1

Contents
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................. 4
CHAPTER 1 ............................................................................................................................ 5
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 5
1.1 The Logos, Ethos and Pathos ....................................................................................................... 5
1.2 Persuasive Communication and the Online Marketing ................................................................ 6
1.3 Problem Statement ..................................................................................................................... 8
1.4 Research Objectives and Research Questions ............................................................................ 11
1.5 Scope of the Research ............................................................................................................... 11
1.6 Significance of the Research ...................................................................................................... 14
1.7 Organisation of the study .......................................................................................................... 15
CHAPTER 2 ..................................................................................................................... 2016
LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................ 2016
2.1 The Theoretical Framework of Persuasion ............................................................................. 2017
2.1.1 Rhetoric as the Art of Persuasion ......................................................................................... 2017
2.1.2 Other Theories of Persuasion. .............................................................................................. 2319
2.2. Criteria for Defining Persuasion ............................................................................................ 2320
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2.2.1 The Toulmin Model .............................................................................................................. 2522
2.2.2 Elaboration Likelihood Model ............................................................................................. 2623
2.2.3 Heuristic Systematic Model ................................................................................................. 2724
2.2.4 Aristotless Rhetorical Devices ............................................................................................. 2825
2.3 Methodology ........................................................................................................................ 3027
2.3.1 Research on Persuasion ....................................................................................................... 3027
2.3.2 Research on the University Websites .................................................................................. 3228
Definition of terms ............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.31
Research on Rational Thinking and Brainwave ............................................................................. 3432
CHAPTER 3 ..................................................................................................................... 3634
METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................... 3634
3.1 Research Design .................................................................................................................... 3936
3.2 Purposive and Stratified Sampling ......................................................................................... 3937
3.3 Data Collection ...................................................................................................................... 4139
3.4 Data Analysis ......................................................................................................................... 4340
3.4.1 Primary Data Analysis ........................................................................................................ 4441
3.4.2 Secondary Data Analysis .................................................................................................... 4441
3.5 Methods of Triangulation ...................................................................................................... 4542

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CHAPTER 4 ..................................................................................................................... 4643
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK .................................................................................... 4643
4.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 4643
4.2 Fairclough model Critical Discourse Analysis ......................................................................... 4643
4.3 Aristotles Rhetorical Devices ................................................................................................ 4744
4.4 Research Framework ............................................................................................................. 4845
CHAPTER 5 ..................................................................................................................... 4946
ANALYSIS OF DATA ..................................................................................................... 4946
CHAPTER 6 ..................................................................................................................... 5047
CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................. 5047
APPENDIX A ................................................................................................................... 5451



4

Abstract
This dissertation examines the relationship between substantiated claims in the
university websites and ancient rhetoric as a *?theoretical and practical discipline.
Traditionally, the business faculties and linguistic rhetoric have been treated as separate. My
dissertation addresses this disconnect by contending that theories of rhetoric is embedded in
the formal language of a university, especially in the promotional pages of university
websites. Based on close analysis of persuasive promotional pages, I argue that the claims in
promotional pages display a systematic and technical conception of rhetoric.( So what?
Anybody says it shouldnt be? significance of capturing the latest trend/ move from printed to
online, brochures to websites leads to genre analysis, but Im focusing on the persuasive
strategies as described by Aristotle which remain relevant till the modern time and even in
the current media; online communication. The central claim of this study is that a *latent
theory of rhetoric exists in university websites- is supported by textual data that I present and
analyse in Chapter 4; the substantiated claims that intended to persuade. Included are some
type of strategy to bear on the desired outcome, such as*logical reasoning and incentives.
Using the detailed categories of Nancy Woods model of Aristotles rhetoric as a definitional
framework, I have found *

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Rhetoric is generally accepted as the study of using language effectively and
persuasively to achieve specific goals. The new rhetoric is an interdisciplinary field that deals
with texts outside the literary fields. It is in a number of humanistic professions like
advertising, sales, public relations, counseling, politics and law. Looking at the way
persuasion envelopes daily transactions, various estimates suggest that an average of 300 to
3000 persuasive messages surround a persons life daily (Gass&Seiter, 2012) which means
one cannot run away from living in the midst of persuasive messages. This phenomenon has
existed since the ancient times of Aristotle till modern days. Today, Aristotles classification
of rhetorical devices remains relevant in analyzing persuasion. Aristotles observations
propose 3 rhetorical devices at play in the context of persuasion; the logos, ethos and pathos.
1.1 The Logos, Ethos and Pathos
There are three types of rhetorical appeals, or persuasive strategies, used in arguments
to support claims and respond to opposing arguments. A good argument will generally use a
combination of all three appeals to make its case.
Logos or the appeal to reason relies on logic or reason. Logos often depends on the
use of inductive or deductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning takes a specific representative
case or facts and then draws generalizations or conclusions from them. Inductive reasoning
must be based on a sufficient amount of reliable evidence. In other words, the facts you draw
on must fairly represent the larger situation or population.

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Ethos or ethical appeal is based on the character, credibility or reliability of the writer.
There are many ways to establish good character and credibility as an author.
Pathos, or emotional appeal, appeals to an audiences needs, values, and emotional
sensibilities.
1.2 Persuasive Communication and the Online Marketing
When studies are conducted to analyse the government strategies in persuading lay
people to accept a new policy (Potter & Collie, 1989), or to examine the persuasive strategies
of a major fund raising activity (Rasberry & Zdenek, 2011) or to investigate the rhetorical
structures of a company website (Nielsen, 2002), they are exploring none other than the use
of persuasive communication. The art of persuasion will continue to spark new creation and
generic hybrids to maintain persuasiveness. The science of persuasion will continue to
investigate rhetorical devices used to understand the new features. After a consumer
understands a persuasive strategy the persuasiveness of a message is reduced. Therefore, the
cycle starts again where fresh persuasion is needed continuously (Gass&Seiter, 2012) in
promotional communication like advertisements, email, brochures and official websites
where they are known to have persuasive motive (www.libraryofrhetoric.org).
Marketing of products and services have been made easier with the advent of
technology and the World Wide Web. Most companies are practising online marketing or
internet marketing (Rick Hardy, 2011) and this has been done either by creating website for
particular product or services or uploading printed advertisements onto their weblog. One of
the main strengths of online marketing is the opportunity to access to global customers
instantaneously.

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Popularity of online marketing cuts across all business fields. Recent developments
have shown that education has jumped on the bandwagon of internet marketing where
education has been viewed as a commodity (Fairclough, 2002). Currently, every university
has a website which at the very least offers general information about the institution. While
some are more specific than the others, information that can be retrieved ranges from the
history of establishment to the current achievements, from the top management to the staff
members and from the faculties offered to the reasons to choose a university. By providing
specific information to viewers, a university website functions as a marketing tool to attract
students to choose to study in the university. As an opportunity knocks but once, informative
and persuasive website is most desirable to market a university. Therefore, when students
browse from one website to another, a good website should be able to take this opportunity to
convince the browser to seriously consider applying for the university (Strauss, 1998).
Effective marketing of products and services online involves the art of persuasion.
With millions of products and services available, consumers have to make a choice. Their
decision lies in how well the company persuades these consumers to hold positive perception
which puts one company at a slightly better position than the rest of the competitors. In one
of a research, the findings suggest that a British universitys effort to review its marketing
materials leads to a significant increase in the number of applicants by 15% for two
consecutive years (Fairclough, 2002). This finding supports the claim that improved
marketing materials may attract more students. In the same note, another study suggests an
effective use of particular visual pictures and content in order to increase persuasiveness
(Knight & Paugh, 1999). Taking a slightly different focus, this present/my study examined
the persuasive language use of the web pages bearing the subheading reasons to choose this
university in official university websites. These pages formed the bulk of the data and for

8

the purpose of analysis, these pages are henceforth referred to as promotional page(s). The
investigation will be based on genre analysis and discourse analysis.
1.3 Problem Statement
Before the year 2000, most public universities around the world were fully-funded by
the government, stayed focused on its main role to educate, heighten research activities and
make knowledge prosper. Now, most governments including the Malaysian government have
urged universities to aim towards financial independence (Fairclough, 2002; Osman, 2008).
One of the measures taken is to increase the number of students to collect more tuition fees.
Working hand in hand with the universities, the Malaysian government puts education as one
of the 12 National Key Economic Areas(NKEA) (AO, 2010) with the focus of making
Malaysia an education hub.
When universities strive to attract more students, they do not only aim to have large
number of students but also quality students. Similar to other universities in developed and
developing countries, the Malaysian universities are encouraged to compete for a good world
ranking. Among the major criteria are high number of postgraduate students and number of
international students. In line with that the universities are given a national target of 120,000
foreign students by 2015(Ministry targets 120,000 foreign students by 2015, 2010) and
200,000 international students by the year 2020 (Kulasegaran, 2011) by the Ministry of
Higher Education. With the demand to increase 100,000 international students in less than ten
years, it is critical to review the promotional web pages just like the study on British
universitys marketing materials mentioned earlier.
A serious investigation on the ways universities persuade prospective students is
called for because the most important element in advertising lies in the product differentiation

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(Bhatia,2005). This unique characteristic sets a product or service apart from its competitor,
thus highlighting its special characteristics giving reasons for the targeted client to choose it.
Product differentiation in leading university websites University of Monash, University of
Wollonggong and Harvard University is located in the promotional page(s) where reasons for
choosing a particular university are explained. In addition, support to the claim is made either
by giving the statistical evidence or anecdotal evidence that is linked to the main promotional
page. According to (Dahl, 2009), economy is rhetorical and now education is becoming one
as well. To be in the running, there is a pressing need to examine promotional pages in
university websites that display product differentiation and provide reasons for prospective
students to choose them.
In the presentation of product differentiation, university websites not only need to be
informative but also persuasive. However, it is observed that not all universities are sensitive
in presenting their product differentiation and appearing exceptionally attractive (Rick Hardy,
2011). Linguistic elaboration is needed to increase persuasiveness (Bruthiaux, 2005). Thus,
an analysis to come up with a thick description of the structural organisation and the
rhetorical devices used in the promotional page(s) of university websites is highly relevant.
Besides concerns over the need to have promotional pages, there have been a lot of
apprehensions over the rhetoric and the reality where marketing in university website is
concerned. For example, a study conducted in UK suggests that many international students
experience a reality that does not match the rhetoric (Forland, 2006). International students
are viewed as special for the varied previous learning experience and culture that they bring
to the classroom and university. However there is little evidence that universities are
accepting the cultural synergy. From the delivery of curriculum and method of assessments,
universities are practising cultural imperialism where the international students have to adapt

10

to the traditions in the universities (Forland, 2006). The previous study that suggests a gap of
rhetoric and reality in the United Kingdom implies a similar gap could exist elsewhere. At the
same time, the promotional rhetoric deserves a more in depth and extensive study.
Consequently, this study proposes to examine the reasons given to choose a university by
global universities and local universities as can be observed in the promotional pages of the
university websites.
Finally, literature indicates very few studies have examined the concept of persuasion
and Web site design (Gretzel & Fesenmaier 2007; Fogg 1999, 2003; cited in Kim&
Fesenmaier, 2008). Even more so is the research on persuasion on university websites from
the linguistics perspective. The studies on website are dominated by the field of Computer
Mediated Communication which usually offers handbooks and web guides on how to design
a website(Nielsen, 2002). They describe different aspects of non-technological
communication problems of the internet, including textual and linguistic problems and on the
issues universities face in designing and implementing official websites. Thus far, none has
investigated the rhetorical features in websites of higher education institution within a
linguistic frame work. Furthermore, none has looked at the core of persuasion that is
encapsulated in the promotional pages of university website. Although a study by Loon
(2010) investigated the use of lexical promotional element in the introduction section of
university department website from Malaysia and the United Kingdom while Mcknight and
Paugh(1999) examined the use of slogans and tag-lines in the websites to attract students and
the users perceptions in university websites, these two studies do not analyse the rhetorical
features as proposed in this present study.In order to address the issue highlighted here, this
study proposes a specific research in the area of persuasive features of university websites, in

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particular the promotional pages where universities present their strongest points to persuade
students to choose them.
1.4 Research Objectives and Research Questions
University websites are designed to communicate with potential viewers the positive
aspects of an institution. This study focuses on persuasive communication employed through
the text of promotional pages on university websites that could appeal to prospective
students. Thus, objectives of the study are as follows:
1. To examine the structural organisationof the promotional page(s) on university
websites.
2. To investigate the linguistic elaboration in text of the promotional page(s) on
university websites.
3. To investigate the ways rhetorical devices (ethos, logos and pathos)are being
presented in the text of promotional pages on university websites
In order to achieve the above objectives, these research questions will guide the study:
1. What is the structural organisation of the promotional page(s) on university websites?
2. What is the linguistic elaboration in text of the promotional page(s) on university
websites?
3. How are the rhetorical devices (ethos, logos and pathos) being represented in the text
of the promotional page(s) on university websites?
1.5 Scope of the Research
Most prospective students rely on the information they gather from official websites
when deciding on a place to further their study (Newman & Jahdi, 2009). Information from

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the promotional pages plays the key role to influence the process because it distinguishes one
university from another. Promotional pages are not only informative but also persuasive.
This study addresses persuasion on the university websites, specifically, the rhetorical
features on the text uploaded on promotional page(s). These promotional pages are
characterized by signaling keywords such as why choose X University or reasons for
choosing X university. These are the main promotional pages which are normally followed
by evidence page to support the universitys claim. For example, one of the promotional
pages from the University of Minnesota;
- Claim- to offer great academic experience
- Support- one of the nation's top public research universities. That means your
college experience will be enhanced by award-winning faculty, state-of-the-art
learning facilities, and an unprecedented variety of options (over 135 majors and
thousands of challenging courses). Explore your opportunities below, including
our Four-year Graduation Guarantee.
The evidence page is either embedded in the text and connected through hyperlink or
is allotted with a specific tab under the navigation pane. The location of the evidence page
should be within one degree of separation, that is within one click through. In cases where
mouse hovering can initiate an appearance of a drop down menu, one hovering is considered
as an equivalent of a click. Information beyond that is viewed as minimally relevant to claims
made in the promotional pages. Therefore, this study will examine the text on the main page
of promotional page and also the text on the evidence page to support the universitys claim.
Besides the scope given above, this study poses certain limitation, for example, it is
not addressing the accessibility issues like downloading time and connection stability which

13

might interrupt communication and hamper persuasive message. Also it does not attempt to
predict which persuasion attempts will succeed and which will fail because it is almost
impossible to study precisely which persuasive message is effective and which isnt
(Gass&Seiter, 2012). Even so, much is known about the other side of persuasion like from
the era of Aristotle where theories and models of persuasion have been used in scientific
studies. Also, rhetorical strategies and techniques have been identified and the effectiveness
has been documented. The scope of this study is hoped to add to the body of knowledge on
what are rhetorical features and how they work on the university website.
Universities usually provide several reasons as to why students should choose them.
This study will list the reasons, examine each claim and supporting points, categorize them
according to pathos, ethos and logos. An investigation to check the relationship of pathos,
ethos and logos with brainwave will also be carried out. However, it is not seeking out to
determine the rank of which persuasion is more effective than the others. Literature states that
the task to predict which persuasive message will actually give an impact and repeat the same
impact to different individuals is almost impossible. But it is possible to see the general
pattern of persuasive messages to a group of people.
Human beings are complex. They can be stubborn, unpredictable and intractable, despite the
best efforts of persuaders. (Gass&Reiter,2012). Our understanding is too limited to predict in
advance which influence attempts will succeed and which will fail. Think how often you flip
the channel when a commercial costing millions of dollars to produce and air appears on
television. As one advertising executive puts it, half the money spent on advertising is
wastedbut we dont know which half (Berger, 2004, p1).

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1.6 Significance of the Research
The study of persuasion is highly intriguing. The maxim, the pen is mightier than the
sword illustrates that the written words have much more impact than warfare. This is
specifically because meanings are associated with words and words have the power to
influence others without bloodshed (Gass & Seiter, 2012).
Persuasion is the motive in many instances of communication. Persuasion is often a
positive influence in society. More studies should be done to understand how and why
persuasion works the way it does. Persuasion is usually used positively though at times it can
be used negatively. Therefore, the study of persuasion is important to expose the strategies
and tactics of unethical persuaders.
As university websites are the most available means to access information about
education it is important to examine the rhetorical language displayed during the whole
online visit by prospective students. Fairclough (2002) argued that through critical analysis of
language it is possible to not only describe the macro level of information architecture but
also the micro level of processes that affect individuals and societal relationship embedded in
the language.
An analysis from the linguistic rhetoric perspective describes the skillful use of
persuasive language to communicate (Rasberry, 2011). In the era of digital world, persuasive
language in university websites is significant to be studied as the Internet connects
prospective students to universities all over the world. With the Internet, geographical
boundaries become blur as students pay virtual visits to the university through the institution
websites.
Comment [U1]: reference

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Although this study will be conducted on only 20 promotional pages, it nonetheless
has relevance across all universities. Information from this study is significant for an effective
marketisation of higher education and as a reference on how other universities project their
product differentiation. This research describes the quantity and quality of information on
promotional pages that prospective students need in order to make informed decisions.
Further discourse analysis from this study may suggest ways for universities to provide
reliable information that reflects the reality thus influencing a universitys reputation in the
market-place.
Rhetoric is a strategic use of communication to achieve specific goals(Kuypers 13).
Humans communicate to make meaning. All forms of meaning making are persuasive
(Benson xii-iii). Human action is dependent on meaning making. Promotional discourse in
university websitesis the strategic use of oral communication for the purpose of making
meaning to influence a potential studentsto give money. Promotion is a rhetorical act.
Therefore, it is important that rhetorical theory and rhetorical analytical methods are used to
study universityspromotional discourse for the purpose of understanding better what
promotional pages do and how they do it. Studying promotional discourse as persuasion will
lead to improved understanding of how universitiesattempt to influence potential students
through language (Selzer 280-81).
1.7 Organisation of the study
This section provides a preview to the organisation of the following chapters of the
current research. In Chapter 1, the statement of the problem, background, purpose of the
study, and research questions intended for investigation, significance, and limitations were
presented. Chapter 2 provides a review of literature relevant to the current study. It includes

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six parts: Part I discusses the college-choice conceptual model. Part II surveys the paucity of
literature and research on admissions and recruitment practices in higher education. This
section provides context and shows the development of admissions and recruitment practices
by colleges and universities. Part III contains a review of the literature on the role of
technology in the admissions and recruitment practices of colleges and universities. Part IV
focuses on a review of literature on how colleges and universities represent themselves
through traditional marketing means, namely viewbooks and mission statements. Part V
includes an examination of the limited research on college and university websites. Part VI
provides a review of the literature on CDA, its development as a method and theory, and its
application to this study. Chapter 3 contains a description of the methodology, sample, data
analysis tools, and role of the researcher. Chapter 4 discusses the textual findings of the study
while Chapter 5 includes a discussion of the visual findings. Chapter 6 discusses the
application of the conceptual framework offered by CDA to interpret and explain the data.
Chapter 7 contains a summary and a response to the research questions guiding the study.
Lastly, Chapter 7 closes with implications for practice and indications for future research.

1.8 Definition of terms
This section is going to clarify definition of terms used in persuasion(Woods, p131):
1.Claim
The claim is the main point of the argument. Identifying the claim as soon as possible help to
focus on what the argument is all about. Synonyms for claim are thesis, proposition,
conclusion, and main point. When we ask what is your point? that is referring to the
claim. The claim can be positioned at any places in an argument, either at the beginning, at
the end, somewhere in the middle or it may not be stated anywhere. When a claim is stated in

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a few sentences it is called the statement of claim. When a claim is stated in a sentence it can
also be called the thesis statement, the purpose sentence, the statement of focus, or the
statement of proposition. Authors often make conscious decision about where to place a
claim and whether to make it explicit or implicit. Their decisions are related to their notions
about the audience. A claim at the beginning is straight forward and draws the reader in right
way. (Woods, p132) Delaying the claim pulls the audience in and increase interest and
attention. What is the author after? the audience wonders, and reads to find out. The end of
an essay is the most emphatic and memorable place of a claim. Many authors prefer to put the
claim there to give it as much force as possible. There is some risk readers feel they are being
led through a random chain of topics.

2.Statement of claim
3.Subclaim
4. Support
5. Warrant
(Woods, p137) Warrants are the assumptions, general principles, conventions of specific
disciplines, widely held values, commonly accepted beliefs, and appeals to human motives
that are an important part of any argument. Even though they can be spelled out as part of the
written argument, usually they are not. In many instances it would be redundant and boring if
they were.
(Woods, p138) Here is an example of a warrant that relies on a commonly accepted
convention of a specific discipline. Such warrants could include laws in physic equations in
mathematics, or theories in philosophy. Such information is not always spelled out in every
argument, particularly if the people who are arguing share the same background information
about these conventions, laws, equations, or theories. A physicist, for example would not
have to state the law of gravity and will mentally fill it in to complete an argument. Toulmin
called the warrants that are specific to particular disciplines field-dependent because they are
understood and accepted by individuals who have background and expertise in specific field s

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of knowledge. They can be differentiated from field-independent warrants that cut across
disciplines and would be accepted by more people.
Warrants originate with arguer. Note, however that the warrants also exist in the minds of the
audience. They can be shared by the arguer and the audience, or they can be in conflict.
Furthermore, if the audience shares the warrants either the arguer, the audience will accept
them, and the argument is convincing. If the warrants are in conflict and the audience does
not accept them, the argument is not convincing to them.

(Wood, p139) Notice how warrants themselves, when they are recognize by the audience as
either acceptable or not, can themselves become claims for new arguments. Developing
warrants as subjects for new arguments is called chaining arguments. The process can go on
indefinitely and can help move an argument in a variety of interesting directions.
Besides being related to what people commonly believe, value, want, or accept as
background knowledge in a discipline, warrants, are also culture-bound. Since values, beliefs,
and training vary from culture to culture the warrants associated with them also differ fromm
culture to culture.
Warrants represent the psychology of an argument in the sense that they reveal an unspoken
beliefs and values of the author and invite you to examine your own beliefs and make
comparison.
Finding warrants is not very different from psyching people out or trying to discover their
real reasons for saying things.

(Wood, p140) Some of the synonyms for warrants are unstated assumptions, presuppositions
of the author, and unstated premises. Warrants are also sometimes described as general truth
that the audience will accept as true. The warrant links the evidence and the claim by
justifying particular evidence as support for a particular claim.
However, the warrant attempts to establish a link between the author and the audience as
well.
(Wood, p141) The importance of shared warrants in argument.
Shared warrants are crucial to the success of an argument because they are the most
significant way to establish common ground between reader and writer in argument. Shared
warrants and common grounds, as you can imagine, are particularly important in international
negotiations. Skillful negotiators take time to analyze warrants and to determine whether or

19

not both parties are on common ground. If they are not, communication breaks down and
argument fails.
Why authors do not spell out the warrants. There are two reasons for usually leaving warrants
unstated, so that the audience has to supply them. First, an audience who supplies the warrant
is more likely to buy in to the argument through a sense of participation. If there is potential
for agreement and common ground, it will be strengthened by the audiences supplying the
warrant. Second, remember that audiences differ and that their views of the warrant also vary
somewhat, depending on their past experiences and present perceptions. A stated warrant
negates the rich and varied perceptions and responses of the audience by providing only the
authors interpretation and articulation of the warrant. Less active participation is then
required from the audience, and the argument is less powerful and convincing to them.
What is left out there?
What does this author value?
What is causing this author to say these things?

6. Rhetorical features describe the purpose of a text and its authors awareness of
composing for an audience (Braun, xxxx). This stand sees three main components of
rhetorical features are persuasive intent, informational value and entertainment value. An
analysis of rhetorical features should explain the persuasive purpose, the message it delivers
and the manner of presentation which attracts targeted audience.
7. Rhetorical device. The manner of presentation, which refers to the word pattern or
combination of words used, leads to the rhetorical devices being used to arouse a desired
reaction in the reader.
8. Persuasion- with the element of freewill, not force, objective to encourage change
in attitude

Comment [U2]: Add Rasberry, scope and
definition of rhetorical features

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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter has 3 main parts; part 1 is the theoretical framework of persuasion, Part 2
is the conceptual model of college choice and Part 3 is the methodology of previous research
on persuasion and university websites.
2.1 The Theoretical Framework of Persuasion
2.1.1 Rhetoric as the Art of Persuasion
Rhetoric is frequently linked with persuasion. The English word 'rhetoric' is derived
from Greek rhetorike, which were used in the era of Socrates in the fifth century.
Rhetorike first appeared in Plato's dialogue Gorgias, which was written about 385
B.C.(Kennedy, 1994 as cited in Ding, 2007). The Greeks used rhetorike to refer to the art
of public speaking as it developed in deliberative assemblies, law courts, and other formal
occasions under constitutional government in the Greek cities, especially the Athenian
democracy (ibid). As such, it is a cultural subset of a more general concept of the power of
words and their potential to affect a situation in which they are used or received (ibid). As
time goes by, the modern interpretation of rhetoric is on the effective use of language such as
in argumentation and persuasion.
Sometimes, it is difficult to differentiate between what is persuasion and what is not.
First, the dictionary term of persuasion is similar to several terms like advising,
brainwashing, coercion, compliance gaining, convincing, education, indoctrination, influence,
manipulation and propaganda. Some authors consider certain terms as synonym while others
view certain terms as just related words. Second, the context of persuasion is sometimes very

21

clear, but sometimes rather fuzzy. Thus, in a borderline case of persuasion, it depends on
ones term of persuasion to consider a case as a persuasion or not.
Different authors view persuasion differently, hence, they offer different definitions.
Gass and Seiter (2012) discuss five sets of criteria for defining persuasion as referred to by
many. The sets of criteria are intentional versus unintentional, effective versus ineffective,
noncoercive versus coercive, symbolic versus nonsymbolic and interpersonal versus
intrapersonal. Some scholars view the senders intent as a criterion to define
persuasion(Bettinghaus& Cody,1994,). They believe that persuasion involves a conscious
effort at influencing the thoughts or action of a receiver (Bettinghaus& Cody,1994, p.5).
However, it is complicated to determine anothers intent. A persuaders stated intent might be
different from his actual intent. Therefore, the question of which should be taken as priority
will arise. Also, a persuader who does not intent for an action to turn out ugly cannot simply
claim irresponsible of any harmful effects resulting from his persuasion. Moreover, a case
becomes more intricate if a receivers perception on the persuaders intent should be
considered. Intentionality of a persuader becomes even less significant if the persuasive
message involves teamwork, for example, a team of website designers. Besides being almost
impossible to ascertain an individuals intention, it is more academic to study the evidence,
for example, the text itself and to understand how persuasion functions.
The second criterion of defining persuasion is the effectiveness of a persuasion. Some
scholars argue that the notion of success is embedded in a statement about persuasion. For
example, I persuaded him implies a situation of I successfully persuaded him. I manage to
change, alter or affect him. Otherwise the statement has to be I tried to persuade him but
failed. This view takes the stand that persuasion is a product, not a process. However, the
current notion of communication is as a process where scholars and researchers conduct

22

investigation to gain insight into how it functions. This is only possible when they focus on
what is going on, not simply on how things turn out. Hence, it is the aim of this study to
describe and explain the persuasive strategies in university websites, not to seek how much
attitude change has taken place to say persuasion has occurred. Another reason for the
different stand could be because of the different approach in looking at persuasion. The
quantitative approach measure the degree of effect of persuasion but qualitative approach is
more concerned with understanding how persuasion functions.
The third criterion of defining persuasion is the coerciveness of a persuasion. This
study takes a stand for persuasion that occurs with or without the conscious awareness of
receivers. As supported by Gass&Seiter (2012, p27) many influence attempts succeed
precisely because they operate at a low level of awareness.
The fourth criterion is the symbolic action and symbolic expression which includes
language such as words, images and pictures and action such as civil disobedience and
protest marches. In an advertisement, the whole commercial or the whole ad persuades.
Lastly the fifth criterion of defining persuasion is the number of actors involved. Classic
example of interpersonal persuasion is when one is persuading another.
In conclusion, referring to the criteria described this study adopts a working definition
of persuasion as one person or one team who is engaged in the creativity of creating or
extinguishing beliefs, intentions and/or motivations within the constraints of a given
communication context.
The basic assumption is that persuasive elements in university websites is an
influence that can be traced in the webpages of university website .

23

2.1.2 Other Theories of Persuasion.
These models of persuasion are useful for explaining and predicting peoples
reactions to persuasive messages in the analysis of data later.
2.1.3 Criteria for Defining Persuasion
Different authors view persuasion differently, hence, they offer different definitions.
Gass and Seiter (2012) discuss five sets of criteria for defining persuasion as referred to by
many. The sets of criteria are intentional versus unintentional, effective versus ineffective,
noncoercive versus coercive, symbolic versus nonsymbolic and interpersonal versus
intrapersonal. Some scholars view the senders intent as a criterion to define
persuasion(Bettinghaus& Cody,1994,). They believe that persuasion involves a conscious
effort at influencing the thoughts or action of a receiver (Bettinghaus& Cody,1994, p.5).
However, it is complicated to determine anothers intent. A persuaders stated intent might be
different from his actual intent. Therefore, the question of which should be taken as priority
will arise. Also, a persuader who does not intent for an action to turn out ugly cannot simply
claim irresponsible of any harmful effects resulting from his persuasion. Moreover, a case
becomes more intricate if a receivers perception on the persuaders intent should be
considered. Intentionality of a persuader becomes even less significant if the persuasive
message involves teamwork, for example, a team of website designers. Besides being almost
impossible to ascertain an individuals intention, it is more academic to study the evidence,
for example, the text itself and to understand how persuasion functions.
The second criterion of defining persuasion is the effectiveness of a persuasion. Some
scholars argue that the notion of success is embedded in a statement about persuasion. For
example, I persuaded him implies a situation of I successfully persuaded him. I manage to

24

change, alter or affect him. Otherwise the statement has to be I tried to persuade him but
failed. This view takes the stand that persuasion is a product, not a process. However, the
current notion of communication is as a process where scholars and researchers conduct
investigation to gain insight into how it functions. This is only possible when they focus on
what is going on, not simply on how things turn out. Hence, it is the aim of this study to
describe and explain the persuasive strategies in university websites, not to seek how much
attitude change has taken place to say persuasion has occurred. Another reason for the
different stand could be because of the different approach in looking at persuasion. The
quantitative approach measure the degree of effect of persuasion but qualitative approach is
more concerned with understanding how persuasion functions.
The third criterion of defining persuasion is the coerciveness of a persuasion. This
study takes a stand for persuasion that occurs with or without the conscious awareness of
receivers. As supported by Gass&Seiter (2012, p27) many influence attempts succeed
precisely because they operate at a low level of awareness.
The fourth criterion is the symbolic action and symbolic expression which includes
language such as words, images and pictures and action such as civil disobedience and
protest marches. In an advertisement, the whole commercial or the whole ad persuades.
Lastly the fifth criterion of defining persuasion is the number of actors involved. Classic
example of interpersonal persuasion is when one is persuading another.
In conclusion, referring to the criteria described this study adopts a working definition
of persuasion as one person or one team who is engaged in the creativity of creating or
extinguishing beliefs, intentions and/or motivations within the constraints of a given
communication context.

25

The basic assumption is that persuasive elements in university websites is an
influence that can be traced in the webpages of university website
2.1.4 The Toulmin Model
This section is going to show the relationship of persuasion and argumentation where
the former is under the umbrella of the latter. Woods, p128 describes the Toulmins model; 6
parts, claim, data/support, warrant, backing, rebuttal, qualifier. The Toulmin model is also
useful in designing or interpreting visual arguments such as photos, televisions or motion
pictures and in writing or analyzing persuasive speeches. The Toulmin model is a very
natural and practical model because it follows normal human thought process. The Toulmin
model have six parts. The first three parts are essentials to argument including both
traditional and Rogerian argument. They are (1) the claim, (2) the data and (3) the warrant.
Arguments may also contain one or more of three additional elements: (4) the backing, (5)
the rebuttal and (6) the qualifier. Figure below shows Toulmins diagram of these six parts of
the model.

Figure 5.1 A diagram of the Toulmin Model of Argument Showing the Three Essential Parts
(Claim, Support and Warrant) and the Three Optional Parts (Backing, Rebuttal and Qualifier)


26

In persuasion, if we know the possible resistant from the opponent(rebuttal), we are
one step ahead in preparing a more convincing support to our claim. In marketing, this means
when we have done needs analysis, well be more prepared to give the market what they
want.
Persuasion is an argument without rebuttal (Woods, p142).
2.1.5 Elaboration Likelihood Model
The Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion (ELM) suggests there are two basic
routes to persuasion that operates simultaneously, the central route and the peripheral route.
The central route which involves cognitive elaboration requires greater mental effort to
process yet leaves a lasting effect. Processing through central route needs higher motivation
and ability to do so. On the other hand, a simpler peripheral route involves focusing on
signals that are not directly related to the substance of a message. Whether a person choose
the central or peripheral route depends on his motivation to engage and ability to process. So,
persuasive messages on websites should be simple and clear for receivers to process.
According to ELM of persuasion, a lasting impression can be attained by reviewers if the
process information through central route that make people think. Reviewers will only do so
if they are motivated to do so which mean persuasive messages are important to motivate
reviewers to use central route that involve cognitive elaboration.
(Relationships of Aristotles classification of rhetorical devices, LOGOS is
particularly referring to the logic and rational thinking. ELM refers to the cognitive
elaboration with the brainwave in EEG)
Aristotles Rhetorical Devices Elaboration Likelihood Model
Ethos
Pathos


27

Logos/Cog
nitive
elaboration
/ Rational
thinking





Brainwave experiments

2.1.6 Heuristic Systematic Model
The second model of persuasion is the Heuristic Systematic Model (HSM). A feature
of the HSM is the sufficiency principle, which states that people strive to know as much as
they need to when making a decision but no more or less. After which, they will move on to
other matters. Thus, when students search for conviction of the best university through the
internet, they browse from one website to another. A persuasive website should be able to
Logos/
Rational Thinking/
Cognitive
elaboration

Aristotle's
rhetorical devices;
Logos, ethos,
pathos
Elaboration
Likelihood Model
Brainwave during
rational thinking

28

grab this opportunity to convince the browser to click the online application button (Strauss,
1998).
Persuasive language has long been acknowledged in marketing department but not in
the admission office of universities due to the nature of business management and education
administration itself. *Universities have to proactively promote their institutions. *This
strategy of promoting an institution is similar to those employed by the business sector.
2.1.7 Aristotless Rhetorical Devices
Aristotle stated that every argument consists of a claim (or a proposition) and a proof.
He went into detail about the broad categories of proof that can be used to established the
probability of a claim. Aristotles categories of proof are still useful both because they
accurately describe what classical arguers did then and what modern arguers still do and
because they have become such an accepted part of intellectual heritage that, like generations
before us, we learn these methods and use them to observe, think about and interpret reality
(Wood, 2003, p 198). Aristotle distinguishes between proofs that can be produced like the
murder weapon or written contract and proofs that are invented and represent the creative
thinking and insights of clever and intelligent people. The second category of proof is further
classified based on their appeals; proofs that appeal to logic and rational thinking (logos),
proofs that establish the credibility of the source (ethos) and proofs that appeal to the emotion
(pathos).A good argument will generally use a combination of all three appeals to make its
case (Areni & Sparks, 2005).
2.1.7.1 Logos
Logos or logical proofs include facts, reasons and opinions that are based on reality.
They rely on factual information, statistics and accounts of actual events, past and present.
Comment [U3]: improve this para

29

The support used in logical proof is real and drawn from experience. Logical warrants
guarantee the reliability and relevance of this support (Woods, 2003, p199).Logos often relies
on the use of inductive or deductive reasoning (Falk et al., 2010). Inductive reasoning must
be based on a sufficient amount of reliable evidence, takes a specific representative case or
facts and then draws generalizations or conclusions from them. In other words, the facts you
draw on must fairly represent the larger situation or population(ibid).Deductive reasoning
leads from a general principle, which is the warrant, applies it to an example or specific case,
which is described in the support, and draws a conclusion which is the claim (woods, 2003,
p203).
The full range of logical proofs can be arranged in a mnemonic device SICDADS;
proofs from Sign, Induction, Cause, Deduction, Analogies, Definition, Statistics.
Explain and provide example from Woods, 2003, p200-209.
2.1.7.2 Ethos
Ethos or the proofs that appeal to ethics help the audience to gain favourable
impression of the source. The author may build credibility or reliability of the source by
referring to experience, training, professional position, background and credentials that
establish his or her own expertise. Also, references to the audience concerns, beliefs and
values that demonstrate the authors effort to establish common ground and to show fairness
and goodwill toward the audience. (Wood, p210).There are many ways to establish good
character and credibility as an author(Falk et al., 2010).

30

2.1.7.3 Pathos
Lastly, pathos is a rhetorical device that appeals to an audiences emotional
sensibilities. People are not austerely logic machine. People also use language to
communicate feelings, values and motives (Wood, p210) .
2.2 College Choice Conceptual Model

2.3 Methodology
2.3.1 Research on Persuasion
Studies on persuasive rhetoric also exist beyond the linguistics domain as language
cuts across all discipline. For instance, it was in the medical field to study the effects of using
persuasive language on lay people when addressing current policy on community care (Potter
& Collie, 1989), in social study to investigate the persuasive strategies in fund raising
activities (Rasberry, 2011) and in the computer design to examine the rhetorical structures of
the company website (Nielsen, 2002).Assuming that different linguistic construction effects
differently, studies of linguistic rhetoric investigate the use (and not use) of language to
achieve desired effect.
Mcknight and Paugh (1999) discovered that the use of slogans and tag-lines are more
attractive than the university name. Students are attracted to be best qualified nurse in the
country or come to a place where we meet your needs first than the University of X,Y
and Z.

31

Besides persuasive text, visual persuasion is also significant. Scruton(Scruton,
2010)develops a methodological toolkit for analyzing persuasive visuals. His report
demonstrates the application of 5 types of analyses namely technological, perceptual,
semantic/semiotic, societal pragmatic, and inferential, on Matthew Paris's thirteenth- century
ChronicaMajora. Another prominent work is by Kress and Van Leeuwen (2006) which
describes a systematic and comprehensive method to analyse visual design including semiotic
landscape, visual communication and modality. Their works reveal the ways in which images
communicate meaning.
In the tourism industry, persuasiveness of destination webpages are looked at through
an investigation of users first impression(Kim & Fesenmaier, 2008). This study takes the
homepages of 50 official state tourism Websites in the United States. General conclusion
from the survey indicates that the websites meet the basic need for information in terms of
informativeness and usability. Discussion of the results points out that browsing the websites
is the preliminary step before a travel, and beautiful pictures on a website persuade the
viewers to stay longer on the website. Most important finding from the study suggests that an
easy website with clear navigational paths may convert website browers to users. Therefore,
web designer must provide obvious and appropriate cues requiring a minimum level of
mental effort.The above models of persuasion explain about the mental processes involved in
persuasion and the importance of having simple and clear websites. The other design
characteristics suggested to be improved are in the involvement, credibility and inspiration to
establish deeper and lasting relationships with viewers because a website can actually offer
more than a printed brochure.

32

2.3.2 Research on the University Websites
2.3.2.1 The Importance of University Websites
A university website contains general information about the institution for example its
history of establishment, the organization structure, the mission, the services, the products,
the staff members, the financial aids and its current achievements. Besides providing specific
information to viewers, a university website must also function as an advertisement tool
which attracts new students to register in the university. When students browse from one
website to another(Strauss, 1998), a good website should be able to take this opportunity to
convince the browser to seriously consider applying for the university. As an opportunity
knocks but once, informative and persuasive website is most desirable to market a university.
2.3.2.2 Websites and the College-choice Process
The official university websites are important to the marketing offices because
students visit the websites first before deciding on applying for the university (Saichaie &
Morphew, 2011). A study on university representations on 12 American university websites
takes the approach of Critical Discourse Analysis which does not only investigate what is
being said but also how it was said. This qualitative research finds nine content themes
namely athletics, architecture, campus scenery/location, academics, commencement, lab
work, fine arts, student life and value (Saichaie & Morphew, 2011). Then, detailed
descriptions of how they are represented in the websites follow.Accurate representation is
important as evident in a British universitys effort to review its marketing materials which
lead to an increase in the number of applicants by 15% for two consecutive years (Fairclough,
2002). Another study on images and words suggests that if used effectively they can create
persuasiveness(McCollum, 1999). Therefore, Malaysian universities should consider

33

reviewing their marketing materials in terms of the persuasiveness it has towards prospective
students. It is certainly relevant to study the university websites from the perspective of
linguistic rhetoric as they are one of the university marketing materials.
The above study is more focused on what and how the universities want the students
to see them. Another side of studies is more focused on what the students want to see in the
university websites. A survey among 260 high school students suggested that specific content
and image arouse specific reaction from viewer (Knight & Paugh, 1999). In general, the
students search for information on program, tuition, outstanding feature and prestige with
three most important content sought after are academic programs, college reputation and
distinguished alumni. A significant survey result on programs indicated that the information
needed is the number of specialized majors, certification, departments, courses offerings and
career description(ibid). The images that most students expect to see on the websites are
related to landscape (trees, walk-ways, hills ponds and lake) and architecture(buildings, clock
towers, arenas, fountains and recreation center) (ibid). This study suggests that university
web designers should have appropriate information and visuals desired by the prospective
students before they deal with the question of how to present the information. Another similar
study is on the perceptions of high school students on the college and university Web
pages(Poock & Lefond, 2001). 97% of the survey respondents perceived the content of
university website as most important. They need information on extracurricular activities,
hostels and on-campus housing, courses, admission and financial aid. Besides the content,
other elements that engage the students to a website is general ease of navigation and access
to the application as students are reported to be frustrated when they cannot find online
application or a form to download for paper application(Poock & Lefond, 2001). This is to

34

suggest that besides the textual and visual element, other factors that also affect the
marketability of a university websites are micro and macro layout.
When prospective students compare one university to another through the university
websites, they do it purposefully to find the one that is suitable with them (LeFauve, 2001;
Perkins & Neumayer, 2011; Saichaie, 2011; Strauss, 1998). As such, a university which
considers its customers needs would project positive identity to match with the students
expectation(Saichaie, 2011). Realising the importance of university websites, yet the process
of building a website is too complicated to handle, more universities now hire advertising
companies to professionally market the universities (McCollum, 1999; Schneider & Bruton,
2004).
2.3.3 Research on Rational Thinking and Brainwave
1.Title: Neuromarketing: a laymans look at neuroscience and its potential application
to marketing practice. Implication:Understanding what is happening in this emerging field of
inquiry is essential for anyone who believes that marketers can change the probability of a
favorable response from consumers. The use of neuromarketing, if proven through use, has
the capability of fundamentallychanging how we design, promote, price, and package our
products. Content: through the science of neuro-imaging, Platoshorse of emotion can be
reunited with his companionthe horse of reason. Neuromarketing has the capability to
demonstrate that emotional and rational thinking co-exist, in fact, are co-dependent.
Neuroeconomics challenges the notion that emotions can only corrupt economic decision
making. Indeed, emotions grab peoples attention and motives them to focus the rational
brain on the issue at hand (Damasio quoted in Coy, 2005). While skeptics may argue to
protect their position in the status quo, neuromarketing is making its way into the lexicon of

35

research agencies on a wave of physical evidence. Sophisticated techniques provide images
that document both rational and emotional responses to marketing stimuli. Tools:The basic
set of techniques used to generate neurologicalimages is electroencephalography (EEG),
magnetoencephalography (MEG), positron emission tomography(PET) and the newest
method: functional magneticresonance imaging (fMRI) (Moore, 2005; Camerer et al.,2004).
Warning:At this point, neuromarketing is mostly a set of intriguing butfar from conclusive
experiments linking internal brain activitywith external behaviors. For this field of study to
becomelegitimized (loosely following Rangel, 2004), it would benecessary to construct a
behavioral model that would predictwhat types of consumption related problems that
brainstructures under study need to solve. Second, there wouldneed to be experimental
methods which measure thecontribution of each brain structure to the overall decision.Once
this task is concluded, the model could beoperationalized by determining which stimuli
(marketinginputs) provide the appropriate brain structure with thematerial it needs to
accomplish its assigned task.Such a model appears to be far in the future at this pointalthough
some preliminary conceptualization of neuroscienceand the broader field of marketing
science are explored by Leeet al. (2007).So, do I want to proceed with EEG?
2. Master thesis titled:The emotional divide:Alpha wave asymmetry of the frontal
lobes duringmild, moderate and high fear commercials.Iowa State University, 2009.This
study looked at the obtrusive fear appeal and how it affects human physiology.Results show
that properly modulated moderate fear appeals cause somewhat moreprocessing in the right
frontal lobes of the brain than high or low fear appeals. Thus, ifadvertisers would like their ad
campaigns to be effective, utilizing a moderate fear appeal isthe best way to get consumers to
process the emotional influence of the commercial. Thisemotional processing could lead to
mental focus and thus more retention of the advertisement(Plessis, 2005). Many advertisers

36

believe that you must shock and awe your audience. Thisthought may not be true according
to the results of this study. A truly high fearful shock andawe effect does not appear to cause
emotional processing in the right fontal lobes, and thus,will not lead to retention of the
advertisement.
3. Adaptive Emotional Information Retrieval From EEGSignals in the Time-
Frequency Domain.This paper aims at developing adaptive methods forelectroencephalogram
(EEG) signal segmentation in the time-frequencydomain, in order to effectively retrieve the
emotion-relatedinformation within the EEG recordings.
4. Neural Basis For The Brain Responses To The Marketing Messages: an
HighResolution EEG study
5. Master thesis:Enacting ethos online: Using classical rhetoric to analyze visual Web
designbyBreanna Lee Byers. Major: Rhetoric, Composition, and Professional
Communication

CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
A study on generic structure of a websiterefers to analysis on the macro level of
structural organization and the micro level of the discourse. It involves the art and science of
organising a website into a coherent structure to improve information access and relevancy to
intended audience. To achieve this objective, this study takes the qualitative research
paradigm, as an exploratory research.

37

The first research objective willexamine the complexity of structural organistionof the
promotional page(s) on university websites. Based on previous research onacademic
promotional material, these are structural organization commonly used:
1. Headlines
2. Targeting the market
3. Justifying the product or service by establishing a niche
4. Detailing the product or service
5. Establishing credentials
6. Endorsement or testimonials
7. Offering incentives
8. Using pressure tactics
9. Soliciting response
10. Signature line and logo etc.
Thisstructural organisation is primarily identified in the print advertisements and it is
also perfect as the basis for identifying the organisation on the promotional page(s) of
university websites. The most frequent moves and the order of the moves in the online
promotional page(s) will give a macro look on the persuasive strategies.
As for the second and third research objectives, literature in the field shows that a
descriptive analysis of university website can be accomplished through the Discourse
Analysis approach. One of the best description of discourse analysis is given by Harris (1952)
who says one can approach discourse analysis from two types of problem, which turnout to
be related. The first is the problem of continuing descriptive linguistics beyond the limits of

38

the single sentence at a time. The other is the problem of correlating cultureand
language(i.e. non-linguistic and linguistic behavior).
The second objectiveof this research is to investigate the linguistic elaboration in text
of the promotional page(s) on university websites. As mentioned above, the discourse
analysis approach allows a researcher to conduct linguistic analysis of the text. The analysis
will be guided by Janks (2005) Linguistic Analysis Rubric to ensure every aspect is
thoroughly examined.
Further analysis of the text brings the study to the third objective. Again, discourse
analysis is the suitable method to investigate the ways ethos, logos and pathos being
represented in the text of promotional pages on university websites.
Discourse analysis allows a study to systematically explore relationships of discourse
between text, events and social structures.The social theory of discourse states that language
is socially shaped as well as socially constitutive. Thus, a thorough analysis of language
considers how language use is shaped by society as well as how society is shaped by
language use (Fairclough,2002).Therefore, after discovering the use of rhetorical features in
achieving persuasion, this study will tie the relationship of university and viewer by
attempting to answer how rhetorical features work. That is, what effects does this particular
use of rhetorical features on the promotional page have on a viewer, and how does that effect
provide more clues as to the universitys objectives.Utilising discourse analysis enables this
research to systematically explore websites by describing, interpreting and explaining the
language use.

39

3.1 Research Design
This research takes the qualitative approach as it aims to investigate in greater length
the context and conditions that surround the rhetorical devices presented on the websites.
Such a methodology is perceived suitable as supported by Bloomberg & Volpe (2008) and
Merriam (1998) who assert that (qualitative method enables one) to understand the context
and conditions that affect the actions and meanings that construct and are constructed by
social participants and institutions.
In general, this research falls in the category of discourse studies which investigate
relationships between forms and functions (Renkema, 2004). Under the umbrella of discourse
analysis, this study is informed by Faircloughs (2002) approach in interpreting the text. Also,
it is guided by Aristotles view on rhetoric- the effective language use that can persuade a
public (Wood, 2004).
3.2 Purposive and Stratified Sampling
A manageable sample is necessary in order to conduct thorough investigation
(Askehave, 2007; Fairclough, 2002; Saichaie, 2011). As this is a qualitative study, the
priority is to reach the saturation point in the data collection and analysis. In a previous study
which investigate the university representations, it reached the saturation point by the 12th
website(Saichaie, 2011). This study attempts to investigate 20 promotional pages from
university websites from the Asian region, Australia, America and Europe. Besides the
quantity, a qualitative study is concerned with the quality of sampling. In this study, the
sampling is both purposive and stratified. The promotional pages are chosen as they can
provide data for thick description on the reasons an institution put forth bydistinguishing

40

itself from others in order to persuade prospective students in making it as an institution of
choice.
University websites are selected purposively by searching for the websites with
promotional pages. Lead by the keywords reasons, choose and why, the search begins
by using Google search engine. The search for reasons to choose+ university brings
903,000 results. The big pool of results does not represent the population because there are
also irrelevant websites from the third party, for example agency which offer reviews on
universities (http://learnhub.com/,
http://www.studyincanada.com/english/news/pressrls.asp?ID=2286&SectionID=13&From=n
ews&Preference=graduate,) opinions in public forums site (http://www.city-
data.com/forum/san-francisco-oakland/1382644-top-5-reasons-choose-berkeley.html),
sample of student essays on reasons to choose a university
(http://www.essayforum.com/undergraduate-essays-2/sop-reasons-choose-university-
employment-upon-graduation-16469/, http://www.essayforum.com/writing-feedback-
3/important-factors-consider-choosing-university-college-28886/) informative page by Yahoo
and Google (http://voices.yahoo.com/4-reasons-choose-christian-university-over-a-
8569775.html?cat=4, http://www.google.com/apps/intl/en-GB/edu/sell.html). Therefore, the
next step was to filter the results, taking only the promotional page from the formal university
websites.
The second approach of sample selection is by taking the QS University ranking as a
guide. The search for specific promotional pages goes from the first on the QS rank, taking
the top 20 university websites with the pages.
The results that appear comes from university websites and from

41

All in all, data has been collected from the following web pages:
1. Web pages giving evidence for the claim stated in promotional page for example:
a. Web pages describingstudent academic life, thefaculties and academic
programs
b. Web pages describing financial related matters for example financial aid, cost
of living or tuition fees
c. Web pages describing student societies or co-curricular activities
d. Web pages describing the global reputation, global links or awards received
e. Web pages describing the user friendly services for example arrangement of
entry visa or personalized university tour
f. Web pages relating experiences from the alumni and alumni networks
If the websites present several hyperlinks and optional tab in the navigation pane,
those links and tabs, within one degree of separation, that is one click through will be
included in the data collection. All of the data used in this study are accessible by the public
on university websites.
3.3 Data Collection
Data will be collected from the main promotional pages which are characterized by
signaling keywords such as why choose XYZ University or reasons for choosing XYZ
University as well as the supporting page where the evidence are sometimes connected
through hyperlink or a specific tab under the navigation pane. The evidence page within one
degree of separation, within one click through, is relevant to the study. Therefore, this study
will examine the text on the main page of promotional page and also the text on the evidence
page to support the universitys claim.

42

Data is collected by taking screenshots of the promotional pages within an Internet
Explorer 7 browser at 1024 768 pixel resolution in 32-bit true color. Then, the screenshots
will be grouped according to the continents, Asia, Australia, United States of America and
Europe. Each group will have 5 sets of promotional pages of university websites. The text
will be extracted from the webpage, saved in Microsoft Office documents and managed by
data management software, Nvivo 9.
Web pages will also be saved in HTML format to create offline copy. As this research
employs discourse analysis approach, it will have to repeatedly and recursively examine data
to analyse the macro and micro level of generic structure. The nature of the content will be
carefully recorded.
Collection of data will be done twice in October 2012 and another in April 2013 as
this are the stable periods where marketing offices have updated the university websites for
the new Septemberintake who would have registered by then.A research suggests that a few
months before the new intake are when admissions and recruitment offices actively alter,
edit, and update websites (Hossler et al., 1999). The same promotional pages will be captured
at two points in time in order to examine changes in rhetorical features and strengthened
internal validity.
Students voiced frustration when they needed to drill deeper than three levels to
obtain the information. (Poock & Lefond, 2001, p. 18). I do consider for a second batch of
one degree of separation from the claim. Meaning the next click will lead to the support. This
is referring to the Poock and Lefond who suggested the idea of students being frustrated after
3 clicks of searching info. (Argument: So why do I limit to only 1 click? Not 3 clicks? Aiyoo

43

tak tau!) Or should I choose qualitatively, the degree of separation is looked at the warrant,
claim and support and backings as how Toulmin model described an argument.


3.4 Data Analysis
The rhetorical structures of the university websites that this study intends to capture is
illustrated as the figure below:

First step is to answer the first research objective; the structural organization of the
promotional pages. This is followed by textual analysis that will use Janks rubric (2005)
which allows for systematic linguistic analysis. The purpose of textual analysis is to describe
the properties of the textual and visual elements or a combination of the two. For example,
repetition of words like Distinguished, Top, and Leading on an institutional website
reaffirms the overall message. Besides that, as the primary means of persuasion, every word
holds two layers of meaning; denotative and connotative. The former is explicit dictionary
meaning while the latter refers to the implicit meaning of thoughts and emotions associated
Rhetorical
Structure
Macro level
Structural
organisation
(Obj 1)
Micro level
Textual (Obj
2)
Discourse
(Obj 3)

44

with a word. An analysis of persuasive communication usually encompasses both layers of
denotative and connotative meaning.
In the study of persuasive language used in promotional communication, what is not
said is often considered to be as significant or more significant (Gass& Seiter). This leads to
discussions on an organisations ethics when at times, for promotional purposes, unfavorable
facts are left unmentioned.
A website may also feature a logo or icon of a third-party publications ranking of the
institutions (e.g., USN). Researchers (Dianne, Milena, & Hector, 2010; Knight & Paugh,
1999; Najafian & Ketabi, 2011; Saichaie, 2011) also noted the increasing frequency of
visuals and artifacts and how their presence interacts with the text. In some cases, visuals can
operate in place of text, yet ultimately contributing to the discourse of the overall message
(Najafian & Ketabi, 2011).The third objective requires combining insights from rhetoric and
discourse analysis. Building on previous research on rhetorical devices(Arger, 2009;
Crawford Camiciottoli, 2011; Isaksson & Flyvholm Jorgensen, 2010), the claims and reasons
will be sorted into themes and relationships will be explained.
3.4.1 Primary Data Analysis
The primary data is the persuasive data that consists of reasons or claims and
supporting details or warrant. **Burke Argumentative theory.
3.4.2 Secondary Data Analysis
The secondary data is the neighbouring data surrounding the promotional page
section, that is grouped together on the horizontal or vertical tab. This data is not immediately

45

accessible from the promotional page. It usually is within one degree of separation where one
need to either click on the tab or hover the mouse over the tab to view its content.
Investigation on this data puts the promotional page in context by providing an
overview of the immediate surrounding data. This can be my genre analysis/ macro level.
3.5 Methods of Triangulation
In studies that take discourse analysis, researchers mainly examine texts. A common
problem is in the possibility to misinterpret data as the process of interpretation depends
mainly on the researcher. Therefore, one way to overcome this problem is by keeping
researchers journal to increase ones awareness towards Members Resource during analysis
of data. Another issue is due tothe nature of discourse analysis which is so flexible that some
scholars doubt its scientific rigor, a systematic way of linguistic analysis by the use of Jankss
rubrics may provide strength to the interpretation. It is to provide closely documented
descriptions of the recurrent linguistic practices employed by the web writers; and show how
these practices vary in accordance with variation in social context.
Next,the reliability of the result from this research will be increased by having another
rater and conducting an inter-rater agreement by getting the Cohens Kappa coefficient. For
this purpose, the researcher will select a rater, provide training and clarify concepts used in
the study. Then, the rater will practice coding and if there is any discrepancy a discussion will
follow. Inter-rater reliability test is important to ensure the categorisation of rhetorical
devices and proofs is consistent. Besides that,an experiment will be conducted on 30 students
to see the ways ethos, logos and pathos affect the students. In the experiment,
Electroencephalograph test (EEG test) will be conducted to see the pattern of brainwave

46

when the students are exposed to each persuasive device. This experiment gives biological
result that is accurate.
Finally, the same promotional pages will be captured at two points in time, October
2012 and April 2013, in order to triangulate by providing multiple points of data(Creswell,
2012).
CHAPTER 4
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
4.1 Introduction
The present study is a multi-dimensional investigation of promotional pages in
university websites.
4.2 Fairclough model Critical Discourse Analysis
This study is informed by the Critical Discourse Analysis Approach. CDA is both
theory and method that falls under the critical research paradigm. Its main focus is on the
relationships of power, language and society. CDA allows a study to systematically explore
opaque relationships of discourse, ideology and power between text, events and social
structures. The social theory of discourse states that language is socially shaped as well as
socially constitutive. Thus, a thorough analysis of language considers how language use is
shaped by society as well as how society is shaped by language use (Fairclough,2002).
According to Fairclough, there are three facets of discursive events and each of these facets
needs three level of analysis. As illustrated in figure 2 below, the three facets of discursive
events compose of:

47

1. Text as in spoken or written text
2. Discourse practice that includes the production and interpretation of text
3. Social Practice as it is an exercise in society
CDA is an appropriate tool for studies on rhetorics as it is concerned with what is being said
and not said.Utilsing CDA enables this research to systematically explore websites by
describing, interpreting and explaining the language use.

4.3 Aristotles Rhetorical Devices
The figure below is Aristotles Framework of Rhetorical Devices. Persuasion on
university websites can be analysed through the usage of rhetorical devices in the text of
promotional pages. Aristotle observes three categories of rhetorical devices; logos that
appeals to the logic, pathos that appeals to the emotion and ethos that appeals to the
credibility of the source. These rhetorical devices are supported with specific proofs for
example, proofs from sign, induction, cause, deduction, analogies, definition and statistics
that support logos, proofs from motivation and value that support pathos and proofs from
authority, experience and credentials that support ethos (Wood, 2004). Therefore, this study

Conditions of production and
interpretation





Social practice 3
Process of production and
interpretation


Discourse practice 2
Text
1
1.Text Analysis

2.Process Analysis

3.Social analysis

48

will identify, categorize and create a profile of the rhetorical devices and the proofs from the
university websites. Next, an investigation on the persuasiveness of university websites and
the ways rhetorical devices affect students will be carried out.








4.4 Research Framework
Refer to this for visual analysis: PhD Thesis: More than decoration: An investigation
into the role of visual rhetoric and ethos in corporate visual identity by Jennifer R. Veltsos,
2009 Univ of Iowa. Using a theoretical framework based upon ethos, social construction, and
visual rhetoric, this qualitative research study examines how start-up businesses develop CVI
and use it to establish corporate ethos. Using document analysis and interviews with graphic
designers, marketing specialists, and entrepreneurs from the Midwest, this study suggests that
entrepreneurs recognize the informational and persuasive purposes of CVI but that they are
not always able to implement the CVI consistently.
Persuasion on university websites
Rhetorical
devices
Logos
Pathos
Ethos
-Sign
-Induction
-Cause
-Deduction
-Analogies
-Definition
-Statistics

-Motivation
-Value

Proof;
-Authority
-Experience
-Credentials


49

CHAPTER 5
ANALYSIS OF DATA
A genre does not consist of a series of acts in which certain rhetorical forms recur. A
genre is defined by recognizable forms of rhetorical discourse bound together by an internal
dynamic or synthetic core in which certain significant rhetorical elements, e.g., a system of
belief, lines of argument, stylistic choices, and the perception of the situation, are fused into
an indivisible whole (Campbell and Jamieson 21). A rhetorical genre is given its character
by a fusion of forms not by its individual elements (Campbell and Jamieson 21). Therefore, a
genre is identifiable by the specific rhetorical action to be accomplished through typified
rhetorical discourse situated in a recurring social context. The genre helps us see beyond the
individual forms and provides a means of understanding how the forms work together to
create a rhetorical act. An MGF/D genre should have identifiable recurring discourse used to
accomplish a rhetorical action (support for the institution) situated in a social context (face-
to-face visit). *(Rasberry, 2011). Promotional pages in university websites display various
rhetorical elements to create favourable impression of the university.
In this study, the artifacts arranged their persuasive arguments in the Monroe
Motivated Sequence: attention step (reference the institutions high quality), need step (need
of the organization), satisfaction step (arguments related to how giving will help meet needs),
visualization step (talk about how your gift matters), and the action step (asking for a gift)
(Ritzenhein 32).(Rasberry, 2011)*/attention step (reference the institutions high quality),
rational step ( numerous courses offerings with proven track records; institutions ability to
educate) satisfaction step (attractive campus lifestyles), visualization step (talk about bright
future/ career), and the action step (online application)

50

CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION
Studies on persuasion in marketization of higher education is gaining importance as
more universities are aware of the significant role that university websites hold. University
image among the stakeholders is presented globally through the website. It is hoped that by
investigating the language use in the promotional pages may suggest ways of increasing the
persuasiveness of university websites. By doing so, it may lead to an increase in student
enrolment.Taking the Elaboration Likelihood Model of persuasion and Heuristic Systematic
Model of persuasion to underpin this study and with the discourse analysis approach, this
study hopes to unfold the ways rhetorical features work.



51

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54


Appendix A
Linguistics Analysis rubric(Janks, 2005)
Linguistic feature Explanation


Lexicalisation
Overlexicalisation
Relexicalisation
Lexical cohesion
Metaphor
Euphemism
The selection/choice of wordings. Different
words construct the same idea differently.
Many words for the same phenomenon.
Renaming
Created by synonymy, antonymy, repetition,
collocation.
Used for yoking ideas together and for the
discursive construction of new ideas.
Hides negative actions or implications.


Transitivity Processes in verbs: are they verbs of:
doing: material process
being or having: relational processes
thinking/feeling/perceiving: mental
saying: verbal processes
physiological: behavioural processes
existential

Voice Active and passive voice constructs
participants as doers or as done-tos.
Passive voice allows for the deletion of the


55

agent.

Nominalisation A process is turned into a thing or an event
without participants or tense or modality.
Central mechanism for reification.


Quoted speech
Direct speech (DS)
Indirect speech (IS)
Free indirect speech
(FIS).
This is a mixture of
direct and
indirect speech features.
Scare quotes or so-
called

Who is quoted in DS/IS/FIS?
Who is quoted first/last/most?
Who is not quoted?
Has someone been misquoted or quoted out
of context?
What reporting verb was chosen?
What is the effect of scare quotes?


Turn-taking Who gets the floor? How many turns do
different participants get?
Who is silent/ silenced?
Who interrupts?
Who gets heard? Whose points are
followed through?
Whose rules for turn taking are being used
given that they are different in different
cultures?
Who controls the topic?


56


Mood Is the clause a statement, question, offer or
command?


Polarity and tense Positive polarity (definitely yes)
Negative polarity (definitely no)
Polarity is tied to the use of tense.
Tense sets up the definiteness of events
occurring in time. The present tense is used
for timeless truths and absolute certainty.


Modality
Degrees of uncertainty

Logical possibility/probability
Social authority
Modality created by modals (may, might,
could will), adverbs (possibly, certainly,
hopefully) intonation, tag questions.


Pronouns Inclusive we/exclusive we/you
Us and them: othering pronouns
Sexist/non sexist pronouns: generic he
The choice of first/ second/ third person.


Definite article (the)
Indefinite article (a)

The is used for shared information to refer
to something mentioned before or that the
addressee can be assumed to know about.
Reveals textual presuppositions.


57


Thematisation syntax:
thefirst bit of the clause
is calledthe theme

The theme is the launch pad for the clause.
Look for patterns of what is foregrounded in
the clause by being in theme position.


Rheme syntax: the last
bit ofthe clause is called
the rheme.

In written English the new information is
usually at the end of the clause.
In spoken English it is indicated by tone.


Sequencing of
information.
Logical connectors -
conjunctions set up the
logicof the argument.

Sequence sets up cause and effect.
Conjunctions are:
Additive: and, in addition
Causal: because, so, therefore
Adversative: although, yet
Temporal: when, while, after, before





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