Culvert Hydraulics:

Basic Principles By Philip A. Creamer, P.E.

December 2007
2 PDH Special Advertising Section CONTECH Bridge Solutions
A
culvert is a relatively short segment of conduit that
is typically used to transport water underneath a
roadway or other type of earthen embankment.
There is some common terminology that is used
in culvert hydraulics that can best be presented by referring
to Figure 1. The culvert itself consists of an entrance, an
outlet, and a culvert barrel. Common culvert shapes include
circular pipes, rectangular boxes, ellipses, and arches.
Noncircular culverts are generally described by their size in
terms of a culvert rise (D) and a culvert span (B). The size of
a circular culvert is usually expressed in terms of the culvert
diameter (D).
There is a wide variety of entrance conditions found at
culverts, including square edge, angled wingwalls, beveled
edges, entrance mitered to slope, et cetera. Some of these
common culvert end treatments are shown in Figure 2. It is
not uncommon for the opening of a culvert to be smaller
than the original channel cross-section prior to the culvert
installation. All else being equal, a smaller waterway open-
ing will result in a lower channel conveyance, that is, a
lower carrying capacity of the channel. For the same flow,
a lower conveyance will, in turn, result in a higher depth of
water upstream of the structure, called the headwater.
In todays environment of floodplain management and
regulations, the increase in water surface upstream of
culverts is often limited. Therefore, culvert designs that
convey water under roadways with minimal headwater
buildup are becoming more common. The hydraulic solu-
tion to minimize the head loss would be to not constrict
the flow by spanning the entire conveyance channel.
However, economic considerations many times prohibit
this approach. While some increase in water level upstream
of the culvert may be tolerated, the basic principle behind
culvert design is to ensure that the water level increase is
not unacceptably high. The headwater can be estimated
using well-established design methodologies.
Historically, most culverts were closed conduits, where
the same material is found on the top, bottom, and sides
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Learning Objectives
This article presents a brief
summary of culvert hydraulic design
procedures. The reader will learn the
concepts of culvert inlet and outlet
control and the various equations
that describe each. The article also
introduces techniques to more accu-
rately model culvert hydraulics of the
large size natural bottom culverts that
are commonly required.
Professional Development
Series Sponsor
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Culvert Hydraulics: Basic Principles
By Philip A. Creamer, P.E.
Professional Development Series
Figure 1: Culvert geometry
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Culvert Hydraulics: Basic Principles
of the culvert, for example, a corrugated metal pipe culvert.
With environmental regulations becoming more stringent,
many culvert installations utilize three-sided culverts. A
three-sided culvert is a structure that has the same material
on the top and sides of the structure. The bottom of the
culvert is typically the natural channel bottom.
The most commonly used culvert materials are concrete,
corrugated metal, and plastic. Usually, the internal rough-
ness of a culvert is a function of the culvert material.
However, for a three-sided culvert, where the bottom of the
installation is the natural channel, the internal roughness is
a function of the culvert material and the roughness of the
channel itself.
Culverts are usually laid on a slope, which can be found
by dividing the elevation difference between the upstream
and downstream ends of the culvert (Z) by the culvert
length (L). Typically, the slope is downward such that the
outlet elevation is lower than the inlet elevation. In some
cases, culverts may be laid horizontal or on an adverse
slope where the downstream elevation is higher than the
upstream elevation.
The tailwater at a culvert is the depth of water at the
downstream end of the culvert, as measured from the
downstream invert of the culvert. The tailwater must be
known or estimated prior to performing the culvert hydrau-
lic calculations. There are various methods to estimate the
tailwater at a culvert. One method is to estimate a down-
stream channel shape and use Mannings equation to calcu-
late a tailwater depth. Another method is to conduct a
water surface profile analysis of the steam reach down-
stream of the culvert.
For a given design discharge (Q), there will be a corre-
sponding headwater depth (HW) upstream of the culvert
entrance. In fact, it is the headwater depth that pushes or
forces the design discharge through the culvert opening.
For a given culvert opening, a higher discharge will typically
result in a higher headwater depth since more energy is
needed to force the flow through the culvert. In open-chan-
nel hydraulics, energy is synonymous with water depth as
shown in Equation 1.
where E is specific energy (feet); Y is depth of water (feet);
2
g
V
2
E = Y + (Equation 1)
Figure 2: Common culvert end treatments
Many installations use three-sided culverts, where the bottom of the culvert is typically the natural channel bottom.
4 PDH Special Advertising Section CONTECH Bridge Solutions
Culvert Hydraulics: Basic Principles
V is mean water velocity (feet per second);
and g is acceleration due to gravity (feet per
second per second).
Culverts are frequently designed to pass some
specified design discharge without creating an unaccept-
ably high headwater depth. Thus, for an engineer to design
a culvert successfully, the headwater depth for the design
discharge must be reliably predicted. For many applications,
the culvert design discharge is frequently associated with
the 1-percent, 2-percent, or 4-percent annual chance storm
event. Knowledge of the headwater depth associated with a
particular flow condition will reveal to the engineer whether
or not the culvert will pass the design flow safely with-
out overtopping the embankment or violating applicable
regulations. The definition of an unacceptable headwater
depth may vary among sites, but typically, the maximum
headwater elevation should be about 1 or 2 feet lower than
the roadway shoulder elevation to minimize the potential
for roadway flooding. Of course, other factors, including site
conditions and construction schedules, contribute to the final
culvert design specifications. Nonetheless, it is important for
engineers and others involved with culverts to be able to
predict the hydraulic performance of these structures accu-
rately so that they operate without any undesirable effects.
Standard FHWA culvert design approach
According to research sponsored by the Federal Highway
Administration (FHWA), culvert operation is governed at
all times by one of two conditions: inlet control or outlet
control (Normann, et al, 1985). Inlet control is a common
governing situation for culvert design, characterized by
the fact that the tailwater or culvert barrel conditions allow
more flow to be passed through the culvert than the inlet
can accept. The inlet itself acts as a controlling or governing
section of the culvert, restricting the passage of water into
the main barrel.
Outlet control is different from inlet control in that the
barrel or tailwater cannot accept as high a flow as the
inlet may allow. This may occur with a high tailwater or
a long culvert with a rough interior. Outlet control may
be mathematically modeled using water surface profile
methods or by an energy balance. Because outlet control
conditions in culverts can be calculated with open-channel
hydraulic principles, there is no need for empirical test-
ing and regression formulas to describe the relationship
between the flow through the culvert and the headwater.
However, testing on scale models can provide valuable
information about the head loss coefficients associated with
the culvert entrance. Once the outlet control situation has
been modeled as accurately as possible based on known
information, the headwater may be calculated to evaluate
the culvert design.
The FHWA has standardized the manner by which
culverts are examined and designed. The design approach
involves first computing the headwater elevation upstream
of the culvert assuming that inlet control governs. The
headwater elevation is then also found assuming that outlet
control governs. The two headwater values are compared
with one another and the higher of the two is selected as
the basis of the culvert design.
Generally speaking, the procedure described above is
repeated for different types of culvert shapes, sizes, and
entrance conditions. The least expensive culvert that
produces an acceptable headwater elevation is typically
chosen for the final design. Of course, site conditions,
structural considerations, permit requirements, or aesthetic
appeal may also influence the choice of culvert design.
Inlet control
Inlet control represents a much more complex hydraulic
environment than outlet control, and it cannot be strictly
mathematically modeled to obtain headwater depths.
Under inlet control, the flow patterns at the entrance to
the culvert may be three dimensional with vortices or other
unpredictable features. These patterns are influenced by
a number of factors, the most important of which are
inlet geometry, wingwall configuration, culvert shape, and
degree of beveling. Fortunately, culverts operating under
inlet control can be modeled using regression equations.
For many years, inlet control culverts modeled using the
methodology outlined in the FHWA Hydraulic Design Series
No. 5 (HDS-5) Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts have
successfully withstood both extensive laboratory tests as well
as the test of time in field installations. Empirical measure-
ments on small-scale models of varying inlet geometries and
wingwall configurations led to derivation of unique regression
coefficients for each case. These models possess remarkably
similar hydraulic characteristics to their full-size counterparts
and provide the best approximation of how a particular culvert
shape will perform in the field (Normann, et al, 1985).
Because inlet control represents the case where the culvert
barrel will convey more flow than the inlet will accept, the
culvert normally will not flow full for its full length, thereby
resulting in a free water surface that exists along the length
of the structure. Under inlet control, the culvert entrance
may either be unsubmerged or submerged. Figure 3 shows
the latter case.
At low flows, the culvert entrance is unsubmerged and
the discharge through the culvert entrance behaves like
weir flow. A weir is a flow control cross-section where the
discharge and depth of water are related to one another
through some predictable relationship. At much higher
flows, the culvert entrance is submerged and the flow
through the entrance acts like orifice flow. Orifice flow
represents the case where an opening is submerged and
the discharge through the opening increases as the depth
or head above the opening increases.
One example of where inlet control occurs is when
there is a mild channel slope upstream of the culvert that
transitions to a steep culvert slope (Norman, et al, 1985).
Special Advertising Section CONTECH Bridge Solutions PDH 5
Culvert Hydraulics: Basic Principles
The transition from a mild slope to a steep slope causes a
change in the flow regime from subcritical to supercriti-
cal flow. The change from subcritical to supercritical flow
results in critical depth occurring at or near the entrance to
the culvert. In some cases, such as short, smooth culverts,
the nature of the culvert entrance can cause inlet control to
occur even if the culvert slope is mild or flat.
While the behavior of flow at the entrance to a culvert
is extremely complex, the primary influencing factors for
headwater depths are the type of opening (pipe, box,
arch, et cetera), the size or area of the culvert opening, and
the entrance conditions. Commonly found entrance condi-
tions include square edge with headwall, end mitered to
the slope, projecting barrel, and beveled entrance. Culvert
inlets may also utilize wingwalls placed at an angle from
the culvert barrel. Not only do wingwalls provide struc-
tural stability to the culvert and act as retaining walls for
fill slopes, they can also perform a hydraulic function by
funneling flow into the culvert opening.
Recall that the complexity of the hydraulics associated
with inlet control, when combined with the large number
of different shapes, sizes, and entrance conditions available
for culverts, make it nearly impossible to develop a single
formula capable of describing the hydraulic behavior of
culverts operating under inlet control. As a result, empirical
methods are typically used to evaluate inlet control.
Inlet control equations are presented in HDS-5 that
describe unsubmerged and submerged inlet control
(Normann, et al, 1985). For the unsubmerged case, two
expressions can be used as shown in Equations 2 and 3.
While both expressions provide acceptable results, Equation
2 is theoretically more accurate, while Equation 3 is easier to
apply. Additionally, the latter equation is easier to use when
developing regression coefficients from observed headwater
depths and discharges or when the critical depth through a
structure is not easily determined.
where HW is headwater depth at the culvert
entrance (feet); H
C
is specific energy at criti-
cal depth (feet); Q is discharge through the
culvert (cubic feet per second (ft
3
/s)); A is full
open area of the culvert (square feet); D is culvert rise (feet);
S is the slope of the culvert barrel (feet/foot); and K and M
are inlet control regression coefficients for unsubmerged
conditions.
Either form of the two equations above will produce
acceptable results (Normann, et al,1985). For model stud-
ies, quantities measured in the lab are typically the head-
water (HW) and the discharge (Q). Other known quantities
include the area of the model (A), the model rise (D)
and the slope of the channel. When developing regres-
sion coefficients using Equation 2, the specific energy at
critical depth must be computed and used in the regression
analysis. Use of Equation 3 avoids the need to make these
additional calculations.
When the culvert entrance is submerged, a different
equation must be applied to find the headwater depth
under inlet control (see Equation 4). As with the case of
unsubmerged inlet control, model studies are typically used
to develop the inlet control regression coefficients.
where HW, Q, A, D, and S are as previously defined; and c
and Y are inlet control regression coefficients for submerged
conditions.
Outlet control culvert flowing full
In HDS-5 design methodology, outlet control is deter-
mined assuming that the culvert is flowing full. The headwa-
ter due to outlet control is found from Equation 5, which is
an energy balance between the upstream and downstream
ends of the culvert.
where HW is headwater depth above the inlet invert (feet);
EL
0
is the elevation of the culvert invert at the outlet; H
0
is
the governing tailwater (feet); and h
L
is head loss through
the culvert (feet).
To find the governing tailwater, H
0
, the critical depth in
the culvert must first be determined. The critical depth is
then used with the culvert size and compared to the speci-
fied tailwater as shown in Equation 6.
where TW is the tailwater at the downstream end of the
culvert (feet); D
C
is critical depth in the culvert (feet); and D
is culvert diameter or rise (feet).
D
HW
AD
0.5
Q
D
H
c
= + K 0.5S (Equation 2)
M
D
HW
AD
0.5
Q
= K (Equation 3)
M
D
HW
AD
0.5
Q
= c + Y 0.5S (Equation 4)
2
2
D
c
+ D
H
0
= MAX TW, (Equation 6)
HW = EL
0
+ H
0
+ h
L
(Equation 5)
Figure 3: Example of submerged inlet control
6 PDH Special Advertising Section CONTECH Bridge Solutions
Culvert Hydraulics: Basic Principles
The head loss through the culvert, h
L
,
is found by considering all losses, including
entrance losses, exit losses, and friction losses.
Mannings equation is rearranged to quantify
friction losses. Equation 7 can be used to determine the
head loss through a culvert. If bends occur along the length
of the culvert, then these losses must also be included in
Equation 7.
where K
x
is an exit loss coefficient; n is Mannings rough-
ness coefficient; L is the length of the culvert (feet); R is the
hydraulic radius of the culvert (feet); K
e
is an entrance loss
coefficient; V is velocity in the culvert (feet per second);
and g is the gravitational constant (feet per second per
second).
Values for the entrance loss coefficient, K
e
, are avail-
able in various hydraulic texts including HDS-5, and values
range from 0.20 to 0.80, depending on the inlet type and
configuration. Values for exit loss coefficients, K
x
, can vary
between 0.3 and 1.0. For a sudden expansion of flow, the
exit loss coefficient is set to 1.0. The exit loss coefficient
should be reduced as the transition becomes less abrupt
(HEC-RAS Hydraulic Reference Manual, 2002).
For culvert applications where a natural bottom is used,
a composite Mannings roughness coefficient must be
computed. There are several assumptions that can be used
to determine a composite roughness value. One common
assumption is that each part of the area has the same aver-
age velocity, which is equal to the average velocity of the
whole section (Chow, 1959). With this assumption, the
composite Mannings roughness, n
c
, may be obtained by
Equation 8:
where P
s&t
is the wetted perimeter of culvert sides and top
(feet); P
ch
is the wetted perimeter of the natural channel
(feet); n
s&t
is Mannings roughness for the culvert sides and
top culvert; and n
ch
is Mannings roughness for the natural
channel.
Outlet control culvert flowing partially full
The methodology in HDS-5 using the equations from
the procedure outlined above assumes that the culvert
is flowing full along the entire length. A common design
case occurs when it is necessary to minimize the head loss
through a culvert. The minimal headwater rise, small slope,
and high relative tailwaters associated with these condi-
tions usually result in outlet control. In this outlet control
case, the culvert is most likely to be flowing partially full.
In this case, a water surface profile analysis is necessary to
determine the losses through the culvert accurately. The
profile analysis is conducted from the downstream end to
the upstream end of the culvert.
For culverts flowing partially full, the most efficient
method to compute the water surface profile in the culvert
is the direct step method. The direct step method computes
the water surface profile at increments of known depths.
The first step is to compute the exit loss and establish a
starting water surface inside the culvert at the downstream
end. The starting water surface will either be critical depth
or the result of an energy balance between the tailwater
and a cross section just inside the culvert on the down-
stream end. Once a water surface is computed inside the
culvert at the downstream end, the designer performs the
direct step calculations along the length of the culvert. After
the depth of water is determined at the upstream end, the
entrance loss is added in to compute the headwater depth.
Summary
A successful culvert design depends on accurately predict-
ing the effect that a culvert will have on the surrounding
area. Typically, culverts can be expected to cause changes
in the water surface elevation upstream. The designer must
estimate these effects to ensure that the change to water
elevation upstream headwater will not adversely affect the
surrounding community. The techniques to design culverts
hydraulically were developed more than four decades ago.
More stringent floodplain and environmental regulations
are changing the types of culverts design engineers are
specifying today. However, these traditional culvert hydrau-
lic design procedures are still applicable when used with
modifications to reflect the current culvert crossing charac-
teristics.
Philip A. Creamer, P.E., is director of Bridge Design Services
with CONTECH Bridge Solutions Inc. He can be contacted at
creamerp@contechbridge.com.
References
Chase, Donald V., Hydraulic Characteristics of CON/SPAN
Bridge Systems, University of Dayton, 1999.
Normann, J.M., Houghtalen, R. J., and Johnston, W.J.,
Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts, Hydraulic Design
Series No. 5, Federal Highway Administration, Sept. 1985.
HEC-RAS River Analysis System, Hydraulic Reference Manual,
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Hydrologic Engineering
Center, Nov. 2002.
Chow, V.T., Open Channel Hydraulics, McGraw-Hill, 1959.
R
1.33
29n
2
L
2
g
V
2
h
L
= K
x
+ + K
e
(Equation 7)
(P
S&T
n
1.5
+ P
ch
n
ch
)
n
c
= (Equation 8)
s&t
1.5
(P
S&T
+ P
ch
)
2/3
2/3
Special Advertising Section CONTECH Bridge Solutions PDH 7
1. A culvert that lowers a channel conveyance typically results in:
a) Increased roughness values.
b) Decreased downstream velocity.
c) Increased headwater elevation.
d) Decreased head loss.
2. A culvert on a steep slope:
a) Will always be in outlet control.
b) Could be in inlet or outlet control.
c) Will always be in inlet control.
d) Will have subcritical flow through the entire length.
3. Which variable affects outlet control headwater?
a) Culvert inlet configuration
b) Culvert outlet configuration
c) Mannings roughness value of the culvert
d) All of the above
4. A common assumption for the tailwater elevation is:
a) One-half the culvert rise/diameter.
b) Ordinary high water surface elevation.
c) 1 foot to 2 feet below the roadway shoulder elevation.
d) Normal depth based on Mannings equation and the downstream
channel characteristics.
5. What are typical minimum values for entrance loss and exit loss
coefficients?
a) 0.2 and 0.3
b) 0.3 and 0.1
c) 0.5 and 0.2
d) 0.1 and 0.5
6. Which variable does not affect inlet control
headwater?
a) Wingwall configuration
b) Headwall type
c) Mannings roughness value of the culverts
d) Culvert opening area
7. What situation warrants that a water surface profile through the
culvert be calculated?
a) When the culvert is in outlet control
b) When the tailwater is higher than the culvert height
c) When the culvert is in inlet control
d) When the culvert is flowing partially full
8. When is it necessary to compute a composite Mannings value?
a) When the culvert is flowing partially full
b) When the culvert has a natural bottom
c) Multiple cell culverts
d) When the culvert is in outlet control
9. Why does FHWAs HDS-5 outlet control methodology assume that
the culvert is flowing full?
a) It simplifies the calculations.
b) Most culverts flow full.
c) Most culverts are closed conduits.
d) None of the above
10. What is the primary goal of culvert hydraulic design?
a) To ensure that the water level increase due to the culvert is not
unacceptably high
b) To determine the least expensive culvert that meets all the design
requirements
c) To accurately predict the hydraulic performance of the culvert
d) All of the above
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