraic manipulation of the derived new formulae it is
now shown that the postulated condition of optimization It seems reasonable that what is the trend for the ideal
isothermal performance could be even more valid for where the thermodynamic mid-plane is situated centrally
in the regenerator can be fullled by a specied formu- a practical engine. After making the appropriate
reductions for losses and practical shortcomings of lation. It is therefore now conrmed analytically.
Additionally, two further criteria were found that are actual machines compared with ideal ones, the initial
advantage still applies, so that a similar gain might be similar and may be advantageous alternatives for some
specic heat transfer characteristics of practical expected, at least in the specic work. As an incidental
advantage, the actual thermal eciency may also exchangers. All three of these solutions increase the
performance. increase due to fewer unnecessary gas transfers and
reduced exposure to adverse temperature gradients in A numerical proof of this optimization postulate is
included. The series of calculations presented here are optimized machines. Published data show that nearly all
current machines have a one-to-one ratio between the all based on the V-160 prototype and various deriva-
tives that share such characteristics as mass of working main working spaces. It may therefore be surmised that
if this new theory proves to be applicable in practice, uid, temperature range, variation of pressure within the
cycle, regenerator volume and phasing, and are therefore then they all could be improved correspondingly. This
comparison has not yet been tested experimentally, since entirely equivalent, except for the proportioning. Thus
a comparative sample was established to compare the no engines following this rule are known to have been
built. The hypothesis will still have to be proved by lab- work output for various conforming congurations. For
this analysis the computerized solving procedure was oratory measurements, or at least by a comprehensive
multiple conservation law analysis. In the event that it based on the LevenbergMarquardt method (14) which
is not simple to program, but is useful for deriving data is found to be true, then a substantial overall increase
in specic output could be expected from the application conveniently. The results of Table 4 and of Fig. 4b show
that the specic performance, or output of the United of this theory. This might set the stage for a line of
improved machines with enhanced performance. Stirling V-160 (the latest, and most exhaustively tested,
Stirling engine known), may be increased substantially
in the ideal isothermal case for the primary symmetrical
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
conguration by re-proportioning the machine, increas-
ing the performance from 668 to 1452 J per cycle.
It could be argued that the idealized isothermal theory The author is indebted to Dr Paolo Lista, Rome
University, for supplying the dimensions and operating would not show up the whole extent of potential
improvement, since an appropriate distribution of mass characteristics of the United Stirling V-160 engine.
236 T FINKELSTEIN
Fig. 5 Volume-normalized specic performance plotted for three dierent criteria
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A New Isothermal Theory For Stirling

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