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FORM 4 CHAPTER 8: DYNAMIC ECOSYSTEM

Ecosystem- A biological community and the physical environment associated
(related) with it. Examples of ecosystem: forest, sea, mangrove swamp.

Ecosystem consist of 2 components:
A. Abiotic components (non-living)
(1) pH pH value of soil and water affects the distribution of organisms.
Mostly organisms only survive within certain range of pH, normally
neutral (6.5 7.5)
(2) Temperature temperature of an ecosystem can affect the
biochemical reactions in the organisms. The normal range of
temperature the most organisms can survive is from 0
o
C to 45
o
C.
When the temperature > 45
o
C, enzymes denatured. When
temperature is low, metabolic activities decrease.
(3) Light intensity affects rate of photosynthesis. Plants distribution is
more extensive in areas with higher light intensity. Organisms live in
the soil normally prefer darker environment.
(4) Humidity of air affects the rate of transpiration (plants) & rate of
water evaporation (animals). The humidity increases, the rate of
transpiration decreases (more water vapour in air, thus less water
evaporated).
(5) Topography shape of the Earths surface. 3 topography factors:
altitude (ketinggian), slope / gradient (kecerunan) and aspects can
affect the temperature, light intensity and humidity in an area.
(6) Microclimate climate in a small habitat, e.g. climate below a large
rock / climate in the soil, etc. Each type of organisms will find a
habitat with microclimate that suitable for them.

B. Biotic components (the living organisms in the ecosystem)
(1) Food chain (consists of producers, consumers, decomposers)
Groups of organisms Level of food chain
(trophic level)
Producers (green plants) 1
st
trophic level
Primary consumers (herbivores) 2
nd
trophic level
Secondary consumers (carnivores) 3
rd
trophic level
Tertiary consumers (carnivores / omnivores) 4
th
trophic level

Decomposers (bacteria / fungi) break down plants and dead animals
into simple substances that can be used by producers.

In an ecosystem, several food chain interact to form a food web. In a
food chain, energy is transferred from one trophic level to another.
Each time, 90% of energy are lost through excretion and defaecation
during the transfer. Only 10% of available energy is passed to next
trophic level. Energy released during cellular respiration is used for
growth and movement, and as heat to maintain body temperature.
The higher the trophic level, the smaller the population of organisms
(the lesser the number of organisms).
Vocabulary / notes

Poikilotherms cold-
blood animals such as
fish, reptiles that
cannot maintain their
body temperature

Homoiotherms
warm-blood animals
such as birds and
mammals that can
maintain their body
temperature



2

paddy plants caterpillar birds hawks

(i) Arrange the above organisms into a pyramid of numbers. Label
the trophic level in same diagram.










(ii) If the energy received by caterpillar is 300 000 kJ, what is the
energy contained in paddy plants and energy transferred to hawks?




(2) Interaction in relation to feeding
(i) Symbiosis : interaction between two organisms of different
species that live together. One organism live in/with another
organism called the host.

3 types of symbiosis:
a) Commensalism
One organism benefits (called commensal), another organism
(host) does not benefits nor harmed.
Plant commensals are called epiphytes. (e.g. money plant with
tree, Langsuya plant with tree)
Animal commensals are called epizoits. (e.g. remora fish with
shark, barnacles with crabs)
Example: Birds nest fern (epiphyte) grow on a big tree (host)
to obtain more sunlight and for support (benefits) but the big
tree is not harmed.


b) Parasitism
One organism (parasite) benefits and one organism (host) is
harmed.
Parasites live on the external body surface of host is
ectoparasites. (e.g. flea, aphid)
Parasites live in the body of host is endoparasites. (e.g. worms)
Example: cat flea (ectoparasite) lives on the body surface of
cat and feed on the blood of the cat (host). Worms
(endoparasite) lives in the alimentary canals of a kid (host) and
absorbs nutrients from their intestines.

Vocabulary / notes




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c) Mutualism
Both organisms benefit.
Example: algae and fungi in lichen (both plants); Rhizobium sp.
Bacteria and legume plants; hermit crabs and anemones.
Anemone obtains transport and leftover food from hermit
crab. Hermit crab obtains protection from its predators
because of the poisonous tentacles of the sea anemone.

(ii) Saprophytism: interaction where one organism lives and obtain its
food from dead and decaying organic matter.

Saprophytes (plants) such as mushrooms, bread mould and fungus
will grow on a decaying wood / tree trunk to obtain food, by
releasing enzymes through their hyphae to the decaying organic
matter to digest the food substances into simpler sugar, so that
they can absorb the nutrients through hyphae.





(iii) Predator-prey interaction: interaction between 2 population
predator (pemangsa) and prey (mangsa).
Predators gain benefits because it obtains food. Numbers of prey
is usually more than predators, but their size is always smaller
than predators.

Population of prey and predators fluctuate together. When the
population of predator is high, population of prey decreases
because preys are eaten by predator.

When population of prey is low, there is not enough food for
predators so the population of predator declines (decreases).

When population of predator is low, the prey recovers and its
population increases. As a result, population of predator also
increases.

However, population sizes of both predator and prey are always
maintained in a dynamic equilibrium.
(refer page 179, Figure 8.4)








Vocabulary / notes




4

(3) Interaction in relation to competition
(i) Intraspecific competition: between members of same species of
plants / animals to obtain common basic needs

Example: maize (jagung) competes among themselves. Stronger
individuals will grow taller, bigger in size/mass.
(you can refer experiment 8.1)

(ii) Interspecific competition: between individuals from different
species to obtain common basic needs.

Examples: maize competes with paddy plants. Stronger species
will survive and grow better, with bigger mass/numbers of
population.

Read about interspecific / intraspecific competition in Paramecium sp.
(Do exercise in page 180, Activity 8.2)











Colonisation and succession in an ecosystem

The process of colonisation is a process which plants start to inhabit an
uninhabited place.

Pioneer species is the first plant species that inhibit a new place. They have
special adaptive characteristics to adapt to new environment. The pioneer
species change the habitat gradually, making it more suitable for another
new species. As a result, the habitat no longer suitable for pioneer species,
eventually they are replaced by another new species, and succession begins.

The process of succession is a process which a dominant plant species in a
habitat is gradually replaced by another plant species (successor species).
Succession proceeds gradually stage by stage until a stable and matured
community which is in equilibrium with the environment is formed.

This stable and matured community is called climax community, such as the
tropical rainforest in Malaysia.

(refer page 182-183, and Figure 8.7)

Vocabulary / notes

Competition =
interaction between 2
organisms /
populations to obtain
limited common basic
needs of life.

Common basic needs
= space, water,
minerals, sunlight,
food, mates

























Vocabulary / notes

Niche = the status /
role of an organism
in its environment. It
is defined by the
types of food it
consumes, and the
activities it carries
out.

Habitat = natural
place where an
organism lives.

Population = a group
of organisms from
same species living
in same habitat

Community =
populations of plants
/ animals that live in
a certain habitat












5

Colonization and succession in a pond

Colonisation:
A process whereby a _____________ species invades and occupies a newly
formed area where no life has existed previously.

Succession:
The gradual process in which one community (________________ species)
changes the environment so that it is replaced by another community.

Pioneer species ____________________ plants
*Humus and soil eroded from the sides of the pond make the pond
_________.
*The condition becomes more favourable for __________________ plants.

Successor species _____________________ plants
*The ______________ plants reproduce rapidly and cover the water surface.
*The submerged plant dies, adding more ______________ matter to the
base of the pond.
*The pond becomes more shallower and unsuitable for _____________
plants.

Dominant species ____________________ plants
*The _______________ plants replace floating plants. They are sometimes
called amphibious plants. They grow at the banks of the pond.
*Their extensive roots bind soil particles and spread rapidly.
*When they die, their decomposed remains add to the ________________ of
the pond.
*This condition favours _________________ plants.
*As time passes, land becomes _______________ and __________________
plants such as woody plants start to grow.
*A primary forest, also known as a ___________ ________________ is
eventually formed.



Vocabulary / notes

Choices of words
(some may use >1):

submerged
pioneer
shallower
drier
emergent
herbaceous
floating
sediments
terrestrial
organic
climax community
successor



























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Colonisation and succession in a mangrove swamp


(also refer page 184, 185 and Figure 8.8)

Characteristics of mangrove swamps
*found in tropical and subtopical regions, where freshwater meets salt water.
*have soft, muddy soil with high salt concentration, low oxygen level,
exposed to high light intensity.

Pioneer species _____________________, _______________________
*Mangrove trees such as _____________________ and _________________
have extensive __________ systems that enable them to trap sediments,
making the soil more _______________ and _______________.
*Their roots also have thin, vertical breathing roots called ________________
which project above the water around the trees, to allow _______________
______________ to take place.
*This condition favours the successor species, which replace the pioneer
species.

Successor species ________________________
*The _____________________________ have ________ roots that trap silt
and _________.
*The soil becomes firmer, ___________ and higher.
*The soil is now more suitable for the dominant species.

Dominant species _______________________________
*The __________________________ have _________________ roots
that trap more silt and mud.
*More sediments and deposited, the soil structure is modified.
*The soil is more suitable for terrestrial plants to grow. Examples of
terrestrial plants: Pandanus sp., nipah palm.
*Eventually the terrestrial plants form terrestrial forest, then a ___________
__________________ (climax community) is formed after hundreds years.




Vocabulary / notes

Choices of words
(some may use >1):

compact
root
mud
Sonneratia sp.
firm
buttress
pneumatophores
tropical rainforest
Rhizophora sp.
prop
drier
less
Avicennia sp.
Bruguiera sp.
gaseous exchange



























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Population Ecology
= a branch of ecology that study the structure and dynamics of populations.

1.Population is a group of organisms of the same ______________ occupying
a particular habitat.
2.Methods to estimate the total population size of organisms:
a) for plants: ____________________________________________________
b) for animals: ___________________________________________________

Quadrat sampling technique
1.Quadrat is typically a square frame made of __________ and ___________.










The Capture, Mark, Release and Recapture technique
1.This technique is for small and _________________ animals.
2.The specific animal sample is captured, and marked with a _____________,
a _________ or with _____________________________________________.
Then, the marked animals are _______________ into the general population.
After a suitable period of time, a second sample is recaptured, and the
number of marked animals is recorded.





Try this
In an experiment to estimate the population of woodlice in a habitat, the
number of woodlice caught and marked is 120. The woodlice were then
released. After 3 days, another 100 woodlice were caught and found that 40
of them were marked. What is the estimated population of the woodlice in
the habitat? (show your workings)










Frequency = number of quadrats containing the species x 100%
Number of quadrats
Density = total umber of individuals of a species in all quadrats
Number of quadrats x quadrat area
Percentage coverage = __aerial coverage of all quadrats (m
2
) x 100%
Number of quadrats x quadrat area
(number of individuals captured in first sample) x
Population size = __(number of individuals captured in second sample)
Number of marked individuals recaptured
Vocabulary / notes


























8

Biodiversity
Refers to the _____________ species of plants and animals interacting with
one another on Earth.
Taxonomy is about identifying, describing and naming organisms.

Classification of organisms are based on their basic features. There are 7
hierarchy in the classification of organisms.

Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species

There are 5 kingdoms based on the classification:

Monera
-prokaryotic organisms (unicellular, have cell walls, no membrane-bounded
nuclei or organelles, some photosynthetic, some non-photosynthetic)
-examples: bacteria, cyanobacteria (the blue-green algae)

Protista
-eukaryotic organisms
-unicellular, a few multicellular
-have membrane-bounded nuclei or organelles
-some heterotrophic, some autotrophic, some both
-examples: algae (Spirogyra sp., Chlamydomonas sp.)
Protozoa (Amoeba sp., Paramecium sp.)

Fungi
-multicellular eukaryotes, some unicellular
-heterotrophic (saprophytic)
-have cell wall that contains chitin
-do not contain chlorophyll
-have root-like structure called _____________. The layer of hyphae is called
_____________________.
-examples: moulds (Mucor sp.), mushrooms, yeasts.

Plantae
-multicellular photosynthetic eukaryotes
-all land plants
-immobile
-examples: mosses, ferns, conifers, flowering plants.

Animalia
-multicellular heterotrophic eukaryotes
-mobile (can move from one place to another place)
-examples : sponges, barnacles, fishes, reptiles, birds, mammals.

Importance of biodiversity
-to maintain a ____________________ nature
-to prevent ______________________ of flora and fauna

Vocabulary / notes

Kingdom Kay
Phylum Poh
Class Ci
Order Oppa
Family Famous
Genus Gangnam
Species Style!

Each organism is given
a scientific name (Latin
words) according to
the Linneaus binomial
system, which the first
name is the Genus
name in Capital letter,
while the second
name is the species
name in small letter.
The Genus sp. Name is
written in italic.

Eukaryotic organisms =
eukaryotes
Prokaryotic organisms
= prokaryotes























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Impact of microorganisms on Life
5 groups of microorganisms :

Bacteria
-unicellular organisms , mostly prefer slightly alkaline conditions (7.4)
-have cell wall, plasma membrane, DNA
-forms __________________ under unfavourable condition
-shapes: spherical (coccus), rod-shaped (___________________), spiral
(spirillum)
-Guess the shape of Lactobacillus sp. - _________________
Shape of Staphylococcus sp. - __________________________

Algae
-photosynthetic multicellular plant-like organisms
- have chlorophyll and chloroplasts
- have cell wall made of ___________________
- no leaves, no stems, no roots.
-Examples: ______________________, ________________________

Fungi
-heterotrophic multicellular / unicellular eukaryotes
-do not have chlorophyll, prefer acidic condition (pH 4.5 5.0)
- have cell wall that made of _______________
- saprophytic : secreting enzymes to convert complex organic molecules into
simpler molecules then absorb it.
-Examples: ______________________, _______________________

Protozoa
-unicellular, mostly prefer acidic condition (pH 4.5 5.0)
-have nucleus, cytoplasm, plasma membrane.
-carry out living process (___________________, ____________________,
_______________________)
-use _____________________, ________________ or _________________
to move.
-Examples: ________________________, _____________________________

Viruses
-smallest microbes (cannot be seen by naked eyes, only be seen under
electron microscopes)
-does not carry out living process
-parasitic must infect and use living cells to reproduce
-virus is protected by a _________________ coat.
-virus can form ___________________ under unfavourable condition.
-Examples: ________________________, __________________________





Vocabulary / notes

Microbes =
microorganisms

Abiotic factors that
affects activities of
microbes:
-nutrients
-pH
-temperature
(optimum 35-40
o
C,
>60
o
C, growth of
microbes inhibited,
>121
o
C, microbes &
their spores are
destroyed/sterilized)
-light intensity
(preferable dark / low
light intensity, except
algae &
photosynthetic
bacteria)

All microbes need
water and nutrients
except viruses.

Choices of words:
Spirogyra sp.
bacillus
spores
cellulose
reproduction
flagella
phytoplankton
Mucor sp.
chitin
excretion
pseudopodia
yeast
respiration
cilia
Amoeba sp.
Paramecium sp.
Tobacco mosaic virus
crystals
protein
T4 bacteriophage











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Useful microorganisms in ecosystem

1. Decomposition
-break down the dead remains of animals & plants
-break down waste products from animals
-release nutrients into the soil
-saprophytic bacteria & fungi

2. Nitrogen cycle

(a) Nitrogen fixation:
- Nitrogen gas in atmosphere is converted into ammonium compound
in soils by ___________________________________ bacteria.
- Nostoc sp. (exist freely in soil); Rhizobium sp. (lives in nodules of
leguminous plants)
(b) Nitrogen nitrification:
- Conversion of ammonium compounds into nitrites and nitrates by
_______________________ bacteria.
- Ammonia/ ammonium compound (products from decomposition) is
converted into nitrites by _________________________.
- Nitrites are converted into nitrates by __________________________.
(c) Assimilation:
- Nutrients such as nitrates are absorbed by the plants via roots and
converted into proteins.
- The ____________________________ is transferred from plants to
animals via food chain.
- Eventually it is returned to soil as ammonium compound through
decomposition.
(d) Nitrogen denitrification :
- Nitrates are converted back into ______________________________
to complete the nitrogen cycle.





Vocabulary / notes

Choices of words:
atmospheric nitrogen
nitrogen fixing
Nitrosomonas sp.
organic nitrogen
Nitrobacter sp.
nitrifying










11

3. Alimentary canal of termites
- Termites feed mainly on wood which contains cellulose.
- Trichonympha sp. are protozoa that lives in the alimentary canal of
termites which produce cellulose to help termites digest the cellulose.

4. Digestive system in humans:
- Symbiotic bacteria in human colon helps to synthesize vitamin B12
(deficiency can cause anemia), vitamin K (for blood clotting).

Harmful microorganisms
Harmful microorganisms that can cause diseases are called _______________.
Organisms that transmit the pathogens are called _____________.

Ways of spreading diseases:
1. Direct contact:
-contagious diseases are can be spread by having contact with an
infected person. E.g. sharing towels (ringworm), sexual intercourse
(STD, AIDS)
2. Vectors :
-diseases spread by organisms, such as malaria caused by protozoa
named Plasmodium sp. is transmitted by the mosquito (Anopheles sp.)
-cholera is spread by houseflies.
3. Airborne and droplet transmission:
-pathogens in spores form transmitted by air.
-liquid droplets of infected person enter other peoples respiratory
system.
4. Food and water:
-entry of pathogens into alimentary canal through contaminated food
and water. (example: cholera)

Methods of controlling pathogens:
1. Vaccines:
-injection / inoculation of a suspension (contains dead / weaken
pathogens) into the body to induce production of antibodies. (e.g.BCG)
2. Antibiotics :
- Chemicals that extracted from the microbes such as Penicillin and
streptomycin, which inhibit the growth or kill other microbes such as
bacteria.
3. Disinfectants :
- Solutions used to kill microbes on the non-living things (floor,
equipments, buildings), or used to sterilize surgical instruments.
Example of disinfectants: phenol, formaldehyge, carbolic acid.
4. Antiseptics:
- Used on surface of skin / living things, to kill and inhibit growth of
microbes. E.g. acriflavin, iodine solution.
Vocabulary / notes

Choices of words:

vector
pathogens