Lecture 7

EARTHQUAKE AND TSUNAMI

Objectives and Outcomes:
At the end of this lecture, students will be able to:
1. Explain earthquake phenomenon
2. Calculate the distance from seismic stations to
epicenter and determine the location of the
earthquake.
3. Predict possible damage due to the earthquake.
Lecture 8
WEATHERING AND EROSION
Objectives and Outcomes:
At the end of this lecture, students will be able to:
1. Describe weathering processes.
2. Describe soil formation.
- The crust is situated between the Moho and the
Earth's surface, and varies in thickness from 10 to
more than 60 km. Seismic data and direct
observations from some deep boreholes suggest that
it is composed of two layers: a so-called granitic crust
of low density (2.6 g.cm
-3
) overlying a basaltic layer of
higher density (2.7-2.9 g.cm
-3
). These layers are
sometimes clearly differentiated as distinct seismic
facies.
EARTH CRUST
The continents generally show both granitic and basaltic
layers, but the ocean basins are underlain only by
basaltic-type material; the boundary between continents
and oceans is marked by a transition zone with crust of
intermediate nature. The term lithosphere is often used
to group together the rigid parts of the upper mantle
above the asthenosphere as well as the crust. Finally,
the crust contains discontinuous patches with low
seismic velocity that correspond to sedimentary basins.
CONTINENT VS OCEANIC CRUST
http://www.iris.edu/seismon/
EARTHQUAKE FOCUS AND EPICENTER
Richter Magnitude Earthquake Effect Estimated Number per
Year
<2.5 Generally not felt, but
recorded
900,000
2.5-5.4 Often felt, but only
minor damage detected
30,000
5.5-6.0 Slight damage, to
structures
500
6.1-6.9 Can be destructive in
populous regions
100
7.0-7.9 Major earthquakes. Inflict
serious damage
20
8.0 Great earthquakes.
Produce total destruction
to nearby communities
One every 5-10 year
FREQUENCY OF EARTHQUAKES
Evidence from seismic records reveals that earth
quakes originate at depths ranging from 5 to nearly
700 kilometers. In a somewhat arbitrary fashion,
earthquake foci have been classified by their depth
of occurrence. Those with points of origin within 70
kilometers of the surface are referred to as shallow,
while those generated between 70 and 300 km are
considered intermediate, and those with a focus
greater than 300 km are classified as deep. About 90
percent of all earthquakes occur at depths of less
than 100 km and all very strong earthquakes appear
to originate at shallow depths. For example, the
26 Dec 2004 earthquake in Sumatra.
EARTHQUAKE DEPTHS
Distribution of earthquake foci in 1965 in the vicinity of
Tonga Island. (Data from B. Isacks, J. Oliver, and L. R.
Sykes)
Illustration showing how the Richter magnitude of an earthquake can be determined graphically using a seismograph record
from a Wood-Anderson instrument.
The study of earthquakes is called seismology.
Scientists who study earthquakes are seismologists, and the equipment for the study of
earthquake vibrations are seismographs.
HOW EARTHQUAKES ARE STUDIED?
When P waves encounter the
boundary between the mantle and
the core, the paths are refracted
quite sharply . The properties of the
core are different from those of the
mantle, and P waves begin to travel
much more s: as soon as they hit
the core. This causes a P-wave
shadow zone, an area o Earth's
surface opposite the earthquake's
focus, where P waves do not arri
expected because they have been
slowed down by their passage
through the c
When S waves reach the core-
mantle boundary, they are not
refracted; they blocked altogether.
This creates a large S-wave
shadow zone on the surface of
Incomplete
There are two types of seismic waves. Body waves travel outm
)ugh the interior of the Earth. Surface waves are restricted to 1
Compression waves, one of two types of seismic body way
ing pulses of compression and expansion acting in the direction
.aveling (Figure 4.6). Sound waves are also compressional way
res can pass through solids, liquids, and gases. They have the gre
mic waves--6 kilometers/second (km/s) .(almost 4 miles/second
velocity for compressional seismic waves through the upper crus
yes to be recorded after an earthquake, so they are called P (for
Incomplete
Shear waves, the other type of body wave, travel through materials in an ulcerating series of sidewise
movements (Figure 4.7). Shearing involves changing the shape of an object. Solids have elastic
characteristics that provide a restoring force for recovery from shearing, but liquids and gases lack these
elastic characteristics. Therefore, shear waves cannot be transmitted through liquids or gases. This is very
important, as you will soon see. A typical velocity for shear waves in the upper crust is 3.5 km/s (more than
2 mils) .Shear waves are slower than P waves, so they reach a seismograph some time after the arrival of
P waves from the same earthquake. For this reason, they are called S (for "secondary") waves.
Surface waves travel along or near the surface of the Earth. They travel more slowly than P and S waves,
and they pass around the Earth rather than through it. Thus, surface waves are the last to be detected by a
seismograph. It is important for planners and builders to understand surface waves, because they cause
much of the ground shaking that damages buildings and infrastructure (roads, pipes, sewers, etc..) during
large earthquakes. Underground bomb blasts, such as those sometimes used
for nuclear bomb testing, generate more surface waves than earthquakes do; this difference helps
scientists detect bomb blasts, an important part of nuclear test ban treaty verifications.
What is the difference between a seismograph and a seismogram?
Answer: A seismograph is the instrument used to measure earthquake vibrations. A seismogram is a record (on paper) of earthquake vibrations.
EARTHQUAKE PREDICTION
Charles Richter once said, "Only fools, charlatans, and liars predict earthquakes." Today, seismologists
attempt to predict earthquakes using sensitive instruments to monitor seismically active zones. It still is
not possible to 'predict the exact magnitude and time of occurrence of an earthquake; however,
scientists' understanding about seismic mechanisms and the tectonic settings in which earthquakes
occur has improved greatly since Richter's time. Advances in modern seismology may yet prove him
wrong.
Long-term earthquake forecasting the prediction of a large earthquake years or even decades in advance"-As
based mainly on understanding; the tectonic cycle and the geologic settings in which earthquakes occur. Where
earthquakes occur repeatedly, such as along plate boundaries, it is sometimes possible to detect a regular
pattern in the recurrence intervals of large quakes. This requires information about seismic activity going back
farther than historical records, which can be provided by paleoseismology, the study of prehistoric
earthquakes.
Tilting or bulging of the ground and changes in elevation are among the most reliable indications that strain
energy is building up. Small cracks and fractures that develop in severely strained rock can cause swarms
of tiny earthquakes-fore shocks-that may be a clue that a big quake is coming. The most famous successful
earthquake prediction, in 1975, was based on slow tilting of the Ian, surface, fluctuations in the magnetic
field, and numerous foreshocks that precede a magnitude 7.3 quake in Haicheng, China. Half the city was
destroyed, but because authorities had evacuated more than a million people before the quake only a few
hundred were killed.
What is the role of foreshocks in earthquake prediction?
Answer: Swarms of foreshocks may indicate that rocks at depth are severely strained are beginning to crack and that an earthquake is
imminent.
The most widely accepted explanation for the origin of
earthquakes is the elastic rebound theory. It is based on
the mechanics of elastic deformation of rock;
that is, reversible changes in the volume or shape of a
rock that is subjected to stress
(more on this in chapter 8, as well). When the stress is
removed, the elastically
formed material snaps back to its original size and shape
causing an earthquake
You can demonstrate the storage of energy in an
elastically deformed material with a steel spring, a long
metal ruler, or a heavy rubber band. When you compress
the spring, bend the ruler, or stretch the rubber band, the
material undergoes strain in the form of elastic
deformation. If you suddenly release the material, it
bounces back to its original shape, releasing the built-up
energy with a "twang.
Elastic rebound theory states that energy can be stored in bodies of rock wht they are subjected to stress along a fault plate.
Eventually, the increasing stress along the fault is sufficient to overcome the friction between the blocks. TI blocks slip, the stored
energy is suddenly released in the form of an earthquake and the rocks rebound to assume their original shapes (Figure 4.3).
I. Not felt except by a very few under specially favorable circumstances.
II. Felt only by a few persons at rest, especially on, upper floors of buildings.
III. Felt quite e noticeably indoors, especially on upper floors of buildings, but many people do not recognize as an earthquake.
IV. During the day felt indoors by many, outdoors by few. Sensation like heavy truck striking building.
V. Felt by nearly everyone, many awakened. Disturbances of trees, poles, and other tall objects sometimes noticed.
VI. Felt by all, many frightened and run outdoors, Some heavy furniture moved; few instances of fallen plaster or damaged
chimneys: Damage slight.
VII. Everybody runs outdoors. Damage negligible in buildings of good design and construction; slight to moderate inn well-built
ordinary structures; consider able in poorly built or badly designed structures.
VIII. Damage slight in specially designed structures; considerable in ordinary substantial buildings with partial collapse; great in
poorly built structures. (Fall of chimneys, factory stacks, columns, monuments, walls.)
IX. Damage considerable in specially designed structures. Buildings shifted off foundations. Ground cracked conspicuously.
X. Some well-built wooden structures destroyed.. Most masonry and frame structures destroyed with foundations. Ground
badly cracked.
XI. Few, if any (masonry) structures remain standing. Bridges destroyed. Broad fissures in ground.
XII. Damage total. Waves seen on ground- surfaces. Ob- Incomplete
Modified Mercalli intensity scale
*Note that it is not possible to convert Richter magnitudes into exact equivalents on the Mercalli intensity! apples and oranges, they are not directly comparable.
Richter Magnitude Mercalli Magnitude Number per Year Characteristic Effects
<3.4 I 800,000 Recorded only by seismographs
3.5-4.2 II and III 30,000 Felt by some people
4.3-4.8 IV 4,800 Felt by many people; windows
rattle
4.9-5.4 V 1,400 Felt by everyone; dishes break,
doors swing
5.5-6.1 VI and VII 500 Slight building damage; plaster
cracks, brie
6.2-6.9 VIII and IX 100 Much building damage chimneys
fall; house on foundations
7.0-7.3 X 15 Serious damage; bridges twisted,
walls fracture
7.4-7.9 XI 4 Great damage; most buildings
collapse
>8.0 XII 1 every 5-10 years Colossal destruction,; ground
surface waves travel around the
places.
Table 4.1 Earthquake Magnitudes* and Characteristic Damage
fault. Seismic moment also accounts for variations in the physical character Earth materials, which can affect the efficiency
with which seismic transmitted. Media reports generally give Richter magnitudes, even moment magnitude may be a better
indication of the true strength quake in some cases. For comparison, the moment magnitude of "Good Friday" earthquake of
1964 was 9.2.
An earthquake always has just one Richter magnitude, instead of having magnitude near the
epicenter and a lower magnitude away from the epicer
Answer: The Richter magnitude calculation includes a correction for distance center. Incomplete
HAZARD Definition
Hazard is defined as:
Anything that has the potential to cause harm, ill health
and injury, damage to property, products or the
environment, production losses or increase liabilities or
bad reputation
Hazard
Top Event definition
Top Event is defined as:
The FIRST consequence which occurs as a result of the
hazard being released
Hazard Top event
Consequence definition
Consequence 'is defined as:
An event or chain of events that results from the hazard
being released
Hazard
Top event
People
Asset Damage
Environment
Reputation
Recovery Measures definition
Recovery Measures is defined as:
All operational, technical and organizational measures that limit the
chain of consequences arising from the top event which can reduce the
likelihood that the event will develop into further consequences &
provide life saving capabilities should the event develop further
What is the difference between stress and strain?
VARVES. These annual pairs of sedimentary layers were deposited in a glacial lake in Connecticut about 12,000 years
ago. The lighter-colored layers consist of coarse sand grains; they were deposited during the summer months when
melting was rapid and water flow was swift. The thinner, darker layers are wintertime deposits formed when the lake
froze over and the suspension of fine clay particles settled out. (Courtesy Richard Foster Flint)
ROCK FOLDING AND DEFORMATION. These spectacular folded and deformed sedimentary rocks of
Cambrian age are from the Sullivan River area in the southern Rocky Mountains in British Columbia, Canada.
(Courtesy Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa) Incomplete
Figure 8.8
THE GEOLOGIC COLUMN
MAP 4 The continuous lines are the
geological boundaries separating the
outcrops of the dipping strata, beds P, Q, R,
S, T and U. Examine the map and note that
the geological boundaries are not parallel to
the contour lines but, in fact, intersect them.
This shows that the beds are dipping. Before
constructing structure contours can we
deduce the direction of dip of the beds from
the fact that their outcrops 'V' down the
valley? Can we deduce the direction of dip if
we are informed that Bed U is the oldest and
Bed P is the youngest bed of the sequence?
Draw structure contours for each geological
interface' and calculate the direction and
amount of dip. (Contours in meters.)
Instructions for drawing structure contours
are given below and one structure contour on
the Q/R geological boundary has been
inserted on the map as an example.
MAP 9 Indicate on the map the outcrop of the plane of
unconformity. Work out the dip and strike of the series of
beds A to E and of beds P and Q. Note the difference in
the strike direction of the two series, the most significant
indication of unconformity from map evidence. Draw a
section along the line X-Y on the profile provided.
.
are standard symbols
depicting anticlinal and
synclinal axes along with
arrows showing the
direction of plunge. Note
that the first rule of
anticlines still holds for
plunging folds. The
standard structural
symbols used on geologic
maps to depict folds,
faults, and joints are
shown in Figure 10.11.
Apparent and True
Dip
A final point concerning the
dip of beds involves the
variation in the dip angle
depending on the line of
sight of the observer, as
illustrated in Figure 10.12.
For line of sight A, which is
sighting parallel to the
strike, the maximum dip or
true dip of the bed is
FIGURE 10.11
Standard structural
symbols used on
geologic maps
observed. For line of
sight B, which is
sighting perpendicular
to the strike, the
apparent dip of the bed
is zero. As the line of
sight increases from 0
to 90 as measured
from the strike
direction, the apparent
dip reduces from the
maximum value to zero.
Angle a is shown in the
diagram. The value of
the
apparent dip in terms of
a is given by apparent
= true
cos. As shown in
Figure 10.12, cos is
measured from the
strike direction.
Domes and Basins
Three-dimensional fold
features also occur in
nature. A structural
dome is a fold in which
the beds slope