From Malacca to Mali

Interesting Scenes from the History of

I S L A M I C E CO N O M I C S
Ismail Yurdakok
ismailyurdakok@yahoo.com
Preface 3
City of Eighty-four anguages! from Malacca to Mali"
Economic Conditions of Islamic ands in #$th Century %
&allest 'uildings of the (orld)
Economies of *il+a and the other Muslim ands in #%th Century #$
,nimal Hus-andry for .e/elo0ment 33
Sa/ings and Consum0tion from the Islamic Pers0ecti/es $1
2E30ort4 and 2'roader Muslim (orld4 for 2End Po/erty4 55
1
Patroni6ation of Islamic Sciences -y Muslim 7ulers
in the History of Islam 85
Interesting 9otes from the History of Islamic En/ironmental a+ 15
Singa0ore and u3em-ourg) &+o E3am0les for .e/elo0ment of
Small States :#
Economics of History #;;
Culture of Islamic Economics in &urkey ##<
Some 9otes from the History of Islamic Maritime a+ #3<
Preface
Salahuddin ,yyu-i had signed -ilateral agreements +ith 'y6antium em0ire and Italian city-states
in #<
th
century. He im0ro/ed the economic and -usiness life of Egy0t. &he #$
th
century historian
Ma=ri6i +rites free health ser/ices that 0ro/ided -y ,yyu-ids in Syria and Egy0t that four
hos0itals in Musul t+o hos0itals each in .amas=us ! Hala-! Harran ! one each in Cairo! >udus
and ,le3andria. ,yyu- Sa-ri Pasha ?a high -ureaucrat of late #:
th
century of @ttoman em0ireA
had +ritten MirBatBul-Haramayn ?Mirror of &+o Harams ?Holy Cities of Mecca and MadinaA
that 0u-lished in #18< descri-ing the economic and social conditions of ,ra-ian 0eninsula.
Chana! o+-lands of Senegal and D00er-9iger +ere the richest regions of the +orld a
millennium ago under the administration of Muslim rulers. ,ndalusian scholar I-n iyun ?#<1<-
#3%:A +rote a -ook on technical agriculture that E. E. I-ane6 0u-lished it ?as &ratado de
agricultura! Cranada #:8$! #:11A E/en Fa66an 0ro/ince in south i-ya had got e3cellent
irrigation system -et+een #;
th
-#<
th
centuries. Ceorge F. Hourani had studied F,ra- Seafaring in
:
th
and #;
th
CenturiesB in his doctoral dissertation in #:3: in Princeton. 'efore 0resenting
original thousands of notes from the history of Islamic economics in a detailed /olume! the
2
author +ants to su-mit the first studies to the reader. Islamic economics reali6ed Fa commercial
re/olution in a ma3imi6ed +ork ethicsB and Fmarriage of economics and ethicsB in long
centuries. Dndou-tly a manG+oman has not got a culturalGhistorical root! heGshe is real or0han.
7ootlessness is great or0hanness.
Ismail Hurdakok
City of Eighty-four Languages, from Malacca to Mali
Economic Conditions of Islamic Lands in !"th Century
,-stract
Malacca 0o0ulation +as only <!;;; in the year of #%;; -ut +ith a ra0idly gro+th it
reached $;!;;; in the #%$;s and #;;!;;; ?or #:;!;;;A at the end of the #$th century.
Eighty-four languages +ere -eing s0oken in the Malacca city and there +ere %!;;;
foreign -usinessmen. In another 0arts of the Islamic +orld) international -usinessman
Mahmud Cha+an from Iran +as named as I*ing of the 'usinessmenI -y Indian Sultan
,lauddin *humayun Shah and then -ecame the 0rime minister of 'ahmanids.
,hmada-ad +as esta-lished in this century -y ,hmad Shah and *halaJids in 9orthern
India ?es0. Sultan Mahmud IA +ere 0rotecting muslimGnon-muslim foreign -usinessmen.
'ut the economies of Egy0t and 'aghdad?Ira=A +ere not good" hea/y ta3es! and lack of
security +ere re0eller factors for -usinessmen from these countries. Ealaluddin al-Suyuti
had +ritten Kamm al-Maks in that years against hea/y ta3es of Mamluk administration
in Egy0t and Eeddah and 7asulid dynasty in ,den. Custom duties -ecame /ery high in
,den and Indian shi0s -egan to come to Eeddah directly from Calcutta -y0assing ,den.
In Iran! Ira= and ,6ar-aiJan! ta3es also +ere /ery high under the *arakoyunluds
dynasty. 'ut ,fhganistan es0ecially in last thirty years of this century +as in 0ros0erity
under the reign of Sultan Husayin 'aykara. &hree islands in Indian @cean +ere todayBs
Singa0ore) Earun Island in *hurmu6 Strait! .iu ?IslandA in ChuJurat and *il+a?IslandA
in East ,frica +ere /ery acti/e international ?IslamicA free 0orts that -usinessmen of the
+orld used to meet. ,frica from ,tlantic to Indian ocean +as a /ery rich continent in
this century. In general! Islamic countries -+ith their 0roducti/e economies- +ere the
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cham0ions of free-trade. Historical method +ill -e em0loyed in the 0a0er and useful
0oints for contem0orary economic 0ro-lems +ill -e noted.
Introduction. Pro-a-ly! #$th century is the last -rilliant 0eriod of the economies of Islamic lands
-efore +estern im0erialist 0o+ers came to the Indian ocean. ,lthough Mongol calamity in the
half 0eriod of #3th century ga/e a hea/y damage to at least half of the Islamic lands ?from
'aghdad to 'ukharaA -ut the other 0arts of muslim +orld +ere not -een influnced -y the
destroying of Mongols and #%th century had -ecome a reco/ery years for the -usiness life of
Middle East and Central ,sia. Crusades also had ended at the end of the first 0art of #3th century
and from ?muslimA S0ain to China! muslim -usinessmen -egan to gain old succesful trade
acti/ities again like in :th and #;th centuries. 9o any glo-al slum0 is seen in #$th century and the
muslim states had reali6ed Fmarket enter0riseB and Ffree commercial landsB for all of the
entre0reneurs of the +orld! from Malay +orld to Morocco.
Malacca #ising Star of !"th Century$ ,fter #3:;! Malacca as a 0ort +as esta-lished in /ery late
years of #%th century -y 0rince Parames/ara from Sri/icaya dynasty" that 0rince Parames/ara had
esca0ed from Palem-ang ?SumatraA and had stayed a fe+ years in Singa0ore. &he ne+ 0ort ga/e a
-ig 0o+er to the 0rince that the ri/er +as 0ro/iding contact to the inner hinterland and Malacca
-ecame the -usiest 0ort of the region on the China-India-(est route. &he rulers sa+ the -rilliant
future of the city and ga/e im0ortance to the im0ro/ement of the 0ort! -uilt /ast antre0ots
underground granaries! storehouses against fires and -urglars. &hey also took measurements for the
security of foreign -usinessmen and their 0ro0erties. Eudicial decrees for these -usinessmenBs
fa/our and 0unishments for -ri-ery and fraud +ere made effecti/e" and these 0recautions -egan to
attract the foreign -usinessmen to the Malacca sea0ort. @n the other hand! Malacca had -een -uilt
on the crossroads of south and north monsoon +inds thatBs +hy shi0s used to reach here from India
and (est -et+een March and Eanuary! and shi0s of China and eastren islands -et+een 9o/em-er
and March and all of shi0s used to stay some 0eriod com0ulsorily from the 0osition of the +inds.
So! after a short time! Malacca -ecame one the most im0ortant trade centers of the +orld and it
gained a 0olitical 0o0ularity" 0arallel its ne+ economic situation. ,s an indicator of this! only a fe+
years after its esta-lishment in #%;3 an en/oy from China /isited the city and in #%;8 China na/y
0aid a /isit to the 0ort.
In the first years! Malacca had got only <!;;; 0o0ulation in s0ite of its une30ectedly increased
richness and 0olitical 0restige.'ut then +ith the immigrants from the other 0arts of Malaya
0eninsula and Sumatra! and foreign tradesmen from India nad China the 0o0ulation increased
ra0idly and reached %;-$;!;;; in the middle of the #$th century" and at the end of the century to
#;;!;;;.(estern sources say #;;!;;; -ut Malay sources #:;!;;;. &ome Pires a Portuguese
tra/eller /isited the 0ort in #$#; mentiones that Malacca is a -ig city and has got #;!;;; houses!
eighty-four languages are s0oken in her streets! a00ro3imately %!;;; foreign -usinessmen reside!
there is /ast trade 0laces along the Malacca ri/er and es0ecially on the south shores of the city
there are different to+ns that different nationalities stay in these =uarters" also there are
enchanting -uildings on the 'ertam hill include the 0alace of 0rince Parames/ara. ,ccording to
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&omo Pires Malacca has got a trade ca0acity of <!% million 2cru6ado4 ?Portuguese golden coinA
that it is im0ossi-le to com0are +ith any other city in the +orld. In these centuries! Se/illa ?one
of the richest trade center of Euro0eA has got % million cru6ado trade ca0acity -ut at the end of
#5th century. Portuguese sources also mentione Sultanate of Malacca has got %!;;; soldier in that
years and +ith the neigh-ouring of Malay military 0o+ers this num-er +as reaching #;;!;;;
soldiers.&he 0alace of Malacca had em-raced Islam from the second sultan Megat Iskender ?his
reign #%#%-<3A and Malacca -ecame the center of Islamic religion and culture es0ecially in the
middle of the #$th century. 'ut Malacca lost her trading su0eriority in the Portuguese in/asion
-ecause ne+ administration im0osed high ta3es and -egan official mal0ractices so -usinessmen
0referred to go to ,che sultanate. ?#A
%hree Singa&ores' (iu, )arun, *il+a islans$ .iu) another Singa0ore of #$th Century) .iu is an
island and city across the south 0oint of *athia/ar 0eninsula ?CuJurat StateA in India. Its length is
## km. and +ideness 3 km. (ith a -ridge it is connected to the land. It has got a natural 0ort that
it is not influenced -y tides. Kafar *han ?CuJurat go/ernor &ughluk dynastyA declared his
inde0endence in #%;8! he named himself Mu6affar Shah and ga/e a garrisonshi0 status to .iu
and a00ointed a =adi and -uilt different mos=ues. &he island ra0idly de/elo0ed and in #%3# .iu-
0ort +as e3tended for co/ering all of the needings of the CuJurat na/y. ?'ut +ealthy days of .iu
+ould end in #$;: -ecause of the Portuguese attacks and after long-+ar-years in #$%5 the island
+ould -e in/aded -y Portuguese soldiers and four centuries of Portuguese in/asion ?to
.ecem-er! #: #:5#A +ould -egin. ?<A ,fter Mu6affar Shah! ,hmed Shah ?d. #%%<A is acce0ted as
the real founder of CuJurat Sultanate! he 0ro/ided sta-ility in CuJurat and made -uilt ,hmada-ad
as a ca0ital city that ,hmada-ad +as adorned +ith huge -uildings. CuJurat highly de/elo0ed in
the long reign of Mahmud I ?#%$1-#$##A that he 0unished 0irates of Eagat ?./arkaA! 0ro/ided
security for international -usinessmen! 0rogress in agriculture +as o-/ious and ne+ kinds of
fruits +ere gro+n u0. ,nother transit center +as Earun island on the east shores of Hurmu6 strait.
Esca0ing from Mongol armies the 0eo0le of Hurmu6 0ort had settled this island in #3;;. Earun
island -ecame the gate+ay of for *irman! Sistan and *horasan regions and an acti/e trade city.
7ussian tra/eler ,fanasi 9ikitin /isited the island in #%8< and said 2men and goods had come
from all o/er the +orld4 also another tra/eler from Lenice Eosafa 'ar-aro mentioned as 2a /ery
de/elo0ed -usiness center.4 *il+a an island in the east ,frica +as the third transit center
esta-lished -y muslims in the first century of Islam on the +est shores of Indian ocean.
Es0ecially in the #$th century *il+a reached the highest +elfare le/el and +as the most 0o+erful
state on the east ,frica. &he -usiest -usiness center for ,frica and South ,sia. &he greatest
-uildings on the south of e=uator -efore 'ritish colony 0eriod +ere seen on this island. 'ut
Portugal army destroyed the island com0letely -et+een the yera sof #$;$-#3. ,m-ition and en/y
of Portugueses de0leted! 0ut the end of the greatest and li/eliest trading center of the +orld in
eight years. &his +as not the end of only *il+a -ut the end of acti/e -usiness life of East! (est
and South ,fricas. ?3A
Muhammada-ad +as esta-lished -y Sultan of CuJurat Mahmud I in #%1< and ca0ital city +as
mo/ed here from ,hmada-ad. Construction +orks lasted t+enty three years and markets!
sho00ing districts! 0u-lic s=uares! gardens! 0ools! 0alaces +ere -uilt. &he city a00eared as a
magnificent 0anorama and -ecame a trade center. &he city +in fame for her silk industry!
+ea/ing and 0roducing of s+ords. Muhammada-ad +as -eing mentioned as 2the most -eautiful
city of +est India.4 ?%A Sultan Mahmud I ?his reign #%35-5:A +as the founder of Mal+a -ranch of
HalaJids in northern India that he also -uilt hos0itals! madrasas ?higher schoolsA and 0rotected
5
scholars and -usinessmen and no any discrimination to Hindus +as seen in his administration.He
+as /ery sensiti/e in his cam0aigns for 0rotecting of ara-le fields. ?$A ,nother 0art of India!
.elhi ?SultanateA +as destroyed -y &imur in the late years of #%th century ?#3:1.A Hamid *han
?grand /i6ier of .elhi SultanateA in/ited 'ehlul-i odi to .elhi in #%$#. ,fter coming of Sultan
'ehlul to .elhi! this city +as im0ro/ed! re0aired and -ecame a center for scholars and artisans
again. Sultan 'ehlul 0ro/ided sta-ility and economic affluence and a lot of cities and to+ns
gained li/eliness. ?5A
*ing of the ,usinessmen. &he interesting story of Mahmud Cha+an is as an e3am0le of
enter0reneur muslim -usinessman in #$th century and also indicates /ery acti/e intermuslim
relations. Mahmud Cha+an ?#%##-1#A +as -orn in Cha+an ?cityA on the shore of Cas0ian Sea.
He /isited for trade a lot of cities of Ira= and *horasan ?as a historic region that co/ered some
0arts of modern day Iran! ,fghanistan! &aJikistan! D6-ekistan! and &urkmenistanA and listened to
the lectures of scholars of these regions. In his %< years old! he left Iran in #%$3 and /ia ,ra-ian
Culf reached India. He settled 'ider! ca0ital-city of 'ahmanids in Central India. Mahmud -egan
to -e -usy +ith tarde here and in the course of the time he -ecame kno+n +ith nation and the
0alace.&hen he +as a00ointed as a commander for a re/olt.He su00ressed the re/olt and
increased esteem. In the 0eriod of ,lauddin *humayun Shah ?#%$1-5#A title of 2malik al-
tuJJar?king of the -usinessmenA4 +as gi/en to him and h also su00ressed different re/olts in this
term. Mahmud Cha+an +as a00ointed as grand /i6ier in #%53. He 0layed a great role in
'ahmanid history a00lying inno/ations in administration and military system.He 0ro/ided a
systematic measurement of lands making +ritten the real -oundaries of the /illages and cities and
searched the amount of re/enues from these measurements.?8A

Afghanistan$ &imur ?founder of &imurid Em0ire and dynasty ?his reign #38;-#%;$A in Central
,sia made o0ened +ater-channels in the /illages of *a-ul. *a-ul +as a /ery de/elo0ed city in all
of the #$th century es0ecially in the long reign of Dlug 'ek ?#%5#-#$;<.A In another 0art of
,fghanistan! the ca0ital city +as Herat and the other &imurid ruler Sultan Husayin 'aykara ?his
reign #%8;-#$;5A had got a /ast lands from 'istam and .amagan in the +est to Cha6na and
'alkh in the east! from *hari6m in the north to *andahar in the south. , lot of artists and artisans
had gathered in Herat and this city had got a 0o0ulation of 3 million. Herat li/ed the most
-rilliant 0eriod in this century. ,lthough as unnecessary lu3ury the +alls of the 0alace of 'ag-i
Safid +ere o/erlaid +ith Jades that +ere im0orted from China in #%#;. , Shifaiyye! famous
medical school and hos0ital +as o0ened in the second 0art of thsi century and another famous
0alace 'ag-i Shah had -een -uilt for the garnd /i6ier ,li Shir 9a+ai ?of Husayin 'aykara.A May
-e for this reason! famous scholar Molla ,-durrahman Eamii had sent a letter to Husayin 'aykara
that Eamii +as +arning him not to take high ta3es from the farmers.?1A Car0et-making! artisans
in -ook-indershi0! co00ersmith! gilder! silk industry! +ea/ing of 0rayer rug! miniaturists!
calligra0hy of Herat +ere /ery famous in the +orld. 'aysungur ?the son of Sultan SahruhA had
esta-lished a +orksho0 that more than a hundred artisans +ere +orking there. ,nother &imurid
ruler ,-u said Mir6a *han ?his reign #%$#-5:A a-olished non-sharMi ?illegitimateA ta3 ?ta3 of
tamgaA and he 0rohi-ited taking of ta3es from fruit trees. ,-u Said Mir6a *han encouraged
irrigation and +as interested in agriculture and farming. Sultan charged his grand /i6ier
>ut-uddin Simnani for organi6ing and e3tend the irrigation system that Simnani +as an e30ert in
irrigation. Sultan made -uilt the canal of Euy-i Sultani in the northern Herat and Chulistan dam in
Mashhad. In his reign &imurids e3tended their so/ereignty in Ma+araunnahr! &urkistan!
6
>a-ulistan! Ka-ulistan ?todayBs ,fghanistanA! *horasan and Ma6andaran. It is seen that
decreasing of ta3es -rought 0olitical success. ?:A
In central Asia! the cities of Ma+araunnahr ? its area 55;!;;; s=. km.A reached the 0eak le/el in
economic and cultural 0rogress. Es0ecially Samarkand +ent ahead +ith a lot of architectural
monuments. ,d/anced irrigation system in fertile soils of the oasis of the central ,sia and rich
gold and sil/er mines. Historical silk-road +as gi/ing still im0ortant role for economic
de/elo0ment of Ma+araunnahr ?in this centuryA and de/elo0ed trading life that de0ends on
trans0ortation of China goods ?to the Middle East and (est.A ?#;A .iamonds and sa00hire of
*hotan +as coming to the ca0ital city Samarkand. *hotan +as a historical city and region in the
south of East-&urkistan ?no+ under the military occu0ation of China.A *hotan +as famous for
her car0et! +alnut! Jade and metal casting and engra/ing of /alua-le stone and metal +as /ery
de/elo0ed. IrrNgation also +as 0rogressed and +heat! corn! rice! mul-erry! cotton! different fruits
+ere -eing gro+n. (ea/ing industry of silk +as +ides0read. .ark-green and -ro+n-+hite Jade
+as -eing engra/ing on the s+ords! -elts and traces of harnesses of horses. ?##A In another 0lace"
khan ?rulerA of .ar-and ?on the shore of Cas0ian SeaA had in/ited Cio/anni de Lalle! a Lenetian
sailor! for de/elo0ment of Cas0ian sea trade. Some 0rogress +as seen! and a limited trade
-et+een the 0orts of .ar-and and ,starkhan -ut not suufficient. ,m-rogia Contarini another
ca0tain from Lenice says that fish industry +as de/elo0ed in Cas0ian Sea and &atars that used to
li/e on some islands of this sea! +ere fishing seal! and +ere using fat of seals in illumination and
calming of camels. 'ut methods of fishing +as 0rimiti/e and a lot of kind of fish +as not -eing
fished.?#<A In the northern lands of cas0ian! *a6an *hanate ?todayBs &ataristan 7e0u-lic of
7ussian FederationA +as a &atar-&urkuman state -et+een #%38-#$$5. &he maJority of the 0eo0le
+ere -usy +ith agriculture and archaeological searches sho+ they also acti/e in animal
hus-andry! fur trade and leather industry and thatBs +hy ca0ital city *a6an had -ecome a trade
centre. 9on-muslims in the /ast lands of this *hanate +ere gi/ing their non-high ta3es and li/ing
in a -road freedom. ?#3A
Egy&t. Egy0t -egan #$th century +ith the calamities. ,fter drought and scarcity a ne+ 0lague re-
shocked the economy in #%;3. &+o-third of the 0o0ulation of Cairo had died" the -ig 0arts of the
city +ere ruined. ?#%A ,mirs ?commandersA and others ?0o+erful 0ersons! chiefsA 0lundered
Cairo and handed the 0ro0erties of the State and endo+ments.?#$A Internal tumults +ere follo+ed
-y the re/olts of 'edouin tri-es. &here +as no state authority in the first fifteen years of the
century es0ecially in the southern Egy0t.&his situation ga/e hea/y damage to agriculture!
inflation increased and money system colla0sed. ,fter #%#$ Egy0t -egan to regain former 0o+er.
&rade of s0ices +as mono0oli6ed -y State and ne+ international order in Sultan 'ars-ay 0eriod
?#%<<-31A made -ecome FEgy0t-7ed-Sea-Indian ocean trade roadB the safest route. 'edouin
tri-es +ere under control in this 0eriod and disorder in south Egy0t +as sol/ed. ,fter these +orks
an economic de/elo0ment +as seen that Egy0t did not see it in a long 0eriod. 'uildings that +ere
-uilt in the term of Sultan >ayit-ay are the e/idence of that de/elo0ment. Sultan >ayit-ay ?his
reign #%51-:5A sta-ili6ed the economy and the s0ectacular -uilding 0roJects +ere started not
only in e/ery =uarter of Cairo -ut also in .amascus! ,le00o! Mecca! Medina! Eerusalem and
,le3andria. His term +as a reco/ery 0eriod -ut on the other hand necessary o0erations for the
economy could not -een done.,nd last ten years of the century +ere also not good" in #%:< the
0lague returned to Cairo and a00ro3imately <;;!;;; 0ersons died. (ars +ith @ttomans forced
ne+ recruitments for the army. ,nd e30enses for the army and for great construction 0roJects
increased the inflation. >ayit-ay confiscated the 0ro0erties of the rich! a00lied hea/y ta3es on
7
tradesmen of cereal grains and +anted ta3es from the real estates of endo+ments and some
0ersons. 'edouin tri-es also -ecame out of control. Dnnecessary +ars -et+en t+o great muslim
em0ires ?@ttomans and MamluksA ga/e damage to -oth economies. ?#5A
Criticisms of Asadi and Suyuti on !"th Century Egy&tian Economy. High ta3es of Mamluk
administration is the main characteristic of this 0eriod. Hea/y ta3es -ecame a hea/y -lo+ on
home trade and foreign trade. 9on-sta-le economic conditions increased -ecause of dis0utes and
fightings among unrest army grou0s that their salaries +ere not -eing 0aid regularly. Famous
scholar of the 0eriod Ealaluddin Suyuti ?#%%$-#$;$A 0oints these disorders -ut also at the same
mentiones acti/e trade in markets)0roducing of +ea0ons and +ar tools! maritime arsenals!
+ea/ing! mining! glass industry! 0ottery and +ood industry"te3tile industry on +oollen! silk!
linen! cotton and leather industry +ere famous for. ?#8A ,sadi ?Muhammad -. MuhammadA
com0leted his study al-Taysir wa al-I`tibar on @cto-er #%$;. &his study +as +ritten in the form
of Siyasatnama ?rules for kingsA and +as su-mitted to sultan of Mamluks Saifuddin Eakmak ?his
reign #%31-$3.A ,sadi +rites the reasons of colla0se of Egy0tBs economy +as insufficient land
system! neglecting of irrigation! im0otence of the administration in 0rotecting of the /illagers
against 'edouins! o00ressings and e30loitations of local authorities on nation and 0atronage of
go/ernments these authorities. ,uthor notes that agriculture Oas a main income source- +as
neglected! ne+ +ater channels +ere not o0ened and former canals +ere not re0eared! and Justice
is not 0erformed -ecause of fa/ouritism of nota-les. In third 0art! ,sadi +rites misa00ro0riations
in coinage and tools of -alances and says these t+o factors had u0set economic structure of
Egy0t.He +ants rigorous ins0ection on mint in his F.raft on Money 7eform.B ,sadi underlines
that the reason of the inflation that causes the social unrests is Fgi/ing of food trade to the
mono0oly of some menB that they are under the 0atronage of some statesmen. He says no any
0ri/ilege should not -e granted for anyone! a trust+orthy administration should -e esta-lished!
and the men +ho do misa00ro0riation must -e dismissed and 0unished and ,sadi states his the
other 0ro0osals.?#1A
,sadiBs 0ro0osal on money reform +as acce0ted and 0erformed -y Sultan al-Malik al-,shraf Inal
?his reign #%$3-5#.A Sultan struggled to demoneti6ation of the lo+-standard coins. He -egan
gradually and first +anted to 0rohi-it to use of that kind of coins +ere minted in .amascus! -ut
he +as informed that some soldiers and 0eo0le +ere against this and might -e a re/olt " thatBs
+hy he ga/e u0. 'ut the ne3t year he fi3ed the rates of gold and sil/er that he minted in Cairo
and demoneti6ated lo+-standard coins and made decreased the 0rices in the rate of one-third for
0rotecting the nation to lose and Sultan InalBs economic 0olicy ga/e successful results in his
terms. ?#:A It is o-ser/ed that some scholars are also +ork as -usinessmen in Cairo" one of them
*hati- al-Ea+hari ?#%#5-:$A Jurist and historian he +as a Je+eller in the Ee+ellery ?co/eredA
Market of Cairo.?<;A Ealaluddin Mahalli ?#31:-#%$:A used to sell cloth in his sho0 and gi/e
courses in 'ar=u=iya and Muayyadiyya madrasas.?<#A
Ale&&o ?today the second city of Syria +ith a 0o0ulation of t+o millionsA had got a /ery acti/e
trade in #$th century ?in this 0eriod" greater Syria) todayBs e-anon! Eordan! Syria! Palestine and
some south 0ro/inces of &urkey +ere under the administration of Egy0t MamlukBs.A #%th and
#$th centuries are the -rilliant centuries for SyriaBs economy. I/ory! iron! +ea/ing! ceramics.. it
+as to find e/erything in the markets of ,le00o. Cara/ans that used to -egin their Journays from
this cityBs khans ?inns and large commercial -uildings that e/en some of them! today also gi/e
8
ser/icesA they used to go Ira=! &urkey! Iran! HiJa6! Hemen! @man! India! China! Egy0t and 9orth
,frican countries. &here +ere also a lot of Euro0ean -usinessmen used to stay in ,le00o. ?<<A
)eddah ?+as also a city of MamluksA +as the e3it of Mecca to the +orld. Pilgrims +ere coming
to Eeddah from Egy0t and ,frica. Coods from Euro0e to India and goods from India to Euro0e
+ere 0assing from Eeddah.,den 0ort +as a transshi0ment centre that Indian shi0s +as
transferring their goods to shi0s that these shi0s used to kno+ 7ed-Sea routes and all of the goods
?to Euro0e! Egy0t and East MediterreneanA +ere coming to Eeddah. 'ut -usinessmen used to 0ay
maks ?non-religious ta3A first to 7asulids ?of HemenA and then Meccan sharifs. 'ut Hemen
authorities in ,den -egan to take high customs duties in #%<%. ,nd -usinessmen come from
Calcutta inclined to Eeddah directly. &his situation ga/e 0ositi/e im0act to the re/enues of
Meccan sharifs. 'ut the 0ro-lem of rates of sharing of this re/enue -et+een Mamluks and sharifs
+ent on more than si3ty years. E/en Shahruh ?Sultan of &imuridsA interferred the 0ro-lem. 'ut
Malik al-Kahir Eakmak asked a fat+a from the four grand Jurists ? of four sunni schoolsA of Cairo
that he said he +as gi/ing the salaries of soldiers of Eeddah and Mecca for 0rotecting of Eeddah
?0ortA and HiJa6 from foreign 0o+ers. ,lthough grand Jurists ga/e a good fat+a +hat Sultan
Eakmak +ants and a00ro/ed sultanBs demand in s0ite of Eeddah and Meccan 0eo0le 0ut their
reactions. 'ut another famous scholar of this century Ealaluddin al-Suyuti ?#%%$-#$;$A +ould
+rite a 0a0er on this 0ro-lem) Zamm al-Maks ?.hamm al-Maks! +ickedness of maks.A ?<3A,nd
in #%81! Egy0tian historian I-n Iyas +ent to Mecca as a 0ilgrim +ith the Sultan of Mamluks
?>ayit-ayA! a =uarrel occurred +ith Sultan and some Meccan men" I-n Iyas mentiones some
trou-les and inflation that he +itnessed.?<%A
,aghdad. #$th century is one the +orst 0eriods for 'aghdad. &imur destroyed 'aghdad t+o
times in #3:<-:3 and in #%;#. &he city did not see much damage in the first! -ut in #%;# the
innocent 0eo0le +ere killed and most of the -uildings +ere destroyed. &imur sacked the city
dealing it a -lo+ from +hich it did not reco/er in coming centuries. ,hmad Ealayir ?ruler of
Ealayirids +ho ruled Ira= and ,6ar-aiJan -et+een #335-#%3<A came to 'aghdad in #%;$ and
struggled for re0airing -uildings and markets -ut his time +as /ery short that he +as killed in a
dis0ute +ith his former ally! *ara Husuf! chief of the *arakoyunlu ?'lack Shee0A &urkman tri-al
confederation from eastren ,natolia. 'aghdad +as under the administrations of &urkman
dynasties ?-et+een #%#;-58 *arakoyunlu and after them ,kkoyunlu ?(hite Shee0A" and under
their -ad rule the city deteriorated. &he maJority of the 0eo0le left the city. Floods ga/e hea/y
damage to the homes! markets and ara-le fields -ecause irrigation system had -een destroyed. In
#%38! Ma=ri6i +as +riting that 'aghdad +as in ruins e/en no any mos=ue! no any community! no
any market" canals had -ecome com0letely dry" and a fanatical tri-al system +as dominant in the
city and the surroundings. ?<$A *arakoyunlu .ynasty is a &urkuman sultanate ruled Iran! Ira=!
,6ar-aiJan and Eastren &urkey -et+en #3$#-#%5: there +ere t+o kinds of ta3es sharMi ?Islamic!
religiousA and Murfi ?customary! im0osed -y rulersA and Murfi ta3es +ere highly much. Muhassils
?ta3 collectorsA used to collect the ta3es. ?<5A
Ottoman Economy$ @ttoman economy sa+ a hea/y damage in the first years of #$th century
that &imurBs army destroyed the @ttoman cities and rural economy in #%;#. ,lthough! after one
year &imur returned to central ,sia ?ca0ital city of &imurid dyansty is Samarkand of todayBs
D6-akistanA -ut &imur ga/e inde0endence a lot of local states and dissol/ed the @ttoman
em0ire. ,nd there +as a need a re-uild for @ttomans. ,fter an interregnum 0eriod 0rince
Muhammad I ?Chala-iA o-tained success to unite the State in #%#3. ,-solutely the most
9
im0ortant e/ent for @ttomans in #$th century is to con=uer Istan-ul and to -ring 'y6antium
Em0ire to her end. ,lthough 'y6antium Em0ire had consist of ?onlyA Istan-ul ?cityA -ut it +as a
-ig o-stacle for @ttoman unity in the centre of the @ttomans. ,fter taking Istan-ul! the
con=uerer ?Fatih SultanA Muhammad II 0aid ransoms of nota-le 'y6antines and ga/e 0ermission
for these families and other Creeks that returned in a fi3ed 0eriod to Istan-ul for going on their
life in the city and Istan-ul no+ the ca0ital city of the Em0ire +ith a huge commercial ca0acity.
Sultan also emanci0ated immediately the fifth of the ca0ti/es of +ar ?that this amount of the
ca0ti/es +ere his share from +ar -ootyPkhumsu sultaniA and made houses for them and they
+ould not 0ay any ta3.In #%$%! a guarantee +ere gi/en to Lenice for her colonies in the East and
the colonies of Cenoese in 'lack Sea and ,egean Sea acce0ted to 0ay a?n annuallyA tri-ute. So!
in this +ay! they +ould enter @ttoman markets easily. In #%8:! a free-trade agreement +as signed
-et+een @ttomans and Lenice and Lenice +ould 0ay annually #;!;;; golden coins to @ttomans.
,nd Lenice had accce0ted to 0ay her #;;!;;; ducat ?Lenetian gold ducat +as introduced in
#<1%G$ and ra0idly one of the most im0ortant trading coins in mediae/al Euro0eA former de-t
from alum trade. ,nother right +as gi/en to Lenice a -ailo ?the Lenetian 7esident in Istan-ulA
+ould re0resent his country and this am-assador had got also a Judicial status that he could sol/e
the dis0utes of Lenetians. &he same aggreements +ere signed +ith Cenoese and 'ogdan
?Molda/iaA ?<8A
(hen @ttoman Sultans ascended the throne their first Jo- +as Fsikka and khut-aB ?the right of
minting coins and mention in the khut-a ?imams used to say their names in the khut-as in fridays
in mos=uesA! t+o 0rerogati/es of the Sultan.A (hen ne+ coins of ne+ sultan -egin to circulate!
ne+ Sultan used to 0rohi-ite the use of former ?SultanBsA coins. &his means +ith the decree of
0rohi-ition of old coins the mint +ould -egin an e3traordinary +orking 0eriod +ork. @ld coins
used to -e changed either scra0 ?to -e melted do+n for re-useA or the State used to fi3 a rate to
change them ne+ coins. &he go/ernment used to a00oint Fsil/er searchersB that also named
F0rohi-itionists of old coinsB and these men used to /isit the markets and streets and control the
men and take the old coins +ithout 0aying any indemnification. 'ut sometimes the a00lication of
the 0rohi-ition +as not so hard and ne+ coins used to -e gi/en +hen officers +ere taking old
coins. &his financial o0eration ?of taJdid al-sikka and 0rohi-ition of old coinsA +as 0ro/iding an
e3tra income for State treasury ?as a right of mint of State and ?right ofA fee of mintingA Ho+
much sil/er ?coinsA +ere manufactured the income of the mint +ould increase. In reality this
0olicy +as a ?hidden and e3traA ta3ation of the cash /alues. E/en sometimes sultans did this
a00lication +ithout any changing in the throne for a solution for -udget deficits.
Sultan Fatih Muhammad II re0eatedly carried out this 0olicy. Muhammad II ?his reign #%$3-1#A
used to adulterate the a=cha ?sil/er coinA ? made dro00ed the rate of sil/er in the coin adding
some co00erA that is his aim to gain the 0rofit of a small de/eluation. Muhammad II 0erformed
this financial o0eration in #%%%!#%5;!#%8$ and #%1# and in e/ery a00lication the +eight of a=cha
+as made dro00ed one +eight grain. (hen an o0eration +as done it +as not sufficient a
0rohi-ition -ecause the nationused to hide their coins not to loss and made 0roduced
?transformedA them ornaments and other things e/en esca0e to foreign countries. &hatBs +hy in
these terms some 0recautions +ere a00lied on Je+ellery and simkashkhanas ?sho0 that makes
sil/er +ireA and e30orts of sil/er and sil/er 0roducts +ere -eing 0rohi-ited. ,n army mutiny
occurred in the the first o0eration of Fatih Muhammad II in #%%% and Janissaries ?@ttoman
0ermanent -rigades in Istan-ulA took 0romise from his son Sultan 'aya6id not to do like a this
o0eration ?-ut only one time in his sultanateA in his first days of sultanate! and a small money
10
o0eration had -een done in #%:# -ut no any e/ent occurred. ?<1A ,s a result of a lot of military
cam0aigns of Fatih Muhammad II in his a00ro3imately reign of 3; years! ta3es +ere hea/y on
the rural and ur-an grou0s" real estates and endo+ments of some scholar and nota-le &urkish
families had -een sei6ured -y the go/ernment and thatBs +hy there +as a +ides0read discontent
+ith his financialGmonetary 0olicy. @n the other hand custom duties +ere not high. In the first
years of Fatih! @ttoman citi6ens +ere 0aying <Q and foreigners %Q" follo+ing years citi6ens
%Q and foreigners $ Q. @ttoman citi6ens as Creeks! &urks and ,rmenians +ere the -usinessmen
of ne+ 0eriod that their num-er increased -ut num-ers of Italian -usinessmen decreased. Muslim
and non-muslim @ttoman citi6ens +ere 0aying the same rate. Fur trade and industry de/elo0ed
also in #$th century in the great cities of @ttomans. Furs of lyn3 and -each martin +ere coming
from internal markets -ut the others from 7ussia. ,fter #%8$! Crimea +as under control of
@ttoman em0ire! furs of 7ussian fo3 and sa-le furs -egan to come from /ia Crimea that +ith the
road security 7ussia gained a lot of from this trade -ut es0ecially in the 0eriods of economic
crisis @ttoman go/ernment 0rohi-ited fur im0orts -ut full control +as not 0ro/ided -ecause this
-usiness +as /ery 0rofita-le for -oth sides ?-usinessmen 7ussia nad @ttoman.A &here +ere t+o
kinds of guilds on fur 0roduction. First postin duzan fur se+ers and postin-furushan fur sellers.
Mahmud Pasha ?Crand /i6ier of @toman em0ireA had made -uilt a Kurkcu Khani ?Crand Pla6a
of FurriersA that there +ere #<; sho0s here and incomes of rents +ere -eing s0ent for the 0oors
and other e30enditures of the PashaBs endo+ment. 'ig fur traders +ere +orking in this 0la6a -ut
the other fur traders and guilds in different trade centers of Istan-ul.?<:A
,s one of the main characteristics of @ttoman economy in the ser/ices sector there +ere a lot of
kinds of endo+ments in different 0arts of the Em0ire. ,s an e3am0le) in 9arda ?no+ in +estern
CreeceA" Fai= Pasha ?a 0o+erful statesman of the Em0ireA had made -uilt an imarat ?sou0kitchen
for the 0oorA! a madrasa ?higher religious schoolA a mos=ue and a daru al-talim ?0rimary
schoolA and the e30enditures of these institutions +ere -eing 0aid -y the incomes of the Fai=
PashaBs foundation that encomes +ere coming from a fishing enclosure in Sere6! lands in
Salonika" Pasha had made -uilt also a -ridge in this region that its length +as #%< m. ,nother
e3am0le is Sha-uddin PashaBs foundation in Plo/di/ ?today the second greatest city in 'ulgaria.A
, great madrasa! a 0u-lic -ath! a great cara/ansaray ?inn +ith a large courtyard that -usinessmen
and tourists used to 0ay no money for accommodation and dinnersA and an imarat for the 0oor.
?3;A
Crimea$ Crimea is 0eninsula on the northern coast of the 'lack Sea no+ as an autonomous
7e0u-lic of Dkraine an area of <5!#;; s=.km. and a #!:83!#1$ 0o0ulation in <;;8. 'ut Crimean
&atars used to control a /ast region the ste00es that streched from the *u-an to the .niester
7i/er. HaJi Chiray ?his reign #%<:-55A +as the founder Sultan of Crimea *hanate and in his
0eriod Crimea had a got an im0ortant 0lace in the trade of -et+een East and 9orth Euro0e and
Central ,sia and D00er Middle East. &here +ere commercial Cenoese to+ns in the south of the
0eninsula and the officers of the HaJi Chiray used to collect the custom duties. Crimeans +ere
-usy +ith also sea-trade.&he fur! fish! grain and +a3 used to come from Mosco+! *a6an
?&ataristanA and the other northern regions and silk and s0ices from Far-east. ?3#A ,kkirman is
another city in northern 'lack Sea +as under 'ogdan ?todayBs Molda/iaA administration and +as
an im0ortant antre0ot of north trade.Lai/ode ?rulerA of 'ogdan Petro III recogni6ed @ttoman
so/ereignty in #%$5 that from that time 'ogdan had got a federal status in @ttoman em0ire! a
11
decree +as issued that the -usinessmen of ,kkirman had got free-trade right in three great cities
of @ttoman em0ire Istan-ul! 'ursa and Edirne. ?3<A
Africa$ *ano Islamic Sultanate ?in central ,fricaA ?es0ecially in the reign of Sultan Muhammad
7umfa ?#%53-::A -ecame the center of international trade. &he ca0ital city +as full of scholars
and foreign -usinessmen. Hausa in northern 9igeria had -ecome a /ery acti/e city in trade
-et+een Cuinea and Cairo and a lot of -usinessmen from Egy0t and ,lgeria had settled there.
?33A In the (est ,frica! goldmines fields +ere disco/ered in the inner regions from the Chana
coasts and muslim -usinessmen from northern ?tri-esA Mande! Hausa and .yula came there.
&his region de/elo0ed -ecause it +as on the t+o im0ortant trade-routes. Muslim .yulas came to
Lolta region ?east ChanaA and esta-lished some colonies" in the course of the time! the num-er of
these small settlements increased. ,nother factor that incresaed these muslim to+ns +as the
cara/an route that +as coming from the north crossing all of the Sahara and going to the great
markets of 9iger. &he most im0ortant centres in this 0eriod +ere 'egho?todayBs 9sorkor on the
+est -oundary of todayBs ChanaA and (a ?in the northern regionA cities -ecame /ery de/elo0ed
from gold trade. &he second ste0 of muslim s0reading in the region +as the coming of muslim
tradesmen from the northern Hausa State that they +ere -usy +ith starch trade. ?3%A &here +ere
great market cities in 9iger and cara/ans +ere coming from 9orth ,frica across Saharan desert.
Songhay em0ire is the -iggest 0o+er of ,frica in this 0eriod. From ,tlantic ocean in the +est to
inner regions of 9iger and 9igeria in an area of #!%;;! ;;; s=. km. Es0ecially after #%5%! the
im0ortant trade cities and critical trade routs of the region +ere under the control of this em0ire.
&im-uktu is the most -rilliant commercial center ?as a historical city in (est ,frica today in
Mali and it is located southern edge of the SaharaA -ut the other cities and to+ns of the Songhays
also had got /ery acti/e commercial life. ,ra-! Italian! and Ee+ish merchants all had gathered for
trade in &im-uktu. Sultan ?,skiaA Muhammad &ure ?his reign #%:3-#$<1A a00ointed /arious
minesterial 0ositions! nota-ly the minister of foreign relations! +ho +as res0onsi-le for the +ell
-eing of the +hite minorities. &here +as an additional =adi ?Islamic JudgeA +as noted as a
necessity in order to settle minor dis0utes -et+een immigrant merchants. Safe economic trade
e3isted throughout the Em0ire! due to the standing army stationed in the 0ro/inces. Eighty
0ercent of the 0eo0le li/ed family o+ned farms no more than #; acres ?%;!;;; s=.mA large. &he
merchants +ould form 0artnershi0s! and the state +ould 0rotect these merchants! and the 0ort
cities of the 9iger. It +as a /ery strong trading country! kno+n for its 0roduction of 0ractical
crafts" metal+orkers! fishermen! car0enters! farmers! traders and craft guilds that consisted of
/arious mechanics and artisans. ?3$A &here +ere thirty-se/en city-states under the Shira6i dynasty
? a -lack ,frican em0ireA in *enya and the region +as li/ing the -est 0eriod -ecause of acti/e
sea-trade -et+een ,frica and Far-East. ?35A *an6is in the south of D00er Egy0t +ere -usy +ith
0orcelain trade that used to come from China.?38A
Conclusion
Muslim countries +ere re0resenting the +orldBs -iggest economic 6one from Malacca to ,tlantic
ocean all of the #$th century. ,lthough Egy0t and Ira= entered hea/y recession 0eriods in this
century and sometimes recession-star/ed officials used to demand -ri-es" -ut Islamic lands +ere
the richest regions of the +orld. (hen a ruler raises custom duties or ta3es" international muslim
-usinessmen used to look for ne+ 0orts and latest strategies +ere -eing a00lied. In general!
0rotectionism +as not encouraged -y muslim go/ernments. Muslim states also +ould not erect
12
trade -arriers. 9o any discrimination +as a00lied for -usinessmen" muslimsGnon-muslims!
+hiteG-lack" Islamic countries +ere Ffree commercial landsB for all -usinessmen.
Endnotes)
#-&he Suma @riental of &oma Pires ?ed. ,. CortesaoA! ondon #:%%!II! <%#-%5"(. Cung+u!
2&he @0ening of 7elations -et+een China and Malacca! #%;3-$!4 Malayan and Indonesian
Studies? ed. E. 'astin-7. 7ool/inkA! ondon #:5%! 00! 3%-5<" for ad/anced studies) 7.7. di
Meglio! 2,ra- &rade +ith Indonesia and the Malay Peninsula from the 1th to #5th Century!4
Islam and the &rade of ,sia ?ed. ..S.7ichardsA! @3ford #:8;! 0! #;$-3$" M.,.P. Meilink-
7oelofs6! 2&rade and Islam in the Malay-Indonesian ,rchi0elago Prior to the ,rri/al of
Euro0eans!4 i-id! 00! #38-$8" *.S. Sandhu-P. (heatley! Melaka) &he &ransformation of Malay
Ca0ital! c. #%;;-#:1;" *uala um0ur #:13"
<-E. '. Harrison! 2.iu4! Encyclo0aedia of Islam ?the second edition" in -elo+ this source is
0ointed as Encyc. Is. A! II! 3<<" for ad/anced reading) M. S. Comissariat! , History of CuJarat
?#<:8-#$83A! ondon #:31-$8! I-II
3-,hmad ,6i6! 2.ar al-Islam and the Muslim *ingdoms of .eccan and CuJarat4! Eournal of
(orld History! LII?#:53A! 0! 818-:3" E. 'urton-Page! 2CudJarat4! Encyc. Is.! II! ##<3-3;" .
ockhart! 2Hurmu64! Encyc. Is.! III! $1%-$",rthur Serong! 2&he History of *il+a4! Eournal of
7oyal ,siatic Society R,0ril #1:$S! 00! %;$-3;! its translation into ,ra-ic -y Ministry of Culture
of @man) al-sal+a fi ,kh-ari *il+a?0u-. M. ,li al-Sali-iA! Matrah #:1$
%-Husuf Hikmet 'ayur! Hindistan &arihi ?History of IndiaA! ,nkara #:%5! I! 3:$-:8" ,6mi
T6can! 2Muhammeda-ad4! .iyanet Islam ,nsiklo0edisi !/! 3;! 00! $1$-5!?.iyanet
Encyclo0aedia of Islam! ?&urkishA! I-UUUII! Istan-ul #:1:- A! in -elo+! this source +ill -e
0ointed as .I,"
$-9aimurrahman Faroo=i! 2Mahmud I4! .I,! /! <8! 00! 3%5-8" D.9. .ay! Medie/al Mal+a),
Political a Cultural History) #%;#-#$5<! .elhi #:5$"
5-M. Imamuddin! 2odis4! Encyc. Is.!L! 81%-$" ,-dul Halim! History of odi Sultans of .acca
and ,gra! .acca #:5#
8-Haroon *han Sher+ani! Studies in Muslim Political &hought and ,dministration! ahore #:8;!
00! <;%-<<;" the same author! 2Mahmud Ca/anBs Early ife and His 7elations +ith Cilan4!
Islamic Culture! UIII ?#:3:A! 00! #8:-18
1-,. Drun-ae/! 2&he etters of ,-durrahman Eami as a Source of the Characteristics of the
PoetBs Personality4! Hadnama-i Ean 7y0ka! Prag #:51! 00! #$$-:"M. E. Su-telny!
2Socioeconomic 'ases of Cultural Patronage Dnder the ater &imurids4! IEMES! UUG% ?#:11A!
00! %8:-$;#" Ismail ,ka! &imur /e .e/leti! ,nkaar #::#! 00! :3-#;$" M. . .ames! 2Coinage of
Husain 'aikara4! E7,S ?#:#3A! 00! #;%1-:
13
:-Ismail ,ka! 2&imurlular .e/leti4! .ogustan Cunumu6e 'uyuk Islam &arihi! ?2&imuridsB
State4! Crand Islamic History) from 'eginning to &odayA! Istan-ul #:11! /! IU! 00! <$8-5#" ,.S.
'e/eridge! 2E-u Said4! Islam ,nsiklo0edisi! /! IL! 00! %8-%:" Husuf ,--as Hashmi! Mir6a
Sahruh /e Kamani ?Mir6a Shahruh and His &imeA ?#%;$-%8A! ,nkara #::%
#;-@sman Ca6i @6gudenli! 2Ma/eraunnehir4! .I,! /! <1! 00! #88-1;" 7. C. de Cla/iJo! Em-assy
to &amerlane #%;3-5 ?trs. C. e StrangeA! Frankfurt #::%! 00! <;;-331 ?its original) 9arrati/e of
the Em-assy of 7uy Con6ales de Cla/iJo to the Court of &imour at Samarcand! ,. .. #%;3V5
?ed. C. 7. MarkhamA! ondon #1$:! 0! :3
##-7ama6an Sesen! Islam Cografyacilarina Core &urkler /e &urk Dlkeleri ?&urks and Countries
of &urks ,ccording to Islamic Ceogra0hersA! ,nkara #:1$! 0! <#! <$! 5;! 81-1;! #:1!
#<-.. M. .unlo0! 2'ahr al-*ha6ar4! Encyc. Is.! I! :3#"Ua/ier de Planhol! 2Cas0ian Sea4!
Encyclo0aedia Iranica! L! %1-5#" for ad/anced readings) C. M. ,ngiolella! , 9arrati/e of Italian
&ra/els in Persia in the Fifteenth and Si3teenth Centuries ?ed. C. CreyA! ondon #183" Early
Loyages and &ra/els to 7ussia and Persia -y ,nthony Eenkinson and @ther Englishmen ?ed. E.
.. Morgan-C. H. CooteA! ondon #115" &ra/els to &ana and Persia -y Eosafa 'ar-aro and
,m-rogia Contarini! ondon #183"
#3- Ismail &urkoglu! 2*a6an Hanligi4 .I,! /! <$! 00! #35-31" ?from MarJani! MustafadatuBl-
akh-ar fi ah+ali *a6an +a 'ulghar! *a6an #1:8! /! I! 00! ##8-33A
#%-I-n &agri-erdi! al-9uJum al-Kahira! UII! #$<"
#$-Ma=ri6i! al-*hitat! I! 35$
#5-Said ,-dulfattah ,shur! al-,yyu-iyyun +aBl Mamalik! >ahira #::;! 00! <15-:#
#8-Suyuti! HusnuBl Muhadara fi ,kh-ariBl Misr +aBl->ahira! II! 00! %$-%%1
#1-,sadi! al-&aysir +aBl-iBti-ar! >ahira #:51" ?Muhammad *urd ,li! 2al-&aysir +aBl-Miti-ar4!
MaJallatu MaJmaMl MilmiyyiBl-M,ra-i! IIIG## ?#:<3A! 00! 3<#-<8A
#:-Cengi6 &omar! 2el-Melikul-Esref! Inal4 .I,! <:! 00! 53-%" I-n &agri-ardi! ULI! 3-#38
<;-M. Mustafa Kiyada! al-Muarrikhun fi Misr! >ahira #:$%! 00! 35-:
<#- Suyuti! HusnuBl Muhadara! I! %%3-%" Sakha+i! al-.a+uBl amiM! I! <%<" LII! 3:-%#
<<-,fif 'ahnassi! 2,le00o4! &he Islamic City! Paris #:1;! 00! #88-1<" E. Sau/aget! 2Hala-4!
Encyc. Is.! III! 1$-:;
<3-*ashf al-Kunun! I! $<! 1<1" 9aJmuddin i-n Fahd! Ithaf al-(ara -i ,kh-ari DmmiBl->ura!
>ahira! IL! 3#! #;#! #%3
<%-I-n Iyas! 'adaiMu-6Kuhur! I! #-<! 8-:" Muhammad 7a6u=! .I,! 2I-n Iyas4! /! <;! 00! :8-1
14
<$-Ma=ri6i! *ita- al-Suluk! III! #" ,. ,. .uri! 2'aghdad4! Encyc. Is.! I! 1:%-:;1
<5-Faruk Sumer! 2*arakoyunlular4! .I,! /! <%! 00! %35-1" Faruk Sumer! *arakoyunlular!
,nkara #:58
<8-Halil Inalcik! 2Mehmed II4! .I,! /! <1! 00! 3:$-%;8
<1-Halil Sahillioglu! 2@smanli Para &arihinde .unya Para /e Maden Hareketlerinin Heri ?#3;;-
#8$;A!4 ?Place of (orld Money and Metal Mo/ements in @ttoman Monetary HistoryACelisim
.ergisiGStudies in .e/elo0ment! Middle East &echnical
Dni/ersity! ,nkara ?#:81A! 00! #-31
<:- Keki &ekin! @smanli .e/letiBnde *urk &icareti ?Fur &rade in @ttoman StateA! &urkler! ?0u-.!
Hasan Celal Cu6el and othersA! ,nkara <;;<! U! 00! 8$%-53"
3;-Sema/i Eyice! 2Faik Pasa Camii4! .I,! /! #<! 00! #;<-3" Lakiflar Cenel Mudurlugu ,rsi/i
?,rchi/es of the State Ceneral .irectorate of Pious Endo+mentsA! ,nkara!&.! nu)5<3" Machiel
*iel! 2Fili-e4! .I,! /! #3! 00! 8:-1<
3#- Mu6affer Drekli! *irim Hanliginin *urulusu /e @smanli Himayesinde Hukselisi
?Esta-lishment of Crimean *hanate and Its 7ise Dnder the Patronage of @ttomansA)#%##-#$5:!
,nkara #:1:! 00! #-#%
3<-Mustafa l. 'ilge! 2,kkirman4! .I,! /! <! 00! <5:-8; ?from the ,rchi/es of ?Istan-ulA &o0ka0i
Palace MuseumA! nu. E.#;! %#5! $11;! 5<38! #;%#5
33-Eamil M. ,-u al-9asr! , History of the Maghri- in the Islamic Period! Cam-ridge #:18! 00!
<5-#3%" for ad/anced reading) E. S0encer &rimingham! , History of Islam in (est ,frica!
@3ford #:1$
3%-E. Sik! &he History of 'lack ,frica ?trs. S. SimonA! 'uda0est #:8%! III! #8:-:1",tiyya Safar!
2al-Islam fi Chana4! MaJallatuBl ,6har! 3;?#:$1A! 00! 58-8#
3$-Encyclo0aedia 'ritannica! ?&urkish editionA! Istan-ul #::;! /! #:! 00! $#5-#8
35-E.S. &rimingham! Islam in East ,frica! @3ford #:8#! 0! <:! 35! $5! 5<! #55"
38-M. Sulayman al-&ayyi-! Ma+suat al->a-ail al-M,ra-iyya! >ahira #::3! 00! $<#-<%
15
&allest 'uildings of the (orld)
Economies of *il+a and the other Islamic ands in #%th Century ?,..A
,-stract)
#%th century +as a reco/ery for glo-al trade. ,fter Crusade (ars in ##th #<th
and #3th centuries and tragical in/ade of Mongols 'aghdad and Central ,sian historical centers
16
in the middle of #3th century" the Islamic lands had -egun to re0air. Mamluks as 0o+erful
administration in Egy0t and Syria! Mali a +elfare state in (est africa! ,ra- and Persian muslim
-usinessmen in (estern cities of India" e30ort of raisin and fig from Malaga of S0ain to India"
li/ely trade -et+een city-states of Italy and Islamic countries. ,lso! after long centuries (estern
(orld had -egun to mint gold coins in #<$< and im0acts of this to +orld trade +as seen in #%th
century. Italians 0re0ared dictionaries and -rochures for their -usinessmen +ho go to Islamic
countries. Cairo had got a 0o0ulation of $;;!;;; and aheJan ?silk-cityA on the Cas0ian shore +as
0roducing silk. Ceramic industry of *ashan -et+een Isfahan and &ahran +as selling ceramics to
a lot of countries of the +orld. Free trade +as the main characteristics of Islamic +orld. In the
second 0art of the 0a0er t+o famous scholar of #%th century I-n >ayyim and I-n *haldun +ere
studied. Kad-al Maad of I-n >ayyim +as follo+ed and interesting notes a-out economics +ere
recorded. 9o dou-t I-n *haldun is a much studied scholar. 'ut a re-reading on trading 0assages
of Mu=addima +as done and! in general not-+ritten su-Jects +ere focused and original results
+ere 0ut at the end.
&allest 'uildings of the (orld) *il+a and the @ther Islamic ands in the #%th Century
#-*il+a) Singa0oreBs of Medie/al ,ges
*il+a +as a sultanate -et+een #;th-#1th centuries. &hree settlements" a small island *il+a
*isi+ani ?ca0ital cityA on Indian @cean near &an6ania ?that is seen from main landA and the other
t+o cities on the main land! *il+a Masoko and *il+a *i+inJe. Muslim settlements on the east
cost ,frica +as esta-lished in the 0eriod of the third cali0h Dthman 7., -eginning the year of
5%1. Mogadishu ?Ma=dishuA! Sofala! Malindi! Mom-asa! 'ra+a and Kan6i-ar sa+ muslim
tradesmen in the first century of Islam. , grou0 from Shira6 city of Iran came to *il+a *isi+ani.
&he o+ner of the island +as ,muli a -lack muslim! and there +as a small muslim 0o0ulation
from Hemen that they had got a small mos=ue! another grou0 from 0olytheists. Muriri (a-arey a
muslim nati/e of island introduced ,li -. Husayin ?head of Shira6i grou0A to ,muli. ,muli sold
the island to ,li -. Husayin. ,li 0aid the amount gi/ing cloths to ,muli that he had -rought from
Shira6 and married the doughter of ,muli.
First" .efence for a Po+erful Economy
,li -. Husayin and his men settled the north of island and dig the canal dee0er -et+een main land
and island -ecause +hen the sea-+ater is 0ulled! it used to -ecome lo+ and men used to +alk to
island thatBs +hy sometimes neigh-our city-states used to attack the island. ,li -. HusayinBs son
,li -. Husayin esta-lished *il+a *isi+ani as one the most 0o+erful cities and transformed it to
the greatest 0ort of Indian @cean trading-net. He e/ol/ed good realtions +ith the other islands
like Kan6i-ar and +ent to Kan6i-ar and collected men from Kan6i-ar and returned to *il+a as a
/ery 0o+erful man against to 0olytheists of island. In the #<th century! Sultan .a+ud -.
Sulayman ?his reign ##3;-8;A took Sofala city ?9o/a Sofala! no+ in the south of Mo6am-ikA
that there +as a gold-trading -et+een Mogadishu and Sofala and then *il+a met a-undance and
+ealth. 'ecause #; tons gold +as -eing 0roduced a year in Kim-a-/e and this 0roduction had
-rought a high income to the 0eo0les of the region.
17
*il+a Sultanate had esta-lished good trading relations +ith the indian tri-es of inner regions of
South ,frica! surroundings of ake Mala+i and todayBs Kim-a-/e. (e ha/e to notice that Fgood
trading relationsB and es0ecially FtradingB! not Fe30loitationB of future centuries of im0erialist
0o+ers. *il+a +as selling cloths and taking gold. I/ory and sla/e +as coming from inner regions
of todayBs &an6ania and Mala/i. *il+a +as -uying kitchen tools from ,ra-ian 0eninsula!
ceramics from India! 0orcelains from China and selling gold! i/ory and sla/es.
Abul Mawahib
,00ro3imately one century after ,li -. Husayin! the -oundaries of *il+a Sultanate reached
Pem-a Island in north! Sofala in south. *il+a +as the most 0o+erful state of thirty-fi/e city-
states on the shores of Indian @cean! and in the 0eriod of Sulayman -. ,li e3ce0t Mogadishu all
of these cities had -een 0ro/inces of *il+a Sultanate. Es0ecially in #%th and #$th
centuries *il+a reached the highest +elfare le/el. &he greatest -uildings on the south of e=uator
-efore 'ritish colony 0eriod +ere seen on this island. In general +ooden -uildings +ere -eing
0referred. 'ut great -uildings +ere -eing -uilt from stones. Some #%th centuryBs Chineese
sources mentione -uildings of four and fi/e storeys in the island. I-n 'attuta /isited *il+a
*isi+ani in #33# and +rites that the island is one of the most -eautiful and rendered 0ros0erous
cities of the +orld. (ooden houses! much raining and 0o+erful army +ere taken attention of I-n
'attuta. &he Sultan ,-uBl Mu6affar Hasan -. &alut +as entertaining the guests from Ira=! HiJa6!
Heman and the other regions of the +orld! in his 0alace. ,nd he +as a generous and courteous
man that used to hel0 0oors and sho+ kindness to scholars thatBs +hy the nation named him
2,-uBl Ma+ahi-.4 ?the father of the giftsA
#
&ragical Colla0se
Portuguese /isitors! first! came to *il+a. Lasco de Cama in #%:1 and #$;< and Pedro ,l/ares
Ca-ral /isited the region. ,fter their returning to Portugal and telling the high income le/el of the
region to Portugal administrators! regent of Portugal Francisco dB,lmeyda a00eared in the island
+ith $;; soldiers in #$;$. *il+a +as in/aded. PortugalBs 0o+er destroyed the island com0letely
in eight years. *il+a +as a ruin in #$#3. ,m-ition and en/y of Portugueses de0leted! 0ut the end
of the greatest and li/eliest trading center of the +orld in 1 years. &his +as not the end of only
*il+a -ut the end of acti/e trading life of East! (est and South ,fricas.
&he so/ereignty of Portuguese on Indian @cean lasted a00ro3imately t+o centuries. &his 0eriod
0assed +ith the re/olts of the 0eo0les of *il+a and other city-states to Porgutal administration.
,t the end of this tragical 0eriod all of the im0ortant centers +ere destroyed and -urned and the
region and es0ecially trading life lost old li/ely acti/ities. In #115 Cermans in/aded *il+a and in
#:#5 *il+a -ecame a 'ritish colony. In #:1# Dnesco declared *il+a as +orld heritage site. In
#%th centuryBs *il+a +as a country that the cargos +as -eing carried +ith the shi0s their
#
18
tonnages +ere $; tons. .o $!;;; 0o0ulation of todayBs *il+a kno+ that once u0on a time their
island had got the highest 0er ca0ita of the +orld W
I-n 'attuta as a 'ridegroom and Eudge of Maldi/es
Maldi/es are in a distance of 5$; km of south-+est of Sri anka in Indian @cean a grou0 of
<!;;; islands. ,lso +as a 0lace like *il+a that muslim tradesmen and seamen came to Maldi/es
in the first century of Islam. >adi ?JudgeA Hasan &aJuddin ?d. ##3: ,.H.G#8<8 ,..A
+rote a -ook a-out Maldi/es that in $%1G##$3 *ing of Maldi/es -ecame muslim.?<A I-n 'attuta
/isited Maldi/es in #3%3-%% and #3%5. He stayed here #!$ years and married and +as a00ointed
as =adi ?Islamic JudgeA. He mentiones the trading traditions of the islands. ?3A Famous ,ra-
seaman of #$th century I-n MaJid and after him Sulayman -. ,hmad al Mahri also mention
Maldi/es in their studies and they gi/e useful kno+ledges es0ecially for seamen. Portugal also
in/aded Maldi/es -et+een #$$1-83 -ut at the end of a strong resistance of 0eo0le! they +ere
dismissed from the islands.?<A
Hih Tradin !thics of Malabar Muslims. I-n 'attuta also /isited Mala-ar lands in the first 0art
of #%th century. He +rites there +ere nati/e muslims in e/ery cities of Mala-ar. ,nd in some
cities the 0o0ulation of these ,ra- and Persian muslims +ere more than one or t+o thousands.?3A
,ra-s and Persian sailors used to name Mala-ar the south-+est shores of India. E/en in the 0re-
Islamic 0eriod ,ra-s had got much trading relations +ith this region. ,fter hegira ?5<<A muslims
-egan to come to Mala-ar cities. &hese first grou0s +ere nucleus of Ma00illa ?Mo0laA muslim
community of India. &hey had not got any 0olitical or military su00ort ?like future centuries of
9orth IndiaA -ut Islam s0read the region /ery easily. &his achie/ement +as the result of high
trading ethics of muslims.
Ho+ Mal+a .e/elo0edW Internal Peace Means Economic Cro+th
,s a region in central India! Mal+a entered muslimsB so/ereignty in #3;$. &he ca0ital city +as
.ahr and the region sa+ a ra0idly muslim immigration to the region. 'ut *halaJi and &ugluk
.ynasties did not interfere to the Indian tri-es. Indian raJas and chieftains got -ored ci/il +ars of
0eri/ious 0eriods. &hey +ere no+ at ease under muslim go/ernments. &hatBs +hy Mal+a -ecame
=uietest region of .elhi Sultanate in a long time and this situation contri-uted for de/elo0ment of
Mal+a. .har! DJJayn and Chandari regions sa+ a great increasing in 0o0ulation and 0rogress in
cultural life" ,-uBl Fadl says! there +ere #%!;;; houses! 31% market 0lace and 35; cara/anserai
?free hotels for tradesmen and /isitorsA and a huge castle in Chandari.?%A
@n the other 0art of Indian @cean! in ,frica! Mogadishu +as also in a li/ely trading life. I-n
'attuta +as there in #33# and says under the administration of Sultan ,-u 'ekir -. Dmar! the
city sho+ed a great 0erformance in -usiness life and as a transit center in the middle of 9orth and
South ,frica had got 0o+erful commercial relations +ith Egy0t and ,ra-ian 0eninsula.?$A
, earned Sa/ant *ing
Hemen sa+ scholar-kings in #%th century. ,--as al-7asuli ?his reign #353-88A and his
grandfather Sultan ,shraf Dmar +ere great scholars. Sultan ,--as al-7asuli go/erned Ka-id and
19
&aBi6 regions. ,s a good administrator he +as -usy +ith Islamic la+! language! literature!
kno+ledge of genealogy and history. Scholars of history of science are interested in his -ok
'ugyatu-l Fallahiyn fi-l ,shJar-al Muthmira +a-l 7ayahin. &he -ook has got #8 0arts and the
author em0hasi6es soil! +ater reclamation! seasons! seeds! /egeta-les and fruits and 0rotect the
cro0s from damages. ,--as al-7asuli =uoted some 0asages from the sources of Creek and
9a-atians and his grandfather Sultan ,shraf DmarBs -ook Milh al-Malaha fi MaBrifati- al-
Filaha. ?5A
Iran in #%th Century
*ashan is a historical city on the Iran 0lateou! :%$ mt. high from the sea-le/el and had -een
esta-lished on the Isfahan-&ahran historical road. Historian Hamdullah al-Musta+fi records that
Harun al-7ashiBs ?famous 0hilanthro0istA +ife Ku-ayda -uilt the city.?8A 'ut +e ha/e to
understand that Ku-ayda re-esta-lished the city ?-ecause in the south+est of the city there is
&e0e Siyalk ancient center that its history goes to $.;;; '.CA ,fter the -eginning years of
Salchuk Em0ire! *ashanBs im0ortance increased. , lot of *ashanians +as a00ointed as statesmen
in the Salchuk administration. Ceogra0her Ha=ut al-Hama/i says! in #3th century ?8th ,.HA
*ashan +as famous for its green -o+ls sold to the other countries.?1A 'ut the city lost its acti/e
trading life in the second 0art of this century -ecause of Mongol attacks. ,fter a short time the
city gained former im0ortance again in the XlhaniansB 0eriod. ,l-Musta/fi mentiones cisterns and
canals of the city in the #%th century. *ashan +as a handi+ork center in all 0eriods of history.
&oday it is also es0ecially one of the most im0ortant centers of Iran! in car0et! /el/et! silk cloths!
Je+ellery and co00ersmith industries.&he most famous craft of *ashan! kno+n -y +orld! +as
ceramic industry -ut no+ dead. &his craft +as /ery famous -et+een #<th-#:th centuries and +as
at the 0eak in #%th century. &his craft as 2*ashi4 +as -eing named and in ceramics generally
tur=uoise! sky -lue! green and rarely red! yello+ colours +ere dominant and ?es0ecially greenA
0ots in different forms" they +ere -eing carried to markets of the +orld +ith cara/ans. ?:A
ahiJan! in the north of Iran and /ery near to Cas0ian Sea +as a middle si6e city in #%th century.
'ut its im0ortance +as coming from silk. FahB +as FsilkB in old Persian! and FJanB ?ganA ?0oints
0laceA that meaning of ahiJan +as FSilk-city.B Producing silk and selling to the +orld +as the
main Jo- in the city. ?#;A If +e go on from cold-north of Iran to hot-south Iran! aristan had got
su--tro0ical climate. , &urkuman dynasty +as reigning +hen I-n 'attuta /isited this state in
#3%8. Inner 0arts of aristan +as hot and arid! and shores hot and humid. &here +as a great
market 0lace in the city-center. 'ut the most im0ortant characteristic of aristan that it had got a
steady currency unit in medie/al ages.?##A ,00ro3imately successi/e #$ sultans had tried for
steadiness of sikke ?coinA of aristan. &hatBs +hy sikkes of aristan +ere relia-le coins in e/ery
0orts of Indian @cean in four centuries of #3th-#5th. ,nd last 0oint ur-i 'u6urg +as an emirate
in south-+est of Iran" a regional emirate -et+een #<th and #$th centuries. In general! emirs
0referred to -e as a de0ending state to Ilhan ?MongolA .ynasty and sent their ta3es to Ilhanian
*hans. Emir 9usrat al-.in ,hmad ?his reign #<:5-#33:A after sending the share of Ilhans! he
used to di/ide the ta3es to three) one 0art to religious institutions! one 0art to army and last 0art to
his family and ser/ants. ?#<A
&he 7ichest &rading Centers of the (orld) in ,frica and Middle East
20
It is o-/ious that #%th century ?and also #$thA is the -rilliant century of ,frica in -usiness life.
Mamluks ga/e im0ortance to the international trade that they +ere a+are of its useful in general
incomes ?for nationA and re/enues ?for the state -udget.A &hey encouraged trade +ith Euro0e and
es0ecially city-states of Italy and South France.&he conse=uence of this! trade 0oints of
Euro0eans a00eared in some 0orts and cities of Mamluks es0ecially in .amascus! 'eirut and
,le3andria. Mamluks also encouraged India and Far-East trade.,nd Egy0t -ecame the center of
this acti/e +orld-economy. &he great 0art of this trade +as on the +ay of 7ed-Sea. ,nd 0orts on
7ed-Sea! and Hemen and Dmman gained great incomes from this trade. ,t the end! in #%th
century! trade increased in Egy0t and Syria" and cities like ,le3andria! .amascus and ,le00o
entered the richest commercial centers of the +orld. ?#3A ,nother im0ortant factor that increased
the international trade in Middle East is the return of international S0ice-road to Syria and Egy0t
that Mongols had 0re/ented the +orking of this +ay from Syria and Egy0t and they had
encouraged another route from East-Iran to ,rmenia and ,sia Minor ?&urkeyA to Mediterranean
Sea.
,t the -eginning years of #%th century! Sultan of Mamluks Muhammad - >ala+un -uilt the
'oula= har-or at the north-+est of Cairo and this har-or 0layed an im0ortant role in the
economic life of Cairo to the -eginning of #$th century. In the middle of the #%th century Fustat
and Cairo -ecame united and as a great metro0ol ?+ith >alBat al-Ea-alA great CairoBs 0o0ulation
reached $;;-5;;!;;;.?#%A 'ut in the second 0art of the century city sa+ t+o 0lagues in #3%1 and
#38% and a lot of men had died.
,nother great richness in this century in ,frica +as seen in Mali in the +est 0art of the continent.
Mali li/ed one of most -rilliant 0eriods under the administration of sultan Mense *anku Musa
?his reign #3#<-38A and the -oundaries of sultanate from the forests of Cuinea to Saharan .esert!
from ,tlantic @cean to the country of Ha+6as ?in the todayBs 9igariaA. Sultan Mense MusaBs haJJ
?0ilgirimageA /isit to Mecca in #3<3-<$ -egan +ith 5;!;;; men! -ut maJority of this grou0 stayed
&u+at city in the south of ,lgeria and sultan +ent on +ith a smaller cro+d his +ay to Mecca.
Sultan Musa ga/e <;!;;; gold coin to the 0oors in the Holy ands. SultanBs 0restige +as /ery
high in Egy0t and HiJa6 and he -ecame a reno+ned man in all of the Islamic lands. ,fter death of
Sultan Musa" in the reign of another sultan Mense Sulayman ?#3%#-5;A Sultanate of Mali
0rotected its 0o+er! and le/el of +elfare -ecame higher and there +as a full security in all o/er
the country. I-n 'attuta /isited Mali #3$<-$3. He mentiones that sultan +as a 0ious man and he
+as stri/ing to a00ly the rules of Islam. &he -oundaries of the country e30anded and reached to
9iamey todayBs ca0ital city of 9iger to Lalata-,ra/an and ,tlantic @cean! and in the north from
&ishid! &admakka and &akadda to the e=uator forests in the south. ,fter reading of I-n 'attutaBs
"ihla# a lot of merchants from 9orth ,frica and Egy0t +ent and settled Mali and they +ent on
their -usines in this rich country. &his sho+s that there +as a highly acti/e communication in
,frica and +orld trade in that days.?#$A
Euro0e-Islamic (orld &rade 7elations in #%th Century
Euro0eans had named as e/ant Eastren 0art of Mediterranean from the #;th century. In the
course of the time 0olitical conditions changed -ut general commodities of international trade
-et+een Euro0e and Islamic +orld did not change. In #;th-#5th centuries! Islamic +orld e30orted
to Euro0e as transit commodities s0ices! crude silk! and fur. ,nd Euro0e -ring to e/ant 0orts a
lot of kind +o/en tissues! silk thread! soa0! glass! crystal!mirror and 0a0er. &here +as a 2muda4
21
system that to 0rotect and for security of the sea-trade! all of the shi0s used to go to e/ant all
together one or t+o times in a year! like cara/ans in the deserts. Es0ecially the 0rofit of Lenice is
/ery high that in #%<3! this countryBs sales had reached #; million ducat ?gold coinsA and %
million of this +as 0rofit.?#5A
Italians had 0re0ared dictionaries and -ooks for their merchants +ho +ent to e/ant. Code3
Cumanicus +as 0re0ared in Sugdak in #3;3. &here +ere <!$;; *umanish +ords used in
commerce in this atin-Persian-*umanish .ictionary. ,fter @ttomans came to the region! this
time &urkish-Italian dictionaries +ere 0re0ared. ,nd Lenice did not see sufficient this studies!
they -egan to teach their youth &urkish. &hese &urkish-s0eaking youngs +ere named 2language-
-oys.4 ,0art from dictionaries! different -ooks +ere +ritten a-out the measurements! coins and
e30ort-im0ort commodities of East Mediterranean cities. Most famous of them F. 'alducci
PegolattiBs -ook a Pratica della Mercatura +as +ritten in #3<% that Pegolatti had -een sent to
e/ant -y 'ardi Com0any.?#8A
7ise of Lenice
#%th century +itnessed the rise of Lenice in e/ant commerce. ,natolia ?&urkeyA Salchuk State
no+ had colla0sed. .ifferent small-states ?0rinci0alitiesA +ere so/ereign in their regions. In the
-eginning years of the century! Lenetians o-tained a decree that ga/e /ast trade rights for them in
Egy0t ?and 0ro-a-ly SyriaA from the -iggest 0o+er of the region ?MamluksA in #3;<. Lenice also
made a commercial agreement +ith Ilhans ?Mongols that ?they -ecame muslims gradually from
#<:$ and they +ere go/erning ,natoliaA in #3<; and trade agreements +ith ,ydinogullari and
Menteseogullari ?t+o 0rinci0alities in the +est of the region on ,egean SeaA. In the last =uarter of
the century! @ttoman Em0ire -egan to e30and and Cenoeses signed a friendshi0 and trade
agreement +ith Murad I ?@ttoman SultanA and o-tained the right of trade in @ttoman lands" after
three years Lenetians reached similar result +ith a decree of @ttoman Sultan Hildirim 'aya6id.
Cenoeses +ere e30elled from &ra-6on ?the -iggest south 0ort of 'lack Sea! no+ in &urkeyA in
#3;5 -y &ra-6on Creek *ing! and they +ere o-liged to lea/e *efe ?0ort-city on the north of
'lack Sea! no+ in Crimea! DkraineA" -ut they +ent on their commerce acti/ities 0artly in 'lack
Sea.Lenice e/ol/ed the relations +ith &urkman 0rinci0alities ?that they +ere dominant on the
shores of 'lack SeaA and -egan to settle 'lack Sea 0orts. 7i/alry of Lenice-Cenoese lasted in the
region and @ttomans reached south 0orts of 'lack Sea at the end of the century.?#1
Commerce and Industry 3!;;; Hears ,go
In the other 0art of Mediterranean Sea! Malaka +as under the administration of 9asris dynasty. In
the southern I-erian 0eninsula! todayBs Malaga +as under muslem rulers in eight centuries. 'ut
more interesting! ten centuries -efore Christ! Phoenicians had come from e-anon to Malaga and
-uilt a salted-fish 0lant! and esta-lished a commerce-0oint there.7omans de/elo0ed Malaga and
it -ecame an im0ortant 0ort and commerce center. Malaga +as a city under the different Islamic
states -et+een 8##-#%18. 'anu ,hmar dynasty go/erned the city a0ro3imately <$; years! from
#<3; to #%18. Malaga +orked as a second ca0ital city in 'enu ,hmar Emitare ?9asrisA and as
economic and commerce center of the region.&he city +as also the main -ase of 9asris 9a/y"
and sea traffic in the 0ort had highly increased +ith the efforts of Cenoeses. ,ll of the history and
geogra0hy authors of Media/el ,ges mentione Malaga +ith admirations. Idrisi! I-n Cali-! I-n
22
Said al-Magri-i! I-n ,-d al-MunBin al Himyari! Ha=ut al-Hama+i! Makkari! I-n I6ari! I-n
'attuta and isan al-.in I-n al *hati- are +ho take the lead. ,-undants of fruits around the city
es0ecially takes attention in all of the -ooks. .ried fruits es0ecially raisins! dried fig and almond
+ere -eing sent to Egy0t! Syria! Ira= e/en India. I-n al-*hati- notes Malaga +as also rich in sea-
0r0ducts. &he city had seen -ig 0rogress in te3tile after ##th century. In different colours of silk
0roduction +ith golden tasseled +as /ery famous in the +orld that Euro0eans used to name it
2algue3i! al-eci! al/eici! o3i.4 In addition! leather! iron! ceramic and 0recious stone industries had
de/elo0ed in Malaga. ?#: A
,sia Minor ?&urkeyA in #%th Century
&he -iggest 0rinci0ality in ,sia minor +as *aramanogullari ?sons of *aramanA that this dynasty
continued its so/ereignty in central &urkey from #<$5 to #%8%! in the 0ro/inces of *araman!
9igde! *onya! Ic-Il! &ash Eli and ,lanya ?,laiyaA. In #3%#! the en/oy of *aramanoglu I-rahim
'ey +as returning from Cairo +ith flags of sultan ?of MamluksA and cali0h and casting-mold for
minting gold and sil/er coins. &he name of Mamluk Sultan +ould -e car/ed in the coins of
*aramans. I-rahim 'ey had +anted it. ,lauddin 'ey +as on the throne of *araman in #35# and
sil/er coins minted in this 0eriod are e3hi-ited today in the Istan-ul ,rchaeology Museum
?&asheyr 9o. #3%$A Farming in the /ast 0lain of *aramans +as the main acti/ity and +heat!
-arley! oats and cotton +ere -eing 0lanted. Shee0 and horses +ere -eing gro+ed. Egy0tian
historian I-n Fadlullah had 0raised these horses. *araman car0ets and /el/ets +ere -eing
+ea/ing. ,ra-s used to say F&urk /el/etB for this kind of /el/et and the other kind ?of Euro0eA
+as FFranc /el/et.B 'ertrandon de la 'ro=uiYre says 2this country is rich! de/elo0ed and fine4
and mentiones -ig cities of *aramans) *onya and arende that they +ere im0ortant commerce
centers. *araman 0rinci0ality used to e30ort +heat! +ool! leather! car0et and horse to *ingdom
of Cy0rus! Lenice and Cenoes. ?<;A
,nother 0roof that there +as a /ery acti/e commerce life in the central ,sia Minor is *irsehirBs
economic life. *irsehir is ::; mt from sea le/el +as under the Ilhans ?MongolA in/ade in the first
half of the #%th century. Hamdullah Musta+fi notes that there +ere great imarats ?sou0-kitchen
for the 0oorA and in #335 *irsehir had sent $8!;;; dinar ?gold coinA to ca0ital city of Ilhans
?&a-ri6A as annually ta3. ?<#A *irsehirBr mint +as +orking continuous.?<<A ,nd the other region!
+estern 0art of &urkey" *utahya ?cityA +as on the crossroads and a center of high trading
acti/ity. F*utahya alumB! horses and rice +ere the e30ort 0roducts in the 0eriod of
Cermiyanogullari 0rinci0ality. ,nother source of richness of the city +as sil/er 0roduction from
sil/er mines around the city. Commodities from Central &urkey and ,egean Sea +ere 0assing
*utahya and going to 'ursa ?city! in that 0eriod 'ursa +as the ?firstA ca0ital city of @ttomansA
that there +as a -ig trading acti/ity -et+een these t+o cities. Characteristic of a commerce center
lasted under the @ttomans rule and one of the t+o -edestan ?/aulted co/ered marketA of *utahya
+as -uilt in this century as a -uilding of &imurtash Pasha Foundation. ?<3A
Industry $rins %&alth. Mardin ?city! in the soth-east of &urkeyA is on a hill at an ele/ation of
#!;;; mt. It Joined Islamic lands in the 0eriod of cali0h Dmar in 5%;! +ith a +ay of 0eace!
+ithout any +ar. In long Islamic centuries Mardin has -een on the high+ay of comes from Iran
and ,6ar-aiJan and goes to Syria and al-Ea6ira.&hree centuries! the city +as under the
admistration of ,rtuks in #<th! #3th! and #%th ?from ##;5 to #%;:. Mardin -ecame the 0olitical!
social and economic center of .iyar-akir 0ro/ince in #<th century and it 0rotected its 0osition in
23
#3th and #%th centuries. In this 0eriod the city li/ed the most -rilliant term of its history +ith its
khans ?large commercial -uildingsA! market 0laces! -a6aars! sho00ing districts. ,lthough the city
+as attacked -y neigh-our states and e/en Mongols -ut its great castles 1;; mt. lies from east to
+est 0re/ented these attacks. I-n SaBid al-Magri-i records high =uality of +ea/ing industry. I-n
'attuta also mentiones the -a6aars of Mardin and different +orksho0s of +ea/ing.&he other
author of this 0eriod Musta+fi notes that Mardin +as highest ta3 0ayer in the cities of .iyar-akir
0ro/ince. ?<%A

Some 0arts of 'ulgaria and Creece +ere Joined to @ttoman lands in #%th century and ala Sahin
Pasha the first go/ernor-general of @ttomans started rice gro+ing in Plo/di/ ?central 'ulgaria.A
?<$A ,nother +estern 0rinci0ality +as *aresiogulari! silk and resin cistus 0lants ?la-daniumA +as
-eing 0roduced in ca0ital city 'alikesir and its around and +as -eing sent to Euro0ean markets.
Cloths of Istan-ul ?'y6antium Em0ireA +as -eing +ea/ing from 'alikesir silk. Sil/er and co00er
coins minted in the first half of #%th century of this 0rinci0ality are no+ in e3hi-ition in the
museums. ?<5A
Futu++at and ,khi @rgani6ations
&hough the history of Futu++at organi6ations goes to :th century -ut ,--asid Cali0h 9asir i
.inillah systemi6ed them in the first =uarter of #3th century. ,nd in #%th century ,khi
organi6ations +ere com0letely transformed to guild unions and their economic actions -ecame
the dominant as0ect of these unions. In the middle of the #%th century! I-n 'attuta +as in &urkey
and he states akhi unions ?trade guildsA +ere handicraft -odies organi6ed in
cities and to+ns.It +as im0ossi-le for akhi a00rentices to o0en a sho0 if they did not learn /ery
+ell their 0rofession. 9um-er of artisans and sho0s +ere limited and the main 0rinci0al +as
20roduction for only needs?no moreA.4 &he honest and F+orthy to res0ectB of them and 0ro-a-ly
oldest of them +as their head and he used to -e named akhi and these heads +ere influential
0ersons on the guildBs artisans. ,nd in e/ery guild there +as a second man named yiitbashi or
s&r'&r he +as res0onsi-le for carrying out the regulations of a guild. E/ery craft -ranch had got
an akhi and there +as a chief of these akhis that his title +as Fakhi -a-aB means Ffather akhi.B
?<8A Some ,khis esta-lished a semi-inde0endent state in ,nkara -et+een #<:;-#3$%. Creat
name of @ttoman Em0ire history in <;th century Hilma6 @6tuna records that 2&hey esta-lished
,nkara a center and founded an ,khi go/ernment as a der+ish-artisan state like Italian city-states
in the Middle ,ges. &his go/ernment de0ended to Salchuk State to #3;1! Ilhan .ynasty to #33$
and then Eratna 0rinci0ality and *aramanli 0rinci0ality.&hey Joined to @ttomans in #3$%. ?<1A
--I.n /ayyim
In this 0art! some interesting notes of #%th centuryBs famous scholar-Jurist I-n >ayyim a-out
economics! +ill -e gi/en. He says trade is difficult and thatBs +hy Islam 0ut a minimum 6akat
?official-religious ta3A on this sector) ?'ecauseA 2If increasing of 0o0erty re=uires +orking of the
o+ner continuously and sometimes going to a-road for selling and sometimes to guard it for
0rotecing..-ecause of these! to 0ay Fone in fortyB -ecame an o-ligatory. Dndou-tly difficulty of
this ?trade sectorA is more from fruit ?0roductionA and agriculture. ,nd ?the other factor isA
increasing and multi0lying of fruit and agriculture is more than trade. &hatBs +hy necessary
o-ligatory ?for agriculture and fruitA is more from commerce. ?<:A
24
I-n >ayyim also mentiones the changing rate of sada=a-i fitr in the 0eriod of Frightly-guided
cali0sB and e30laines that 2Hasan al- 'asri said that I-n ,--as ga/e a sermon in 'asra mos=ue
and said) F&he Pro0het ?MuhammadA did an o-ligatory ?to all muslimsA one saB from date and
-arley and half saB from +heat.B 'ut later! ?cali0hA ,li came to 'asra and sa+ that 0rices had
-ecome chea0er and he said) 2,llah ga/e you a-undantly and thatBs +hy you ha/e to gi/e one saB
from e/ery thingB and in a similar sentence +ith clearer +ords) F..Ci/e from +heat and the other
things one saB 4 ? 3;A
(hen ?funeralA undertakers and 0harmacist get creditsW
,lthough they had not got +ritten datas -ut ?funeralA undertakers and 0harmacist used to take
into consideration the seasons. &his situation +as also noticed -y I-n >ayyim as a man of his
community in the #%th century and noted that) 2strongest and most deadliest illnesses are seen in
summers. S0ring is healtiest and rate of death is at the least in this season. &he tradition of
0harmacists and undertakers is -orro+ing de-ts in s0rings and summers and gi/e them in
autumns. (hen the s0ring comes they are /ery ha00y..4 ?3#A He also discusses the using of
0rohi-ition of sil/er 0ots -y the Pro0het ?MuhammadA and 0roduces thoughts on the as0ects
of monetary and 0sychological effects of this 0rohi-ition. ?3<A He also notes the +arning of
,esha ?+ife of the Pro0hetA to Kayd -. ,rkam for a transaction that it +as a secret interest ?-ayB
al-inaA that it is also for-idden ?33A I-n >ayyim +arns the community for the rights of 0arents. In
reality! in long Islamic centuries! the conce0t of insurance did not e/ol/e. &he reason +as strong
solidarity of Islamic communities. ,nd scholars al+ays used to +arn the nation for charity. I-n
>ayyim also does this duty) 2Person +hen he li/es in richness! a-undance and in /ast means -ut
his father +orks as s+ee0er in 0u-lic toilets or as stoker in stokehall of a -ath or carries load on
donkeys" this -eha/iour of a son is not a00ro0riate. ,nd it is not true that saying of a son) Fmy
fatherGmother is healthy and a-le to +ork! they are not a -lind or 0araly6ed.B Most astonishingZ
.id ,llah and His Pro0het 0ut a condition to hel0 to 0arents that they +ould -e a -lind or
0araly6edW4 ?3%A For duties of muhtasi- I-n >ayyim +rites these sentences) 2the chief of the
his-a oragni6ation 0rohi-its the frauds in industry! and he al+ays ins0ects foods and artisans +ho
do tools and garments4 in the other famous -ook &uru= al-Hukmiyya ?3$A
Celal Heniceri says I-n >ayyim -although in some co/ered statements- touches the su00ly-
demand la+. Heniceri =uotes I-n >ayyimBs sentences a-out FtasBiyrPto set a fi3ed 0riceB on
commodities) 2It is not la+ful to set a fi3ed 0rice ?-y go/ernment or courtA if the o+ner of the
commodity 0resents his merchandise to the market in a normal +ay -ut the customers increase its
0rice.4 ,nd he em0hasi6es this su-Ject in another 0assage) 2If the men offer their merchandises
to the market in a +ay that kno+n -y e/ery-ody +ithout a cruelty ?+rongdoingA -ut the 0rices
increase -ecause of the merchandises are fe+ or the 0eo0le is much! this increase is left to ,llah
?that is interference of state or court is not a00ro0riateA! and in this 0osition to o-lige the
?-usinessAmen to sell the same?0re/iousA 0rice is an unJust com0elling.4 ?35A
I-n *haldun @ne of the 'rilliant Stars of #%th Century
Islamic history sa+ great scholars in #3th! #%th and #$th centuries as as a 0assing of stars. From
9a+a+i to I-n HaJar a lot of -ig names! in this 0eriod! 0roduced interdisci0linary magnum o0us
25
studies. I-n *haldun li/ed in the middle of this term. I-n *haldun o00oses economic actions of
state. If the state does economic actions this is an attack to the rights of the nation. 2He e30lains
his theory +ith t+o reasons) If the state is -usy +ith trading and agriculture +ith its great
financial and 0olitical 0o+er against traders and farmers this is an unfair com0etition. It is
0ossi-le that tradesmen and farmers can not carry this un-eara-le financial -urden ?com0etitionA
and they lea/e economic arena. &his is an aggression the rights of tradesmen and farmers that
they im0ro/e the lands ?of the countryA. ,nd this act of state cuts ?inJuresA the lo/e of the
0roduction and +orking of the 0eo0le! and at the end! the economic life of the country comes to
an im0asse and to colla0se. ,nd! the +orking of state at trading sectors causes the rising of the
0rices of commodities. ,nd the state loses.'ecause of decresaing of economic actions in the
country causes lost of ta3es and this lost is much more than the 0ro-a-le earnings of state. @n the
other hand an added economic 0o+er on the 0olitical 0o+er of the state causes des0otic
a00lications of ?more 0o+erfulA state and this is a dangerous for the indi/idual rights and
freedoms. If the state and administrators -egin to do farming" after a 0eriod! they 0re/ent ?+ith
their 0olitical 0o+erA the formation of the free 0rices! they force the nation to -uyGsell the foods
?and goodsA on the 0rices that they fi3ed. &hese a00lications u0set the economic situation of the
nation and causes unJustly and cruelty -eha/iours. ,t the end! ta3 re/enues decreases.4 ?38A
In the teaching of I-n *haldun! the thories of F9o Fi3ed PricesB! FFree MarketB! F7eason of
.ecreasing &a3esB are /ery clear. %ick&d (apitalists. ,ccording to I-n *haldun there are t+o
kinds of tradingsGtradesmen. @ne carries the goods from the 0lace of 0roduction to the 0laces that
the costumers are in need of this goods and this kind of ca0italist ?tradesmanA endures a lot of
difficulties! risks and he 0roduces +ides0read ad/antageG0rofit for consumers and 0roducers. I-n
*haldun 0raises this kind of ca0italist. 'ut the other kind that they are inclined to s0eculation!
trick and dece0tion! I-n *haldun denigrates them and he estimates this kind of trading is a kind
of gam-ling and they seduces the ethics of the other tradesmen...In general FtradingB may -e
defined as Fto -uy 0ro0erty and goods in a chea0 0rice and to sell +ith a higher 0rice and to gain
a 0rofit in this +ay.B &hatBs +hy tradesman either hides the commodities that he -ought and
+aits raising of 0rices and sells +hen he finds a good 0rice for him or he takes a+ay the goods to
the 0laces that they are /ery scarce there and sells. 'ut in the second +ay the 0rofit is not much
and re=uires great difficulties and risks. 'ut greed of earning much money makes incline ?someA
men to s0eculation and thatBs +hy the trading is transformed a defecti/e occu0ation like a
gam-ling.?31A
'ut +e see in the other 0ages of Mu=addemah that the ty0e of I-n *haldunBs tradesman has not
got the other characteristics Fo/erstruggleB Fo/ercom0etitionB and Fto s0end all of his life like a
monk +ith a great greed follo+ing the 0rofit.B ?3:A !ncoura&m&nt )or *'&rs&as
Trad&+$usin&ss. I-n *haldun looks for -ra/ery in tradesmen and it is understood that his 0ur0ose
is a ty0e of enter0rising that indures the risks! he is not-static! not-hesitant! -ut dynamic and
daring. He encourages the tradesmen to go distant cities and countries 0ointing the im0ortance of
-earing risks and la+ of su00ly-demand in economic life.?%;A ,&monstration !ff&ct of "ich
(lass&s. I-n *haldun looks at rich classes that they are a grou0 that degenerates the societies in
all of the history and im0els the nations to the colla0se in economics! sociological and 0olitical
as0ects. .ou-tless he is not an enemy to the +ealth and o+ners of 0ro0erties. He reached an
o0inion for the reason that accumulating of richness in some classes! in the history! and using of
this +ealth in some +ays that e3ceeds the natural and la+ful limits. I-n *haldun fre=uently
26
em0hasi6es that lu3ury! 0rodigality and sho+ off -egin first in rich classes and +ith their
influences s0read to all of the nation and this causes the colla0se of the communities. ?%#A

,0art from his the other contri-utions! I-n *haldun -rought a 0ositi/e and realist com0rehend to
+orld of thought. Mu=adddamah as a Fdetailed in/estigation of human societyB ?%<A! I-n
*haldun is an im0ortant critic of his time. E/en he critici6ed famous 0hiloso0hers of ancient and
middle ages for their theories of madina-al fadNlah ?/irtuous cityA! saying) 2 this Fno need to a
Judge cityB is only an imaginated and only in the tongues and -ooks of 0hiloso0hers! -ut remote
in occurence in the +orld..4 ?%3A City is im0ortant for I-n *haldun! -ecause he is ?alsoA a
historian of city-economics. ,nd historiogra0hy of city-economics is a long and tiring struggle.
*asad ,nd Fasad
(e fre=uently see the +ords of kasad and fasad in Mu=addemah. *asad means Fstagnant in
market trade! stagnation! stagnancy" time of scarcity or unem0loyment! and FkasidB) not in
demand! dull ?marketAB ?%%A and fasad) Fintri=ue! sedition! disorder! mischief..B" in Mu=addemah)
2..raga-at-al nas =aliylun ila eshya +a am+al-al tuJJar! +a su=-un kasid +a hal-al -aldah
fasidun ..4 ?+hen the desire ?demandA of the 0eo0le is /ery fe+ to goods and commodities of
tradesmen! ?at the endA a dull market and the city is in a disorder 0osition! a not-tran=uilly
situation4 ?%$A
Scarcitiy and a-undance +ere conce0ts that e/ery-ody used to kno+ these in the long
0reca0italist centuries of the history. E/en thousands years ago" in the time of Pro0het Eose0h!
Egy0tian 0eo0le had seen se/en scarcity and se/en a-undance years ?>uran!#<)%3-%:A History
of humanity sa+ a lot of cyclic 0eriods -efore the cyclic theorists 0ut their theories. ,dam Me6
mentiones an interesting s0eculatice action of traders of grain in the :th century ?CEA that they
earned at first #< million derhams ?sil/er coinA -ut at the end a sudden lo+ in 0rices they lost 55
million derhams. ?%5A
Economic fluctuations +ere noticed -y I-n *haldun that he +as dra+ing a com0leted ta-le of
city ci/ili6ation +ith the elements of shocks and de0ressions in the +ay of rise-gro+ and
colla0se. His studies +ere historical -ut also em0irical. He +athced! first! the stagnation in the
market and dull seasons and -eginning of dull years and colla0se of cities! he sa+ ghost to+ns
and ghost cities! -efore the years of a-andoned to+ns of Dnited States! in the #:th century.
Harms of e3cessi/e a-undant and /ery chea0 0rices ?has- and rakha.A ?%8A Harms of a-undant
s0reads from /illager to miller and -aker. &his situation shocks the 0osition of tradesmen and
causes stagnant! and in/estments are delayed. Stock sur0lus also in sugar! honey and te3tile gi/e
harms to artisans and -usinessmen.4 (e remem-er in this 0oint a /erse in >uran) 2..E/ery
thing is in ?dueA 0ro0ortion in His ?CodBsA 0resence4 ?#3)1A &hat is Cod gi/es e/ery thing to the
humanity in a +ell-calculated! mesaured! 0lanned. &he man also ha/e to 0lan his
tradingG0roduction according to the needs of market.
I-n *haldun mentiones an Fun-roken 0ros0erity ?affluenceA 0eriodB ?first time in the historyA and
0uts necessary conditions of this 0eriod. 2(hen the earnings and goods ?and foodsA circulate
ra0idly and easily! +ithout any im0ediment. &his is a time and a condition -et+een scarcity and
a-undant as Fmuta+assitB ?that inter/enes! intermediate! middle termA4 &hus! he 0uts t+o
o00osite 0olars ?o/er0roduction and under consum0tionA in economic dise=uili-rium and
27
se0arates these t+o +ith definite lines. His gi/ing im0ortance es0ecially to Fo/er0roductionB
-efore industrial ca0italism is ?the first in history of economicsA and +ith the sentence of Prof.
Sa-ri Dlgener) 2only this to0ic is enough for I-n *haldun to say for him he is the head of
theorists of crisis4 ?%1A
&he Father of City &heorists
Saying) 2Constructing of -uildings and cities is the characteristics of ci/ili6aton that reason of
this is affluence and +elfare. Creat -uildings could not -e -uilt -ut only +ith a -ig coo0eration
and hel0 of different sectors to each other.4 I-n *haldun adds) 2(hen the cities -egin to colla0se
in the arts and crafts ?industryA! em-roiderers! goldsmiths! scri-ers ?0rofessional +riter of letters
and 0etitionsA disa00ear from these cities.?%:A 'ut some cities go on to li/e. If the hinterland of
these cities is cro+ded! rich men of this hinterland come these cities and these ?ne+A rich men
-ecome ci/ili6ed citi6ens of the ?oldA city.
!n'ironm&nt.2City has to -e -uilt on a geogra0hy has got a con/enient climate and good
+eather! +ind for 0rotect the calamities and illness. 'ecause if the +eather of the city is hea/y
and dirty or the city is in the near of a lake or ri/er that its +ater has got a -ad smell the -ad
im0acts s0read ra0idly to the city and causes to the illness for the all of the creatures of the city.
&hese are the kno+ledges that are o-tained +ith o-ser/ations.4?$;A
M&a-(iti&s M&tropolitans. Muslims are not foreigner the conce0t of mega-cities from the early
days of Islam" -ecause in >uran they sa+ destroyed cities of ancient nations. ,ntioch had got a
0o0ulation of one million and three 0ro0hets had -een sent to this mega city! mentioned in >uran)
?35)#3-<8A I-n *haldun mentiones a note from the FHistory of 'aghdadB of *hati- 'agdadi that
2In the 0eriod of cali0h MaBmun! the num-ers of -athes had reached to si3ty-fi/e thousands and
in that time 'aghdad used to include more than forty cities and to+ns adJacent and near each
other. &hatBs +hy it +as im0ossi-le to ram0art 'aghdad +ith one city +all. I-n *haldun also
adds cityBs defence is /ery easy +ith this +all. , +all is e=ual a lot of soldiers that +ithout a
0o+erful army a city can defence itself +ith 0rotecting of this ram0arts. &he citi6ens of the city
use this ram0arts as a castle.,iff&r&nc&s -mon (iti&s. (e see Fem0irical method in
historiogra0hyB of I-n *haldun. It is also Fto use em0irical methods in economics.B He o-ser/es
the differences in the -eggars of different cities and takes out scientific results from these)
2?.ifferences in the 0ositions of the citiesA are o-ser/ed in the conditions of 0oors and -eggars.
For e3am0le the condition of a -eggar of Morocco is -etter than a -eggar of &elamsan or
(ahran. I +atched -eggars of Morocco +ere asking money for killing a sacrifice ?shee0 or goatA
in the days of Festi/al of Sacrifice. ,nd they +as asking meat! -utter! s0ices! garments! 0ots and
0ans that they may -e added lu3ury" if a -eggar +ants these in &elamsan or (ahran heGshe is
reJected e/en is scolded.4
Hih Incom& .&'&l of Islamic (ountri&s. (e also see these sentences in Mu=addima) 2In our era!
+e hear some ne+s a-out the richness of Cairo and Egy0t that +e are astonished at a high degree
of the lu3ury and richness. E/en -ecause of listening these ne+s a lot of 0oors in Morocco they
-egin to immigrate to Egy0t. @rdinary 0eo0le -elie/e that this high condition of Egy0t is from
the generosity and charita-le of the nation of Egy0t and they ha/e got /ery much +ealth. 'ut this
is not true. &he only reason is FumranB of Cairo is much 0o0ulated than the cities of Morocco. If
the incomes and e30enses increase! the inha-itants of the city meet the affluence and +elfare and
28
city -ecomes larger. ,nd the result of the e3cess in la-or and o/er0roduction the aid to the others
-ecomes /ery easy.4?$#A
%o+n and City in the 0ormation of 1rices
Phili0 *. Hitti had said) 2...In the Mu=addima he ?I-n *haldunA discusses social cohesi/eness
and its -asis! climatic and occu0ational influences on grou0 character! 2la+s4 of social change!
economic and religious determinism Oall in an original +ay. 9o such a00roach or treatment had
-een kno+n -efore" it is almost modern! and he has therefore -een called the father of sociology
and of the 0hiloso0hy of history.4 ?$<A FCityB is in the center of I-n *haldunBs theories. 2Cha0ter
Four ?of his Mu=addemahA co/ers on the societies of ur-an ci/ili6ation ?Fumran hadariA! that is
of the most de/elo0ed and so0histicated forms of ci/ili6ation" and Cha0ter Fi/e) on industries
and economic affairs in general.4 ?$3A (hen I-n *haldunBs name is said! the life of -edouinism
is remem-ered for his theory of Fasa-eyyaB and +hen the +ord of Fasa-eyyaB is mentioned e/en
?someA academicians think and su00ose that the thesis of I-n *haldun are a-out rural affairs!
thinking tri-al traditions in ,ra-ic communities! -ut on the contrary I-n *haldun ?e/enA
encourages ur-ani6ation) 2...essentially these settlements are not acce0ted e/en a city. &he
0osition of these small to+ns is /ery -ad and +ho li/e in these 0laces are nearly in 0o/erty. &heir
+orks ?la-ours! struglesA are not enough e/en for their necessary e30enses. It is im0ossi-le also
fort them to increase in their earnings or to do sa/ings. &hatBs +hy e3ce0t /ery rare 0ositions!
d+ellers of these small to+ns are in 0o/erty and neediness.4 ?$%A
(e ha/e to remem-er that Islam is also a city ci/ili6ation. &he Pro0het Muhammad +as -orn and
-egan his duty in the most famous city of ,ra-ia. 9ot only the 0ro0het Muhammad -ut all of the
0ro0hets -efore him +ere sent to city centers. ?2,nd your Cod did not destroy the cities! till He
had sent to their mother city a 0ro0het...4 ?<1)$:A In the early centuries of Islam Ffriday 0rayerBs
+ere not 0erformed ?in the /illages and to+nsA -ut only in the cities. (e see in the history that
muslims -egan to -uild great ?e/en megaA cities ?e/enA in the first century of Islam.
I-n *haldun also is the first +ho searched and follo+ed 0rice fluctuations and 0rice differences
in small and -ig cities. He says 0rices of goods and foods and demands and su00lies of these
goods and foods change according to the -igness and smallness of cities. 2If a city -ecomes rich
and 0ros0erous and its 0o0ulation increases" the 0rices of foods and necessary things like these
-ecome chea0" -ut the 0rices of fruits and like these increase. ,nd on the contrary if the FumranB
?-eing culti/ated and 0ros0erousA of the city decreases and the 0o0ulation goes do+n the 0rices
of necessary things for li/ing increase and the 0rices of Fsecond degree needsB ?fruits etc.!A
-ecome chea0. &he 0roduction of necessary things in these small to+ns is /ey fe+ thatBs +hy the
0eo0le do stocks ?hide! -ury! accumulateA
these things and this action increases the 0rices. It is difficult to find these necessary things in
small to+ns and this situation increases the 0rices.4?$$A
Saying 20u-lic -athes are only seen in o/er0o0ulated ci/ili6ed cities -ecause 0u-lic -athes is a
need that re=uired lu3ury! richness! and to -e in comfort. &hatBs +hy 0u-lic -athes are not seen in
middle si6e cities. 'ut sometimes some sultans ?kingsA and amers ?0rinces! rulersA -uild these ?as
their generosityA in the small cities. 'ut if a ?necessaryA demand for +orking of these -athes is
not found! these -athes are left and ruined. 9o one +ants to rent ?run! o0erateA these 0laces
-ecause of /ery fe+ income4?$5A! I-n *haldun as an Islamic scholar +as 0ointing that F?at least
29
some ofA economic crisis are not a destiny for humankind and ?also some of ?may -e maJority ofA
economic crisis are 0re/enta-le.?$8A &he matter of F0u-lic -athes in small citiesB is also an
e3am0le for non-useful in/estment of state?S&@ state o+ned enter0risesA.
(e see another e3am0le in Mu=addemah that) 2Hou ha/e to kno+ that if la-or and +orking
cease to e3ist +ith decreasing of umran ?state of good or flourishing culti/ation! ur-an
ci/ili6ationA Cod 0ermits the loss of earnings there. (hat 0eo0le says is true) 2&he 0laces that
decrease their umran! sustenance of their cities also lose4 ook at some ri/ers in the deserts.
Some ri/ers disa00ear +hen the communities lea/e around of this ri/er -ecause the +aters of
these ri/ers come from the +ells. ,nd these +ells dry also these ri/ers dry. &his is similar to milk
the teats of animals. (hen +e do not milk a milch animal! the teat dries.4 ?$1A &his is a good
e3am0le for the im0act of +orking for getting sustenance that in >uran +e see) 2,nd that each
?manG+omanA can ha/e nothing sa/e +hat he stri/es for! ,nd that hisGher effort +ill -e seen4
?$3)3:-%;A
Psychological ,nd Sociological Effects @n Economics
2Initially! in fact! I-n *haldun +as 0reoccu0ied +ith e0istemology. &hen gradually! meditating
on the method and the matter of history! he +as led! in full consciousness of +hat he +as doing!
to create +hat he refers to as his 2ne+ science4 ?Film mustan-at al-nashBaA! +hich itself turned
out to contain more or less im0licitly the starting 0oints of se/eral a/enues of research leading to
the 0hiloso0hy of history! sociology! economics and yet other disci0lines...He considers that the
-asic causes of historical e/olution are in fact to -e sought in the economic and social
structures...Moreo/er the e30lanation he gi/es is not e3clusi/ely a socio-economic one -ut also
0sychological.4 . M. &al-i +rites a-o/e sentences and =uotes 9. 9assarBs sentence) 2&he
Prolegomena ?Mu=addemahA do not contain only a general sociology -ut also a /ery detailed and
su-tle social 0sychology +hich may -e di/ided into 0olitical 0sychology! economic 0sychology!
ethical 0sychology and general 0sychology.4 ?$:A
Harms of ,&monstration !ff&ct. etBs go on from Mu=addemah) 2...'ecause the nation follo+s
the state and the ethics of nation is a00ro0riate to the ?administrators ofA state..?Es0eciallyA &he
nota-les of the ca0ital city ?although they are not the founder fathers of the state -utA act in
different -eha/iours +ith the ?esta-lishment of theA state..In densely 0o0ulated cities the 0rices
are high. 'ecause all of the tradesmen and artisans reflect all of the e30enses ?that they did for
their goods and 0roductsA to the 0rices. &hatBs +hy the ta3es also are added to the 0rices. &hus!
the e30enses of citi6ens ?+ho li/e in the citiesA reach from the reasona-le measures to the degree
of 0rodigality. &hese lu3urious ha-its and li/ing conditions of ci/ili6ed life transform these
citi6ens like sla/es of this high societic life. It is im0ossi-le to esca0e from this ?ne+A life. So all
of their earnings go to the e30enses ?and e/en after a 0eriodA they can not 0ay the e30enses and
they fall in 0o/erty. .emands for the commodities in the markets decrease! and markets go to
stagnation and the 0osition of the city is s0oiled.4
/sycholoy of (orruption -nd Its 0ocioloy and 1&n&ral !thics and !ff&ct of ,&mand for
.u2ury to th& (rim& 2Hes! the thoughts of these men! any more! are intensified that +hich tricks
are useful for their needings and they -egin to lie! gam-le! to decei/e the 0eo0le! theft! to 0erJure
oneself! to gi/e-take interest and usury that they dare to do e/ery e/il. ,nd they kno+ /ery +ell
the +ickednesses and their +ays -ecause of their desires that -orn from their lu3ury and 0om0.4
30
3o H&r&dity !ff&ct. 2'ecause! the men are human kind and resem-le each other. .ifference
among them is only from good ethics. So -ad ethics -ecomes dominant in a man and good ethics
are s0oiled in him! to -e a no-ility or aristocracy and to come from a 0ure and honoura-le
ancestors is no use. (e see a lot of men like these they enter the community of disgraced and do
e/ery -ad actions. If this kind of 0eo0le increase in a nation! Cod 0ermits the destroying of this
country. &his /erse indicates this) 2(hen (e ?CodA decree that a cityGcountry should -e
destroyed! (e ?first +arn andA command those of them that li/e in comfort! and yet they 0ersist
in sin so that the +ord ?of destroyA is 0ro/ed true against them! and then (e destroy them
utterly.4 ?#8)#5A ,t the -eginning! +ith the im0act of lu3ury! the 0osition of men are go -ad and
then city is destroyed.4?5;A
- /ractical Man and -lways a /ramatic. &he sentence of -ig name of <;th century orientalism
,l-ert Hourani indicates that I-n *haldun had 0ut the su-Ject ?definitionA of FscarcityB four
centuries ago from +estern economists) 2...once more there +as contro/ersy a-out this among the
learned. I-n *haldun -elie/ed that it +as 0ossi-le to 0roduce gold and sil/er -y sorcery or -y a
di/ine miracle! -ut not -y human craft" e/en if it +ere 0ossi-le it +ould -e undesira-le! since! if
gold and sil/er +ere no longer scarce! they could not ser/e as measures of /alue.?5#A
Clo-al Economics LisionBs of I-n *haldun
ouis 'aeck searches I-n *haldunBs economic thoughts and says) 2I-n *haldun is the first
,ra- author dra+s a glo-al economics 0icture.'aeck in his 0a0er) 2Clo-al Economics LisionBs
of I-n *haldun4 +rites) 2Mu=addemah is a Fsocio-economic e/olution theoryB of I-n *haldun.
F,sa-eyyaB as in the center of I-n *haldunBs theory is a Fgrou0 solidarity.B Production theory
according to I-n *haldun is an acti/ity of human kind that +e see it as sociological and
international. a-or is the most im0ortant factor in 0roduction. 'ut man can not 0roduce his
e/ery needings. He is in need of sociological coo0eration.,nd to s0eciali6e in different
occu0ations and di/ision of la-or occur. 'ut this time o/er0roduction -ecomes a 0ro-lem.
,ccording to I-n *haldun! reser/es ?of moneyA is not a measurement for affluenceG+elfare of a
country! -ut degree of e30ertise and high degree in di/ision of la-our that these gi/e a more
0roduction to a country! and at the end a high +elfare.
Inde0endent Central 'anks
ouis 'aeck mentiones the sensiti/ity of I-n *haldun the /alues of gold and sil/er. I-n *haldun
offers a Freligious institutionB has got an authority to control of /alues and +eights of ?gold and
sil/erA coins. &he 0rice of gold and sil/er should not change. &hese are measurements of /alue.
'ut the 0rices of the other goods may -e fluctuated. It is seen that I-n *haldun is su00orter of
fi3ed currency and a 0o+erful Central 'anks theory. ouis 'aeck also mentiones that I-n
*haldunBs a00roach to a Fnational accounting conce0tB +ith his theory on di/iding. He says a
0rice of a 0roduct is formed -y three elements) the right of 0roducer! the right of tradesman! the
right of authorities ?ta3A. &he 0rices are influenced -y Fsu00ly and demandB and ta3 0olicies of
go/ernments. Mor& /opulation. 'aeck sees the 0o0ulation 0olicy of I-n *haldun. I-n *haldun
says more 0o0ulation means high di/ision of la-or and high +elfare degree. More 0o0ulation
stimulates the 0rocess of accumulation. 'ut at the end of this 0rocess some 0ro-lems -egin.
Immigration to -ig cities causes t+o -ottle-necks. @ne cities -ecomes more 0o0ulated and
31
colla0se -egins. &+o! esca0e from countryside regions causes the decreasing of agricultural
0roducts. &he result is famine and illness and decreasing of 0o0ulation.
*ptimal /oint of Ta2&s. 'aeck! at last! estimates the ta3 0olicy of I-n *haldun. 2...,t the end the
limit of ta3es reach a high degree that this ta3 -urden 0re/ent the stimulant of 0roduction and
consum0tion. &his 0osition decreases the re/enues of the state and im0acts the 0o+er of the state.
I-n *haldun claims that there is an o0timal interest -et+een total ca0acity of income and le/el of
ta3ation. If this 0oint is 0assed +ith the forced ta3 takings! the sociological structure -reaks do+n
or the community comes treshold of a re/olution.4 'aeck ends his study saying) 2(e can say as
a result! I-n *haldun formulated the useful of di/ision of la-or long ago than ,dam Smith! he
e/ol/ed a cyclic 0o0ulation theory than Malthus and formulated o0inions on financial economics
-efore su00ly-side economists.?5<A

Creat In/estments of State
&ennessee Lalley 0roJect +as a great 0roJect in DS in #:5;s that a lot of dams had -een -uilt.
Pi0elines! high +ays! -ig international air0orts! great education 0roJects! or great health 0roJects..
and great infrastructure in/estments are encouraged also -y I-n *haldun! -ut he says a
FdeterminationB is necessary for this 0roJects) 2Sometimes to com0lete -ig -uildings is necessary
a non-sto0 and a long 0eriod and coo0eration and energy. So one ?statemanA -egins to -uild this
-uilding and the second or third goes on. E/ery one does his duty to com0lete this 0roJect.4 He
gi/es an e3am0le from the history of ancient times) 2Historians say that .am of MaBre- +as -uilt
in a long 0eriod. HashJu- -egan to -uild the dam and canali6ed the +aters of se/en ?smallA
/alleys to this dam. 'ut he died -efore com0leting and king sog Hemyar com0leted it.4 ?53A 3o
Id&oloical -pproach&s in !conomics. I-n *haldun ado0ts an economics that Fadministrators
?go/ernmentsA should relin=uish some 0roJects if these 0roJects cost /ery much e30ensesB and
gi/es t+o e3am0les that they -oth sho+ he does not ado0t an ideological /ie+0oint in
economics) 2Harun 7asheyd +anted to demolish great 0alace of Chosroes ?kings of old Sassanian
Em0ireA and he assigned a lot of +orkers for this. Creat a3es +ere 0re0ared and the great ?oldA
0alace +as -urnt and /inegar +as 0oured on the -uilding for destroying. 'ut the 0alace could not
-e destroyed and Harun 7asheyd ga/e u0 from this 0roJect. ,lso another ,--asid cali0h MaBmun
decided to 0ull do+n the 0yramids. He collected a lot of men and they -egan to drill the 0yramids
and reached the ca/ity -et+een e3terior +alls and interior +alls. 'ut the +ork is ended in this
0oint.?5%A
Su00ly-Side Economics &heory
In the last years of #:8;s! .emand-Side Economics met a lot of 0ro-lems. ,merican economist
Prof. ,rthur affer offered reductions in ta3es. &his 0olicy +ould increase total market
0roduction and total ta3 re/enues. &his 0olicy -ecame famous in academic en/ironments as
affer Cur/e and some of the other economists contri-uted /alua-le kno+ledge to this theory and
afferBs o0inions entered to literature of economics as Su00ly-Side Economics or Su00ly-Side
&a3 Policy. Prof. Coskun Can ,ktan defends this hy0othesis ?affer EffectA! declared at first in
the history! -y I-n *haldun. &hatBs +hy! Prof. Can ,ktan named this theory as F*haldun-affer
Effect.B Can ,ktan =uotes the sentences of I-n *haldun) 2 ,t the -eginning years of the state! ta3
-ases are lo+ -ut ta3 re/enues are high. 'ut! in the course of time! state -ecomes -igger -ut ta3
re/enues dro0. o+er ta3 rates increases desire of ta3 0ayers to do more +orks. o+ ta3 rates
32
make -igger th& cultural &nt&rpr&n&urship in 0ersons.4 In #1th and #:th centuries some
economists and 0hiloso0hers said similar o0inions on ta3es. .a/id Hume said) 2Hea/y ta3es
destroy industry. High ta3es increase the 0rices of 0roducts.4 ?Hume! #:$$! IUUUG#A ,nd ,dam
Smith) 2High rate ta3es! sometimes decrease ?0roduction ofA some 0roducts and sometimes
encourage illegal trading ?+ithout gi/ing ta3esA. &he solution is to decrease the rates of
ta3es.4?Smith! #:85! %#%A
In #13#! Henry Parnell also defended lo+ rate ta3es. ?*eleher and @r6echo+ski! #:1<! 0!#%;A
'ut P. Miller and , Struthers said F&he Dncertainities of affer EffectB and they added 2 Mellon
ta3 reductions in #:<;s! *ennedy reductions in #:5;s and 7eagan reductions in the -eginning
#:1;s ha/e -een not sufficient.4 'ut the other grou0 of economists re0lied these claims that 2if
+e do not decrease the e30enses of state! the lo+er rate ta3es +ill not -e sufficient.4 In Creat
'ritain and ?(estA Cermany! good results +ere seen +ith lo+er ta3 0olicies. 'uchanan and eeBs
contri-utions to lo+er ta3 0olicy is im0ortant that they said) 2Su00ly-Side Economics is a long
0eriod macro economics 0olicy. It is not true to e30ect an increase in ta3 re/enues +ith lo+er ta3
0olicy in short 0eriods. ,nd more im0ortant instrument that the nation should -elie/e that these
lo+er rate ta3 0olicy +ill not change in a certain 0eriod. &he main 0oint of the su-Ject is) to
change the rates of ta3es! is no+! in the authority of 0arliaments. &hatBs +hy nation do not trust
these 0olicies that may -e ?e/enA tomorro+ a -ill changes the rates. ,nd +estern economists ha/e
gone to a 0olicy ?es0eciallyA in last t+enty yearsA Fa constitutional ta3 0olicy.B Some economists
in DS e/ol/ed a FPu-lic Choice &heoryB 0ut a ne+ disci0line of search as Fconstitutional
economics.B &he 9o-el aureate of #:15 Eames M. 'uchanan e30ressed a F&a3 ConstitutionB
and said) 2&a3 system may only -e discussed in FConstitutional Pers0ecti/e.B ?'uchanan! #:81! 0!
#;$A ?5$A Islamic Ta2 /olicy and..In this 0oint! +e ha/e to remem-er that I-n *haldun took out
his o0inions from /ast Islamic culture. ,nd lo+er ta3 0olicy is the main ta3 0olicy from the early
days of Islam. &he Pro0het Muhammad took only a ta3 of <.$ Q in his life! as a 6akat ?religious
ta3! and not any other ta3.A ,nd Islamic Jurists ha/e -een sensiti/e ?in long Islamic centuriesA the
rates of 6akat that +ere 0ut -y the Pro0het. &hat is +e can say Islamic &a3 Policy had got a
FConstitutional Pers0ecti/eB #% centuries ago.
- ,i'in& -sp&ct of Tradin is also seen in the o0inions of I-n *haldun) 2Cod taught man
kno+ledges and skills a-out agriculture and -asic handicrafts -y teachings of 0ro0hets...
Economic actions are command of Cod. In >uran) F..So seek your 0ro/ision from Cod!?ook for
your sustenance.AB ?<:)#8A Economic action is mu=addas ?sacred! holy! sanctifiedA and mu-arak
?-lessed! -ountiful! aus0iciousA4?55A 'ut I-n *haldun and other Islamic scholars ha/e not
idola6ed economic actions.
ast Sentences on I-n *haldun

,nd ,Jit *. .asgu0ta says) 2the +ritings of I-n *haldun in the fourteenth century! contain some
of the clearest statements! -efore modern times! of 0rice theory in terms of an interaction of
su00ly and demand cur/es. Islamic learning in India did not follo+ that 0ath. Insistence on
ortodo3y and a/ersion to inno/ation remained its -asic characteristics. E/en the highly
so0histicated culture of Mughal India!...4 ?58 3:A 'ut Prof. Celal Heniceri defends o00osite
33
o0inions that he sho+s Shah (aleyyulah al .ahla+i ?in HuJJatullah al-'aligahA and I-n *aldun
defend the similar o0inions and .ahla+i is under the im0act of I-n *haldun in a lot of economic
su-Jects.?51A ,nd I-rahim M. @+eiss +rites 2I-n *haldunBs thoughts +ere transmitted from one
generation to another! from one century to another! from one country to another.4 ?5: %#A
Es0ecially in last $; years! scholars from Ea0an ?Eitsu6o &amura gi/es an economistBs /ie+ on
I-n *haldun! in Ea0anese! in ,Jia ka6ai! Se0tem-er #:53A to France ?C. H. 'ous=uet! es te3tes
sociologi=ues et Yconomi=ues de la Mukaddima ?#38$-#38:A! Paris! #:5$A ha/e -een -usy +ith
I-n *haldun. &he coming years +ill -e the har/esting season of these efforts.
Conclusion
#%th century is a fruitful 0eriod for theori6ing of Islamic economics and a00lied economics of
muslim countries and to find useful thoughts for the glo-al economy of #%th century.
,-solutely to follo+ the studies in the +estern +orld and Islamic lands +ill o0en ne+ doors
for us. For e3am0le! ,dam Sa-raBs ne+ study 2Po/erty and Charity in Medie/al Islam)
Mamluk Egy0t #<$;-#$#84 or studies in French also useful) 7o-ert Mantran?#:#8-::A as the
director of Centre de 7echerche sur lB,fri=ue MYditerranYenne RI7EM,MS and editor of
7e/ue lBoccident musulman et de la MYditerranYe 0ut good studies a-out Mediterranean
,frica and (estern Islamic (orld" Ceorges Mar[ais ?#185-#:5<A he studied on economic
formation of Islamic countries and nations of 9orth ,frica and left a lot of articles and -ooks"
famous French orientalist ouis Massignon ?#113-#:5< studied on financial system of
muslim countries of Middle ,ges and searched artisan and guild organi6ations of Islamic
society! he looked at akhi and futu++at organi6ations as la-or sociology that researchers +ho
kno+ French may study on +orks ?of the last hundred years! in -ooks and JournalsA 0roduced
in this language. Hamdullah al Musta+fi! I-n 'attuta! Egy0tian historian Fadlullah!
geogra0her I-n Said al-Magri-i and I-n *haldun are the li/ing-+itnesses of this century and
a reading-through study on their te3ts is necessary to reach a com0lete study on #%th century.
@n the other hand this study neglected economic conditions of ,ra-ian 0eninsula! Far East
and some 0arts of ,frica for e3am0le! in the 9orth-+est of ,frica! Masmuda tri-e +as
0roducing iron! co00er and sil/er in this century and in Sus city of this region there +as sugar
0roduction and -ig trading roads +ere 0assing on this region that I-n *haldun records and
gi/es more kno+ledge. &he other im0ortant region is Central ,sia. Ma+ara al-9ahr +as also
in the highest +ealth le/el in #%th century as Samarkand had reached its greatest heights in
this 0eriod as the ca0ital of the great em0ire of &amerlane that this region also should -e
searched. Egy0t and Syria are lucky regions for dee0er studies -ecause of much sources.
History of cities of Islamic +orld that +ere studied on them in Islamic and +estern +orlds are
also a /ast source for #%th century. 'ut if +e summari6e in one sentence FIslamic +orld +as
highly rich in the #%th century from Samarkand to Mali from muslim S0ain to India and a
/ery acti/e -usiness life among intermuslim states and glo-al international commerce +as
dominant characteristics
#-I-n 'attuta! Seyahatname! I! <1;-13" ,rthur Serong" 2&he History of *il+a4! E7,SR,0ril
#1:$S!0! %;$-3;! its translation -y Ministry of Culture @f @man! al Sal+a fi ,kh-ari *il+a ?0u-.
34
M.,li al-Sali-iA! Matrah #:1$" ,hmet *a/as-Mustafa . 'ilge! 2*il/e4! &\rkiye .iyanet Lakfi
Xslam ,nsiklo0edisi ?.I,A! /! <5! 0! <%-<$
<-I-n 'attuta! al-7ihla! IL! $3-$8" Casim ,/ci! 2Maldi/ler4! .I,! /! <8! 0!%1%-1$"
3-S. Sulaiman 9ad+i! 2&he Muslim Colonies in India 'efore the Muslim Con=uests4! IC!LIII! 0!
%81-18" Muhammad 9ainar! ,ra- Ceogra0hersB *no+ledge of Southern India! 0! #:" ,6mi
@6can! 2Mala-ar4! .I,! /! <8! 0! %5$-55
%-I=tidar Husain Siddi=ui! Mal/a! .I,! /! <8! 0! $%8-%1" D.9. .ay! 2&he Inde0endent *ingdoms
of Mal+a4! , Com0rehensi/e History of India! ?ed. M.Ha-i--*.,.9i6ami! 0! 1:1-:38
$-I-n 'attuta! al-7ihla! 0! <$3-$8
5-Mustafa Fayda! 2,--as er-7asuli4! .I,! /! #!0! ##8
8-Hamdulah al-Musta+fi! 9u6hat-al >ulu-! 0! 8<
1-Ha=ut al Hama+i! MuBJam al-'uldan! /! IL! 0!335
:-7i6a *urtulus! 2*asan4! .I,! <$! 0! 3-%
#;-Hamdullah al-Musta+fi! 9u6hat al->ulu-! 0! #5<" 7i6a *urtulus! 2ahican4! .I,! /! <8! 0!
$#-$<
##-I-n 'attuta! &ra/els in ,sia and ,frica! tr. H.,.7. Ci--! ondon #:$3! 0! #<;-<#" 7i6a
*urtulus! .I,! 2aristan4! .I,! /! <8! 0! #;%-$
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#5-E. Sottas! es messageries maritimes de Lenise! Paris #:31! 0! 35-$#" Serafettin &uran! .I,!
/! <8! 0! #%$-%8
#8-for ad/anced searches) M. Cortela66o! 2a Conoscen6a della ingua &urca in Italia nel $;;4!
Il Leltro! UIIIG<-%! 7ome #:%1! 0! #33-%#" F. 'alducci Pegolatti! a Pratica della Mercatura! ?ed.
,. E/ans! Cam-ridge #:35A" F. 'raduel! a MYditerranYe et le monde mYditerranYen a lBY0o=ue
de Phili00e II! Paris #:55! I-II" E.,. Kachariadou! &rade and Crusade! Lenice #:13
#1- Serafettin &uran! 2Italya4 .I,! /! <%! 0! %%1-$<"
?#:A Ha=ut al-Hama+i! MuBJam al-'uldan! L! $<" Isa-el Calero-Secall! 2Maleka4! .I,! /! <8! 0!
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?<;A Ismail Hakki D6uncarsili! ,nadolu 'eylikleri! 0! #;
<#- Musta+fi! 9u6hat al->ulu-! 0!::
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<3-Mustafa Cetin Larlik! Cermiyanogullari! 0! <%! ,nkara #:8%
<%-I-n 'attuta! al-7ihla! 0! <31-3:" Musta+fi! 9u6hat al->ulu-! #;$" Mehmet &astemir!
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35
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38-I-rahim E. *o6ak! Insan &o0lum Iktisad! 0! <%:-$; ?from Mu=addima! DganBs translation! /!
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%8- Mu=addima! Piri6ada! /! <! 0! 3##
%1-Sa-ri Dlgener! &arihte .arlik 'uhranlari /e Iktisadi .engesi6lik Meselesi ?Crisis of Scarcity
in the History and the Pro-lem of Economic .ise=uili-riumA! 0! $8
%:-Mu=addima ?Halil *endirBs translation! 0art %! fasl! <;A
$;-i-id! 0art %! fasl! $
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$<-Phili0 *. HittiBs entry in the Encyclo0edia ,mericana #:1:! .an-ury! Connecticut!
$3- M. &al-iBs entry in Encyclo0edia of Islam #:15! 9e+ Edition! E. E. 'rill! eiden
$%-Mu=addima ?*endirBs translation! 0art %! fasl! #;A
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5;-Mu=addima! ?*endir! 0art! %! fasl! #:A
5#-,l-ert Hourani! , History of ,ra- Peo0les! 0! <;%
5<-ouis 'aeck! Economic &hought of Classical Islamic Era! ?ed. Mustafa @6elA! 0! 88-#;3
53-Mu=addima ?*endir! 0art %! fasl! %A
5%-i-id! ?0art! %! fasl! %A
5$-detailed kno+ledge)Prof. Coskun Can ,ktanBs +e- 0ages) +++.canaktan.org
55-I-rahim E. *o6ak! ?from Mu=addima! /! < ! 0! 3<<-<8A
58-,Jit *. .asgu0ta ! , History of Indian Economic &hought! 0! #8$
51-C. Heniceri! 0! #$1 5:-
+++.georgeto+n.eduGo+eissGi-n.htm )?the father of economistsA
'I'I@C7,PHH
,/ci Casim! 2Maldi/ler4 &urkiye .iyanet Lakfi Islam ,nsiklo0edisi #:11- ?.I,A!/! <8! %1%
36
'aeck ouis!Economic &hought of Classical Islamic Era! un0u-lished 0a0er! its translation into
&urkish in Iktisad 7isaleleri ?ed. Mustafa @6elA! 0! 88-#;3! #::%! I6 Hayincilik ?Pu-licationA
Istan-ul
Calero-Secall Isa-el! 2Maleka4! .I,! /! <8
.asgu0ta ,Jit *.! , History of Economic &hought! #::3! 7outledge! 9e+ Hork
.uri! ,-dula6i6! Mu=addima fi al-&arikh al-I=tisad al-,ra-i! ?translation into &urkish! Sa-ri
@rmanA #::#! Endulus Hayinlari! Istan-ul
Fayda Mustafa! 2,--as er-7asuli4! .I,! /! #
Crolier Dni/ersal Encyclo0aedia! I-LIII! #:55! 9e+ Hork
Hourani ,l-ert! , History of ,ra- Peo0les! <;;<! &he 'elkna0 Press of Har/ard Dni/ersity!
Cam-ridge! Massachusetts!
I-n 'attuta! Seyahatname! ?tr. Mehmed SerifA! I-II! #333-3$ ,.H! Istan-ul
I-n 'attuta! 7ihla! I-II!'airut #:8$
I-n *haldun! Mu=addima ?tr. Kakir *adiri DganA /! I-III! Milli Egitim Hayinlari! Istan-ul #:51
I-n *haldun! Mu=addima ?tr.Halil *endirA! /! I-II! Heni Safak Hayincilik! Istan-ul <;;%
I-n >ayyim! Kad al-Maad! Istan-ul #:1:
I-n >ayyim! al-&uru= al-Hukmiyye! >ahira #3#8 ,.H
Hama+i Ha=ut! MuBJam al-'uldan! I-L! 'airut #:$8
*a/as ,hmet-Mustafa . 'ilge!2*il/e4! .I,! /! <5
*a6ici Kiya! 2,hilik4! .I,! /! <$
*o6ak I-rahim E.! Insan &o0lum Iktisad! #:::! the second edition! .egisim Hayinlari! ,da0a6ari
*urtulus 7i6a! 2*asan4! 2ahican4! 2aristan4! .I,! /! <$
Ma=ri6i! al-*hitat! 'airut! ?no dateA! .ar al-Sadr!
Musta/fi Hamdullah! 9u6hat al->ulu-! eiden #:#$ ?&ahran #35< ,.HA
9ad+i S. Sulayman! 2&he Muslim Colonies in India 'efore the Muslim Con=uests4! Islamic
Culture! LIII
@den Kerrin Cunel! 2*aresiogullari4! .I,! /! <%
@6can 9a6mi! 2Mala-ar4! .I,! <5
@6tuna Hilma6! 'uyuk &urkiye &arihi! I-UIL! #:5:! @tuken Hayincilik! Istan-ul
7edhouse .ictionary! #::8! Se/ Hayincilik! Istan-ul
Sayar ,hmet Cuner! Sa-ri Dlgener! #::1! Eren Hayincilik! Istan-ul
Siddi=ui I=tidar Husain! .I,! /! <8
Sahin Ilhan! 2*irsehir4! .I,! /! <$
&asdemir Mehmet! 2Mardin4! .I,! /! <1
&uran Serafettin! 2Italya4! .I,! /! <%
Dlgener Sa-ri! &arihte .arlik 'uhranlari /e Iktisadi .engesi6lik Meselesi ?Crisis of Scarcity in
the History and the Pro-lem of Economic .ise=uili-riumA #:$#! Faculty of Economics!
?Dni/ersity of Istan-ulA!the second edition Mayas Hayincilik! ,nkara #:1%
D6uncarsili Ismail Hakki! ,nadolu 'eylikleri ?0rinci0alities of ,natoliaA! #:5:! &urk &arih
*urumu Hayinlari! ,nkara
Larlik Mustafa Cetin! Cermiyanogullari! #:8%! ,nkara
Heniceri Celal! Islam Iktisadinin Esaslari! #:1;! Samil Hayine/i! Istan-ul
37
,9IM, HDS',9.7H F@7 .ELE@PME9&
Economics in dictionary) 2science of 0roduction! distri-ution and consum0-
tion of goods.4?#A 2&odayBs ?+esternAeconomy has got an o-scure terminology. Contradictory
a00roaches and different comments of +estern economists make the minds of human -eing
confused and gi/e an o0inion that there is not any solution for economic 0ro-lems. 'ut if +e may
look the economic 0ro-lems +ith an out of com0le3 /ie+0oint! +e may understand easily
ad/antegeous as0ects of different solutions. E/en ordinary 0eo0le may understand these so-called
2tangled a lot of economic affairs4?<A In animal hus-andry sector! +e find the solutions for a lot
of 0ro-lems of modern economy like unem0loyment! 0o/erty etc. (orking of muslims in this
sector is a00ro0riate for their
history! their characteristics and their conce0t of ci/ilisation" +ith ne+ methods and
systems. &his is not 2im0orted method4 from +estern countries as a de/elo0ment method.
38
,hmad 9aJJar famous first generation Islamist economist +as saying in Eeddah thirty three years
ago) 2(hat is the +ay to rescue Islamic community from underde/elo0ed 0ositionW Is it 0ossi-le
to rescue +ith im0orted methods and systems of the other
?+esternA countriesW4?3A 9aJJar says) 2small ?or non-im0ortantA incomes of citi6ens may
-e an essential resource of finance that +e sa+ this in ?smallA non-interest -anking sys-
tem in Egy0t.4 ?&hey had o0ened : small non-interest -anks -et+een the years #:53-55
in small to+ns.A ,nimal hus-andry sector also gi/es small incomes to the families +ho
+ork in this sector +ith a fe+ cattles. 7icardo +as saying) 2for accumulation of ca0ital! the
state should not take ta3es from agricultural 0roducts some years.4 (e also say that
2e3ce0t 6akat4 the Islamic State should not take any ta3es from agricultural 0roducts and
li/estock animals for gi/ing su00ort to /illage economy in Islamic countries. ,nimal hus-andry
also +ill hel0 the high rate of ca0ital accumulation s0eed that it is higher in
de/elo0ed countries than underde/elo0ed countries. Samuelson mentiones that) 2farmers +ho
feed co+s! their ta3es is /ery lo+ in DS,.4?%A
&ransforming a countryBs economy from consum0tion economy to+ards 0roducti/e economy is
/ery im0ortant for 0re/enting 0o/erty. ,nimal hus-andry sector is
im0ortant for 0roducti/e economy. ,martya Sen ?he +on 9o-el Pri6e in #::1 for his
contri-utions to +elfare economicsA says in 2Cro+th Economics4)
2&he main reasons of 0o/erty are)
?#A underde/elo0ed economy of country
?<A economy is to+ards consum0tion not 0roducti/e
?3A 0roducti/ity is /ery lo+
?%A unem0loyment
?$A -ad income distri-ution4?$A
,nimal hus-andry does not +ant much ca0ital. &hatBs +hy it is a00ro0riate for
underde/elo0ed countries. In the years of last -ig economic crisis ?#:::-<;;<A in &urkey!
some Jo-less men -egan to animal hus-andry only +ith one or t+o co+s and they achie-
/ed to gain enough money for their families. Hundreds of thousands sho0s in the cities
+ere closed in this crisis! some of the o+ners of these sho0s returned to their /illages!
they -ought at the -eginning #$ shee0 and -egan to +ork!they also earned their suste-
nance.i/estock animals are a de0osit or insurance for the farmer. (hen he is in need of
money ?e.g a ne+ -a-y is -orn or an immediate +edding ceremony for his childrenA he sells one
or t+o of his animals and s0ends for his needs.
,'@ISHI9C @F P@LE7&H I9 &E9 HE,7S
(e see in the minutes of *u+ait #th International Kakat Congress that +ith the
a00lication ?gi/ingA of 6akat ?annual religious ta3A! there +ill -e no 0oor in Islamic countries in
ten years.?5A ,lso Sa-ri Erdogdu studied on &urkish economy according to the income of 6akat
and reached a similar result ?in #:1;A that for &urkey! it is 0ossi-le in 1!$ years for the a-olishing
of 0o/erty +hen the ?fullA 6akat is gi/en to the 0oor.?8A,nd also +e ha/e to remem-er li/estock
animals are the ?one of theA main sources of 6akat.

',,9CE @F P,HME9&S
39
'alance of trade of underde/elo0ed countries are minus. &he main reason
?of thisA is 2not a-le to 0ay4 de-t of im0ort 0roducts +ith the income of e30orts. Products
of animal hus-andry sector also +ill hel0 to -uild a 0o+erful e30ort structure.ack of food is not
a 0ro-lem only for underde/elo0ed countries -ut also +e see 0oor =uarters in the -ig cities of
de/elo0ed countries. 'ut a family -usy +ith ?inA animal hus-andry sector!can 0roduce its meat!
milk! -utter! cheese +ithout 0aying any money. &his sector is genuine economic 0o+er of a
country for economic! social! cultural and 0olitical inde0endence. For 0o+erful 0ri/ate sector and
for ne+ em0loyment fields! Islamic State ha/e to su00ort this sector.
(e see 2milk foundation4s in Islamic history that they used to distri-ute milk to children
free?+ithout taking any moneyA.?1A 'ut today .r.Cha0ra says) 2 &he im0or- tant
of milk can not -e denied for rich or 0oor children -ut ho+ much money a 0oor family can s0end
for milk in ?e/enA a ca0italist societyW4?:A 2Food security4 is also ?stillA a 0ro-lem of all
humanity.

&HE EC@9@MH @F P@LE7&H

Contem0orary famous economist @mar Cha0ra tells the sentence of the o+ner of 9o-el Pri6e ?of
#:8:A &heodore Schult6) 2&he maJority of the humankind are 0oors. If +e +ould kno+ the
economy of 0o/erty! +e +ould kno+ the im0ortant 0ro-lems of economy4. Es0ecially after
#:1;s! 0o/erty -ecame the im0ortant 0ro-lem of +estern economists. Sa-ying) 2+hereas4 @mar
Cha0ra) 2It is said that Fthe economists are the re0resentati/es of 0oorsB-ut the +estern
economists could not reach good results for 0oors. .aily calory 0er ca0ita is lo+er in #:1$! than
#:5$ in a lot of underde/elo0ed countries ?according to (orld 'ank re0ortA. In this 0oint
!Islamic economy is the only candidate for sol/ing 0ro-- lems of 0oors and as a -alanced +orld
economy.4 ,nimal hus-andry sector +ill sol/e the 0ro-lem of insufficient alimentation and
families -usy +ith this sector +ill gain some ?0ro-a-ly in small amountsA sur0lus money
?sa/ingsA and +ith this money!they +ill -e- come shareholders of -ig factories! com0anies! thus
non-interest hot money ?sa/ingsA +ill -e ready for industry. Im0ro/ement in the animal
hus-andry sector means)the hea/iest 0ro-- lem on the go/ernments 2unem0loyment4 +ill
-ecome! less im0ortant -ecause! this sector +ill 0ro/ide 2self-em0loyment4 for millions of
0eo0le.
&HE C@D9&7HSI.E .ELE@PME9& IS 9ECESSI&H
@mar Cha0ra says) 2&he maJority of the 0o0ulation of underde/elo0ed count-
ries are in o0en countries. &heir reaching to +elfare only +ill -e 0ossi-le +ith countryside
agricultural ?farmingA de/elo0ment. &his kind of de/elo0ment is not a 0reference -ut a ne-
cessity for them. 'ut for a good agricultural de/elo0ment ?and farmingA is necessary the
increasing of their incomes. &hatBs +hy! in countryside +e ha/e to su00ort small and mic-
ro scale industries.4. Schumacher also says similar sentences) 2&he centers and sources
of 0o/erty in the +orld are -first of all- in the o0en country regions of 0oor countries.
&heir days 0ass in charities sent to them and ?em0tyA de/elo0ment ?0romisesA. If +e do
not su-mit to them small scale technologies their 0ro-lems ?immigration to cities! unem0-
loymentA +ill go on.?#;A Small scale technologies are 0ossi-le in leather! shoe industry! in +ool!
meat! dairy! shee0 intestine industries interested animal hus-andry. Cha0ra also mentiones Italian
40
Small 'usiness ?from ,lan FriedmanA and there are leather handi+ork! shoe handi+ork... in
family-+orksho0s in Italy.?##A
ouis 'aeck mentiones I-n HaldunBs economic thoughts! in the article of 2&he Economic
&hought of Classical Islamic Era4. I-n Haldun says) 2there are t+o 0ro-lems in the immigration
to+ards cities! first" the cities gro+ e3cessi/ely and colla0sing
?in cityBs economy and social lifeA -egins! the second" esca0ing ?lea/ingA from countryside causes
decreasing in agricultural 0roducts. &he result is famine and illness.4?#<A &hat
is famine is the 0ro-lem of all eras.
,-dula6i6 ,l .uri +rites that 2,--asid Co/ernments in 3th and %
th
hegira
centuries ?#;th! ##th centuries in CEA ! ga/e credits and other su00orts to animal hus-andry
sector.?#3A 'ut after four hundred years es0ecially in Egy0t! the life of the /illage had -een
destroyed! animals had died! the ta3 of she0herdness and -ecause of other 0ro-lems! a lot of
/illages had -ecome ghost to+ns.?,l .uri narrates from Ma=rN6iA
E/ery Islamic economist 0oints similar 0ro-lems of 0oor andGor underde/elo0ed countries)high
inflation! high unem0loyment rate! -ig trade deficits and hea/y de-t.
,ll of these sho+ a non--alanced macro economy. &hey study ?ha/e studiedA a kind of
de/elo0ment that its target to decrease non--alanced 0ositions in macroeconomy. (estern
economists can not think a ho0e of a ra0id de/elo0ment and full em0loyment +ithout increasing
inflation and +ithout macroeconomic out of -alance and +ithout hea/y economic insta-ility.
&hese economists also ha/e a fundamentalist economic /ie+0oint. @mar Cha0ra gi/es t+o
interesting e3am0les)
?#AEugene Staley says) 2Dnderde/elo0ed countries can only de/elo0e +ith the
imitation D.States.
?<ACunnar Myrdal ?the o+ner of 9o-el Economy Pri6e of #:8%A claims that)
2ideals of modernisations are a00ro0riate for +estern 0eo0les -ut these ideals are foreig-
ner for underde/elo0ed! 0oor countries? ,sian .ramaA4?#%A
'ut +e today kno+ that after a hard and rational +orking of <$ years China
reached in <;;3 ItalyBs le/el in trading and its target to reach to the second degree after DS, in
future <$ years. ,nd Malaysia -ecame a good e3am0le in technology and industry! India in
com0uter science. ,nd the history tells to Myrdal and Staley the o00osite e3am0les. @nly three
centuries ago Islamic Countries +ere +elfare states from @ttoman Em0ire to ,/rang6i-Bs India!
e/en a hundred years ago! at the -eginning years of <;
th
century Istan-ul +as the chea0est city of
the +orld. &o sol/e the modern economyBs 0ro-lems and to 0ut an Islamic economic
de/elo0ment is not much difficult +ith Islamic 0rinci0les. Islamic lands sa+ a lot of +elfare
0eriods from the -eginning years of Islamic history in the 0eriods of &ruthful Cali0hes ?Hulafau
7ashNdiynA! in ,--asid .ynasty in the High Ci/ilisation of Muslim Central ,sia.
(e a-solutely ha/e to take lessons from our history and also from our +rongs. ,nd +e kno+ that
&he Pro0het Muhammad said)4*no+ledge is the lost of the -elie/er ?muslimA! he takes it +here
he finds.4 (e Oas muslims-take the useful kno+ledge in economics or other sciences -ut not
41
imitating! if ada0tation is 0ossi-le +ith our Islamic culture and Islamic 0rinci0les +e do not a/oid
to take ne+ kno+ledge. In this 0oint +e +ill look at animal hus-andry sector of +estern countries
+ith according to a-o/e /ie+0oint"

,nimal hus-andry sector in the 0eriod of 9ational E30ansion of DS, +as im-
0ortant. &he cattlemen dominated the 0lains from the late #15;s to the middle #11;s. 'y
going strategic control of the scarce su00lies of +ater on the semiarid 0lains! grou0s of
cattlemen controlled thousands of s=uare miles of gra6ing land. ,ided -y the de/elo0ment of the
transcontinental railroads and -y the 0erfection of mechanical refrigeration! they +ere a-le to
market their animals in the East and e/en in Euro0e. 'ut +e also kno+ today that! famous
,merican +riter D0ton Sinclair +rote his famous no/el 2&he Eungle4 ?&he Sloughterhouses of
ChicagoA and the 0eo0le of D.States sa+ tragical conditions in meat industry. ,fter 0u-lishing of
this no/el in #:;5! in si3 months Food ,ct +as changed -y Congress. 'ig 0rotests ha00ened to
the cartels and trusts that ,merican meat industry +as in their hands. &he no/el 0ut hateful tricks
of ca0italists that they had +anted to 0re/ent 0eo0leBs understanding of the realities. .irty
canned-meats...and deadly hea/y +orking conditions for +orkers that after a fi/e yearsB +orking
in some 0arts of these factories a lot of +orkers +ere losing their +orking 0o+er and they +ere
-ecoming -eggars in the streets...that +e ha/e not seen like tragical e3am0les in Islamic history.
It is also a reality that +estern countries made a lot of 0rogressi/e +orks in -reeding of farm
animals in the 0ast and today also there are a lot of -reeding institutions and a lot of e30erts
+orkGstudy on animal hus-andry in +estern countries. In the +est of England! Herefordshire is
famous +ith Herefordshire Co+! in the middle-east England! South Cam-ridgeshire Co+ is -red
to 0roduce high yields of milk and meat. South Hams in .e/on Pro/ince dairy farming is
+ides0read. In &otnes there is a center for dairy 0roducts for collect! to 0rocess and for
distri-ution. In the Crantham 0lateaus of incolnshire shee0 are -red. ,round of @3fordshire
milk 0roduction is im0ortant that de0ends on the co+ -reeding. Southdo+n shee0 is famous high
=uality of meat 0roduction and its thin +ool. Ham0shire shee0 is also famous +ith its meat and
+ool. 'ritish farmers +orked for -reeding to 0roduce highyields of meat on Hereford co+ along
the generations.
Economy of DS, -egan to gro+ ra0idly after #1#$ and 2animal hus-andry em0ires4 and 2great
+heat em0ires4 had -een seen. , lot of ne+ cities like Chicago +ere esta-lished. &here +as
shee0 -reeding from high /alleys of &e3as to 9e+ Me3icoBs Pecos Lalley in #:
th
century in
DS,. 'ut from the -eginning years of <;
th
century co+ -reeding started in these regions ?statesA
and today +e see co+ -reeding in ,ri6ona! @klahoma! 9e+ Me3ico and &e3as.
&e3as is in the first degree in -reeding of co+ and shee0 in all of the DS,.
E/en in 9e+ England! for e3am0le Connecticut State is an industry state -ut meat
0roduction and -reeding of dairy cattle is also im0ortant. &here are #;;!;;;!;;; co+s in DS,
and millions of shee0.&here are #;; co+s in e/ery %; s=uare kilometer in the (est regions. (e
read 2?Southern States of DS,A..the 0rinci0le source of rural income is li/estock! +hose 0roducts
are +orth more than t+ice as much as the income of the t+o 0rinci0le cro0s! to-acco and
cotton...4?Crolier Encyclo0aediaA
Corn! oats! -arley and a lot of grains are gro+n for fodder in the /ast inland /alleys of Canada
and DS, for -reeding of millions of li/estock animals. Meat consum0tion is %$ kilograms for a
0erson in DS, and $!< kilograms in &urkey that &urkey is not one of the 0oorest Islamic
42
countries. &here are millions of 0eo0le in Islamic countries that they only can see meat in their
houses only in the days of ,ydu ,dha ?sacrifice festi/alA.

] <!;;; PE7 C@(
It +as declared in Cancun (orld &rade @rganisation summit on Se0t. <;;3 that dairy farmers in
Euro0ean Dnity get an a/erage su-sid of ] <!;;; 0er co+! #;; times more than foreign aid 0erson
gi/en to ,frica. .airy farming is a good income from the canton of Sankt Callen of S+it6erland
of 9orth hemis0here to Santa Fe State of ,rgentina of South hemis0here. @ne of the -iggest
grou0s of the +orld 2Dnile/er4 that has got more than $;; com0anies! Dnile/erBs history -egins
+ith -utter e30ort. ,nton and Eohannes 'rothers esta-lished a firm in @ss ?cityA in 9etherland in
#1$% and -egan to e30ort -utter es0ecially to England. &his family ?EurgensA +as -usy
+ith dairy 0roducts from the -eginning years of #1;;s.4?Encyclo0aedia 'ritannicaA
In .enmark! food industry 0ro/ides 3$ Q of total industry incomes of C.P. :; Q of agricultural
0roducts come from animal 0roducts.E30orts of animal farming industry reach <: Q of total
.enmark e30orts. Meat! cheese and -utter are e30orted es0ecially to D* and Cermany from
.enmark .enmarkBs area is %3!;:< s=uare kilometres and 0o0ulation is $!# million.C.P is ]
?DS,A #$#!< -illions. Per ca0ita ] <1!$;; in .enmark.
Druguay as a south ,merica country its area is #85!;;; s=uare kilometres and 0o0ulation is
3!%;;!;;; -ut total num-er of shee0 and cattle are 35!;;;!;;;. Contri-ution of e30orts of animal
hus-andry as shee0 and cattle as ali/e and as meat! +ool and leather is im0ortant for DruguayBs
economy. &he -iggest market for meat e30ort of Druguay is Euro0ean Countries and 'ra6il.
Druguay has not got 0etroleum!naturel gas or coal -ut +ith animal hus-andry this country
0ro/ides a ] 3!1;1 of 0er ca0ita.
S+ift and ,rmour ?0ackaged-meatA and 9ational .airy ?*raftA are in the first <; com0anies of
<;; greatest com0anies of DS,.

&E9-&IMES I9 FILE HE,7S
Saanen a good -reed of goat +as -red to 0roduce high yields of milk in Saanen Lalley in
S+it6erland. &his is one of the most im0ortant -reed of goat that +e see in a lot of Euro0ean
Countries and DS,. Its milk +hiter and easier for digestion.,s an e3am0le &urkey im0orted
Saanen goats and a farmer -ought #; Saanen goats and 0aid 3!;;; dollars. ,fter fi/e years there
are #;; goats and their /alues is at least 3;!;;; dollars.
(e no+ +ill look at some F,@Bs statistics ?<;;#A a-out dairy 0roducts to com0are some
de/elo0ed! underde/elo0ed and some Islamic countries)
#!;;; metric tons
ME,& P7@.DC& IMP@7& EUP@7& &@&,
(orld <38!#%$ <$!;;$ <$!:<3 <3$!58%
,frica ##!<8; 8%: #<1 ##!:#1
.Ji-uti ## # #<
Egy0t #!%3$ <:: # #!83%
Mali <#3 <#3
43
Morocco $:; % 1 $1$
Senegal #8; $ #8$
Sudan 5:3 ## 51<
9orth!Cent
,merica
Canada %!##1 $1; #!%;8 3!<5;
Me3ico %!535 #!<<; :; $!88;
DS, 38!1## <!;8$ %!:1; 3%!113

P7@.DC&I@9 IMP@7& EUP@7& &@&,
South
,merica <$!%#8 3$8 3!#;1 <<!8<<
,rgentina 3!#1; ##8 <%$ 3!51<
'ra6il #$!#58 %$ <!%:% #<!8#1
Chile :$5 :# :; :$8
Druguay %$: #% <;% 3<#
Lene6uela #!<:$ : # #!3;%
,sia :$!;:3 8!#;8 <!5$1 ::!33<
'angladesh ##% #% #<1
China 5$!<5% <!358 #!8;# 5$!:;1
India $!$8$ <%1 $!3<8
Indonesia #!8%< <1 ## #!8$:
Ea0an <!1:% <!1%$ 5 $!$##
*u+ait 88 8: # #$$
Malaysia :8< #1; #3 #!#31
Pakistan #!81< 3 #!88:
Phili00ines #!:88 #%$ # <!#<#
Saudi ,ra-ia $:3 %#< <8 :81
Syria 33: 33:
&urkey #!3#: # ## #!3;:
Dntd.,ra-.Em. 1# #$$ < <3%
'D&&E7 #!;;; metric tons
(@7. 8!55% #!<$% #!<:$ 8!5;;
,frica <;$ #;: 3 3##
9orth!Cen.,mer. 5:; #3; <3 8:#
Canada 1$ <5 #5 1:
DS, $8; $; % 5#5
South ,merica #:3 #; <# #1<
,sia 3!%%: #:# <; 3!5#:
,lgeria < #; #<
Egy0t :8 %$ #%<
i-ya 3 3
Mauritania # < 3
Morocco #8 <: %5
44
9igeria #; % #%
Senegal # # <
Sudan #5 #5
&an6ania $ $
&unisia 3 # %
,6er-aiJan $ 1 #3
'angladesh #1 < <;
Iran #$< #3 #5$
Malaysia #; # :
Saudi ,ra-ia 3 <3 <5
&urkey ##< < ##%
Dntd.,ra- Em. ## 3 1
D6-ekistan 3 8 #;
#!;;; Metric tons
MI* P7@.DC&I@9 IMP@7& EUP@7& &@&,
(orld $1:!$<3 #:!<;< <$!31# $1<!813
,frica <8!$31 <!515 #:# <:!:$: Camerun
#1% $3 < <3$
Chad <<% $ <<:
Egy0t %!;<: 33 < %!;$:
i-ya <#; #51 3##
Mali %:< 31 $3;
9igeria %3< 3%8 3 88$
Sudan %!:53 5% $!;<8
9orth!Cen ,mer. :5!381 #!3<; 8%< :5!18$
Canada 1!#;5 #<: #33 1!;$$
Me3ico :!5#< $;8 ##$ #;!;;%
Panama #8# << #1 #15
&rinidad &o-. #; 8: 8 58
DS, 8$!;<$ %: %<1 8%!5%5
South ,merica %$!:%< #!3#% #!38: %$!113
,rgentina :!155 #< 881 :!;::
'oli/ia <## $1 <1 <%#
'ra6il <#!<1% %<5 3$ <#!58$
Druguay #!%:$ # #11 #!3;8
,sia #8:!#1: %!5$$ 1:$ #1<!:%5
'angladesh <!#3: #5: <!3;1
Iran 5!;#3 < 5!;#$
Malaysia 3: $:$ 88 $$8
Saudi ,ra-ia :1% %53 %3 #!%;$
&urkey :!%:% #5 # :!$##
Dnit.,ra- Em. 13 3;3 : 388
45
Euro0e <#5!383 :!#;3 #8!$%< <;1!3%:
Cermany <1!<#3 #!<1< 8!;<$ <3!#;5
9etherlands ##!<:# #!;13 #!15$ #;!%3:
7ussian Fed. 3<!:<: #$5 ##3 3<!:8#
D* #%!8;: 353 %## #%!58$
@ceania <%!#;3 #<$ %!53< #1!88<
,ustralia #;!18$ $: #!518 :!;18
9e+ Kealand #3!#5< <3 <!:%$ :!$8$

&E9 SHEEP F@7 ELE7H PE7S@9
,rea of 9e+ Kealand is <51!585 s=uare kilometres and 0o0ulation is
3!:%<!;;;. In <;;<! there +ere a-out #; shee0 for e/ery 0erson in 9e+ Kealand
?e/enA com0ared +ith <; shee0 for e/ery 0erson in #:1< +hen the national flock
+as largest 8;!3 million.In <;;<"
3:!$%5!;;; total shee0
%!%:$!;;; total -eef cattle
$!#5<!;;; total dairy cattle
#!5%%!;;; total deer
e30orts of 9e+ Kealand +as ] ?DS,A 3< -illion in <;;<. .airy and
meat 0roducts are 9e+ KealandBs -iggest single e30ort earners that
e30ort of milk 0o+der)] $!1 -illion
e30ort of meat) ] %!% -illion. .airy 0roducts is << Q and meat and edi-le
offal is #% Q of 9e+ KelandBs e30orts. In the 0ast ?and todayA animal farming su00or-
ted the +hole economy. Cra6ing and ara-le land use has decreased -y #< 0ercent since
#::% to #<!; million hectares in <;;< and Fmechanical and electrical machinery 0ro-
ductionB reached #1 Q of all 0roduction of 9K and 8 Q of all e30ort of 9 Kealand. 9e+
KealandBs Per ca0ita is ] #3!1$;

IS PE7 C,PI&, D9IMP@7&,9& W
Schumacher says) FCrand .omestic ProductB has not got any meaning for
me. I understand Ffor go/ern the currency of money for some technical reasonsB! C.P may -e
/ery useful! -ut it has not any meaning for me for estimate of success.
,ll of the Islamist economists and some +estern economists say F0er ca-
0ita is not /ery im0ortant for +elfare of nation.B &his estimate is true for the lack of Just
income distri-ution in +estern countries. 'ut! in Islamic countries! +ith 6akat ?annual religious
ta3A and other instruments! to reach a Just income distri-ution is 0ossi-le and
thatBs +hy a high 0er ca0ita is im0ortant for Islamic countries. Higher 0er ca0ita means
higher hel0 to 0oors in Islamic countries! -ecause 6akat is gi/en ?calculatedAfrom all of
the ca0ital.
S@ME C@@. EU,MPES I9 IS,MIC C@D9&7IES
46
HarJ an oasis in 9aJd region in Saudi ,ra-ia. &his oasis is around some
dee0 0uddles. It had -een decided to -uild a state farm at the last years of #:3;s. &he
oasis -ecame a 0roducti/e agricultural land that cereal! date! /egeta-le and fruit are
gro+n. &he other economic acti/ity is animal farming that cattle! 0oultry and horse are
-red. &raditional dairy farming reached to great =uantity es0ecially the -iggest meat-milk
com-ine of the Middle East +as o0ened in #:1# in the region. , city that +ould li/e and +ork a
0o0ulation of #;;!;;; +as 0lanned in #:1;s.
SanBa a high region in Hemen! lands of SanBa are at a height of -et+een <!;;;-
3!;;; metres. Cattle -reeding and leather manufacture is +ides0read.
Sokoto ?in 9igeriaA is a famous market for leather goods and li/estock ani- mals.
Products of leather handi+ork are e30orted in great amount. ,nd there are a lot of
tanneries! a modern slaughterhouse and an icehouse in the city.
,9IM, HDS',9.7H ,C,I9S& 'I7&H C@9&7@
Imam Ma+dudi says 2to use all of the sustenance of Cod in full rant-a-le
ca0acity and al+ays looking for ne+ sources and to +ork on hidden sources are the so-
lutions of Islam for increasing of +orld 0o0ulation. Hurshid ,hmad says)4Cuesses and
estimates of Malthusian theory are unfounded sus0icions and illusions. &here is not any
economic reason for -irth control. @n the contrary increasing of 0o0ulation is useful for
economy. 9atural sources are too much.4 ,nimal hus-andry sector is also a natural so-
urce under our hands and not hidden! not under the earth like mines! ready for food nee-
dings of millions. ,ccording to Malik -.9a-iBs thought) there are three /ital elements
for changing the 0osition of underde/elo0ed countries) 2man! soil and time! not another!
these three are enough for economic de/elo0ment ?no need much ca0italA.4 Malik -.
9a-i adds 2head /alue is man for de/elo0ment4. Muhammad Sha--ir *han also says
similar sentences) 2Esta-lish a ne+ Islamic model is /ery sim0le ?not com0licatedA. ?Is-
lamic economy first of allA offers ?its rulesA and then ?makesA 0ractice of Islamic instruc-
tions a-out economic life on this model.4 Faridi also su00orts this 0ro0osal! Muhammad
FanJari and Fared 9eggar mention like these thoughts.?#$A
,t the -eginning years of #:1;s Hurshid ,hmad +as saying) 2the -rains of
muslims no+ are studying on inde0endent de/elo0ment strategies that deri/e from the thoughts
and ideals of Islamic community.4 ,ll of the Islamic economic -ooks that +ere
+ritten from #:5$s 0oint the a-olition of famine and 0o/erty. SNddN=N 0oints Imam &a-
ha/iBs Flist of needingsB that +e see Fthe foodB at the first rank.4 &o raise famine and an-
3iety ?of famineA and! to get 0roducts of -asic needings for e/ery-ody and to guarantee
these for future times ?is necessary for an economyA.4
,ccording to M.,-dulmannan that he is one of the 0ioneer Islamic economists)
2&he ?IslamicA model that +ill -e esta-lished! this model should re0resent the 0olicy of
?goodA di/iding. In another e30ression) at the first ste0! this ?goodA di/iding 0olicy shall
-e 0ut ?in 0u-lic o0inionA and then a 0roduction 0olicy for satisfaction of -asic needings
of human kind! not for needings of the market.4?#5A
(hen the 2-asic needings of human kind4 is said! +e also remem-er food nee-
dings and su00orting of animal hus-andry sector ?and a-solutely agricultural sectorA. In
animal farming! the result of economic actions are seen /ery ra0idly! in a short time than
the other industries. &he 0roduction of milk and dairy 0roducts -egin at once! after si3
47
months 0roduction of +ool and after nine months the 0roduce of meat -egin.
Insistence on animal hus-andry sector is ?+ill -eA a challenge to interest-free
+estern economy! es0ecially if +e can -uild small farms ?and also -ig farmsA. ,nimal
farms +ill -e ?likeA small factories 0roduce a lot of needings of human kind. &o +ork
in animal farming Fis not to do +hat *eynes didB. *eynes made sit sym-ols like Fmoney
and creditB in the -ase of his economic theory. Islam 0uts goods ?o-JectsA like F0ro0erty! ser/ice
and +orkingB in 0lace of Fmoney and creditB.
7E. C7@SS &E9&S
2It +as a -oat ride that Hakeem atif +ill ne/er forget. atif! a 35-year-old
Ira=i! had li/ed as a refugee in Iran for eight years..&here he 0aid ] 5!;;; to 20eo0le
smugglers4 for a short -ut risky tri0 to ,ustralia. atif and his family +ere among #%;
0eo0le crammed into an old! #;;-foot-long Indonesian fishing -oat! +hich +as -attered
-y the rough Indian @cean during the t+o-day Journey.4 It +as terri-le!4 says atif)

2I risked the li/es of my +ife and children. 'ut +e decided +e +ould li/e together or die
together. 'ut for CodBs +ill!the -oat +as certain death.4...Many other Middle Eastern refugees
are trying to Join them..Many other Middle Eastern refugees are thought to -e
in *uala um0ur or Eakarta! ready to make the last 0eg of a Journey that ty0ically -egins
in &urkey!Pakistan or Iran...Chinese smugglers! called 2snakeheads!4 are also -usy. &hey
sell refugees fake 0ass0orts! or fraudulent /isas!..0eo0le +ho tra/el to ,ustralia from Pa-
kistan and Sri anka ty0ically arri/e in dila0idated /essels +ith little safety e=ui0ment.
ast Eanuary an Indonesian fisherman +as sentenced to four years in 0rison for taking
#%; Middle Easterners to Christmas Island <!5;; kilometers off ,ustraliaBs +estern
coast4?#8A &o read like these ne+s or to see 7ed Cross tents in some 0oor Islamic co- untries
are not good scenes for a community of dynamic religion as Islam. (hereas mus-
lims! ten centuries ago! +ere -reeding ne+ kinds of camels and they had got ne+ tech-
ni=ues in the -reeding of li/estock and horses. High 0lateaus of 9orth ,frica +ere
2shee0 countries4. S0anish Merino shee0 +as -red -y 'er-er muslims in S0ain that they
had -een settled there. Cattle -reeding +as seen es0ecially in the /alleys of on the shores of
,tlantic @cean of Morocco.?#1A
Hurshid ,hmad mentiones the 2targets of de/elo0ment 0olicy4 and says)
2(e ad/ocate that 0reference should -e gi/en for these three fields)
&o 0ro/ide 0roduction of -asic needings and foods in great amount
&o 0ro/ide defence needings of Islamic +orld
&o 0ro/ide -asic ?hea/yA industry 0roductions ?#:A

@mar Cha0ra also says) 2the duties of Islamic State are Ofirst of all- destro-
ying of 0o/erty! to reach full em0loyment and to reach highest gro+th s0eed.4?<;A
7oger Craudy critici6es +estern ca0italist economy) 2&he (est 0ro/idedZ
the income distri-ution that caused to die of $; millions 0eo0le e/ery year from famine
and -ad nutrition in the third +orld.4?<#A &he realities confirm CraudyBs sentences that
after a 3;; years of ca0italist history! the 0ro-lem of famine still could not -e sol/ed and +e
still see slogans under F,@Bs title 2hel0ing to -uild a +orld +ithout hunger4 and 2+orking
together to fight hunger and 0o/erty4. (e also see tragical calls like 2<3 count-
48
ries in Su--Saharan ,frica are facing food emergencies!according to ne+ re0ort released -y
F,@ today. ?Euly!<3!<;;3A4! 2Famine threatens % million 0eo0le in southern ,frica
?Fe-.!<<!<;;<A4! 2Food insecurity and /ulnera-ility information a00eal..4
P7@PHE& MDH,MM,. ?P'DHA I9 ,9IM, HDS',9.7H SEC&@7

,fter these! +e may look at the 0ro-lem from the /ie+0oint of Islam. &he +ord
2anBam4 ?cattleA! +e see 3< times in >uran. (e understand that animals +ere created for
-enefit of human -eing! and the continuation of manBs life. &hese statements of >uran
sho+ this)
2Ha/e they not seen ho+ (e ?,llahA ha/e created for them of @ur handi-
+ork the cattle!so that they ?mankindA are their o+ners!
,nd (e ha/e su-dued them ?animalsA to them ?humanA! so that some of them
they ha/e for riding! and some for food!
'enefits and drinks ?milkA. .o they not then gi/e thanksW4 ?&he Cha0ter of Ha
Sin!/erses)8#-<-3A
In these and similar /erses! >uran sho+s us the 0rofits and -enefits of the ani-
mals and the +ays of -enefits. ,lso in the life of the Pro0het Muhammad that this life is the
only the -est 0ractice of >uranic 0rinci0les! +e see a lot of e3am0les! in Pro0hetBs daily life
a-out our su-Ject.
&he life of the Pro0het) his marking -y himself the li/estock animals! his taring
?smearing +ith tarA the animals and +orking as a she0herd! his life is in the centre of the
of animal farming. He +as in +orking 0ermanent continuous as a model for his com0ani-
ons. ,nas -. Malik narrates) 2,-dullah ?the son of ,-u &alha al ,nsariA +as -orn ?,-u
&alha +as ,nasBs ste0fatherA. I took ,-dullah ?-a-yA to the Pro0het Muhammad to sho+
him. &he Pro0het had +orn a +oollen cloth and +as smearing +ith tar to a camel.?<<A
ELE7H P7@PHE& (@7*E. I9 &HE ,9IM, HDS',9.7H
2?Cod said )A 2(hat is that in your right hand! @ Moses W4.Moses said) 2It is
my stick ?rodA! u0on it I lean!and +ith it I -eat do+n ?shakeA lea/es for my flock ?my shee0A
and I ha/e other uses it4?>uran! &he Cha0ter of &a Ha! /!#8-1A
&he Pro0het Muhammad had +orked in the sector of li/estock +hen he +as
young. @ne day he mentioned a name of flo+er!the com0anions said) 2@ the Pro0het of
,llah! as if you +ere a she0herd in +ilderness ?o0en 0lainsA W4.?<3A Indeed!the Pro0het
had +orked as a she0herd. ,nother time!the Pro0het said to his friends) 2&here is not
any 0ro0het -ut he a-solutely +orked as a she0herd.4 &he com0anions asked) 2@ the Pro0het!
also you +ere W4 2Hes4 said the Pro0het) 2I dro/e shee0 in the =uarter of *araret of Mecca4 ?<%A
In another time) 2I used to dri/e our shee0 in the =uarter of Eiyad.4 (e learn that!the Pro0het!
sometimes at Eiyad ?the lo+er 0art of MeccaA sometimes at *araret ?a site around MeccaA used to
dri/e shee0. &he Pro0het +as t+enty years old in that time?<$A
&he Christians also say 2the good she0herd4 for Eesus Christ. ,nd the Pro-
0het Moses! +e see this /erse in >uran)
2,nd +hen he ?MosesA came to the +ater of Midian he found there a +hole tri-e of
men! +atering. ,nd he found a0art from them t+o +omen kee0ing -ack ?their
49
flocksA. ?MosesA said) 2(hat is your trou-le W4 &he t+o said) 2(e can not gi/e our flocks to
drink till the she0herds return from the +ater" and our father is a /ery old man.4 ?>a-
sas"/!<3A. ,nd Moses had +orked as a she0herd in the farm of the Pro0het Shuay-.

(H@ IS &HE 'ES& M,9 W
@ne day a +oman Dmmu Malik ,l 'ah6eyyate asked the Pro0het Muham-
mad) 2(ho is the -est manW4 &he Pro0het ans+ered) 2?He isA the man ?li/es! +orksA in
cattle! he gi/es their rights ?their sustenance and he does not cruelty to the animalsA and
o-eys to his Cod ?0erforms the 0rayersA.?<5A
&here +ere she0herd com0anions that ,-u Saed ,l Hudri had said to ,-u
SaBsaa) 2I see! you like to li/e in the countryside and in o0en 0lains. (hen you are among
in your shee0 and you are in countryside in the 0asture and you +ant to call a6an ?+hen
the 0rayer time -eginsA! you ?ha/e toA call a6an in a loud /oice! -ecause..4?<8A
In a similar sentence! the Pro0het said that) 2, 0osition of a she0herd +ho
calls a6an on the 0art of a mountain and 0erforms his 0rayer! ,llah 0leases ?is agreea-le
toA this she0herd and ,llah says) 2,ll of youZ ook at my ser/ant! he is calling a6an! he 0erforms
his ?dailyA 0rayer and he fears from me. I forga/e him and I inserted him to the
Paradise.4 ?<1A
&he Pro0het also had said) 2&he -est 0ro0erty of a man may -e his shee0. ,
muslim runs a+ay from disorder ?and selects ?goesA toA the to0 ?hillsA of the mountains
or to -ottoms of the /alleys.4?<:A
Indeed! there is not any engine noise in this sector and there is a =uiet Jo- en/i-
ronment! no air 0ollution! no stress! no harmful conditions for +orkers es0ecially ner/ous
0ersons may select this sector for +orking.
@ne day the Pro0het said to a +oman com0anion Dmmu Hanee that) 2'uy a
shee0. 'ecause there is -lessing ?fruitfulness!fertilityA in shee0.4?3;A
(@M,9 SHEPHE7.S
Mua+iya -. Hakam ,l Sulame had got a flock of shee0. , female sla/e used to
dri/e this cattle! -et+een ?the 0laces ofA Dhud and Ea++aniyya. @ne day Mua+iya +ent
to look at the flock and +as informed that a +olf had taken a shee0 ?killingA and had ta-
ken a+ay. Mua+iya sla00ed to the female sla/e. He returned to Madina and mentioned
this e/ent to the Pro0het. &he Pro0het -ecame /ery angry!for his sla00ing to her. Mua+i-
ya sa+ this and then said) 2@ En/oy of ,llah ?the Pro0hetAZ do I emanci0ate ?set freeA
herW4...&he Pro0het said) 2Emanci0ate her4...4?3#A
&here +as another +oman she0herd of Dmar ?-.Hatta-A. ,lso she +as a female
sla/e. She sa+ a shee0 that it +ould die in a -rief ?shortA time. She had not got a knife
-ut she sa+ a shar0 small stone. She slaughtered this shee0 +ith this stone ?like flintA.
Dmar came and sa+ -ut said) 2.o not eat it! I am going to the Pro0het and I shall ask it4
and the Pro0het said) 2Hou may eat it4.?3<A
&he com0anions of the Pro0het used to dri/e their camels in turn!day -y
day. D=-a -. ,mer narrates) 2my turn had come. I had dri/en the herd of camels and at the end of
the day I had taken the herd to the shed. ,fter that! I reached to the city-centre and the Pro0het
+as saying to the community somethings.4?33A
&he sector of li/estock +ill go on to the doosday. &he Pro0het informed
50
that! ,-u Hurayra tells) 2I heard! the Pro0het +as saying. 2?a time +ill come and future
generationsA +ill lea/e Madina in this ad/antageous 0osition. ,nd there +ill not stay any-
one in Madina e3ce0t +ild animals and +ild -irds ?that they look for their sustenance in
MadinaA. ?,fter this 0eriodA &+o she0herds from the tri-e of Mu6ayna +ant to go to Ma-
dina and +ill call ?shout atA to their shee0 ?gathering themA and set out on +ay to
Madina. &hese she0herds +ill reach Madina and find it em0ty ?there is not any human-
kind and in a +ild 0ositionA and +hen they reached to the =uarter of Saneyyat-ul (ada!
they +ill fall da+n u0on their faces and +ill die.?3%A
7ICH SHEPHE7.S
&he Pro0het said O+hen ,rchangel Ca-riel had asked him Fthe time of the
doomsdayB- 2In this matter ?the man of A is =uestioned does not ha/e more kno+ledge
from the man he asks4! -ut the Pro0het informed the signs of the doomsday that)
2Hour +atching ?seeingA for the she0herds! they com0etes to -uild the -uildings.4?3$A
,nd another sentence of the Pro0het in this su-Ject)?in the last day of the +orldA 2&he
man +hen he +as milking his milch-camel! the milked milk ?comes out from the ni00leA
can not reach to the 0ot! -ut in a short time the doomsday +ill occur.4?35A
&he li/estock sector +as one of the most im0ortant elements of economic
life in the time of the Pro0het. ,round Madina! there +ere a lot of 0astures. Salama -.
,=+a narrates) 2one day! I set out on +ay ? to go to forest of Ca-aA -efore the 0rayer of
day-reak. ,t that days the milch-camels of the Pro0het ?the camels of the Islamic State!
&reasuryBs camelsA +ere gra6ing at the 0asture of Ku=arad.@n my +ay I met...4?38A
HHCIE9IC P7EC,D&I@9S
,-u Humayd ,l Saeda tells) 2I -rought a -o+l of milk to the Pro0het from the
0asture of 9a=ee. 'ut there is not any lid on the -o+l. &he Pro0het said) 2.id you shut a
0iece of cloth on it ?or you might 0utA a 0iece of +ood on this -o+l.4?31A &he 0asture of
9a=ee +as a 0lace in the /alley of ,=ey= that +as far from #< miles from the ca0ital-city
?MadinaA. &he Pro0het had assigned a #< miles 0lace around Madina for 0asture.?3:A &he
Pro0het had ordered to 0ut a 0iece of cloth or a 0iece of +ood on the -o+l of milk! that his
0ur0ose +as to 0rotect the food and drinks from sand! dust and the other harmful micro-es. &his
is /ery im0ortant for the 0roduction of diary 0roducts and meat.

>D,7,9&I9,
&he Pro0het had gi/en im0ortance to health of the animals. He says) 2&he o+-
ner of the ill-camels should not -ring his ill-camels to near the o+ners of the good-
healty camels.4?%;A &he diseases of animals that are s0readed ra0idly! +e see in the his-
tory! and in modern times! millions of animals of li/estock died from these disease. ,fter
se/en centuries from the Pro0het Muhammad ?P'DHA the +orld noticed this reality. &he
51
+ord F=uarantineB originally referred to the 2forty days4 ?from Italian =uarantaA after arri- /al in
0ort! during +hich cre+ of a shi0 sus0ected of ha/ing an infectious illness a-oard
+as denied contact +ith the shore. &his measure +as introduced in the #%
th
century +hen
0art of Lenice tried to 0rotect itself from -u-onic 0lauge.?%#A
DSI9C @F (,&E7S @F &HE P,S&D7ES
,-out the using of the +aters in the 0astures! the Pro0het said) 2,nyone can
not -e im0eded ?can not -e 0rohi-itedA to use the +ater! this +ater is e3cess ?a lotA for
using of its o+ner ?0ossessorA. &he o+ner of the +ater used for his need and there are
?some +ater -ackA if this +ater is 0rohi-ited ?it means thatA the grass is im0eded! 0rohi-i-
ted.?%<A ?, man has got a +ell in the 0asture!and there is not any +ell around! if the other
/illagersBs shee0 can not -e +atered from this +ell! these animals can not +alk! can not go ahead
and can not eat grass in the other 0astures. For this reason! if the o+ner of this +ell 0rohi-its the
use of +ater of this +ell for the other animals! he also ?it meansA 0rohi-its the eating of the grass.
&hatBs +hy! he should 0ermit to the other flocks to use the +ater of the +ell ?-ut after the o+ner
of the +ell used necessary +aters for his flock.A ?%3A
&@ FE7&IIKE &HE ,9IM,S
&he Pro0het ordered not to take money ?feeA +hen the o+ners of the animals
gi/e the male animals ?animal ke0t for -reedingA on de0osit ?tem0oraryA. , man asked
the Pro0het that) 2@ En/oy of ,llah!+hat is the necessary charity ?e3ce0t 6akat ?religi-
ous legal alms of annuallyA for camels W4 &he Pro0het said)
?#A 2(hen the camels come to +ater and camels are milked and ?some ofA
their milk are gi/en to the 0oor and to the men of 0assing there. ?&his tradition +as -efo-
re Islam in the ,ra- community!and Islam also ordered to go on this good -eha/iourA.
?<A&o gi/e the -uckets of +ater or -uckets of milk to the men of need
?3A&o gi/e the male camels ?for -reedingA on de0osit.4?%%A
MI* ,9. .I,7H P7@.DC&S
2,nd in the cattle ?tooA you ha/e a lesson. (e ?,llahA gi/e you drink of that +hich
is in their -ellies! -et+een -o+els and -lood! 0ure milk!0alata-le for
those +ho drink.4?&he Cha0ter of 9ahl ?'eeA"/!55A
, 'ESSE. F7DI&FD P7@FI&,'E (@7*
&he Pro0het Muhammad also 0oints that the li/estock ?sectorA is a -lessed!
fruitful! 0rofita-le +ork. @ne day the Pro0het ga/e one denar ?gold coinA to Dr/a ?a com-
52
0anionA to -uy a shee0. Dr/a -ought t+o shee0. ,nd then! in the market 0lace! he sold one of
them for one denar and returned to the Pro0het +ith a shee0 and one denar. &he Pro0het 0rayed
to ,llah for Dr/a for fruitful! 0rofita-le in his trade. ,s a result of this?0rayerA
Dr/a used to earn a lot of 0rofit if he -uys ?and selsA ?e/enA stoneZ ?rockA.?%$A
Sometimes the Pro0het used to gi/e flock ?cattleA to the 0eo0le as a gift. ,nas
tells) 2&he En/oy of ,llah ?the Pro0hetA used to gi/e that +as +anted from him. , man
came to the Pro0het and the Pro0het ga/e him a lot of shee0 that these shee0 +ould fill
the /alley of -et+een t+o mountains. &his man returned to his tri-e and said) 2@ my tri-e!
?you ha/e toA -e ?all of youA muslims. 'ecause Muhammad -esto+s a lot that he does not
fear from 0o/erty.4?%5A
SH@( ME &HE M,7*E& P,CE
,fter immigration to Madina! the Pro0het had done -rothers of e/ery immig-
rants from Mecca to ,nsars?hel0ersA from Madina. ,s a result of this! the immigrants
that had come from Mecca -ecame accustomed to -usiness life of Madina and the im-
migrants had got their Jo-s.
&he Pro0het had done ,-durrahman -.,/f ?an immigrantA +ith SaBd -.
7a-ee ?he +as nati/e of MadinaA as a -rothers. SaBd said to ,-durrahman that) 2my 0os-
sestion ?0ro0erty!+ealthA is! in your ser/ice.4 ?you may use them +hat and ho+ you
+antA. 'ut ,-durrahman said) 2may ,llah gi/e 0rofita-le in your +ealth! -ut sho+ me
the market 0lace of Madina. ,-durrahnman had -egun the -usiness of diary 0roducts
and in a short term he -ecame one of the richest com0anions of the Pro0het.?%8A
, lot of com0anions used to +ork in the sector of dairy 0roducts! -ecause
the li/estock sector had an im0ortant role in the life of the com0anions. &he Pro0het had
said) 2&here is not any thing fills the 0lace of milk as a food and ?alsoA as a drink.?%1A
,nd in another statement) 2If a man gi/es as on de0osit ?lendsA a diary shee0 ?milch- shee0A
or a mich-camel for a fi3ed 0eriod to a ?0oorA family ?for charityA! the good deed
?CodBs re+ardA of this gift is a-solutely /ery -ig.4?%:A

P7@PHE&BS SH,7E
,n e3am0le that the Pro0het likes milk) 2Me=dad ?a com0anionA says) 2I
came to Madina +ith t+o of my friends. From hungry and tired +e -ecame as if +e can
not see and as if +e can not hear. (e 0resent oursel/es to the com0anions of the Pro0het! -ut no
one in/ited us ?to their homes for offering a food.Pro-a-ly Me=dad and his friends had met +ith
0oor com0anions and these com0anions had not got any food to
offer themA. ,t the end!+e came to the Pro0het. He said to us) 2etBs go to the house4. 'ut also in
the house of the Pro0het!there is not any food. &here +ere three she-goats. &he Pro0het said)
2Milk them their milks and letBs share out the milk. (e milked the milk and 0ut the Pro0hetBs
share. &hey stayed in Madina a-out #$ days. ,nd they used to come e/ery night to the house
of the Pro0het and milked the goats and drink and slee0 in a room of the Pro0het. E/ery night the
Pro0het used to come to his house /ery late ?the Pro0het +as -usy the 0ro-lems of muslimsA...,t
that night I drank my share of
milk and I +ent to the -ed. 'ut...I drank ?alsoA the Pro0hetBs milk.4?,nd then interesting e/ents
occured..A4?$;A
53
Coat 0ro/ides milk! flesh! leather and hair. , good milk goat 0roduces t+o
liters of milk a day for se/en or eight months of the year. &he Saanen and the 9u-ian! a
cross of se/eral -reeds! gi/es richer milk than the others. &he goat matures in a year and
+ill 0roduce milk for fi/e years! if -red each year.
,nas narrates another e/ent) 2&he Pro0het /isited us in our house. He +anted
+ater. (e immediately milked a shee0. ,nd then I mi3ed some +ater of this +ell to the
milk ?0ro-a-ly the milk had got too fatA. I offered to the Pro0het. &he Pro0het drank the
milk.?$#A (e noticed that some +ater +ere mi3ed to the milk. Pro-a-ly! in the Madina
region the milk had got too fat. ,lso ,-dullah -.,--as mentiones that the Pro0het
drank milk and +anted some +ater and rinsed out ?+ashed outA his mouth and said)
2this ?milkA is fatty.4?$<A
From time to time! the Pro0het and his com0anions used to offer milk to
each other. Saf+an -. Dmayya had sent milk to the Pro0het ?$3A! and another time the
Pro0het had sent milk to ,--ad -. 'esheyr and Dsayd -. Hudayr.?$%A
,eysha ?the Pro0hetBs +ifeA had mentioned trou-les in the early times in Ma-
dina to her cousin Dr+a! saying. 2In t+o months!+e used to see ne+ moons ?crescentsA
three times ?the time 0assesA -ut the fire +as not -urnt in the house of the Pro0het ?+e
can not 0re0are meals! there +as 0o/ertyA4. Dr+aBs =uestion) 2@ aunt! +hat did you eat W4 ?in
this long 0eriodA. ,eysha ans+ered) 2date and +ater! and the Pro0hetBs some neigh-ours from
,nsar ?nati/es of MadinaA they used to send milk from their shee0! +e used to drink this
milk.4?$$A

Milk is the most im0ortant food that has got all of the necessary elements
of aliment for organisma of human -eing! 0roteins!minerals. E/en the milk is mi3ed to the
-read for 0rotect its fresh and to increase its /alue of diet.
&he com0anions used to make -utter and cheese and aket ?a kind of dry-yog-
hurtA in the time of the Pro0het. @ne day! the Pro0het +ent to the house of ,nas. ,nas and his
mother had got some shee0. &he mother of ,nas offered the Pro0het -utter and date. 'ut the
Pro0het +as fasting at that day and said) 20ut the -utter and date to their 0ots! I am fasting.4?$5A
, +oman com0anion Dmmu Malek! she used to gi/e -utter to the Pro0het as a
gift! from time to time.?$8A
&here +as a kind of meal! its name +as FhaysB the date +ithout seeds and -u-
tter +ith dry sour curd! they used to -e mi3ed that the Pro0het used to eat from time to
time.?$1A ,nother day! in &a-uk! some cheese +as -rought to the Pro0het and the Pro0het cut
the cheese! saying) 2In the name of ,llah! the Com0assionate! the Merciful.4?$:A
,ket +as dry-yoghurt that the com0anions of the Pro0het used to gi/e aket to
the 0oor as a charity of sada=a-e fetr ?is gi/en to the 0oor at late days of holy ?fastingA
month of 7ama6anA. ,-u Saed ,l *hudre says) 2+e used to gi/e sada=a-e fetr in the time of the
Pro0het from three foods),ket! date and -arley.4?5;A Hoghurt)semifluid or Jellylike diary 0roduct
made from milk fermented -y the introduction of a lactic-acid -acterium. &he 0roduct is an
im0ortant sta0le food in the near and far east and in the 'alkans. It is often made from skim milk!
-ut it can also -e 0re0ared from +hole and e/a0orated milk. Its food /alue is consistent +ith the
kind of milk used in its 0re0aration.
E,&HE7 M,9DF,C&D7I9C
54
2It is ,llah (ho made your ha-itations homes of rest for you! and made for
you out of the skins of animals ?tents forA d+ellings +hich you find light +hen you tra/el and
+hen you sto0" and out of their +ool! fur and hair! rich stuff ?to ser/e youA for a time.4
?>uran!&he Cha0ter of 9ahl!/!1;A

&he skins of li/estock animals +ere used in different +orks in the time of the
Pro0het. &ents from skins ?leathersA! shoes! +ater-ags from leather! 0illo+s from leather.
Skins +ere used to make leather -y treatment +ith tannic acid! etc. &he skins used to -e tanned
e/en in the house of the Pro0het. Dmar says) 2I entered to the room of the Pro0het. &he Pro0het
had leaned o/er to his side! on a rush mat. I sit do+n! he 0ulled u0 his +aist-+ra00er. &here +as
any co/er on him ?-lanket etc.A. &he traces of the rush mat on his chest +ere /ery clear. I looked
at the room. , 0alm of -arley at this side! and the other side of the room a 0alm of lea/es of =ara6
+as -eing used for tanning the skins! and a?ne+-madeA shee0-leather rug had -een hung on the
+all...4?5#A
%he 1ro&het had got a &illo+ made from leather that its inside +as full of date
fi-ers. ,eysha says) 2&he Pro0hetBs mattres that he used to slee0 on it! also this -ed +as made
from leather and its inside also +as full of date fi-ers.4?5<A
&he famous com0anion ,li sent ore of gold that +as not 0urified from its soil
in a leather--ag. &his ore of gold had -een taken as 6akat ?annual religious ta3A.?53A &here +as
another leather--ag its name D==a! -utter and honey used to -e 0ut in it.?5%A &here +as a
leather--ag for +ater for the Pro0het that he used to 0erform ritual-a-lution from the +ater of this
leather--ag.?5$A &he 0ro0het ga/e a -an=uet dinner to his com0anions +hen he +as married +ith
Safeyya. &he Pro0het ordered to 'elal and the leather-ta-le-clothes +ere s0readed and aket!
-utter and dates +ere eaten.?55A
&he Pro0het had used shoes from leadher-made.D-ayd -. EurayJ said to ,-dul-
lah -. Dmar) 2I see! you 0ut leather-made sandal on ?sli00erA4. ,-dullah -. Dmar said)..
I 0ut leather-made sandal on -ecause I sa+ the Pro0het 0ut like these sandals on! and the Pro0het
0erformed the ritual a-lution +hen his legs +ere in these sandals.4?58A
&here +ere 0rayer rugs from leather in the time of the Pro0het.Mugera -.Shu-
-a narrates) 2&he Pro0het 0erformed his 0rayer on a fur of tanned-skin.4?51A
&he mem-ers of the family of the Pro0het +ere also used to +ork in the +ork
of tan.Ea-er tells) 2&he Pro0het came to his +ife Kayna-. She +as ru--ing a skin ?of an
animalA +ith her hands.?5:A
(@@ P7@.DC&I@9
2?,llah createdA the cattle! some of them ?carryA load and some of them! -eds
are made from their +ool.4?>uran! the Cha0ter of ,nBam! /!#%<A
2?,llah made from cattlesBsA +ool! fur and hair! your housesBs needs and your
trade ?to ser/e youA for a time.4?>uran! 9ahl! / !1;A
55
(omen and men used to +ear +oollen dresses! clothes in the time of the Pro-
0het from time to time. ,eysha ?the +ife of the Pro0hetA tells. 2,fter 0erforming the day-
-reak 0rayer! the +omen used to return from mos=ue co/ering their mNrts4?a kind of co-
/er made from +oollen and mohairA.?8;A &he Pro0het also used to +ear +oollen dresses
like his com0anions! ,eysha also tells) 2@ne day! the Pro0het took on his shoulder a +oo-
llen cloak! this cloak had -een made from -lack hair ?of +oollenA and there +ere some
em-roidery on this cloak..4?8#A.
&here +ere toys for children from +oollen . , +oman com0anion 7u-ayy
tells) 2(e used to take out the children ?to the fields etc.A +ith us ?that children +ere
fastingA in the holy fasting-month of 7ama6an. ,nd +e used to make +oollen toys for
those children.4?8<A &here +ere +oollen curtains and ,eysha says that she had 0ut a
+oollen-curtain on the +indo+..4?83A In the days of the fare+ell-0ilgrimage! the Pro0het
had stayed in a +oollen-tent. ,nother +oollen-tent +as used in the mos=ue that in the
second-ten days of 7ama6an! the Pro0het had stayed in a tent of made of felt ?+oolA in
the mos=ue.?8%A
&he +oollen-clothes kee0 +arm and they are useful for the health of the -ody
of mankind. &here are one -illion domesticated shee0 in the +orld and they 0roduce
<!$;;!;;;!;;; kilograms of ra+ ?un+ashedA +ool each year. &his is e=ui/alent to a-out
#!%;;!;;;!;;; kilograms of clean +ool. Se/en countries 0roduce a-out 8$Q of the +orldBs
+ool su00ly. &hey are ,ustralia! 7ussia! 9e+ Keland! ,rgentina!the 7e0u-lic of
South ,frica! DS, and Druguay. (e see there is not any Islamic countries in first grades
although +oollen-0roduction and trade is one of the traditional and historical Jo-s of
muslims.
P7@.DC&S @F ME,&
2Say) I do not find in that +hich is re/ealed to me anything ?of meatA 0rohi-i-
ted to an eater that he eats thereof! e3ce0t it -e carrion! or ?andA -lood 0oured forth! or
?andA meat of 0ig that is dirty! or ?andA an animal +hich +as slaughtered to the name of
other than ,llah ?this situation a /iceA. 'ut +hoso is com0elled ?theretoA neither cra/ing
nor transgressing! ?for himA surely your Cod is Forgi/ing! Merciful.4
?>uran! ,nBam! /!#%$A
2Ho+ should you not eat of ?meatsA o/er +hich the name of ,llah has -een
mentioned! +hen ,llah has e30lained to you that +hich is for-idden to you! unless you
are com0elled -y necessity...4
?>uran! ,nBam! /!##:A
(e kno+ that! the Pro0het and his com0anions had got a lot of hungry-days
in Mecca 0eriod and in Madina 0eriod. 'ut +hen food +as found! the Pro0het and his
com0anions used to eat all together. ,-u Hurayra narrates) 2, dish of meat +as -rought
to the Pro0het and a 0art from its side of arm +as 0ut in front of the Pro0het. He used to
like to eat es0ecially this 0art of meat. He -it into this 0art +ith his front teeth.4?8$A
56
,nas tells) 2&he Pro0het 0erformed the afternoon 0rayer ?and +e +ere -ehind
him all of usA. ,fter the 0rayer! the community came out from mos=ue. , man from the tri-e
of the sons of Salama came and said) 2@ Pro0hetZ+e +ant to slaughter a camel and
+e +ant your coming. &he Pro0het 2Hes4 said. He +alked and +e all together +alked
him. &he camel +as slaughtered! cut into 0arts and some 0arts +ere cooked and +e ate
-efore the sunset.?85A
&he Pro0het encouraged the muslims to offer to the 0eo0le meals! saying) 2@
you the muslim-+omensZ a neigh-our +oman should not -elittle her neigh-our +omanBs
offer that she sent a dish made from trotters ?the sou0 of trotter or the dish of
trotterPshee0Bs feetA ?88A
&he Pro0het did not +ant to slaughter the milch li/estock animals. @ne night
he and ,-u-akir and Dmar /isited a house of a man from ,nsar. &his man +ent to the
garden and -rought a -ranch of date that there +ere a lot of fresh and ri0e dates and said) 2?0lease
eat these4. ,nd he took a knife +ith his hand ?to slaughter a shee0A. &he Pro0het said)2,/oid to
slaughter a milch-shee04.?81A
(e learn an information that! meat +as -eing sold in the ca0ital-city Madina.
,-u Musa al ,shBaree informs) 2&here +as a 0erson! his name +as ,-u Shuay- ?from
,nsarA. ,-u Shuay-Bs +orker used to sell meat. @ne day! ,-u Shuay- sa+ the Pro0het
and reali6ed ?from the Pro0hetBs faceA the Pro0het +as hungry. He said to +orker) 2Cook
for us a meal for fi/e 0ersons. &he fifth of these 0ersons +ill -e the Pro0het. He cooked
the meal and ,-u Shuay- in/ited the Pro0het.?8:A
Ea-er -. ,-dullah narrates an e/ent a-out slaughtering of a co+. &he Pro0het
+as returning to Madina! +hen he arri/ed to a settlement!its name +as Serar! he ordered
to slaughter a co+. It +as slaughtered and the 0eo0le of the grou0 ate it.?1;A In the fare-
+ell 0ilgrimage of the Pro0het! he had slaughtered t+o +hite--lack rams.?1#A
.7IE.-ME,& C,99E. ME,&
Sa/-an narrates) 2&he Pro0het slaughtered his sacrifice ?ramA. ,nd then he
said to me) 2@ Sa/-anZ make dry this meat.4 I dried the meat and in the long /oyage
to+ards Madina! I ga/e from this meat to the Pro0het from time to time.?1<A In the time
of the Pro0het! to dry the meat! at first the meat used to -e -oiled for a short time and then it used
to -e 0ut -et+een t+o stones and left -et+een t+o stones until it -ecame dried-meat. &hus the
meat used to -e 0re/ent to s0oil and it +ould -e a suita-le food for Journeys.

&HEI7 29DM'E7 @9E P7@'EM4
&he 0ro-lem of famine lasts in different 0arts of the +orld. &here are a lot of
countries in the +orld that their 2num-er one 0ro-lem4 is 0o/erty. ,nd in some countries
it is getting +orse. For e3am0le of the 85 million 0eo0lein the Phili00ines! more than 31
0ercent! li/e -elo+ 0o/erty le/el! defined as income under ] <<; ?13A. 'ut +e also kno+
that there are a lot of countries that their citi6ensBs annual income is under ] #;;.
(e hear sometimes in the ne+s that) 2Het sim0ly getting aid into the country
o-/iously does not sol/e the 0ro-lem4 said! Mr...the (orld Food Program s0okesman.
57
&he +ork of li/estock is a solution for the 0ro-lem of immigration! inside the countries
and in the +orld. &he 0ro-lems of refugees are social! economic and cultural e/en 0oli-
tical 0ro-lems es0ecially for the rich countries. , -oth is full of refugees or a shi0 is full
of refugees that they look for a Jo- or -etter conditions for their li/es! sink in the Pasific
or in the Cari--ean-Sea or fi/e or ten men or +omen +ith some childs are found their
cor0ses in the secret 0arts of a truck...&here are a lot of disasters! +e +atch in the ne+s.
&he +ork of li/estock is also a solution for the 0ro-lems of gro+ing-cities.
&he encourage of li/estock +ill 0re/ent also the immigration from /illages to cities.
Some rich countries like 9e+ Kealand! ,ustralia! 9etherlands reached their
richness +ith the successful 0lans and +orking in the sector of li/estock.
In the underde/elo0ed countries! the num-er of unem0loyeds changes e/ery
year! e/en this num-er changes from this season to the other season. 'ut the acti/ity of
li/estock su00lies em0loyment in e/ery month of the year and the men and +omen in
their old age they can +ork in this sector and e/en teenage generation also can +ork
in this sector +ithout any hea/y condition for them.
Some other industries in this sector are like many shee0 -y-0roducts also
ha/e /alue. anolin! the fatty su-stance remo/ed from +ool during 0rocessing! is used in
sal/es! lotions! hair dressings! sha/ing creams! and other cosmetics. It also has some industrial
uses. Hormones and other 0harmaceutical com0ounds are o-tained from the glands
of shee0. Fat from shee0 and other animals is used in making synthetic ru--er. Shee0-fat
deri/ates are used in the 0rocessing of anti-iotics and as foam-control agents. Cleaned shee0
intestines ser/e as sausage casings and are also 0rocessed for use as tennis-racket strings.
,-sor-a-le surgical sutures are also shee0 -y-0roducts.
From meat 0roduction to leather and shoe industry! diary 0roducts! +oollen
industry" this sector 0roduces also /alue added ta3es for Islamic go/ernmentBs -udget.
&his sector also one of the main sources of 6akat ?or 6akat -udgetA that it is im0ortant
for social Justice..

,SSIC9E. P,S&D7ES
&he Pro0het Muhammad assigned as a 0asture the land of 9a=eB ?around
MadinaA for horses and camels and the cali0h Dmar also the lands of 7a-a6a and Sharaf
?-et+een Mecca and MadinaA.
In the 0eriod of Dmar! a man from 'asra +anted a land from state! to gro+
clo/er ?0ro-a-ly for his animalsA. Cali0h Dmar +rote a decree to go/ernor ,-u Musa al
,shBaree that if this land had not got any o+ner) 2Ci/e him this land4. &his e/ent 0oints
an encouragement of Islamic state for animal hus-andry sector. &here is another kno+-
ledge that" cali0h Dmar 0ermitted for stateBs 0astures for cattles of 0oors. He ordered the
officials that) 2(ho has got a fe+ camel or a fe+ shee0!you should take ?0ermitA his
cattle to the stateBs 0asture. 'ut the cattles of @sman ?-.,ffanA and ,-durrahman ?-.,/fA
Fdo not let them into the 0astureB. 'ecause if the cattles of @sman or ,-durrahman die!
-oth of them ha/e got date gardens and agricultural affairs. 'ut the 0oors!if their cattles
die! they run to me +ith crying" 2@ ,mer-al MuBmeneynZ ?@ Cali0hZA Sol/e our 0ro-lem4
?1%A
&he a/erage standart of li/ing de0ends on 2income getting 0o+er4 and to
make increase this 0o+er. ,nimal hus-andry sector gi/es this 0o+er to 0eo0le +ho +ork
58
in this sector. ,nd this income is a 2dis0osa-le income4 that this is im0ortant for general
market of the country and high circulation of money in the country.
(e can say)animal hus-andry sector for 2national income and economic +el-
fare4 and as an engine for 2economic de/elo0ment4.
E9. 9@&ES
#-@3ford .ict.
<-Encyclo0aedia of Seerah! /!<! 0!<11
3-9aJJar ,hmad! 9on-Interest 'anks! 0art!<
%-Samuelson P.,! Economics! 0!18;
$-Sen ,martya! Cro+th Economics! 0!%:5-$#<
5-minutes of the 2#th International Kakat Congress of *u+ait4! 0!<%8-8:
8-Erdogdu Sa-ri! Sa/ings and Economic Cro+th in Islamic Economy! 0!$%
1-Mu-arak Muhammad! Economic System in Islam! 0!<#;
:-Cha0ra Dmar! Islam and Economic .e/elo0ment! 0!38
#;-Schumacher E.F! Cood (ork! 0!#;<
##-Cha0ra! Islam and Economic .e/.! 0!#;< ?in &urkish editionA
#<-non-0u-lished article of ouis 'aeck in 2'ooklets of Economy4 of Musta0ha @6el! 0!88
#3-,l .uri! Mu=addimah Fi &areykh ,l E=tesad-al ,ra-i! ?Introduction to History of ,ra-
EconomicsA 0!###
#%-Cha0ra! 0!%1
#$-SNddN=i 9aJatullah! Economics of Islam! 0art)$
#5-,-dulmannan M! &he Making of Islamic Economics Society! 0art!<
#8-9e+s+eek! March #3! <;;;
#1-om-ard Maurice! Islam)In the Pre/ious Lictory Hears! 0!#$1-:
#:-Hurshid ,hmad! Economic .e/elo0ment In ,n Islamic Frame+ork! 0!33
<;-Cha0ra! Islamic (elfare and Its role in Economy! 2#th International Congress of
Islamic Economy4-#:85
<#-Craudy 7oger! Islam and (estern Crisis! 0!#%-#$
<<-'ukhari! *ita--al e-as! 'a-!Hamisa"Muslim! *ita--al ,da-!'a-!$! Hadith !<<
<3-Muslim! *! Eyman! '!1#! Hd!3;<
<%-'ukhari! *!EJarah! '!*ayfa 'adBal *hal=! 'a-u HaBkufuna..
<$-Sharhu &aJreyd-al Sareyh al 'ukhari! /!8! 0!<:
<5-&ermi6i! *.Fetan! '!#$! Hd!<#88
<8-'ukhari! *!,6aan! '!7afBus Sa+t
<1-9ayl-al ,+tar! /!<! 0!3: ?from ,-u .a/ud and ,hmadA
<:-'ukhari! *.Eyman! '!Min al .in ,l Ferar" 9esai",-u .a/ud
3;-I-n MaJah ?from Sharhu &aJreyd al 'ukhari hd!#35#A
3#-Muslim! *.MasaJed +a Ma+aadey-us Salat! '!8! Hd!33" 9asai!*.Sah/!'!,l *alam..
3<-'ukhari! *.Ka-aeh +a-s Sayd! '!Ma ,nhara-d .am
33-Muslim! *.&ahara! '!5! Hd!#8
3%-'ukhari! *!HaJJ! '!Man 7age-a Min al Madina" Muslim! *!HaJJ! '!:#! Hd!%::
3$-'ukhari! *!Este6an! '!Ma Eae Fe-l 'ina" Muslim! *.Eyman! '!#! Hd!#" 9asai" I-n MaJah
59
35-Muslim! *!Fetan +a ,shrat-us Saat! '!<8! Hd!#%;
38-'ukhari! *!Magha6ee! '!Ca6+at-u Kat-N >erad" Muslim!*!Eehad +a-s Seyar! '!%$!Hd!#3#
31-Muslim! *!,shre-a! '!##! Hd!:3
3:-9ayl-al ,+tar! /!$! 0!3$
%;-Muslim! *!Salaam! '!33! Hd!#;$
%#-Crolier Encyclo0aedia
%<-Muslim! *!Musaa=aat! '!1! Hd!35" ,-u .a/ud!*!EJarah
%3-9ayl-al ,+tar! /!$! 0!3%$
%%-Muslim! *!Kakat! '!5! Hd!<8" 9ay-al ,+tar! /!$! 0!#55
%$-'ukhari! *!'adBel *hal=! '!Sual-al Mushrekeyn
%5-Muslim! *!Fadael! '!#%! Hd!$8
%8-'ukhari! *!'uyu! '!#! *!9ekah! '!*a+l-al 7aJul
%1-&ermi6i! *!.aa+aat! '!Ma HaBkulu E6a ,kala" 9ayl-al ,+tar! /!1! 0!#:;
%:-'ukhari! *!He-a +a Fadleha" Muslim! *!Kakat! '!<<! Hd!83" &ermi6i! *!'err +a-s Sela!
'!3#! Hd!#:$8
$;-Muslim! *!,shre-a! '!3<! Hd!#8%" &ermi6i! *!Este6an! '!*ayf-as Salaam! Hd!#8#:
$#-'ukhari! *!He-a +a Fadleha! '!Man Estas=a" I-n MaJah! *!&aharah! '!Madmadah" ,-u
.a/ud! *!,shre-ah
$<-'ukhari! *!,shre-a! '!Shur-u-ul a-an -e-l Mae" Muslim! *!Hay6! '!<%
$3-&ermi6i! *!Estey6an
$%-&ermi6i! *!&afser-al >uran! Hd!<:88
$$-'ukhari! *!He-a +a Fadleha! Hd!<
$5-'ukhari! *!Sa+m
$8-Muslim! *!Fadael! '!3! Hd!1
$1-Muslim! *!Sa+m! '!3<! Hd!#8;
$:-,-u .a/ud! *!,tBemah! '!,kl-ul Eu-un
5;-'ukhari! *!*usuf! '!Sada=a-e Fetr" Muslim! *!Kakat! '!%! Hd!<;" &ermi6i!*!Kakat"
I-n MaJah! *!Kakat
5#-'ukhari! *!9ekah! '!Ma+Be6at-ur 7aJul" Muslim! *!&ala=" &ermi6i! *!&afser-al >uran
5<-'ukhari! *!7a=aa=" Muslim! *!e-as! '!5! Hd!38-31" ,-u .a/ud! *!e-as" &ermi6i! *!
e-as! Hd!#85#
53-Muslim! *!,shre-a! '!<;! Hd!#%<
5%-'ukhari! *!Heyl! '!Ma Hakrahu
5$-'ukhari! *!*usuf! '!Estaaana" I-n MaJeh! *!E=amat-us Salat
55-'ukhari! *!Magha6ee! '!Ca6+at-u Hay-ar" Muslim! *!9ekah! Hd!18
58-'ukhari! *!e-as! '!9eal-as Se-teyya" Muslim! *!HaJJ! Hd!<$" ,-u .a/ud! *!&araJJul
51-9ayl-al a+tar! /!<! 0!#%<
5:-Muslim! *!9ekah! '!<! Hd!:
8;-'ukhari! *!,6aan! '! *huruJ-al 9esaB" Muslim! *!MasaJed! '!%;! Hd!<3" &ermi6i!,-+a--
al Salat! Hd!#$3
8#-Muslim! *!e-as! '!5! Hd!35"
8<-Muslim! *!Seyam! '!<#! Hd!#38
83-9ayl-al ,+tar! /!<! 0!#13-##$ ?from 'ukhari and ,hmadA
8%-Muslim! *!Seyam! '!%;! Hd!<#$" I-n MaJah! *!Seyam
8$-Muslim! *!Eyman! '!1%! Hd!3<8" &ermi6i! *!,tBemah! '!3%! Hd!#138
85-Muslim! *!MasaJed! '!3%! Hd!#:8
88-'ukhari! *!He-a +a Fadleha! Hd!#" Muslim! *!Kakat! '!<:! Hd!:;
60
81-Muslim! *!,shre-ah! '!<;! Hd!#%;
8:-Muslim! *!,shre-ah! '!#:! Hd!#31
1;-Muslim! *!Musaa=aat! '!<#! Hd!##$
1#-Muslim! *!>asaamah! '!:! Hd!3;
1<-Muslim! *!,dahey! '!$! Hd!3$" 9ayl-al ,+tar! /!$! 0!#%%
13-9e+s+eek! May <1! <;;#
1%-,l Mesree 7afe= Hunus! Dsul-al E=tesad-al Islam?Methodology of Islamic Economics! from
,-u D-ayd" *ita--ul ,m+al!A 0!1#! <88! 385A
SH,7I,H PE7SPEC&ILES @9 C@9SDMP&I@9GS,LI9CS 'EH,LI@D7
Summary
&he -alance of consum0tionGsa/ings is /ery im0ortant in Islam.&here are interesting e3am0les in
>uran.&he Pro0het Solomon +as the richest man of the +orld and the most o-edient man of his
time and his 0alace +as from crystal.If a muslim gi/es the 6akatBs of hisGher +ealth!it is
0ermissi-le to ha/e great amount of sa/ings!-ut destroying reason is 2to -e arrogant4.He ?>arunA
said 2 I ha/e -een gi/en it ?this huge +ealthA only for my kno+ledge4 ?>asas!81A &hat is 2I
+orked and I earned4 He had forgotten CodBs hel0.&he com0anions used to -uy meat from the
/illagers ?'ukhari!*.'uyuA!-ut DmarBs 7, +arning 2do not eat ?muchA
meat!-ecause...4?Mu+attaBA. Muslims used to s0end money for garments and cosmetics in the
middle measurements.&e3tile!cosmetics and 0earl industries +ere the traditional industries for
muslims in long centuries of history.Prohi-ited foods +ereGare /ery fe+ for muslims.&here +as
an acti/e useful consum0tion in Islamic community.&ransformation of sa/ings to de/elo0ment is
im0ortant for 2end 0o/erty4 and underde/elo0ed countries ha/e to +alk on this +ay.
61
SH,7I, PE7SPEC&ILES @9 C@9SDMP&I@9GS,LI9CS 'EH,LI@D7
First!+e +ill look at the /erses of >uran in this su-Ject
Islam does not a/oid to see the needings of man)eating!drinking!trading)
2,nd they say) 2(hat sort of Pro0het is thisW He eats food and he +alks in markets...4?Cha0ter of
Fur=an!/erse!8A. ,ll of the 0ro0hets +ere in the market?0laceAs!they +ere not ignore from the
tradingG-usiness life. 2,nd (e ne/er sent 0ro0hets -efor you ?@ MuhammadA!+ho did not eat
food!and +alk in the markets...?Fur=an!<;A ,lthough human kind +as not sent to this +orld only
eating and drinking ?-ut to +orshi0 to CodA -ut Cod did not 0ut a lot of 0rohi-itions in eating and
drinking) 2@ Pro0hetZ (hy do you for-id that +hich ,llah ?CodA has made la+ful to you!..4
?&ahreym!#A" 2?He ?CodA has for-idden for you only carrion!-lood and the meat of of 0ork"also
any ?meatA consecrated in the name of any -ut ,llah...4?9ahl!##$A.,llah also had 0ermitted the
eating of all things in 0aradise for ,dam!e3ce0t one) 2?&hen ,llah commandedA) 2@ ,damZ
.+ell you and your +ife in the Paradise!and eat as you +ish!-ut come not near to this tree!lest
you -ecome +rongdoers.4?,Braf!#:A &he command of ,llah 2?.o not a00roach to this treeA in
our time is alcoholic drinks!0ork for muslims that only a fe+ things.(e do not see 2.ietism of
Indian 4 ?like in some s0iritualists of IndiaAor 2.ietism or /egetarianism of +estern +orld4 in
Islamic resources.Eating from different foods is not a sin in Islam.From this
?consum0tionA/ie+0oint there is an acti/e circulation in the Islamic markets.
62
&@ E,& F7DI&S
Eating different kinds of fruits is not a sin for muslims. 2?In the 0aradiseA &heir fruits +ill
resem-le +hat had -een gi/en them -efore ?in the +orldA..?'a=ara!<$A 2,nd there-y He ?,llahA
-rings u0 for you corn!oli/es!date-0alms!gra0es and e/ery kind of fruit..49ahl!##A
(e ha/e to notice that Islamic state ha/e to 0ermit to im0ort of some foods from the other
countries that this trading +ill ser/e to mutual trading in international markets.@li/e oil +as an
im0orted food in that days -ut it +as encouraged in >uran) 2,nd a tree that s0routs ?gro+sA on
Mount Sinai that yields oil and relish for the eaters.?MuBmemun!<;A
&here are 3< /erses a-out animal hus-andry in >uran that the consum0tion of meat and diary
0roducts and Juice ?industryA are incouraged)
2,nd in cattle ?tooA you ha/e a lesson.(e ?CodA gi/e you to drink of that +hich is in their
-ellies!-et+een -o+els and -lood!0ure milk!0alata-le for those +ho drink.4?9ahl!55A
2,nd of the fruits of the date-0alm and gra0es from +hich you dri/e drink and ?alsoA good
nourishment.Surely in this there is a sign for a 0eo0le +ho use their intelligence.4?9ahl!58A
,nd encouragement of eating honey) 2...&here comes forth out of their ?-eeA -ellies a fluid of
many hues!+herein is healing for mankind...4?9ahl!5:A (e kno+ honey is a rich source of
nourishment it also hel0s to 0rotect the -ody against disease.,nd consum0tion of fruits!
/egeta-les!oli/e!meat!milk!cheese!honey are sources of Jo-s for unem0loyeds.

&(@ LE7SES @F M,E.,H
2@ you +ho -elie/eZ For-id not the good things +hich ,llah has made la+ful for you!and do not
transgress...4 2Eat of that +hich ,llah has -esto+ed on you as food la+ful and fear from ,llah
?to do +rong actsA...?Maedah!18-1A , famous e/ent that!the com0anions ,li!I-n MasBud!Me=dad
?7.,A gathered together at the home of Dthman N-n Ma6Bun!and resol/ed to fast e/ery day!to 0ray
throughout e/ery night!to renounce se3ual relations!to renounce meat!and to +ear sha--y clothes
for the remainder of their li/es.(hen the Pro0het Muhammad ?P-uhA heard a-out this he
immediately came to /isit them!saying) 2Hour -ody has rights o/er you!and your eye has rights
o/er you!and your +ife has rights o/er you.Hou should fast and 0ray!-ut also eat and slee0.I 0ray
some of the time!and I also slee0"I fast!and I -reak my fast" I eat meat! and I ha/e relations +ith
my +i/es.He +ho lea/es my +ay!he is not of me.4?'ukhari!*.9ekahA It +as in this connection
that the a-o/e t+o /erses +ere re/ealed.
In an another e/ent the Pro0het had 0ermitted to take secretly of her ?miserAhus-andBs store that
Hind ?a +oman com0anionA had asked this! for s0end for hisGher children!the Pro0het said) 2&ake
for your and your cildrenBs need according the common usage4?'ukhari!*.'uyuA
(H,& ,,H (,9&S
,llah +ants to thankGto 0ray to Him ?and not to do +rong actsA after +e eat His sustenance)
2@ Pro0hetsZ Eat of the +holesome ?and la+fulA things!and act +ith
righteousness!..4?Mumenun!$#A" 2So eat of the la+ful and good things +hich ,llah has 0ro/ided
for you!and gi/e thanks for His fa/ours!..?9ahl!##%"'a=ara!#8<AA 2?(e ?CodA said to the
Children of IsraelA 2Eat and drink of that +hich ,llah has 0ro/ided!and do not make mischief in
the earth.4 ?'a=ara!5;A 2,nd +hen (e ?,llahA said! 2Co into this to+n ?EerusalemA and eat
+here as you +ish.Make your +ay through the gates -y -o+ing do+n!saying) 2(e re0ent.4 (e
?,llahA shall forgi/e your sins..4?'a=ara!$1A
63
(E,7I9C C@@. C@&HES!EE(EE7H
2@ Children of ,damZ (ear your -eautiful adornment at e/ery 0lace of +orshi0!and eat and
drink!-ut do not -e 0rodigal.For ,llah lo/es not the 0rodigal.4?,Braf!3#A In Islam!cleanliness and
0ro0er a00earance is /ery im0ortant.Men and +omen should +ear clean and sufficient attire.,t
times of +orshi0 ?that is e/ery day!-ecause muslims go to the mos=ues fi/e times e/ery day! not
only a fe+ hours in sundays!like in ChristianityA e/ery muslim should +ear the most -eautiful
and the most clean clothes he 0ossesses!as long as he is not e3tra/agant.
2Say) 2(ho has for-idden the adornment of ,llah +hich He has -rought forth for His
ser/ants!and the good things of His 0ro/idingW4 &hese things are for -elie/ers for this +orld!-ut
es0ecially ?for themA in the .ay of 7esurrection..4?,Braf!3<A
@ne day a man came into the mos=ue -ut his manBs hairs and -aird +ere dishe/elled.&he Pro0het
0ointed to him 2go out ?from the mos=ueA4 &hat the Pro0het +anted from him to 0ut right his
hair and -eard.&he man im0ro/ed his head and then came..4?Mu+attaB!*.Shaar!'.<A!
&he Pro0het sa+ a she0herd in an old costumes.She0herd +ent to the shee0!the Pro0het asked
Ea-er ) 2Is not there any ne+ costumes for him W4 Ea-er said) 2&here are his s0are ne+ garments
in his -ag that I ga/e him! @ Pro0het4 Pro0het said) 2Call him and say! he should +ear his good
clothes4 Ea-er called him!the she0herd +ore ne+ clothes ?Mu+attaB*.e-asA
Cali0h Dmar 7, had said 2(hen ,llah gi/e you an a-undant +ealth!you also should gi/e
a-undant to your -ody ?as good garments etc.A ?'ukhari!*.Salat!'.as Salat Fi-l >ameysA Dmar
also had said. 2I like to look at a reader of >uran that he reads >uran in +hite ?goodA garment4
?Mu+attaB!*.e-as!'.#A
&e3tile industry in Islamic countries a traditional industry that adds a lot of added /alue for these
economies.,llah does not +ant in the earth as naked like animals -ut)
2 ,llah is (ho ...has gi/en you garments to 0rotect you from heat!and coats ?of armourA to sa/e
you from your o+n /iolence...4?9ahl!1#A &he Pro0het Muahammad informed the measurement of
menBs garment) 2 a -elie/er manBs skirts ha/e to -e long at least to middle of his leg.If he allo+s
to heels!no sin for him.?'utA (hat ? a garmentA is lo+er from heels! they are in the hell.,llah +ill
not look at ?+ith His com0assion!mercyA a man in .oomsday +ho drags his skirts as a 0roud.
?,-u .a+ud!*.e-as!'!8"I-n MaJeh!*.e-as!'!<8" Mu/attaB!*.e-as!'!$A. Pearl industry has
-een also a traditional industry for muslims in the long centuries)
2,nd t+o seas are not e=ual"this!fresh!s+eet!good to drink!this ?otherA -itter!salt.,nd from them
-oth you eat fresh meat and deri/e the ornament?0earlAthat you +ear.4?Fater!#<" 9ahl! #%A
&rading of gold!diamond is not a sin for muslims) 2Pearls and corals come from -oth!+hich of
your CodBs -lessings +ould you t+o deny W4 ?7ahman!<<-3A (e kno+!after great de0ression in
#:<:!the go/ernment of DS, 0rohi-ited to ha/e gold for its citi6ens!-ut Islamic states ha/e not
0ut like a this 0rohi-ition e/en in critical times of the history.,lthough strong solidarity of
Islamic communities is a famous reality!-ut +hen muslims gi/e the 6akats ?religious annual ta3A
of their +ealth!they can ha/e got gold and other Je+elleries! in +hat amount! they +ish.Creat
sa/ings is not 0rohi-ited in Islam.'ut Islam gi/es great im0ortance not to -e 0roud.&he Pro0het
0rohi-ited to drink from sil/er 0ot that the reason is to a/oid to -ecome haughty.
?'ukhari!*.,shre-ah!'!<1"Muslim!*.*.e-as +a-6 Keynat!'!#A
In Islamic community!there is a high useful consum0tion rate.For e3am0le Islam encourages
more 0o0ulation) 2.o not kill ?a-ortion etc.Ayour offs0ring for fear of 0o/erty.It is (e ?CodA
(ho 0ro/ide for them!and for you.Indeed their killing is a great sin.4?Esra!3#A More 0o0ulation
means more 0roduction!more firms!more com0anies!and as a result more em0loyment.
64
7,ISI9C @F P7@HI'I&I@9S
@ne of the main characteristics of the Pro0het Muhammad is )
2...He ?MuhammadA makes la+ful for them all good things and 0rohi-its for them ?onlyA the
foul...4?,Braf!#$8A ,llah did not 0rohi-it a lot of foods also for former nations -ut ) 2,ll food +as
la+ful to the children of Israel e3ce0t +hat Israel for-ade himself -efore the &orah +as
re/ealed..4?,l Emran!:3A

&@ ILE I9 P,,CES
'uilding +onderful cities!lu3ury -uildings is not a sin. 2&here +as indeed a +arning for ?the
0eo0leA of Sa-a in their houses"t+o gardens on the right hand and on the left.Eat from the
sustenance of your Cod and ?you shouldA thank to Him.?&his is aAPleasant city and an ,ll-
Forgi/ing Cod4 ?Sa-a!#$A ,llah only +anted from them to thank ?0rayA to Him 2'ut they turned
a+ay..4 ?Sa-a!#5A &o li/e in lu3ury flats!houses is not a sin -ut to +atch 0orno films in these
houses or to forget the conditions of the 0oor!this the great sin.&here are a00ro3imately #$;
/erses a-out Just income distri-ution in >uran.&he Pro0het Solomon +as the richest man of the
+orld and most o-edient man of his time and his 0alace +as from crystal.(e see the Pro0het
SolomonBs crystalGglass 0alace also in >uran)
?'il=is is asked to enter the great Palace ?of the Pro0het SolomonA itself.Its floor +as made of
sla-s of smooth 0olished glass!that glistened like +ater!and tucked u0 her clothes to 0ass through
it!sho+ing her legs.A 2It +as said to her) 2Enter the hall4.,nd +hen he sa+ it she deemed it a
0ool and -ared her legs.Solomon said) 2It is a hall!made smooth!of glass.4 ?9aml!%%A 'ut
Solomon +as 0raying day and night!and he +as not 0roud of his +ealth and his real estates) 2,nd
Solomon ...said) 2My Cod! arouse me to -e thankful for your fa/our +here+ith you ha/e
fa/oured me and my 0arents!and to do good that shall -e 0leasing to Hou!and include me in ?the
num-er ofA Hour righteous creature ?+orshi00erA.4 ?9aml!#:A 2,nd (e ?CodA -esto+ed on
.a/id!Solomon.Ho+ e3cellent a creature Z?+orshi00erA oZ He +as e/er turning in re0entance
?to+ard ,llahA ?Sad!3;A
@ne day the Pro0het Muhammad asked Ea-er ) 2Ha/e you got figured car0ets W 4 Ea-er said)
2(here +e find figured car0ets W 2 ?they are /ery 0oor -ut Pro0het saidA) 2Hou +ill ha/e figured
?0ricelessA car0ets4 ?'ukhari!*.'adBel *halk!'.,lamat-al 9u-u++ahA ,fter some years! this
/ery high 0er ca0ita +as seen in the community and Ea-er had got /ery good car0ets.&he
statement of Pro0het 0oints that it is 0ermitted to use high =uality car0ets etc. in the houses.&his
is also an e30lanation for the limits of lu3ury in Islam.
Cosmetics idustry is also the traditional sector of muslims from the early days of Islam.&he
Pro0het Nsed to use 0erfume fre=uently.,-u >atadah used to a00ly ? a kind ofA oil for his hair t+o
times e/ery day!-ecause the Pro0het had said to him 2Hou should take more care for your hair4
?Mu+attaB!*.ShaarA!,-u-akeyr 7, used to dye his hair ?Mu+attB!*.ShaarA

&@D7ISM
&o /isit historicalGarceological 0laces is encouraged in >uran!in #3 /erses of different cha0ters)
2Say) 2&ra/el in the earth!and see the nature of the conse>uence for the reJecters4 ?,nBam!##A
2Say ?@ MuhammadA) &ra/el in the in the earth and see ho+ He?CodA originated ?startedA the
65
creation..4?,nka-ut!<;A HaJJ ?0ilgrimage to MeccaA and Dmrah are also a consum0tion of rich
muslims from their +ealth.
IS,MIC &HE@7H @F S,LI9CS
&o -e a -ig -oss is 0ermissi-le in Islam.E/en heGshe can has got trillion dollars +hen heGshe
gi/es the 6akat.,llah does not condemn >arun ?*orahAfor his -ig +ealth e/en ,llah ga/e this
huge +ealth to him!-ut he +as condemned for his 0roud -eha/iors)
2(e ?,llahA ga/e him ?>arunA so much treasure that the keys thereof +ould /erily ha/e -een a
-urden for a troo0 of mighty men.(hen his nation said to him) .o not -e arrogant",llah does not
lo/e the arrogant.4 ?>asas!85A &he +ord 2troo04?2us-ah4 in original te3tA of /erse) a -ody of
men!here used indefinitely.It usually im0lies a -ody of #; to %; men. &he old-fashioned keys
+ere -ig and hea/y!and if there +ere hundreds of treasure chests!the keys must ha/e -een a great
+eight.&here areG+ere fi/e 0rinci0les for >arun ?and the other rich menA in the same /erses)
?#A 2.o not -e arrogant4
?<A 2Seek the a-ode of the Hereafter in that +hich ,llah has gi/en you4
?3A 2,nd .o not forget your 0ortion from the +orld4!
?%A 2Make goodness as ,llah has made for you4
?$A 2.o not seek corru0tion in the earth4 ?>asas!85-8A
&hat is! s0end your +ealth in charity and good +orks.9or should you forget the legitimate
needs of this life!as misers do!and most 0eo0le -ecome misers +ho think too e3clusi/ely of
their +ealth.
.estroying reason for >arun ?and the other rich menA)
2He ?>arunA said) 2I ha/e -een gi/en it ?this huge +ealthA only for my kno+ledge...4
?>asas!81A ?I earned +ith a kno+ledge of I 0ossessA &he rich menG+omen that has got sa/ings
heGshe should not forget that ,llah ga/e this +ealth to himGher.&here are a lot of
intelligentGo+ner of kno+ledge men in cities or /illages ha/e not any +ealth in the +orld.

9@& &@ S,H...
Much 0ro0erty is not a sin -ut)
>uran also tells us +hat rich men should not say ?as the 0roud sentencesA)
2&his man had an a-undant 0roduce and he said to his com0anion +hile con/ersing +ith him)
?#A 2I am richer than you and mightier in res0ect of men ?ser/antsA.4
,nd +hen!ha/ing thus +ronged his soul he entered his /ineyard!and he said)
?<A 2I do not think that this +ill ne/er 0erish.
?3A 9or do I -elie/e that the Hour ?of EudgementA +ill e/er come"and e/en if I am returned
to my Cod I should surely find -etter than this a resort.4?*ahf!3%-5A
In the follo+ing /erses of Cha0ter of *ahf! another man! a good rich man ?o+ner of gardenA
is mentioned +ith good sentences.
IS &HE7E , IMI& F@7 S,LI9CS W
66
In the time of the Pro0het Muhammad!to ha/e a ?oneA camel +as an indicator of a man that he
+as at least from middle class., lot of com0anions of the Pro0het!had got ?onlyA one camel
e/en some of them had not got one shee0!e/en some of them!had not got one hen.'ut Dthman
7, had got 8;; camels and a lot of -urden trading goods on these se/en hundred camels
-efore &a-uk +ar.,lthough Dthman ga/e his +ealth to the Islamic ,rmy -ut the Pro0het did
not 0ut a limit for his +ealth.Historians MasBudey!I-n Saad! I-n *eseyr say! es0ecially in the
time of DthmanBs administration!the com0anions had got a lot of +ealth and land.Dthman 7,
had got #$;!;;; denar ?gold coinsA and one million derham ?sil/er coinsA +hen he +as
killed.Ku-ayr had got %;;!;;; denar! #!;;; horse!and ## houses in Madina! 5 houses in
'asra! # house in *ufa and a trading house in 'asra.&alhaBs daily income from Ira= +as
#!;;; denar.,-durrahman had got 1%!;;; denar! #!;;; horse! #!;;; Camel! #;!;;; shee0
+hen he died.Kayd -. Sa-et left a +ealth of #;;!;;; denar.,-dullah -. DmarBs o/ercoat +as
a /alue of $;; derham and ,-dullah -.,--asBs o/ercoat +as #!;;;. ?#A
,lthough >uran condemns +icked im0ertinentGsaucy ca0italists 2(oe to e/ery slanderer and
-ack-iter!(ho gathers +ealth and counts it!&hinking his +ealth +ill render him
immortal Z...4?Huma6ah!#-3A! -ut ad/ices to the good rich men to forgi/e the some ignorant
0oors and they had to go on su00orting the aid ?9ur!<<A.&he /erses of Huma6a are o-/ious
that +ho recogni6es hisGher +ealth as hisGher god and +ho does not think the ne3t +orld
heGshe is +icked ca0italist.(e understand that to -e 2ulu-l fadl +a-s seah4 ?rich men!9ur!<<A
2to ha/e sa/ings4 is not a sin.If +e ha/e -as our community- a lot of rich men! they +ill do
the duty of kard-u hasan ?lending +ithout interestA.&he more muslim rich men is the more
6akat for 0oors.(e Oas muslims- do not look at the rich as e30loiter!-ut ,llah ga/e them the
+ealth and they are in a test a-out their +ealth in this +orld and this e3amination is not easy
for them.

P,7&9E7S @F &HE SHIP
>uran 0oints a reality!#% centuries ago!it is 0ossi-le +ith small sa/ings to do -ig 0roJects
?com0anies!0lantsA )
2,s for the shi0!it -elonged to 0oor 0eo0le +orking on the sea...4?*ahf!8:A Pro-a-ly!in the
time of Moses! a grou0 of 0oor men had -ought a shi0 and this shi0 +as +orking -et+een the
0orts of 7ed-Sea ?or 9ileA
,( @F H,E7 ?PD&&I9C D9.E7 7ES&7,I9&A
HaJr is to 0lace the legally incom0etent 0erson under the care of a guardian.It is a 0recaution
against much ?o/erAconsum0tion.&he maJority of the Islamic Jurists say)Islamic la+ can
0rohi-its the deeds of s0endthrift ?0rodigalA and 0ut himGher under restraint and Islamic Judge
a00oints a man in charge of 0ro0erties of s0endthrift.&his man gi/es enough money for
s0endthriftBs li/ing conditions)
2.o not gi/e the +eak of understanding the 0ro0erty +hich ,llah has gi/en you to
maintain!-ut cloth them from it!and s0eak kindly to them4?9isa!$A.,lso for or0hans!there is a
0recaution against o/er consum0tion"
67
2Put or0hans to the test until they reach the age of marriage"then!if you find them sound
Judgement!deli/er o/er to them their 0ro0erty...4?9isa!5A
'D7IE. &7E,SD7ES
>uran has not 0rohi-ited to accumulate the sa/ings ?also +hen +e gi/e its 6akatA)
2,s for the +all!it -elonged to t+o or0han -oys in the city.&here +as -eneath it a ?-uriedA
treasure -elonging to +hom!and their father had -een righteous man...4?*ahf!1<A
Fearing the dishonesty of the +icked to+nsmen!the childrenBs father had -uried their
ihheritance so that they could reco/er it +hen they came of age.>uran did not condemned this
-eha/iour e/en the +ord 2saleh) righteous4 +as used this father.
C7EE.IES
,lthoug >uran 0ermitted to eat from different foods!-ut there is an hea/y e30ression for
greedies!gluttony)
2...+hile the dis-elie/ers take their comfort in this life and eat e/en as the cattle
eat"..4?Muhammad!#<A &hat is there is a -oundary for consum0tion in eatingGdrinking.
In hea/y economic conditions!mankind ha/e to -e 0atient that Cod condemned the children
of Israel +hen they +ere in Sinai desert and they +ere not hungries -ut they +anted more
food from Moses)
2,nd +hen you ?@ Children of IsraelA said. 2@ MosesZ (e can not endure only one kind of
food!so call on your Cod to gi/e us some of the /aried 0roduce of the earth!green
her-s!cucum-ers!garlic! lentils and onions Z He ?MosesA said 2(ould you e3change that
+hich is higher for that +hich is lo+er W Co do+n to the settled country.&here you shall
o-tain +hat you ha/e asked for.4?'a=ara!5#A &he Pro0het had said) 2Muslim eats for to fill
one -o+el -ut dis-elie/er eats to fill for se/en -o+els.4?Muslim!*.,shre-ah"
Mu+atta!*.Sefat-al 9a-eyA ,lthough there are some greedy muslims and sometimes +e see
some dis-elie/ers eat /ery fe+ -ut as a general tradition and a characteristics! muslims do not
eat /ery much.Cali0h Dmar used to say ?fre=uentlyA ) 2?Hou shouldA ,/oid to eat
meat.'ecause there is a ha-itual in meat like in +ine4 ?Mu+attaB!*.Sefat-al 9a-eyA .@ne
day!Dmar sa+ Ea-er -. ,-dullah that Ea-er +as going and there +as a meat in the hand of
Ea-er.Dmar said 2(hat is thisW4 Ea-er) 2@ ,meyr- al Mumeneyn?Head of StateA I +anted to
eat meat /ery eagerly ?I raredA thatBs +hy I -ought some meat +ith one derham.4 Dmar said)
2.o not you +ant to eat less and to offer some food to your neigh-our or to son of your uncle
?relati/esA and Dmar recited this /erse) 2...it +ill -e said to them) 2Hou ha/e
e3hausted your share of the good things in your life of the +orld and sought comfort in
them...4?,h=af!<;A ?Mu+attaB!*.Sefat-al 9e-eyA ,lthough Dmar did not said 2Meat is
for-idden4 -ut he +anted to remind not to eat fre=uently and to eat chea0er foods to follo+
the economy.

Consum0tion in eating -ecame a -ig 0ro-lem for es0ecially ne+ generations in the +orld.&he
num-er of o-eses increased %;; Q in Englang in last <$ years.@-esity increased 3 times
among childeren and youngs in last <; years.Ha-it of o/ernutrition
causes the diseases in heart!/eins!kidneys and different 0sychological illness.&he 'ritish
go/ernment s0ends ] : -illion for the 0ro-lems of o-esity.,n estimate) after #$ years! $; Q
68
of 'ritish children and youngs +ill -e o-eses.&he House of Common esta-lished a committee
for the in/estigate of o-esity 0ro-lems.?<A E/en in +estern +orld some ne+s encourages the
o-esity)
2(oman Cho+s ?EatsA 31 o-sters In Eating Contest ) ,mericaBs to0 s0eed-eater +olfed
do+n 31 lo-sters in #< minutes saturday to +in the (orld o-ster Eating Contest. Sonya
&homas!of ,le3andria!La. +on ] $;; and a tro0hy -elt for her efforts!consuming :.85
0ounds of lo-ster meat...&his yearBs com0etition at the Pilot House Crill ^ 'oatyard +as
sanctioned -y the International Federation of Com0etiti/e Eating!+hich ranked &homas the
countryBs to0 s0eed-eater.(e see after ad/ertisement! a slogan that 2Eoin as
,n Eater4 ?3A
,nd in a similar ne+s) 2 He ate $3!$ sand+ich in #< minutes 4 &his com0etition has -eing
organi6ed since #:#5 and , Ea0an &akeru *o-ayashi has +on the cham0ionshi0 in last three
years.In Coney Island of 9e+Hork!e/ery Euly %!this com0etition..4?%A (e see the
ad/erstisements fre=uently in dailies!maga6ines in +estern ?e/en in recent years in some
Islamic countriesA +orld 2Cet fit this summer4 Fitness Health Center.Enfee-led ?FitnessA
Industry ?ZA -ecame a gro+ing sector es0ecially in rich countries! e/en an underde/elo0ed
country!&urkey! the 0eo0le s0ent 3 -illion dollars last year ?$A Influential ad/ertisements are
also a 0ro-lem for +estern consumers.(e see a sentence in the @3ford .ictionary)
2Entice) ,d/ertisements try to entice ?tem0t!0ersuadeA 0eo0le into -uying more things they
need4 .'ut in the early years of economic de/elo0ment of the 'ritish Em0ire! in Crom+ellBs
'ritain!0reacher 7ichard 'a3ter +as +arning the 'ritish 0eo0le) 2,/oid to use your +ealth
for a lu3ury life! this life takes you to the +ay of hell.Dse your richness for the ad/antage of
the 0eo0le.Hou should -e a useful element for the community4 ?5A
In a sur/ey! 2Canadians s0end an a/erage of ] 8!;;;- ] #;!;;; on their funerals.4 ?8A
Islam 0rohi-ited all kinds of +aste.&here is a hea/y statement in the /erse ) 2the e3tra/agant
are SatanBs -rothers..4?Esra!<8A &he Pro0het Muhammad had 0rohi-ited to hang a s0read on
the +all for decoration and said) 2,llah did not enJoin to us to co/er the stone ?+allA4
?'ukhari and MuslimA

S&@7,CE @F F,MIH 9EE.I9CS
Pro0het Eose0h encouraged to accumulate the corns for the future scarcity years2
2He ?Eose0hA said) 2Hou shall so+!as usual!for se/en years.ea/e in the ear the corn you
rea0!e3ce0t a little +hich you may eat.&hen +ill come after that se/en years of se/erity!
+hich +ill consume all -ut a little of that +hich you ha/e stored for them4 ?Husuf!%8-1A
&his /erse also 0oints muslims should follo+ recent indicators in economy and they ha/e
to think ?follo+A the im0act of +eather conditions on corns etc.,nd Islamic state and
charity foundations like 7ed Crescent etc. ha/e to store corns!food for disasters and
0ro-a-le scarcities.&he Pro0het Muhammad ?P-uhA used to store his family needings for
one year.?Muslim!*.Eehad +a-s Seyar!'.#$!Had)%:A
ELE9 I9 CH,7I&H
69
Islam enJoined to +alk in the middle +ay e/en in charity)
2.o not tie your hand to your neck ?do not -e miserlyA nor stretch it +ithout any restraint for
then you should sit do+n re-uked!denuded4 ?Esra!<:A ?@ur gi/ing should not -e niggardly to the
0oint +here it -ecomes re-uked -y the righteous!nor e3tra/agant to the e3tent that our families
are denuded of meansA .&he Pro0het did not 0ermit for SaBd -. ,-ey (a==as to gi/e for charity
t+o thirds of his +ealth!only 0ermitted one third of it.?'ukhari!*.Eanae6A
C@9CDSI@9
Professor of Economics of MI& Paul *rugman notes the cahracteristics of East ,sean
de/elo0ment)2/ery high sa/ings rate) Malaysia +as doing in/estment in #::8 more than %; Q of
its C.P and Singa0ore half of its C.P ?1A Dmar Cha0ra mentiones) 2In reaching to high sa/ings
rate!Singa0ore and Hong *ong imitated Ea0ans.In #:18! total sa/ings had recahed to %; Q in
Singa0ore ?3:.: QA. &hese high rates +ere in South *orea 38.5 Q!&ai+an 38.; Q! Ea0an 33.% Q!
Hong *ong 3;.8 Q! ?-utA atin ,merica States #:.1 Q! Middle East and 9orth ,frica #8.; Q
?:A
Muslims are enJoined follo+ing a -alance -et+een consum0tionGsa/ings ?e/en in charityA)
2,nd those +ho!+hen they e30end!neither s=uander!nor are 0arsimonious! -ut kee0 staright
-et+een the t+o.4 ?Fur=an!58A , nation should not -e addicted to demonstration
effect..emonstration effect is the -iggest o-stacle to sa/ings.Muslims are the men of
thinking.>uran enJoined them to think on the socialGeconomicGcultural 0ro-lems.Muslims ha/e to
thinkGsearch ho+ the other nations ha/e de/elo0ed.,nd then! they should take out a good
0rescri0tion +ith the su00ort of Islamic teachings.

?#A Hasan al Kaman!Economic Structure in Early Islamic States!0art)#%
?<A Cuardian!May!<8!<;;%
?3A ,ssociated Press!,ug.!<#!<;;%
?%A .aily Milliyet!Euly!5!<;;%
?$A .aily Milliyet!Euly!5!<;;%
?5A Fernand 'raudel!Material Ci/ili6ation and Ca0italism #%;;-#1;;!#:8: ?Istan-ul!#::#A
?8A I/an Emke!Sshrc researcher!?0lease look)+++.sshrc.caG+e-A
?1A Paul *rugman! 2 &he 7eturn of .e0ression Economics4!(.(.9orton^Com0any!9e+
Hork!<;;#!0!35
?:A Dmar Cha0ra! 2Islam and Economic .e/elo0ment!Islama-ad!#::3!0!13 ?from the (orld
'ank!(orld &a-les!#:11-1:!/!#!00!55-:
70
EUP@7& ,9. 2'7@,.E7 MDSIM (@7.4 F@7 2E9. P@LE7&H4
&he Pro0het Muhammad ?P-uhA fre=uently used to say ) 2@ my Cod Z I seek ?takeA refuge in
Hou from sedition of +ickedness of richness and +ickedness of 0o/erty.4 ?'ukhari!*..aa+aatA
2End Po/erty In California ?EPICA4 +as D0ton SinclairBs socialist reformer mo/ement in
#:3;s.Communism and Ca0italism could not sol/e the 0ro-lem of 0o/erty in <;
th
century.&he
0ro-lem is still the most im0ortant 0ro-lem of humanity.In their long -rilliant centuries muslims
had sol/ed this 0ro-lem.'ut in last t+o hundred years this ?good economicA structure +as
destroyed -y e3ternal ?and sometimes internalA 0o+ers. Islamic economy +as a dynamic
economy that the Pro0het Muhammad P-uh used to say e/ery day) 2@ my Cod Z I seek ?takeA
refuge in Hou from la6iness4 ?'ukhari"*..aa+atA"there +as not a monastic life in Islam
?'ukhari"*!9ikahA"muslim immigrants +ere in the market 0lace of Madina to do trading e/en in
the ne3t day"famous com0anions ,-u-aker 7, +as a tradesman!Dmar 7, +as -usy +ith animal
hus-andry!Dthman 7, +as a -ig -oss that he used to im0ort and e30ort!,-durrahman 7, +as
-usy +ith diary 0roducts., com0anion asked a =uestion to the Pro0het Muhammad ?P-uhA and
he re0lied) 2&o -e -usy +ith +orldly affairsGtradingG-usiness is not hy0ocracy4
?Muslim!*!&a+-ahA
&here are lessons for us in the t+o famous de/elo0ments of the <;
th
century)ud+ig Erhard!the
father of Cermany de/elo0ment had said) 2&o do e30ort at +hate/er costs!if +e do not go in this
0ath +e +ould -e sentenced to death.4Ea0anese +ere saying in #:$;s 2e30ort!more e30ort!e30ort
for healthy life of society4.(ith a good effort!&urkeyBs e30orts in last #< months reached ]
-illion ?increased 3< Q in last yearA.&urkish e30orters!no+ ?in the year of <;;$A!do not a/oid to
in/est the e30ort 0roJects -ecause they ha/e seen 2e30ort -rings money4.
In #:$;s D.States +as 0roud of her economic system +ith these sentences) 2In many 0arts of
Euro0e a tra/eler is annoyed e/ery fe+ hundred miles at a national -oundary.'ut he can tra/el
throughout the fifty states of D.S +ithout delay!+ithout a 0ass0ort!and +ithout ins0ection or
ta3ation of his luggage.If an ,merican +ants to sell automo-iles or other items in Euro0e!he must
0ay a high duty in each of se/eral countries.In our Dnited States!the ,merican dealer finds a
0u-lic +ith a 0urchasing 0o+er far su0erior to that of all of Euro0e!+ithout a cent of tariff to
0ay!and free of other discriminatory regulations.In short!the Commerce Clause has made for the
citi6ens of D.States the greatest unrestricted market in the +orld.4
,fter $; years!Euro0ean countries esta-lished a similar system like DS, ?#-May-<;;%!t+enty-
fi/e states of EDA.,nd 2'roader Muslim (orld4 also is a solution for de/elo0ment of muslim
countries.&o a-olish customs duties and trade -arriers among Islamic countries! muslim
com0anies ?and e/en small scale firmsA +ill ha/e a huge ?and greatestA market of the +orld
?a00ro3imately a 0o0ulation of #!$ -illionA.


In medie/al ages!the -asic 0rinci0al of traditional middle east economy +as to su00ly ?food and
other demandsA.&his 0rinci0le ?0ro/isionA looks at economic actions from the /ie+0oint of
consumer.Hence!the aim of the economic action is to 0ro/ide the needs of the community.For
71
this reason!0roduced goodsGfoods and ser/ices ha/e to -e -as far as 0ossi-le-
much!0lenty!=ualified and chea0!and su00lies of goodsGfoods ha/e to -e in high le/el.In this
economic 0olicy that +as esta-lished on the 0rinci0le of 0ro/ision!the aim of the 0roduction +as
not e30ort.Im0orts had to -e free as far as 0ossi-le"-ecause the 0lenty of im0orts used to su00ly
goodsGfoods a-undantly.Im0ortersGforeign tradesmen +ere entering to ara- cities easily +ith
0aying a lo+ custom duties.&hese foreign tradesmen +ere
returning their countries after taking gold and sil/er coins or some 0roducts of middle east
0eo0les.?<A ?'utA these long golden centuries lasted to the second 0art of #:
th
century.&his
economic 0olicy +as an e3act 2anti-0rotectionist4 0olicy and 2laisse6-faire theorists4 of the
future +ere not -orn at that centuries.
(ith the industry re/olution!+hile some cities in the +estern +orld +ere -ecoming 2the 'lack
Country4 from the smoky air!the -lack days +ere -eginning in the middle east.
Egy0tian 0ioneer Islamic economist ,hmad 9aJJar says 2+hen +e look at the
history of de/elo0ed countries!+e see that these countries also in -ack+ardness ?-ack+ard
countriesA like todayBs underde/elo0ed countries.Per ca0ita +as highly lo+ and ca-
0ital +as +eak.'ut they de/elo0ed and 0rogressed +ithout foreign in/estment though
some of them used foreign de-ts -ut these de-ts +ere grants ?3A.(.(.7osto+ gi/es details that)
2in some countries!foreign ca0ital +as not im0orted for e3am0le Dnited *ingdom and Ea0an
in the 0rocess of 2to start action4.'ut countries like Dnited States!7ussia and Canada im0orted
foreign ca0ital long years and foreign ca0ital 0layed an essential role in this 0rocess?%A.7osto+
adds) 2It is necessary to realise these three conditions in the 0rocess of
2start action4"
?#A the rate of 0roduction in/estments should reach at least #; Q of national
income ?C.PA

?<A2to esta-lish one ?or moreA sector of manufactured goods4!this means +orkingGo0erating of
agricultural 0roductions or ra+ materials +ith modern methods)tim-er in S+eden!meat in
,ustralia!milk and cheese in .enmark.&his ?oneA sector makes start action the other needings in
modern sector!on the other hand +ith this sectorBs de/elo0ment su00lies sa/ings for taking
industrial 0roducts in foreign trade"
?3A 2an administrati/e staff4 that +ill use these sa/ings 0ro0erly and gi/e continuity to this
de/elo0ment. ?$A
In the 'ritish economic de/elo0ment ?#8$;-13A and in 7ussia ?#15#-:;A!Canada ?#151-:;A"
?#A +ith the de/elo0ment of trans0ort net+ork!inside and foreign trade also de/elo0ed
?<A a re/olution in agricultural 0roduction -egan.?mentality changing in agriculture is
necessary in this 0eriodA
?3A ne+ institutions +as esta-lished that they ga/e 0roceeding to sa/ings.
?%A ne+ ?ty0eA tradesman and enter0rising-industrialist class +as -orn.
,hmad 9aJJar gi/es three e3am0les for industrialisation and de/elo0ment"
?#A there +as not any state o+ned enter0rises in +estern Euro0e countries.In
72
the 0rocess of industrialisation ?in C.'ritain!9etherland!Cermany and D.States and Canada on
the other side of ,tlanticA..e/elo0ment and industrialisation +ere on the sho-
ulders of &roducti2e enter&risings$%here +as not also a 3state4s5 central &lanning$
3-5 3Communist5 So2iet 6nions &rohi.ited the &ri2ate sector,consum&tion +as un-
der the control of the state,confiscated the means of &roduction$In a short time,great de-
2elo&ment +as seen$So2iet 6nions realised the industrialisation in t+enty years that
some Euro&ean countries did these de2elo&ments in a hundred years .ut at the end
this system +as colla&sed +ith murdered innocent "7 millions$
385 In )a&an,the de2elo&ment &olicy +as on the shoulders of the state that this state
encouraged the tradesmen and farmers for industrialisation and )a&an state did not assu-
med industrial actions,.ut +ith a &ro&er ta9 &olicy and easy credits for long and short
term in2estments,encouraged com&etition and e9&ort$Na::ar adds ;+e see t+o charac-
teristics in de2elo&ed countriesin +idest meaning ;sa2ings< and in +idest meaning ;&ro-
duction<3in2estment5$
Na::ar also &uts a &art in his study 388 years ago5 a.out ;sa2ings ethics< and ana-
lyses sa2ings ethics 3sa2ings .eha2iours5 he says ;a &erson is not .orn +ith this ethics,
he=she gains ;sa2ings ethics< +ith education and learning$After a time ;Sa2ings ethics<
.ecomes a stimulus for this &erson and he=she earns res&onsi.ility,dynamism,increase
of
+ill of +ork +ith this stimulus$Na::ar gi2es the e9am&le of the &eo&le of Mitgamr that gre-
at changes occured in the -eha/iours of this grou0 after gaining of 2sa/ings ethics4.?5A
Dmar Cha0ra ?also a leading Islamist economist in last %; yearsA mentiones the su-Jects of
2foreign ca0ital4! 20roduction for needings4! 2su00orting of small scale and medium-scale
enter0rises4 in last <; 0ages of his -ook 2Islam and Economic .e/elo0ment4.Cha0ra says) 2If
there is a com0ulsary 0osition and a-solute necessity and in the 0osition of no alter- nati/ity!it is
0ermitted to 0ay interest to foreign in/estments.?Cha0ra gi/es as an e3am0le of eating 0ork of a
muslim if heGshe can not find foods!if he is in the 0osition of hea/y hungry ?/erse of
>uran"Cha0ter of 'a=ara!/!#83A. 'ut Cha0ra also indicates that muslim countries should find out
the in/entory of their needs and sources and they should 0ut a real document of all of the human
and 0hysical sources. ?8A My o0inion is ?alsoA on the 0arallel of Cha0raBs
last sentences that Muslim countries can find necessary moneyGfunds for their in/est-
ments +ithout 0aying interest.
Cha0ra also 0oints the im0ortance of small and medium scale enter0rises in the industrial and
economic life of underde/elo0ed countries that he says these countries are in need of like a this
small industry.In the countryside!small scale industry is the most a00ro0riate for Jo- ca0acity of
idle inacti/e la-or 0o+er.&his industry is source of hea/y industry and a com0lementary
instrument for it.Small scale industry also a secure sector against economic crisis.&here is a
(orld 'ank re0ort indicates that in South ,merica small scale agricultural family enter0rises are
more 0roducti/e 3-#% times than -ig farms.
In this 0oint +e ha/e to remem-er SchumacherBs studies.He used to say) 2the most /alua-le
naturel source is human -rain.(e should 0rotect it and de/elo0 it...+e take al+ays material
factors and neglect sources like 6eal of enter0rise!imagination and -rain 0o+er. ?1A
Schumacher ?died in #:88A +orked ?studiedA +ith the engineering de0artment of 7eading
Dni/ersity of D* on the 0roJects of small factories.He esta-lished Intermediate &echnology
73
.e/elo0ment Crou0 td. ,nd they 0roduced the 0roJects of mini 0a0er factory!mini -rick
factory.&hey -uilt a small scale ?flourA mill and +ith this kind of mill the /illagers earned
dou-le.&hey sold flour instead of selling +heat.Mini -oard of 0ressed chi0s factory and in Sri
anka they -uilt a mini sugar factory.Schumacher +orked in 9igeria!India!'urma!Chana!
Kam-ia on this 0roJects.I think Islamic .e/elo0ment 'ank and ,ra- ,cademy for Sciences and
&echnology and other institutions may demandGrecei/e these studies from I&.C td. for
+orkingGstudying on this ?chea0A kind of in/estment.In SchumacherBs 0roJects the cost 0rice of
the in/estments had decreased e/en to # Q.
In the early years of #:1;s!M.,-dulmannan +as 0ointing the ca0ital sur0lus of 0etroleum
e30orter of ,ra- countries and +as saying) 2this ca0ital sur0lus should -e transfor- med to useful
in/estments4?:A.'ut today these rich countries also ha/e the 0ro-lem of unem0loyment. ,dam
Smith +as saying) 2the +ealth of a nation de0ends on the degree of 0roducti/ity of the country
and 0roducti/e la-our. Porter! as a child of 20ost-industrial4 society! his analyses more 0urified
more refined! he says the +ealth ?su0eriorityA de0ends on the 0o+er of com0etition and this
0o+er de0ends on 2the a-ility of to inno/ate and u0grade4 of
men ?industryA of this country.Producti/ity is a fact that 0re0onderates +ith the social charac-
teristics than indi/idual.Porter says) 2+e ha/e to gi/e action ?mo/ementA to local sources of
com0etiti/e 0redominance to -e readyGto resist to international com0etition. Hirschmeier that he
studied on 2Ea0an e30erience4 for years!he 0oints) 2the most im0ortant mainstay for
industrialisation is F+ill of achie/ementB and if +e -ring into action this 2+ill4!necessary ca0ital
may -een gained from hidden sources and 0lanner enter0risings +ith dense +orking of energetic
0o0ulation the ca0ital may -een collected again ?#;A.
Musta0ha @6el mentiones the early years of Ea0anBs de/elo0ment in the late #:
th

century. 2&arget4 and 2Strong slogan4 ?moti/ation for in/estmentA. Some of the trading Journeys
lasted t+o years to Euro0a and ,merica. &here +ere <;; nota-le men in the I+akura Mission
?#18#-83A that they 2e30lored4 that the 0o+er of +estern ci/ilisation +as in economics!industry
and trading.&he su0eriority of +esterners +as in technology and +as de0ending on trading and
organisation. Ea0on scholars 0ut a slogan for de/elo0ment that 2todayBs enter0rising is
yesterdayBs samurai4 ?this changed to 2modern -usinessman is real +arrior4 after
+orld +ar IIA. In long years after ((II! schools are o0en on Saturdays in Ea0an ?+eekend is one
dayA! summer holidays is only one month. .e/elo0ment ?after +arA +as state-su00orted and
-et+een #:%$-1$ Ea0an state designed the industry ?and e30ortA and su00orted in %; years.
?Conditions of the 0eriod +ere a00ro0riate for this su00ortA.
In the same 0eriod!the father of Cermany de/elo0ment! ud+ig Erhard had declared ?an
o00osite de/elo0ment model thatA)
29o 0lanning economy4. He +as saying 2to administrate the economic actions gi/es harm to the
organisation ?stateA that 0lans the free enter0rise. ,ll of the harmful tests like 0lanning are a sin
that +as committed to the life. 'ecause life means mo/ement! action! /itality and de/elo0ment.4
2(e a-olished all of the decrees and regulations a-out economy that this action ga/e a 0ossi-ility
to officers of economic de0artments of the state 2thro+ a roll of decrees to dust-in.4, lot of men
+ere thinking to change these decrees -ut not +holly a-olishing.(e lifted all of the o-stacles!
-ureaucracy on the economics. &o do e30ort at +hate/er costs! if +e
74
do not go in this 0ath +e +ould -e sentenced to death. (e decreased the rate of ta3es thatBs +hy
-uying 0o+er of the citi6ens increased. 2State is like a referee4 that the referee does not
0artici0ate the match and also the state has not got any 0lace in the economic actions. &here is not
any authority for the ministry of economy to command to the o+ners of free enter0rise. &he
ministry is free from no+ a lot of unnecessaryGuselessly deeds like to gi/e 0ri/elege! to stam0 on
the 0a0ers! confirmation on the documents. In this ne+ de/elo0ment 0eriod! +e ha/e to collect
all of ?ourA the great 0ossi-ilities! and +e should lea/e the interest of some s0ecial grou0s.(e
should do coo0eration and +e shuld forget egoism.&he aim of the trading is to su00ly the needs
of consumers4. 2I do not -elie/e that these achie/ements is not a miracle.&here is not any
2Cerman Miracle4.,chie/ements in last ten years is not from a +itchcraft of my 0olicy that I
follo+ed -ut mere is from the understanding and conduct of the indi/iduals.&he +orks that
Cermany did!is uninterested +ith a miracle -ut this is the result of an effort that a nation +anted
to res0ect to 0rinci0les of freedom!free enter0rise and 0ersonal energy?##A.

(ithout forgetting the sentence of Erhard) 2 to do e30ort at +hate/er costs!if +e do
not go in this 0ath +e +ould -e sentenced to death4!no+!+e ha/e to look at the e30ort 0olicy in
Ea0anBs de/elo0ment)&he first go/ernment after the +ar -egan to +ork in #:%5.(eekends and
holidays +ere a-sent.&hey +ere +orking se/en days.(orking hours +ere /ery long.&he finish-
hour +as not kno+n.#$ years e/ery-ody +orked se/en days e/ery +eek.Furniture +as a-sent in
+ooden houses.Per ca0ita +as ] #5< in #:$<!it reached ]5:% in #:5$.C.P reached ] 1% -illion in
#:5$ and they 0assed in <; years ?#:%$-5$A Italy ?] $5 -illion C.P in #:5$A and Canada?] %1
-illionA!?FranceBs C.P in #:5$ ] :% -illion!D* :1!(.Cermany ##<! DS, 585A.&here +as a -ig
industrial 0roduction and a +eak consum0tion.Sim0licity of Ea0ans and tendency to
sa/ings.Ea0an family sa/ings +as <;Q of their incomes.?#<A
,ll of the in/estments -egins +ith small ste0s.CitroYn +as the first in 0roduction and
trading in front-+heel cars in France" <C/ +as a modest model at the -eginning"5; kilometres in
an hour and it +as designed to carry only t+o 0ersons and a 0arcel of 0otato. It sold /ery much
?Per ca0ita +as /ery lo+ in France after the second +orld +arA.7enault %c/ ?for four 0ersonsA
+as also a small car and its selling +as also successful.Ea0ans -egan to 0roduce 7enault under
the licence of %c/ -ut at the -eginning they +ere not successful!some 0arts of the cars +ere
-reakdo+n on the roads.&hey could not catch the =uality.'ut in #:8; they reached +estern
countries in automoti/e industry.,nd they sa+ there +as an em0ty in small and medium si6e car
market in D. States.&he DS industry +as not 0roducing these cars.
,merican costumers +as interested in ne+ Ea0an cars -ecause these cars +ere running +ith
fe+er gasoline than maJestic .odge!Cadillac!Pontiac.&here +as fi3ed thought in minds of Ea0ans
after the +ar) 2e30ort4"in the offices of MI&I ?state de0artment for encourageing of
industrialisation and e30ortA!administrati/e corridors of -ig com0anies!+orksho0s!in e/ery+here
the same +ord) 2e30ort4 again 2e30ort4 2more e30ort4 2e30ort for +ealthy life of the society4
29o im0orts!Hes e30orts4.?#3A
&ai+anBs area is as much as 'elgium and +ith <; million 0o0ulation a small
country.'ut =ualified la-or 0o+er!management intelligence and com0etition transformed &ai+an
as a +elfare state.?#%A
In 2&he Process of Economic Cro+th4 7osto+ says) 2Im0ort of ca0ital!dou-tless! is
usefull -ut at the end!0aying of ?e3ternalA de-ts is necessary and this de0ends on increasing
75
of e30orts.Increasing of agricultural 0roduction is necessary for the 0o0ulation of gro+ing cities
and not to gi/e the countryBs foreign currency for the foods4.7osto+ adds) 2Foreign trade +as the
im0ortant afresh source of in/estment in the de/elo0ment 0rocess of de/elo0ed
countries.Cro+ing economies created 2-ig e30ort industries4 from their natural sources.,nd
ra0id de/elo0ment in e30orts +as used for im0orting of ca0ital e=ui0ment and for e3ternal de-ts
in the 0rocess of start action.?#$A
In this 0oint +e may look at a ne+ good e3am0le from the region that &urkeyBs
e30orts in last #< months reached ] $#!$ -illion dollars.From March <;;3 to March <;;%
&urkeyBs e30orts increased 3< Q.&he ne+ aim is to -ecome all of the 1# 0ro/inces as 2e30orter
0ro/ince4.From the #:1%!in last <; years &urkey ga/e im0ortance to e30ort.'enefits of e30orts
+ere e30lained to the tradesmen and industrialists. Encouraging hel0s +ere done to the
com0anies that they had got an e30ort amount of ] $; million at the early years.Some ta3es +ere
gi/en -ack to the e30orters.Philoso0y of e30ort +ere descri-ed in a lot of trading meetings in last
<; years.,egean ?SeaAe30orters ?in +estern 0art of &urkeyA did e30orts to #8$ countries in <;;<
and #18 countries in <;;3.&hey said ?last fe-ruary in a 0ress conference 2there are <3 countries
?from <#; countries of the +orldA in the +orld that +e ha/e not e30orted any 0roduct that +e
in/estigate to e30ort to these countries and +e ho0e our e30orts +ill reach to <;; countries in
<;;%4?#5A.E30orts of Je+ellery 0roducts reached ] 1;; million
in <;;3 and the target for the end of <;;% is ] # -illion and the target of future ten years is ] #;
-illion.&he minister of state *urshad &u6man said our aim is one 0erson in e/ery three ?in the
+orldA has to +ear &urkish Je+ellery 0roducts.E30ort of traditional hand+ork car0ets -rought ]
$;; million to the country ?Iran is the first in this sector in the +orld +ith 35Q of +orld trade and
,ra- countries also may gi/e im0ortance to this sector -ecause of chea0 in/estmentA.Korlu Crou0
took cham0ionshi0 of &urkey in e30ort last year and Lestel Com0any ?of this grou0A 0roduced
<;Q of tele/ision im0ort of Euro0e.&his firm sold its tele/isions to #;1 countries.
E/ery-ody kno+s in &urkey that e/ery 0roduct im0orted-in the /alue of ] 5$;;- is the
reason of 2one 0ersonBs Jo-less4. &hatBs +hy e30ort means 2Jo-4.It +ill -e /ery difficult to e30ort
+ith using encouragements and +alls of customs after <;;5 ?for the (&@ agreementsA!thatBs
+hy &urkish e30orters are doing their 0re0arations., firm -egan to 0roduce ice cream in
Ea0an!the other &urkish firm -uilt a ready-made clothes factory in @6-akistan that this factory
+ill make e30orts of ] <% million e/ery year and this factory also ga/e Jo- to #$;; 0ersons.&he
famous Cermany firm 2Crundig4 ?tele/isionA +as -ought -y a &urkish firm and +ith a ne+
design they +ant to reach :.5 Q of Euro0ean market in <;;1. *om-assan Com0any o0ened a
hy0er market in Sudan +ith an in/estment of ] <$!;;;!;;; and other 8; &urkish firms no+ are
+orking in Sudan.&urkish Dndersecratery of Foreign &rade is +orking no+ like MI&I of Ea0an
for encouraging of e30ort.&his de0artment determined a ne+ market for e30orters).Ji-outi.&he
director of the di0artment said) 2+e are encouraging small scale firms to enter ,frica es0ecially
to east ,frica..Ji-outiBs economy de0ends on transit trade +holly and Sea0ort ,dministration of
.u-ai hired .Ji-outi Sea0ort for <; years +e +ant to use the -enefits of this free 6one for
entering east ,frica and Comesa economic region that Comesa as a great market +ith 0o0ulation
of 3;; million and <; mem-er countries.4

&he e30ort of ready-made clothes of &urkey reached ] :.< -illion in <;;< and
] ##.$ -illion in <;;3 and their target ] 3%.1 -illion in <;#;.In the Cairo International &e3tile
Machines Fair ?Fe-.!<;;%A there +ere $1 &urkish firms.Some &urkish firms +ant to -e a
76
mega-rand in glo-al e30ort markets.Centes com0any has -een setting u0 a fast food chain in
7ussia.Dnder the name of 2Flora-urger4 they ha/e o0ened 8 fast food station in last 5 years in
7ussia.&his firm is also -uilding Mosco+ State Dni/ersity!a sho00ing center ? a 0roJect of ] %<
millionA and <$;; &urkish +orkers are +orking in these yards.&here are $$;; a0iarists in Mugla
0ro/ince ?on the Mediterranian SeaA and they e30orted honey and earned ] 3< milli on.Coldas
Ee+ellery +ill 0roduce small gifts for 'ritish Chelsea S0orts Clu0.@sse com0any
is 0re0aring <;;!;;; shirts ?e/ery shirt 1 euroA for Dnited *ingdom.,kdulger com0any is
e30orting armchairs for -uses and small trucks!Has *ali0 e30orts door-hinges for lu3ury cars
to D.States!Cermany!'elgium.*ray Furniture e30orts furnitures for offices and houses to
Euro0ean countries...e30ort 0roducts in different kinds.&urkish e30orters ha/e -een accustomed
to e30ort and lo/ed this Jo-.&urkish tradesmen and industrialists!no+!do not a/oid to in/est the
e30ort 0roJects -ecause they ha/e seen 2e30ort -rings money4.
Chief director of ,l 'araka &urk ?finance houseA ,dnan 'uyukdeni6 said)
2It is said that there are a ca0ital of ] #$; -illion in the ,ra-ian Culf that this ca0ital is looking
for a direction for going.4?#8A. 2In/estment for E30ort4 has to -e 0ioneer o0inionGaim
to attract the ,ra- sa/ings for in/estment in muslim countries. 2Philoso0hy of E30ort4 should
-een e30lained to the muslim 0eo0les as a solution for the 0ro-lems of immigration and
unem0loyment and uni=ue +ay for de/elo0ment.
------------------------------
?#AMagruderBs ,merican Co/ernment!0!#<1
?<AMehmet Cenc!&he Princi0les of the @0inions of @ttoman Economic (orld ?in the
Sociology 7e/ie+ of Istan-ul Dni/ersity!0!#8$A Istan-ul!#:11-1:
?3A,hmad 9aJJar!9on-Interest 'aks!0!1<
?%A(.(.7osto+!&he Process of Economic Cro+th!0!5;-8<
?$A7osto+!0!$:
?5A9aJJar!0!#5#
?8ADmar Cha0ra!Islam and Economic .e/elo0ment!0!#58-18 ?&urkish editionA
?1AE.F.Schumacher!Cood (ork!0!#%
?:AM.,-dulmannan!9ecessary Se/en 7easons for 'elie/ing in the Im0ortance of
Islamic Economy!0!<;
?#;AMusta0ha @6el!Economics!Politics and 7eligion!0!3%!Istan-ul!#::$
?##Aud+ig Erhard!(elfare Share for E/ery-ody!0!33!5:!8%!8:
?#<APierre-,ntoine .onnet!e Ea0on ,chYte e Monde ?Ea0an 'uy the (orldA!0!%3
?#3Ai-id!0!$:-5#-8#
?#%Ai-id!0!81
?#$A7osto+!0!8#
?#5A.aily .unya!Fe-.!<8!<;;%
?#8A.aily .unya!Euly!#$!<;;3
77
7eading ?, draft ProJectA) 9ordic-Islam 7elations in Medie/al ,ges
Farge -oats of Scandina/ian tradersB +ere noted in the -ooks of IUth century muslim historians.
@n the other hand! Muslim traders had -een named as FmusurmanB -y Scandina/ian 0eo0les that
they +ere /isiting 9orth Euro0e cities in Uth century. In the first 0art of the 0roJect) -usiness and
international relations of 9ordic countries and Muslim countries -et+een :th-#%th centuries +ill
-e in/estigated and in the second 0art) #$th-<;th centuries es0ecially on the studies of @ttoman
historians.

Scandina/ia-India high+ay of Medie/al ,ges +as crossing on the muslim lands. &here +ere a lot
of tradesmen from Scandina/ia and 'altic Sea in the 'ulghar city of Idil. Muslim ?traders of
Central ,sia and IranA and 9orthern Euro0e -usinessmen +ere meeting in the acti/e -usiness life
of this city! in UIth century. Fish-one! glue! armor and s+ords +ere 0resenting -y Scandina/ian
-usinessmen to the market in 'ulghar city. &he study may also 0oint the 0ast of India-China-
Scandina/ia economic relations. Maurice om-ard had noted Scandina/ian -usinessmen e/en
had come to 'aghdad in :th century. ,-solutely! the study -as encouragement factor- should
ser/e for increasing of economic relations 9or+ay-Islamic countries. ,nd should sho+ /ery
good historical -ackground of Scandina/ian-Muslims relations. Ceorg Eaco0 ?#15<-#:38A
Cerman orientalist had 0ut %&lch& Hand&lsartik&l b&zo&n di& -rab&r Mitt&lalt&rs aus d&n
nordisch-baltisch&n .and&rn 4 5667# 5685 that this study +as a-out commodity goods that
,ra-s had -ought from north 'altic countries. ,nd his doctorate dissertation ,&r nordisch-
baltisch& Hand&l d&r -rab&r im Mitt&lalt&r 9.&ipzi 566:; he had in/estigated the trade relations
of ,ra-s +ith northern 'altic countries in medie/al ages.
,lso for @ttoman 0eriod" distance +as not a handica0 for /ery good relations of S+eden and
@ttomans. It +ill -e seen a0art from the rulers! the 0eo0les of t+o countries +as looking a great
sym0athy to each other.

I think! the 0roJect +ill 0ut an original te3t that +as not -een studied ?in detailedA -efore!
0ro/iding interesting notes for -oth History of Scandina/ian Economy and History Islamic
Economics.
'efore Mongol in/asion on Central ,sia and ?D00erA Middle East! there +ere an acti/e economic
acti/ities from China-India to 9orthern Euro0e and to Middle East. &hat is from Pasific and
Indian @cean to 'altic) Peace -rought +ealth to all nations. &he author -elie/es that +e +ill see
discrimination and clash of ci/ili6ations +ere a-sent a millennium ago. Men +ere -usy +ith their
-usiness.
78

Patroni6ation of Islamic Sciences in the History of Islam


Introduction. ,fter esta-lished the institutions of the Islamic State! muslims -egan to
su00ort researches of sciences. 'efore the end of the first century of Islam! science studies +ere
0atroni6ed -y muslims. FStarters) First ,--asid Cali0sB is mentioned in the first 0art of the 0a0er.
F&+o 'ayt al-HikmaBs are noted in the first and second 0arts. Patronages of 'u+ayhids!
,ndalusians! Marinids and others are seen in the second 0art. ,nd F@ttomans)ast Patrons of
Islamic SciencesB +as stated in the third 0art.
#- Starters) First ,--asid Cali0hs
Dmayyad Prince *halid -. Ha6id ?d.1$,.HG8;% ,..A is the first that made translated medicine!
astronomy and chemistry -ooks from Creek and Co0tic languages into ,ra-ic.?#A Prince had
0aid a salary to t+o monks Sta0hon and Marianos from ,le3andria. Dmayyad Sultans Mar+an -.
Hakam and Dmar -. ,-dula6i6 also su00orted the translations -ut only in the medicine. 'ut it is a
reality that ,--asid Cali0h CaBfar Mansur ?8$%-8$ ,..A ga/e acceleration this mo/ement)
MansurBs secretary ?a nati/e IranianA I-n Mu=affa translated the first three -ooks of ,ristoBs
@rganon and Por0hyrios ?FurfuriyusA and Eisagoge ?IsagoJiA. PtolemyBs Sintaksis ?as al-Ma<istiA
and EuclidBs Elemento Ceometricae ?as =sul al-HandasaA +ere translated into ,ra-ic in this
0eriod.?<A &+o -ooks on mathematics and astronomy that an Indian tourist -rought them to
'aghdad also +ere translated and muslims got ac=uainted Indian num-ers. Fa6ari ?d.#:;
,.HG1;5 ,..A the first muslim astronomer that made the first astrolo-e in Islamic +orld" Mansur
had +anted from Fa6ari to translate the astronomy -ook that +ritten in Sanskrit language and
79
-rought -y an Indian en/oy to 'aghdad. Fa6ari and the other ,ra- astronomer Ha=u- -. &ari=
com0leted the translation of this -ook into ,ra-ic in #$3 ,.HG88; ,... &his -ook ?its original
name Siddhanta! and in Islamic astronomy literature)Zi< al-0ind-Hind KiJ or Kitab al-0ind-HindA
+as used to the reign of MaBmun. Fa6ari +as one of the famous astronomers that CaBfar Mansur
had su00orted this grou0 that ,-u Sahl Fadl -. 9a+-akht! Masha,llah -. ,thari al-'asri and
Dmar -. Farrukhan al-&a-ari are the mem-ers of this study team. Fa6ari +rote : -ooks on
astronomy +ith s0onsorshi0 of Mansur.?3A
Christian 0hysician 'uhtishu the head of the Cundisha0ur Medical School +as in/ited to
'aghdad and he translated some -ooks from Creek and Persian medicine -ooks into ,ra-ic as a
chief 0hysician in the Palace of Mansur. ,nd then 0hysicians from his descendants translated the
-ooks of medicine. &his ra0id mo/ement +ent on in the time of Harun 7ashid. ,-u Sahl al-Fadl
-. 9a+-akht translated some -ooks from Persian +ith the encouragement of Harun 7ashid.
,stronomer and mathematician ,hmad -. Muhammad al-9iha+andi -egan his o-ser/ations in
8:; in Eundisha0ur ?in Hu6istan of todayBs IranA and Hahya -. 'armak ?Crand Li6ier ?of Harun
7ashidA -et+en 815-1;3 ,..A +as gi/ing su00ort his studies and +rote at least three -ooks ?al-
Zi< al-Mushtamil# al-Madkhal ila Ilm al-Haya# Kitab al->ama wa al-Tafri?A in this term. Harun
7ashidBs son MaBmun made -uilt t+o o-ser/atory in the district of Shammasiya of 'aghdad and
the other on the >asiyun Mountain near .imash=. ?%A MaBmun esta-lished 'ayt al-Hikma ?in 13;
,..A ,lthough Mansur had esta-lished *hi6anat al-Hikma as a li-rary of the Palace! -ut
MaBmun ?1#3-133 ,..A ga/e a ne+ identity to *hi6anat al-Hikma and assigned great funds for
ne+ 'ayt al-Hikma. 'ayt al-Hikma -ecame an ,cademy of Sciences under the 0atronage of
MaBmun. MaBmun sent culture en/oys to 'y6antium Em0ire for assuring -ooks that director of
'ayt al-Hikma Salm and I-n al-'itri=! HaJJaJ -. Matar and Huhanna -. Masa+ayh +ere in this
en/oy.?$A 'ayt al-Hikma gained an identity of as the -iggest research center of Medie/al ,ge. ,t
the -eginning! 'ayt al-Hikma +as a translation office and a li-rary -ut in the course of the time it
gro+ed from the 0hysical and functional as0ects and -ecame a research center and an education
institution. I-n 9adim says there +ere a00ro3imately 8; translators in 'ay al-Hikma. %8 of them
+ere translating from Creek to Syriac ! from Syriac to ,ra-ic or directly from Creek to ,ra-ic"
#5 of them +ere translating from Persian to ,ra-ic" 3 of them from Sanskrit to ,ra-ic and the
other from 9a-atian language to ,ra-ic.?5A
%hich aids 9w&r& includ&; to patronization4 ,s an e3am0le MaBmun also +as gi/ing su00ort to
famous ,ra-ic synta3 scholar Farra ?#%%-<;8 ,.HG 85#-1<<A and a room had -een assigned to
Farra in the 0alace of MaBmun and some ser/ants and secretaries +ere +orking for only Farra.?8A
'ayt al-Hikma also +as in the Palace of ,--asid cali0hs. &here +ere rooms for -ooks! rooms for
authors! translators! secretaries! transcri-ers and -ook-inders and a reading-hall. I-n al-9adim
had seen and used the facilities of 'ayt al-Hikma that he gi/es /alua-le notes?1A MaBmun had
0aid 3;;!;;; dinar ?gold coinsA for only translations from Creek.?:A E/en some translations
used to -e 0ut on one of the t+o 0ans of -alance and gold dusts on the other 0an and the scholar
+as -eing a+arded in this +ay. More than $;; years! 'ayt al-Hikma +ent on its acti/ity to
Mongol occu0ation.
Mathematician &ha-it -. >urra! his son and grandsons +ere su00orted -y ,--asid .ynasty.
&ha-it -. >urra +as in the researcher team of 'ayt al-Hikma. He +as a non-muslim a ?0aganA
Sa-ean of Harran -ut +as su00orted -y MaBmun like similar cases are seen a lot in Islamic
history. &ha-it and his son Sinan ?su00orted -y >ahir 'illahA! and son of Sinan! I-rahim" this
80
FthreeB are famous mathematicians. I-rahim also an astronomer and his father Sinan is also a
0hysician. I-rahim +rote his first -ooklet *ita- ,lat al-,dlal +hen he +as #5 years old. I-rahim
+as in the fourth generation of Islamic sciences after 'anu Musa and he had got a /ery rich
scientific legacy from his father and grandfather. He +rote ten -ooks on astronomy and
geometry.?#;A ,nother mathematician ?and astronomerA Ha-ash al-Hasi- +as also su00orted -y
,--asid cali0hs. He +as -orn in Mar+?&urkistanA and his life 0assed in 'aghdad. Pro-a-ly he
+as in the o-ser/ation team of MaBmun that his o-ser/ations had lasted 3$ years. He had fi3ed
the latitudes of Lenus and Mercury.He +ent on his studies in the 0eriods of MaBmun and
MuBtasim 'illah. He a00lied trigonometrical functiones on the 0ro-lems of s0herical astronomy.
?##A ,li -. Isa al-Dsturla-i is the other mem-er of MaBmunBs team. He +rote one of the first
-ooklets on astrola-e ?7isala fi MaBrifati al-ilm al-Dsturla-A +ith s0onsorshi0 of MaBmun and
0artici0ated the scientific o-ser/ations in 'aghdad in 1<:! in .imash= in 13<! +ith the other
scholars Hahya . ,-u Mansur! Sind -. ,li! ,--as -. Said al Ea+hari and *halid -. ,-d al-Malik.
He also 0artici0ated the measurement of one degree of longitude of meridian circle in SinJar Plain
-et+een the Eu0hrates and &igris 7i/ers.?#<A
Four ,--asi cali0hs s0onsored the studies of HaJJaJ -. Husuf -. Matar. He +as the one of Syriac
translators of this 0eriod. He +as from *ufa city and in the years of cali0hs Harun al-7ashid!
,min! MaBmun and MuBtasim ?815-133 ,..A he li/ed in 'aghdad.He +as in the team of fi/e
scholars of MaBmun that +as sent to 'y6antium Em0ire -y MaBmun to 0ro/ide scientific -ooks.
He translated EuclidBs Elements first time into ,ra-ic as Dsul al-Handasa. HaJJaJ translated this
-ook first time for Harun al-7ashid! and second time for MaBmun" thatBs +hy Fal-HaruniB +as
named the first translation and Fal-MaBmuniB the second. He also +as in the team of that they
translated PtolemyBs al-MaJisti.?#3A
Philanthro0ist 'anu Shakir ?'anu MusaA family is mentioned -y I-n al-9adim and I-n ,-u
Dsay-ia. &his three rich -rothers Muhammad! ,hmad and Hasan sent Hunayn - .Isha= and other
scholars to 'y6antium cities to -uy -ooks. &hey -rought rare science -ooks and -egan to
translate them. 'anu Shakir family +as 0aying $;; gold coins monthly for these translators that
Hunayn -. Isha= and Ha-ash -. Hasan +ere in this team. ?#%A
,li -. 7a--an al-&a-ari ?d.<%8,.HG15# ,..A +as also s0onsored -y t+o ,--asid cali0hs. He
-egan to +rite )irdaws al-Hikma ?that this -ook is one of the oldest sources of Islamic medicineA
in &a-aristan under the 0atronage of go/ernor of &a-aristan Ma6yar -. >arin. 'ut the go/ernor
+as killed after a re/olt! and ,li -. 7a--an +ent to Samarra and first MuBtasim 'illah and then
Muta+akkil ala-,llah su00orted him and he com0leted his -ook in 1$;.?#$A In the :th century!
Fath -. Ha=an go/ernor of Samarkand of ,--asid dynasty! he +as also a scholar himself and
+rote three -ooks and he su00orted the scientific studies and esta-lished a great li-rary in
Samarkand that astronomer ,li -. Hahya al-MunaJJim +as a00ointed -y him to find ne+ science
-ooks for this li-rary. ?#5A
<- #;th-#$th Centuries) 'u+ayhids! ,ndalusians! Marinids and @thers
?&he secondA 'ayt al-Hikma had -een esta-lished in >ayra+an! in the -eginning years of #;th
century in &unisia. ,gla-ids State in &unisia reached im0ortant le/el in different disci0lines -ut
81
es0ecially in medicine and 0hiloso0hy from 1;; to :;:?,..A Science -ooks +ere 0ro/ided from
the cultural centers of Egy0t! .imash=! Ira= and *horasan. Christian scholars from Sicily +as
in/ited and they translated -ooks from Creek. , /ast li-rary +as esta-listed. 'ayt al-hikma of
>ayra+an +as esta-lished -y Sultan KNyadatullah III ?his reign :;3-:;:.A 'ayt al-Hikma +as on
the longest street of >ayra+an near Creat Mos=ue.&here +ere rooms near li-ary for the teams of
authors and translators. ,nd there +ere de0artments of mathematics! astronomy! geometry!
0harmacology! medicine and -otany and residents for scholars and social centers for them.
I-rahim -. ,hmad al-Shay-ani ?al-7iya6iA ?d.<:1 ,.HG :#;,..A had encouraged Sultan
Kiyadatullah III to -uild this center and li-rary.?#8A
)arabi and 0aif al-,awla. I-n ,-u Dsay-ia +rites ##3 -ooks of ?alA Fara-i and 5% of them +ere
translated into different languages and Fara-i ?<1<-3$; ,.HG 1:$-:5# ,..A +rote from chemistry
?%u<ubu 0inaat al-KimyaA to logic! classification of science and on e/ery to0ics of 0hiloso0hy.
,lthough a lot of non-true stories +ere fa-ricated on Fara-i that he had a guard in /egeta-le-
garden in .imash= and he used tostudy under the lantern of this garden -ut in reality Fara-i +as
a /ery famous scholar +hen he came to .imash= that his last eight years 0assed there and Sultan
of Hamdanids Sayf al-.a+la res0ected Fara-i! Sultan ga/e dinners for Fara-i in his 0alace and
+anted to gi/e a /ery high salary to him -ut Fara-i did not acce0t this +age and said Fonly %
dirhams ?sil/er coinA are sufficientB for his daily e30enses. ?#1A
Sultan of 'u+ayhids ,dud al-.a+la s0onsored the studies of 0hysician ,li -. ,--as al MaJusi in
the second half of #;th century. ,l MaJusi ?d. ::%RWSA dedicated his -ooks Kamil al-0inaat al-
Tibbiyya ?or in short Kitab al-Malaki ?7ulerBs 'ookA to ,dud al-.a+la. *amil al-Sinaa +as
follo+ed as a classical te3t-ook in Euro0e to #3th century. Its name in (esten (orld +as i-er
7egius?7ulerBs 'ookA and first 0art of this -ook +as a-out theories and the second +as on
0ractical medical kno+ledges. ,li -. ,--as had em0hasi6ed the im0ortance of 0sychothera0hy
-efor I-n Sina and called attention to the relation -et+een 0sychology and medicine. ,li -.
,--asBs -ook +as translated 0artly to atin language -y Constantine dB,frican in UI th century
and follo+ed in Salerno Medicine College as a te3t-ook" Ste0han of ,ntioch did the com0leted
translation to atin in ##<8! and +as 0u-lished first in Lenice in #%:< as i-er regalis dis0osito
nominatus e3 ara-ico /enetiis" and in yon in #$<3 as i-er totius medicinae necessariae
continents! =uem Haly filius ,--as edidit regi=ue inscri0sit.?#:A Sultan of 'u+ayhids Fakhr al-
.a+la?his reign :13-::8 ,..A also su00orted astronomy researches. ,fter his demand! scholar
,-u Mahmud Hamid al-HuJandi made a -ig se3tant ?instrument used for measuring the altitude
of the sun.A to o-ser/e the entering of the sun to the longitude of ?the ca0ital cityA 7aBy. ?<;A

High -uraeucracy of 'u+ayhid dynasty also su00orted scientific studies. Mathematician *araJi
?d.after %#; ,.HG#;#: ,..A +as 0atroni6ed -y grand /i6ier of 'u+ayhids Fakhr al-Muluk ,-u
Chali- Muhammad -. ,li. *araJi +rote one of the most im0ortant studies of Islamic alge-ra Fal-
)akhriB after encouragement of this grand /i6ier that *araJi notes in the introduction of the -ook
that he had 0lanned a -ook on this matter -ut not reali6ed and after grand /i6ier Fakhr al-Muluk
encouraged him to +rite he -egan to +rite and ga/e his name to the -ook as Fal-Fakhri.B *araJi
dedicated his second -ook al-Kafi fi al-Hisab also to Fakr al-Muluk. ?,l-*afi +as translated into
Cerman -y ,dolf Hochheim in three /olumes as *afi fi al-Hisa- des ,-u 'ekr Muhammed 'en
,li Husain al-*arkhi! Halle in #181-#11;.A *araJi is also an e30ert on hydrology that he is the
first hydrology engineer in the +orld. His studies on hydrology also +as 0atroni6ed -y another
82
'u+ayhid grand /i6ier ,-u Chanim and *araJi dedicated his -ook of hydrology *ita- In-at al-
Miyah al-*hafiyya to ,-u Chanim.?<#A
>a-isi ?d.after 31; ,.HG ::; ,..A that Euro0eans used to name him as ,lca-itius or ,lcha-itius
+as -orn in >a-isiye in 9orthern Ira= and he used the rich li-rary of mathematician-astronomer
,li -. ,hmad al-Imrani and learned Islamic and rational sciences and then he studied under the
0atronage of Sultan of Hamdanids Saif al-.a+la ,li?his reign :%%-58.A His -ook al-Madkhal ila
Sinaati ,hkam al-9uJum +as translated into atin language in ##%% -y Eohannes His0alensis as
,lca-itii li-er introductorius and 0u-lished in Lenice in #%1#-1$-:# and #$<#" and into French in
#35< -y Pelerin de Pousse in Paris. >a-isi dedicated his -ooks to Saif al-.a+la ,li and his
studies on mathematics influnced great muslim mathematicians *araJi and ,-dul=ahir al-
'aghdadi.?<<A
,lthough Syriac 0hysician and 0hiloso0her I-n al-*hammar ?d.%#; ,.HG#;#: ,..A +as a
christian -ut three muslim dynasties su00orted him in his long life that lasted more than one
hundred years. I-n al-*hammar +as first 0atroni6ed -y 'u+ayhids and he +as +orking as
surgeon in the hos0ital of 'imaristan al-,dudi in 'aghdad. He trained muslim 0hysician and
0hiloso0her ,-u al-FaraJ I-n Hindu and christian 0hysician ,-u al-FaraJ -. &ayyi- and famous
scholar I-n Miska+ayh. I-n al-*hammar +ent to 7aBy ?cityA in #;;< and dedicated one of his
-ooks to Crand Li6ier of 'u+ayhids ,-u SaBd Muhammad al-Hamadani. I-n al-*hammar
entered the 0atronage of *har6amshas +hen he +ent to central ,sia and dedicated his -ook
Ma=ala fi Imtihan al-,ti--a to Sultan ,-u al-,--as MaBmun. ,00ro3imately #$ years! I-n al-
*hammar li/ed under the su00ort of ,-u al-,--as! Sultan Mahmud al-Ca6na+id entered Hari6m
country and in/aded and took 'iruni! ,-u 9asr -. Ira= and I-n *hammar to ca0ital city Ca6na.
Sultan Mahmud +anted from I-n *hammar to -ecome muslim -ut he refused. 'ut no any
0ressure +as on him. 'ut after a dream I-n al-*hammar -ecame muslim some months later.
Sultan Mahmud had gi/en him a land that the name of this land +as *humaru and thatBs +hy he
+as named I-n al-*humar and then I-n al-*hammar.?<3A
I-n SinaBs magnum o0us al->anun fi al-&i- that it is also one of the master0ieces of (orld
Medicine History +as +ritten +ith the 0atronage of 'u+ayhid .ynasty. I-n Sina ?d. %<1 ,)HG
#;38 ,..A +rote this -ook in more than ten years and -egan to +rite in EurJan. In this term! he
stayed in the 0alaces of 'u+ayhis dynasty in the cities 7aBy! Hamadan and Isfahan as a
0hysician. ?<%A ,fter Sultan Mahmud al-Cha6/a+i in/aded the country of 'u+ayhids! I-n Sina
+ent to CurganJ. CurganJ +as the administrati/e and economic center of *ha+ara6m and
MaBmunids .ynasty +as su00orting scholars. , lot of scholars from Islamic +orld came to
CurganJ and MaBmuni family 0atroni6ed them. I-n Sina! 'iruni! ,-u Sahl al-Masihi! I-n Ira=!
I-n al-*hammar! ,-u Mansur al-&haali-i are from these scholars. CurganJ +ent on this
0atronage more than a hundred years to the in/asion of Mongols in #<<# ?,..G 5#1,.HA and
Mongols destroyed all of the li-raries and schools. ?<$A
In the same years! Cali0h ,-durrahman III +as gi/ing su00ort science in ,ndalusia.
Mathematician and astronomer MaJriti ?d. 3:1G#;;8A had come >urtu-a ?Cordo-aA in his early
ages and learned mathematical sciences from ,-dulgafir -. Muhammad and +as a00ointed
astronomer of the Palace of ,-durrahman. &here +as a Society of Scholars ,c=uainted +ith @ld
Cultures that this grou0 +as doing researches under the 0atronage of ,-durrahman. MaJriti
changed some 0arts of Hari6miBs KiJ after his studies. MaJriti had -een named as FEuclides of
83
,ndalusiaB that his studies on mathematics and astronomy influenced the studies in ,ndalusia
and the other 0arts of Euro0e and he +as acce0ted as a great e30ert in these sciences after him.
?<5A MaJriti +as also su00orted -y Mansur ?grand /i6ier of Hisham II! ,-durrahman III.and
Hakam II ?as the 0o+erful man of ,ndalusia in thirty years 35<-3:< ,.HG:83-#;;< ,.. that
Mansur also su00orted the education and astronomy education in ,ndalusia.A?<8A
Historian Chars al-9iBma ?%#5-%1; ,..G#;<$-#;11 ,..A he +as also a rich tradesman and high
-ureaucrat in the administration of >aim -i-,mrillah! he esta-lished a li-rary in +est 'aghdad.
He ga/e more than #;;; -ooks from different disci0lines to this li-rary! and scholars and
students used to come and discuss scientific matters here.
,ndalusian astronomer I-n Kar=ala +as first su00orted -y chief Judge of &ulaytula ?&oledoA Said
al-,ndalusi. ,fter making original o-ser/ation instruments! chief Judge 0ro/ided /ast
o00ortunities for I-n Kar=ala and ne+ -ooks +ere 0ro/ided for him. In the year #;5< ?%$% ,.HA
ruler of &ulaytula Hahya -. Ismail organi6ed an o-ser/ation grou0 of astronomy and I-n Kar=ala
+as a00ointed as a mem-er of this grou0 and then head of this grou0. I-n Kar=ala made
cle0sydras?+ater clocksA and the style of him +ere used to #8th century in Euro0e. ,fter
,l0honso LI in/aded &ulaytula! I-n Kar=ala +ent to >urtu-a?Cordo-aA and he +as also +as
0atroni6ed -y the ruler of this city and he +ent on his studies that he determined the longitude of
7egulus star! and +rote si3 -ooks on astronomy.?<1A
&he Corids +as a dynasty in ,fghanistan! *horasan and 9orthern India in ##th-#<th and first
years of #3th centuries. Es0ecially Sultan Chiyas al-din ?##53-#<;< ,..A made -uilt madrasas in
all o/er the country and in/ited scholars from *horasan and Ma+ara al-9ahr. Firu6ghah ?ca0ital
city for summersA -ecame a scientific and cultural center. In this term scientific and cultural
acti/ities remo/ed from 'aghdad to Harat region. Madrasas of Harat -ecame famous at the end
of #<th century that religious and scientific disci0lines +ere -eing taught. Fakhr al-din al-7a6i
and Fakhr al-din Mu-arak Shah also came to Sultan Chiyas al-dinBs country. ?<:A
,rtukogullari ?,rtukidsA +as a regional dynasty in Ira=! Syria and Southern &urkey in #<th
century. ,rtukoglu 9aJmuddin had con=uered >udus and had esta-lished a country of tolerance
in this regions. Mem-ers of the family +ere go/ernors of different cities. Scholar I-n al-Salah
?9aJmuddin ,-u-l Futuh ,hmad -. SirriA +as gi/ing 0hiloso0hy courses under the 0atronage of
this dynasty. ,nd 7uler ,rtukoglu Husamuddin +as e/en a 0hiloso0her. Famous 0hysician and
0hiloso0her of this 0eriod Fakhruddin al-Mardini +as su00orted -y this family. Fakhruddin al-
Mardini took 0hiloso0hy courses from I-n Salah and medicine from I-n al-&ilmi6 ?chief
0hysician of 'aghdad ,dud al-.a+la Hos0ital.A I-n al-&ilmi6 and Fakhruddin studied on I-n al-
SinaBs al->anun and Fakhruddin -ecame an e30ert of al->anun. Fakhruddin Mardini li/ed in
Hani city long years to his death under the 0atronage of ,rtukoglu 9aJmuddin Ilga6i and e/en he
taught 9aJmuddin medicine. Mardini +ent to .amascus for a short time and a higher salary +as
offered to him for teaching al->anun -ut he refused and +hen he +as returning to Mardin city! on
the +ay! he /isited ,le00o and +ith the insist of the ruler of ,le00o al-Malik al-Kahir Ca6i he
stayed t+o years in this city that the ruler 0ayed a /ery good salary for him. ,fter his death
,rtukoglu dynasty su00orted the studies of I-n al-7a=i=a that he +as the student of Fakhruddin
al-Mardini?3;A
>ournal of M&dical 0ci&nc&s in 5@th (&ntury. In the same region ,yyu-ids 0atroni6ed medicine!
-otany and 0harmacology in #<th and #3th centuries. Muslim and non-muslim 0hysicians +ere in
84
a 0ros0erous life. Physicians of internal diseases! surgery and eye com0laints used to together
their em0irical studies in the >ournal of Kunnash. I-n al-9afis ?d.518 ,.HG#<11A had found small
circulation of the -lood in this 0eriod and ,-d al-atif al-'aghdadi +rote the first -ook on
dia-etes in the history of medicine under the 0atronage of ,yyu-id dynasty. ?3#A I-n al-9afis had
-een s0onsored -y ,yyu-ids and then in Egy0t -y 'ay-ars I Sultan of Mamluks. He +as in a life
of comforta-le in Cairo and +rote #$ -ooks on medicine.?3<A
, lot of mem-ers of 7asulid .ynasty in Hemen +ere famous scholars and also they su00orted
scholars. ,stronomer! mathematician and 0hysician Muhammed Farisi ?d.588,HG#<81 ,.A had
-een s0onsored -y Sultan of Hemen al-Malik al-Mu6affar Husuf -. Dmar and Farisi had
dedicated some of his -ooks to the Sultan.?33A
Cha6an *han! Sultan of Il-*han .ynasty ?his reign #<:$-#3;%A! after he -ecame muslim! and
Islam -ecame the official religion of ?MongolA Il-*han Em0ire" he -uilt a kno+ledge-city near
the ca0ital-city of &e-ri6. Construction of the cam0us -egan in #<:8 and after com0leted it +as
named ,-+a- al-'irr and then Cha6aniyya. &here +ere a great mos=ue in the center of the
cam0us and t+o religious colleges for Hanafis and Shafiis! a 0rimary school for children! an
o-ser/atory and the other social -uildings. @-ser/atory! great li-rary and religious colleges +ere
+orking together under the 0rinci0le of ta+hid of Islamic education?unity of kno+ledge.A Creat
endo+ments had -een assigned for the e30enses of these institutions. ?3%A

&he Proceedings of the International Conference on Dr-anism in Islam! &okyo #:1:! II! <13-::A
Famous mathematician I-n al-*ha++am ?5%3-8<% ,.HG#<%$-#3<% ,..A +as also a Jurist in
Shafii school and 0hysician that 0roduced -ooks on medicine. He studied under 0atronage of
7ashid al-.in Fadlullah Crand Li6ier of Il-*han .ynasty. He had -een -een a00ointed as the
President of (a=f of .ar al-Kaha- in 'aghdad and great funds +ere assigned for using of I-n al-
*ha++am. He +rote famous -ook on mathematics al-Fa+aid al-'ahaiyya and the others Fusul
ala Fahm Ma=alat al-,shira min *ita- @klidis! al-7isalat al-Shamsiyya fi al->a+aid al-
Hisa-iyya" and Mu=addima fi al-&i- on medicine and three -ooks on Islamic su-Jects.?3$A He
also 0ro/ided a lot of scholarshi0s for the students and a lot of -ooks for the li-rary from the
incomes of (a=f of .ar al-Kaha-.
In the #%th century! a medicine -ook Kitab Tuhfa-i Mubarizi +as translated +ith the su00ort of
a local ruler Mehmed 'ey in ,ydinogullari 0rinci0ality! in +estern &urkey.?35A
In the second half of #%th century! a another local ruler in +estern &urkey! ,ydinoglu Isa 'ey
?that in that time there +ere a00ro3imately ten small states in &urkeyBs landA had gi/en a
scholarshi0 to HaJi Pasha ?Haci Pasa! 8%;-1<8 ,.HG #33:-#%<% ,..A +hen he +as a student in
Cairo. Haci Pasa com0leted his education in Islamic su-Jects and medicine and +orked as a
0hysician in Cairo hos0ital?'imaristan-i CairoA. He returned to &urkey and +as a00ointed as
Judge of ,yasuluk ?SelcukA city. He also +as gi/ing Islamic courses in the madrasas of
,ydinogullari 0rinci0ality and +as +orking as a 0hysician in the Palace and for 0eo0le. In this
0eriod! he +rote more than ten -ooks that maJority of them are on medicine and some on Islamic
theology and logic. He mentiones the 0atronage of Isa 'ey in the introduction 0arts of his t+o
-ooks Shifa al-,s=am and Sarh al-&a+ail al-,n+ar saying) 2,fter com0leted my education +ith
great aids and 0atronage of Isa 'ey! I also found res0ect and honour in his State4 ?38A
85
In the same 0eriod! another 0rinci0ality in +estern &urkey! Mentese @gullari also su00orted
scientific studies. Muhammad -. Mahmud al-Shir+ani dedicated his -ook on medicine Ilyasiya
fi al-Tib to the local ruler Sultan Ilyas ?d. 1<% ,.HG#%<# ,..A?31A
In the 9orthern ,frica! 'anu Marin ?MarinidesA .ynasty 0atroni6ed science studies from #3th
century to second half of #$th century. Sultan of Marinides ,-u Inan al-Marini esta-lished a
great li-rary in the cam0us of >ara+iyyin Madrasas. It +as o0ened in #3%:?,..G8$; ,.HA that
this li-rary is one of the richest manuscri0t li-raries of Islamic +orld. ,-u Inan 0ut a lot of
/alua-le -ooks include translations done in ,--asid 0eriod in this li-rary. &here +ereGare a lot of
/alua-le -ooks on mathematics! 0hiloso0hy and medicine. Creat mathematicians and
astronomers of Morocco I-n Mar6u= al-*hati-! I-n al-,hmar! I-n al-'anna al-Marra=ushi! I-n
al-Sa-il al-&aalimi! ,-durrahman .-. Muhammad al-Eadiri! ,li al-Marra=ushi and famous
0hysicians ,hmad -. Muhammad al-Ea6nai! Muhammad -. Hahya al-,6afi and >asim al->urashi
used this li-rary and 0roduced a lot of studies under the 0atronage of 'anu Marin Sultans. I-n al-
Sa-il al-&aalimi made an astrolo-e and 0resented to Sultan ,-u al-Hasan and Sultan ga/e him
gold coins as much as the +eight of his astrolo-e. ?3:A
&housands miles a+ay from 9orthern ,frica! in India! Sultan of .elhi ?Sultan of &ughlu=sA Firu6
Shah &ughlu= ?his reign #3$#-#311 ,..A also +as 0atroni6ing scientific studies. He made -uilt
thirty madrasas in different 0arts of India for 0rogress of Islamic su-Jects -ut also made translated
a lot of -ooks that they +ere found in a 'udist tem0le in Sanskrit language. &hey +ere translated
into Persian language +ith the fund of Sultan Firu6.?%;A
Eamshid al-*ashi ?d.13<,.HG #%<:,..A +as -orn in a Persian family. He +as -usy +ith
medicine -ut after a 0eriod he -egan to study astronomy and mathematics. He li/ed in *ashan
some 0eriod and /isited (estern Ira= cities and then Sultan Dlug 'ey in/ited him to
Samarkand.He met a sufficient financial and scientific milieu in Samarkand. He +rote his famous
astronomy -ooks Sullam al-Sama! Mukhtasar dar Ilm al-HayBa! 7isala dar Sharh al-,lat al-
7asad and 9u6hat al-Hadai= in this 0eriod and @-ser/atory of Dlug 'ey +as -uilt on the ad/ises
and 0roJects of *ashi. His -ook on mathematics Miftah al-Hisa- that +as the 0eak of the -ooks
of mathematicians in the +orld in long centuries that he a00lied 7ufini-Horner method centuries
ago. He dedicated some of his -ooks to grand /i6ier *amal al-din Mahmud and Sultan Iskender
of Co/ernor of Shira6" it is understood that a lot of muslim statesmen had gi/en su00ort for the
studies of *ashi.?%#A
In the first years of #$th century! science education in @ttoman lands +as not sufficient. @ne of
famous scholar of this 0eriod! >adi6ade com0leted his Islamic education and although took some
courses of astronomy from MunaJJim Faydullah in *onya ?city in Central &urkeyA -ut his teacher
?and famous scholarA Molla Fanari ad/ised him to go to Central ,sia saying) 2egacy of Maraga
mathematics-astronomy school is still /ery ali/e! and you should go Ma+ara al-9ahr and
*horasan.4 >adi6ade +ent to Samarkand and 0artici0ated some courses of Sayyid Sharif EurJani
on mathematics and Islamic theology. 'ut after a short time he met the ruler Dlug 'ey and he
-ecame a tutor for him. ,fter that! he +as a00ointed chief 0rofessor of Madrasa of Dlug 'ey
?,cademy of Dlug 'eyA and after death of Eamshid al-*ashi! >adi6ade also +as a00ointed as the
head of @-ser/atory of Samarkand. >adi6ade used to gi/e im0ortance to autonomy of schools.
&hatBs +hy he resigned from his 0osts +hen Dlug 'ey dismissed a 0rofessor from the Madrasa.
'ut Dlug 'ey returning that 0rofessor to his 0ost a00ointed again and 0romised to >adi6ade that
86
not to interfere the MadrasaBs administration. >adi6ade taught mathematics and astronomy more
than 3; years in Samarkand to his death and +rote three famous -ooks on mathematics and the
other three on astronomy. He dedicated his famous mathematics te3t-ook &uhfat al-7ais fi Sarh
al-,shkal al-&aBsis to Dlug 'ey.?%<A
3-@ttomans) ast Patrons of Islamic Sciences
@ttoman Sultan Hildirim 'aye6id ?his reign #31:-#%;< ,..A 0atroni6ed scientific studies and ,li
-. Hi-atullah dedicated his -ook Khulasat al-Minha< fi ahl-alHisab to the Sultan ?%3A and
'aye6id had -rought 0hysician from Cairo for .ar al-Sifa?hos0ital.A ?%%A 'aye6idBs son Cele-i
Sultan Mehmed ?his reign #%##-#%<#A 0atroni6ed for +riting a -ook scholar ,-dul+ahha- -.
Husuf al-Mardini on medicine Kitab al-Muntakhab fi al-Tib. ?%$A Sultan Murad II ?his reign
#%<#-#%$#A su00orted the translation of Mufradati Ibn $aytar on medicine and Tuhfa-i Muradi
fi asnaf al-<awahir +ritten -y Mehmed -. Muhmud Shir+ani! and 0artly translation another -ook
on medicine Kamil al-0inaa.?%5A Mercimek ,hmed translated a geometry -ook Kabusnam& in
this 0eriod ?in 13$ ,.HG#%3# ,..A and dedicated to Sultan Murad II.
,li *ushci and Fathullah al-Shir+ani -egun the education of mathematics! astronomy and
geogra0hy in @ttoman Em0ire. ,lthough science education +as -eing taught -efore and
geometry and cosmogra0hy +ere the most im0ortant of them -ut ,li *ushJi! first time! o0ened a
0ri/ate and intensi/e course on mathematics. Fathullah al-Shir+ani ?1<;-1:# ,.HG #%#8-#%15
,..A first +as su00orted -y ruler Dlug 'ey in Samarkand fi/e years ?#%3$-%;A and then a local
ruler Candaroglu Ismail 'ey ?in *astamonu city in the central &urkey.A Ismail 'ey 0atroni6ed
Shir+ani more than #$ years ?#%$;-5$A" and a short time in #%$3 @ttoman Crand Li6ier
Candarli *halil Pasha also su00orted Fathullah al-Shir+ani. (ith the 0atronage of the local ruler
Candaroglu Ismail 'ey! *astamonu city -ecame a scientific and cultural center of the region.
*halil -. MuBmin +rote a -ook on eye-diseases Miftah al-3ur that dedicated also to Ismail 'ey.
?%8A Shir+ani trained a lot of students in @ttoman madrasas and +rote -ooks on astronomy ?al-
Faraid +a-l Fa+aid fi ta+dih al-Sharh al-Mulakhkhas! Shar al-&a6kira fi ilm al-HayBaA and
geometry ?Hashiya ala Sharhu ,shkal al-&aBsisA and the -ooks on ,ra-ic grammar and on
Islamic religious su-Jects. ?%1A
,li *usJhiBs coming to @ttoman Em0ire is a milestone for the @ttoman madrasas. He also
-rought his students and assistants to Istan-ul. His -ook al-Muhammadiyya +as a te3t-ook
a00ro3imately t+o centuries to the second 0art of #8th century.?%:A ,li *ushJiBs first teacher +as
Sultan Dlug 'ey in Samarkand. Dlug 'ey as a great scholar in mathematics
and astronomy educated ,li *ushJi and ga/e financial su00ort to him. >adi6ade and Eamshid al-
*ashi +ere also the teachers of ,li *ushJi. ,li *ushJi +ent to *irman and com0leted some
courses in this city and after returning to Samarkand he 0resented his -ook Hall al--shkal al-
Aamar to Dlug 'ey. Dlug 'ey +as 0leased +ith this -ook and he sent ,li *ushJi to China for
ad/anced education.
,fter killed Dlug 'ey! ,li *ushJi came to &a-ri6 and met Sultan Hasan of ,kkoyunlu dynasty.
Sultan Hasan also res0ected him and ,li *ushJi +as sent as an e3tra-ordinary am-assador to
Istan-ul that there +ere some 0ro-lems -et+een @ttomans and ,kkoyunlu Sultanate. ?FatihA
87
Sultan Mehmet II of @ttoman Em0ire admired ,li *ushJiBs kno+ledge and in/ited him to
Istan-ul and insisted. ,fter com0leted the duty of am-assadorshi0! ,li *ushJi +ent to Istan-ul.
,li *ushJi -rought synergy to the studies of mathematics and astronomy in Istan-ul and not only
students -ut also scholars follo+ed his courses. He +as also a scholar of Funity of kno+ledgeB
and +rote si3 -ooks on astronomy and mathematics" one on Islamic theology" one on
methodology of Islamic la+" and se/en on ,ra-ic grammar.?$;A
?FatihA Sultan MehmedBs son Sultan 'aye6id II had -een trained in geometry and astronomy -y
his tutor Salahuddin. ,nd Mirim Cele-i that is the greatest scholar after ,li *ushJi in
mathematics in @ttoman academic milieu! he dedicated his -ooklets to 'aye6id II.?$#A 'aye6id II
?his reign #%1#-#$#<A also su00orted medical education and famous 0hysician of &imurids
>ut-uddin ,hmad ?d.:;3,.HG #%:8 ,..A +as in/ited to Istan-ul! and a great salary) $;;
a=ce?sil/er coinsA daily 0ay and in addition to a <;!;;; monthly salary +as assigned for him.
(hen this ne+s +as heard in the +orld! 0hysician Shukrullah from Shir+an! HoJah ,taullah!
0hysician ari! and 0hysician *amal al-&a-ri6i and others came to Istan-ul.?$<A
Celen-e/i Ismail Efendi ?##%3-#<;3 ,.HG #83;-:# ,..A is one of the last great @ttoman
matmematicians ?he +as an e30ert in Islamic su-Jects and sciences.A , French engineer had
come to Istan-ul and after some of his claims! Celen-e/i Ismail Efendi +rote Sharh al-
uguritma ?Sharhu Eada+il al-,nsa-! on logorithmA as a res0onse against him and 7ais al-
*utta- ?Secretary of State of @ttoman Em0ireA ga/e sa-le-skin coat as a gift to Ismail Efendi in a
ceremony that the Frech engineer also had 0artici0ated this meeting. ,fter that! Celen-e/i +as
in/ited -y Sultan Selim III to correct the unsuccessful artillery fires in a religious festi/al in
Istan-ul" Celen-e/i corrected angle faults +ith mathematical calculations and artilleries hit the
marks. Sultan ga/e Celen-e/i a lot of gifts and a00ointed as a Judge ?of arissa city! no+ in
Creece.A ?$3A
>asiri6ade Muhammad Emin al-Dskudari dedicated his -ook 0harhu Khulasat al-Hisab to
*a0tan Mustafa Pasa the chief general of @ttoman 9a/y in ##%; ,.HG#8<8 ,.. and took a
sufficient 0atronage.?$%A In the last years of #1th century +ith the decree of Sultan Selim III!
hendesehane ?college of geometryA +as o0ened in Sutluce district of Istan-ul and the students
e30ressed the kindly interests of Sultan to them.?$$A @ne of these students +as Seyyid Mustafa
that after religious education he had -egun to search the ?old styleA geometry -ooks translated to
,ra-ic and &urkish. ,nd then he learned logarithm from Celen-e/i Ismail Efendi. ,fter that
Seyyid Mustafa studied French and follo+ed the te3ts of Eohann Christian (olf?#58:-#8$%A!
Eac=ues @6anam?#5%;-#8#8A! 'ellidor etc. ,nd noticed that his kno+ledge on geometry +as not
less the authors of #1th century +estern science scholars. He ga/e u0 to go to France and at that
time! +hen Sultan Selim III ordered to o0en a college of geometry in Istan-ul! he +as one of the
/ery Joyful students of that time.?$5A
Conclusion. 'rilliant e3am0les are seen for 0atroni6ation of Islamic sciences in Islamic history.
Some rulers did not only gi/e financial su00ort -ut some of them also had got a /ast hori6on and
0o+erful /ision for de/elo0ment of sciences in Islamic lands..iscrimination +as not kno+n -y
muslim rulers that they ga/e financial su00ort muslim and non-muslim scholars. Patronage of
muslim rulers caused de/elo0ment of sciences in Euro0e and made -egun reformation and
88
renaissance 0eriods in Euro0e! and then Industrial 7e/olution came. &hat is! 0atronage of muslim
rulers for sciences changed the flo+ing of the history.
#-I-n al-9adim! al-Fihrist! 0! 3%;
<-Ce/at X6gi! @smanli Medreselerinde Xlim! /! I! 0! <1$
3-Ce/at X6gi! 2Fe6ari4! .iyanet Islam ,nsiklo0edisi! /! UII! 0! $%; ?from) I-n al-9adim! 0! 33<.A
.I, +ill -e used -elo+ for .iyanet Islam ,nsiklo0edisi
%-Sadettin @kten! 2,hmed -. Muhammed en-9iha/endi4! .I,! /! II! 0! #;3?from I-n al-9adim!
al-Fihrist! 0! 3:3" .. Pingree! 2,hmad 9eha/endi4! Encyclo0aedia Iranica! I! 5$3A
$-Mahmut *aya! 2'eytulhikme4! .I,! /! LI! 0! 11-:; ?from Said .i/eci! 'eytuBl-hikma! Musul
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5-Mahmut *aya! 2Felsefe4! .I,! UII! 0! 3##-#:?from I-n 9adim! 3%;-%<A
8-Kulfikar &uccar! 2Ferra! Hahya -. Kiyad4! .I,! UII! %;5-%;1
1-I-n al-9adim! 0! 3%;-%<
:-Mahmut *aya! 2'eytulhikme4! .I,! /! LI! 0! 11-:;?from &ira6i! *ha6ain al-kutu- al-,ra-iyya
fi-al-*hafi=ayn! Cairo! /! #! 0! #;#A
#;-7ushdi 7ashid! 2I-rahim -. Sinan -. Sa-it4! .I,! UUI! 3%:-$#" ?7ushdi 7ashid 0roduced a lot
of studies on &ha-itBs family.A
##-Ihsan Fa6lioglu! 2Ha-es el-Hasi-4! .I,! UIL! 358-5:?,ydin Sayili! &he @-ser/atory in
Islam! ,nkara #:11! 0! $8-5;! 5$-5:! 8$-1#
#<-9uri Huce! 2,li -. Isa el-Dsturla-i4! .I,! II! %;#-%;< ?from I-n al-9adim! 3%<-%3A
#3-Mahmut *aya! 2Haccac -. Husuf -. Matar4! .I,! UIL! %<8?from I-n al->ifti! Ikh-ar al-
Dlama! 0! %5" I-n al-9adim! <%3! <5$" Ceorge Sarton! Introduction! I! $5<A
#%-9ihat *eklik! Felsefe! 0! <88 ?I-n al-9adim! <%3" I-n ,-u Dsay-ia! Dyun al-,n-a! I! #15-18A
#$-Mahmut *aya! 2Firde/sul-Hikme4! .I,! UIII! #3#-3< ?,li -. 7a--an al-&a-ari! Firda+s al-
Hikma?0u-lication) Muhammad Ku-ayr al-Siddi=iA! 'erlin #:<1! 0reface of 0u-lisher! 0! %A
#5-Hakki .ursun Hildi6! 2Feth -. Hakan el-Farisi4! .I,! UII! %$<-$3
#8-Mahmut *aya! 2'eytulhikme4! .I,! LI! 11-:;
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al-Dlama! Cairo #3<5! 0! #$$-$5" I-n ,-u Dsay-ia! Dyun al-,n-a! Cairo #11%! I! <35-38A" C.
Elgood! 2,li -. ,l-,--as4! &he Encyclo0aedia of Islam! I! 31#
<;-,-dulkerim @6aydin! 2Fahrudde/le4! .I,! UII! :1-::?Hasan Munaymina!&arikh al-.a+lat
al-'u+ayhiyya! 'eirut #%;8G#:18! 0! #31A
<#-Ce/at X6gi! @smanli Medreselerinde Xlim! I! <%3" Melek .osay Cokdogan! 2*ereci4! .I,!
UUL! <88-81
<<-Cemil ,k0inar! 2*a-isi4! .I,! UUIL! 3:-%#?7ushdi 7ashid! &arikh al-7iya6iyyat al-
,ra-iyya -eyn al-Ja-ra +a al-hisa-! 'eirut #:1:!0! 3;8-1" Suter! .ie Mathematiker! 0! $8! 5;-5#A
<3-Sah-an Halifat! 2I-nuBl-Hammar4! .I,! UUI! 0! 5$-55" ?'ayha=i! &arikh al-Hukama al-
Islam?0u-lication)Mamduh Hasan MuhammadA Cairo #%#8G#::5! 0! 35-31A
<%-Esin *ahya! 2el-*anun fiBt-&i-4! .I,! UUIL! 33#-3<
89
<$-,ydin &aneri!4Curgenc4! .I,! UIL! 3<#-<3?I-n al-,thir! al-*amil! UII! 3:%-:$" '.S0uler!
2CurgandJ4! Encycl0aedia of Islam! II! ##%#-%<A
<5-@mer Mahir ,l0er! 2Mecriti4! .I,! UULIII! <81-8:" Sarton! Introduction! I! 551-5:
<8-Mehmet @6demir! 2Mansur! I-n E-u ,mir4! .I,! UULIII! 5-1
<1-Muammer .i6er! 2I-nuB6-Kerkale4! .I,!UUI! <%3-%$?I-n al->ifti! Ikh-ar al-Dlama! 0! $8A"
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33-Sami Shelhu-! 2Farisi! Muhammed -. E-u 'ekir4! .I,! UII! #8;-8#?Suter! .ie
Mathematiker! 0! #3:" Sarton! Introduction! II! #;;;A
3%-,-dulkadir Hu/ali! 2Ca6an Han4! .I,! UIII! %<:-3#?Haneda Masashi! 2Ca6aniyya in
&a-ri64!
3$-Ihsan Fa6lioglu! I-n el-Ha//am /e Eseri)el-Fe/aid el-'ehaiyye fi el-*a/aid el-
Hisa-iyye?master thesis! #::3A! Istan-ul Dni/ersity! Institute of Social Sciences! 0! :8-<;8
35-Ismail Hakki D6uncarsili! 'uyuk @smanli &arihi! /! I! 0! 58
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%;-@rhan F. *o0rulu! 2Firu6 Sah &ugluk4! .I,! UIII! #%#-%<?'.P. Saksena! 2Firu6 Shah
&ughlu=4! , Com0rehensi/e History of India! I-UII! 9e+ .elhi #:8;-1$! /! L! 0! $55-5<#" 7ia6
al-Islam! , History of Firo6 Shah &ughlu=! ,ligarh #:%5A
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?Istan-ul #:18A! 0! 318-%8:
'i-liogra0hy
90
I6gi Ce/at! @smanli Medreselerinde Ilim! I-II! Istan-ul #::8! I6 Hayincilik?Pu-licationsA
*eklik 9ihat! Felsefe! Istan-ul #:81! Cagri yayinlari
&aylan 9eci0! ,nahatlariyla Islam Felsefesi! Istan-ul #:1$! Ensar 9esriyat
&urkiye .iyanet Lakfi Islam ,nsiklo0edisi! I-UUUI! Istan-ul #:11
D6uncarsili Ismail Hakki! 'uyuk @smanli &arihi! I-LI! ,nkara 8th edition ?no dateA! &urk &arih
*urumu Hayinlari
91
&HE F@D9.,&I@9S @F IS,MIC E9LI7@9ME9&, ,(



Famous economist Samuelson ?the o+ner of 9o-el Economy 0ri6e of #:8;A +as narrating 3:
years ago the sentence of Mark &+ain) 2Human kind is the only creature that he feels shame! and
there are a lot of reasons to feel his shame4. Samuelson adds) 2Indeed! human kind is the only
creature that he succeeded in making 0ollute the atmos0here.4 Samuelson had noticed the
0ro-lem as an economist and he had added an Fone 0ageB a-out the en/ironment 0ollution to the
end of his famous -ook FEconomicsB ?that a00ro3imately it has #!;;; 0agesA in the editions of the
late years of #:5;s.?#A
'ut the 0ro-lem -ecame more dangerous after #:8;s. &he message of the First Earth .ay-,0ril
<<!#:8; -had a certain innocence! im-ued +ith a certain can-do-ism) indi/idual actions +ould
roll -ack the damage done to the 0lanet... 2(ell-meaning 0eo0le fre=uently focus on 0ersonel
res0onsi-ility! 0artly -ecause they see it as a +ay of doing something! +ithout looking at ho+
effecti/e itBs going to -e!4 says longtime en/ironmentalist 'arry Commoner of 9e+ HorkBs
>ueens College. 2..Millions of us might +alk to the mail-o3 rather than dri/e! -ut the effect on
emissions of the greenhouse-gas car-on dio3ide?+hich comes from -urning coal! oil and natural
gasA is minuscule com0ared +ith the effect of more than 51 million SDLs on ,merican roads. ,
single decision -y the chairman of 7oyal .utchGShell has a greater im0act on the health of the
0lanet than all the coffee-ground-com0osting! organic-cotton-+earing ecofreaks gathering in
(ashington! .C.! for Earth .ay festi/ities..4?<A

In last thirty years ne+ 0arks ha/e -een esta-lished! -ut the destruction continues. Half of the
+orldBs tro0ical forests ha/e -eeen destroyed in the last #;; years. ,s
cities gro+! so do 0ollution 0ro-lems. ,n estimated $; million children in de/elo0ing co-
untries suffer from chronic coughing -ecause of smog. ,cid rain 0ro-lem has mo/ed. Sul-
fur emissions! a maJor cause of acid rain %; Q in the Dnited States! -ut emissions in ,sia
+ill tri0le -y <;#;. Pro0onents say solar and +ind 0o+er are ready for 0rime time. Still!
half the electricity in the DS, comes from highly 0olluting coal. S0ecies 0rotection can
+ork-the once endangered -ald eagle is -ack. 'ut the illegal +ildlife trade is annual ] <
-il.-] 3 -il.-usiness +orld+ide.

&he Pro0het Muhammad had said) 2(ho eats onion or garlic he should not enter our mos=ue.4 #%
centuries ago. It is a rule that e/en +ith a 0ur0ose of 0erforming of 0rayer! a muslim should not
-other ?distur-A anyone. (e see in >uran this /erse) 2?@ MankindA Pray your Cod +ith humility
and in secret4 ?not +ith a loud /oiceA ?3A
Islam +ants no noisy. In another /erse) 2'e modest in your +alking and
su-due your /oice. oZ the harshest of all /oices is the /oice of the donkey.4?%A &he com-
0anions of the Pro0het Muhammad +ere in a Journey +ith Pro0het.)they +ere saying
92
?calling the religious formulaA ,llah ,k-ar ?Cod is Most CreatA +ith a loud /oice +hen
they +ere 0assing on the hills. &he Pro0het said) 2?'e kee0 calmA Hou are not calling to
+hom He does not hear or He does not a00ear.?Hou 0ray that He is ,llahGCodA is +ith
you! He listens all of ?your 0rayers! your callingsA.4 ?$A
2&he neigh-ourhood of this noisy air0ort is a serious disad/antage...4! +e
hear like these sentences. Is it a right for a go/ernment ?or 0ri/ate com0aniesA to -uild
noisy air0orts near the cities W Contem0orary Islamic scholar Muhammad Mu-arak
+as saying 3$ years ago) 2If a man uses his house or his land that this use gi/es harm to
his neigh-our! his neigh-our can 0re/ent this use ?+ith a decree from courtA. For e3am0le!
a car0enter use a 0lane in his +orksho0 +ith its /ery high noisy or a -lacksmith in his
smithy ?iron+orksA or another neigh-our digs the soil and +ill cause the colla0se of the
+all! in these e3am0les the court can 0re/ent the harmful actions.4?5A
Famous Islamic Jurist ?=adiA ,-u- al HaBla says ? his death is ##3# CEA in his -ook al-,hkam-al
Sultani) 2If the o+ner of a house -uilds a -akery and its smoke gi/es distur-ing!or he -uilds a
mill or gi/es his house to a -lacksmith for rent! in these conditions the Islamic court can 0rohi-it
these actions. (e find some fat+as ?o0inions on legal mattersA in the o0inions of great Islamic
Jurist ,hmad -. Han-al ?his death is 1$% CEA that he narrates) a man had -uilt a -ath or ?toiletA
that this +as gi/ing harm ?0ro-a-ly dam0A to his neigh-our and Pro0het Muhammad 0rohi-ited
this.?8A
Islamic la+ gi/es some authority to the Judges and administration for the
general ad/antage ?usefulA of the community. For e3am0le 2a lando+ner does not culti-
/ate hisGher soil and the community is in need of the agricultural 0roducts! Islamic
state does not 0ermit this deserted ?neglectedA land and the state gi/es this land to
a landless 0easant for culti/ate ?tem0orarily! not the o+nershi0 of the landA.4?1A ,lso
there is a +ay to 0roduce a Judicial decision in Islamic la+ F6arayeeB! Fsadd-al 6arayeeB
means) Fto close the +aysB that these +ays go to the crime! and Ffath-al 6arayeeB) Fto o0en
the +aysB that these +ays go to goodness.?:A &he Islamic court can JudgesG0re/ents the
crimes against en/ironment +ith this method that if the Judge thinks that this action
causes ?in the futureA a harm ?disease! 0ollution to the communityBs healthA! he can 0rohi-
-it this.In the e/ents of Dnion Car-ide ?in IndiaA and Cherno-il ?in Dkraine) former DSS7
?Dnited So/iet Socialist 7e0u-lics) under the former 7ussiaA! all of the humanity sa+ death of
thousands 0eo0le. &he fruits and /egeta-les had -een damaged from the nuclear 0articules of
Cherno-il central in all of the countries of 'lack-Sea. If an Islamic Judge sees that this factory
causes a calamity like these e/ents! he should close this kind of factories untill the com0any takes
necessary measures.
&he Pro0het +hen he +as going in the market-0lace he +anted to control
and looked at the -ottom of the sack of +heat and noticed +et +heats +ere in the
-ottom and said) 2(ho decei/es us heGshe is not from us4. &his 0rinci0le is also +e may take)
2(ho 0oisons us heGshe is not from us4. , +etnessGdam0 in the sack of +heat gi/es
93
harm to one or t+o 0ersons -ut a dangerous factory to en/ironment gi/es harm thousands of
0eo0le.
&he Islamic Judges also may think that there is a su-Ject in the Islamic la+
to 0re/ent en/ironment 0ollution) 2the matter of s0endthrift4. In the &+el/e &a-lets?codesA
of ancient 7oman Em0ire! this kind of 0ersons are 0ut under restraint and a 0erson ?guardianA is
a00ointed -y court to administer the 0ro0erties of s0endthrift. ,lso Cerman Ci/il
la+ ado0ts like a this Judgement.?#;A &he maJority of the Islamic Jurists say) 2Islamic
la+ can 0rohi-its the deeds of s0endthrift ?0rodigalA and 0ut himGher under restraint and
Islamic Judge a00oints a man in charge of 0ro0erties of s0endthrift. &his man gi/es
enough money for s0endthriftBs li/ing conditions. &he reason of my mention of this su--
Ject! Islamic Judge should act ra0idly to the com0anies! factories that they gi/e harm to
the en/ironment e/en a00ointing a guardian to that factoryGcom0any that insists not to take
necessary 0recautions.
&he Pro0het Muhammad had said) 2&he ,rchangel Ca-riel used to ad/ice the rights of
neigh-ours e/erytime that I think Ca-riel +ill do neigh-ours inheritors to each others.4 ,nd
2Hou +ill not a ?trueA -elie/er untill hisGher neigh-our is in safe from hisGher +ickedness
?heGshe thinks hisGher neigh-our +ill not do a +ickedness to himGherA4. Former Islamic scholars
said) 2the rights of neigh-ourhood are religious and ethical. He does not res0ect these rights he is
a sinner and in the Hereafter he +ill see the 0unishment! that sometimes a neigh-our has not got
any right ?any e/idenceA to go to the court4. 'ut su-se=uent scholars es0ecially Maliki and
Hanafee scholars said) 2these rights are not only religious or ethical -ut also Judicial. , thousand
years ago the la+suits -et+een neigh-ours +ere a-out houses and gardens! to -uild a toilet in the
second floor used to gi/e harm to the first floor for the reason of dam0 thatBs +hy the toilets +ere
in the gardens. 'ut today dangerous for houses come from outside. ,irG+ater 0ollutions are more
dangerous from the dam0 of a toilet.
&here is an o0inion -elongs to Maliki schoolGsect that a 0erson is not 0rohi-i-
ted?0re/entedA if heGshe +ants to make rise ?to -uid higherA his -uilding -ut this -uilding
+ill 0re/ent the taking of lights of sun and other lights of neigh-our. 'ut heGshe is 0rohi-ited to
-uild a -uildind! if this -uilding 0re/ents to take of air ?fresh airA of hisGher
neigh-our.?##A &he clause of 2to take air4 is /ery im0ortant a-out our su-Ject that this Judgement
had -een +ritten in Islamic la+ -ooks centuries ago.
Muslims must +ash his hands! faces! arms and legs at least fi/e times
e/ery day for their 0rayers thatBs +hy clean +ater is necessary es0ecially for them. ,nd
+hen +e look at the 0rayer -ooks) this 2+ater should not -e 0utrid! that muslims must see
three characteristics of cleanness its ?naturalA colour! its ?naturalA smell! its ?naturalA taste.
Saying) 2&o 0rogress of the 0u-lic /ehicle system +ill -e useful for decreasing of air 0ollution4!
Dmar Cha0ra! contem0orary Islamic economist! he adds) 2to 0re/ent 0ollution of ri/ers in a
country is useful for all of the community?#<A. (e see this su-Ject of 2*aryBal- anhar4?to dig
and clean the ri/ersA in all of the classical old Islamic la+ -ooks. It is +ritten in this su-Ject that
94
2to clean the -ig ri/ers is a duty for the go/ernment.4 ,nd there is an interesting clause that 2...if
the go/ernment has not got enough money for the cleaning of the great ri/ers! the President
in/ites the 0eo0le to clean the ri/ers. &he President takes ?collectA money from the rich for this
0ur0ose and gi/es this money to the 0oor that these 0oor +ork in the cleaning +ork. Dmar
Cha0ra says) 2@ne of the four conditions of the Just de/elo0ment is to 0rotect the en/ironment.
?#3A

&he President od Islamic State can 0rohi-it to 0ut the ru--ish and lea/e elements out of the
certain 0laces.?#%A. 7afe= Hunus ,l Masree mentiones the sentences of famous Islamic scholar
Ma+ardee" Ma+ardee says) 2Im0ro/ements of cities de0end on! 0lenty more +aters! ?the city has
toA -e near the forests! ?the city has toA -e surrounded green 0laces.?Ma+ardee li/ed :$$ years
ago.A
&he President of Islamic State can also interfere to the la-or conditions that he can +ant good and
healthy conditions from factories and he can di/ide cities ?industrial 0arts and the =uarters for
housesA.?#$A. Islamic state interferes +ith ?en/ironmentalA codes if the industrialists do not take
necessary measures for their +orkers.?#5A Mahmud ,-u al-Suud narrates a sentence of the
Pro0het Muhammad) 2If a muslim 0lants a tree or a cro0 and a -ird or a human kind or an animal
eats from this! this act ?of muslimA is a
charity ?for himGherA ?'ukhariA ?#8A &he Pro0het Muhammad also had said #% centuries
ago that) 2Indeed ,llahGCod is clean and He likes cleanness.?Hou ha/e toA clean your
gardens4 ?#1A. &hat is the manuci0ality can +ant from the citi6ens to clean their gardens.

&he articles #<#<-#%-5%-5$ of the famous Islamic la+ code of MaJalla ?it +as +ritten in the late
years of #:
th
centuryA are interested in the cleanness of en/ironment.
(orld follo+ed an International Climate Conference at the end of Se0t.! <;;3 a-out en/ironment
?0oisonous gasAthat DS,! 7ussia and some other countries reJect to sign the *yoto Protocol of
#::8! although Secretary Ceneral of D9 ,nnan +anted them to sign this 0rotocol. ?7ussia signed
in <;;$A Muslims and non-muslims ha/e to gi/e their a00lications to the Islamic courts against
DS, and other these countries. Islamic courts ha/e to follo+ these la+suits. Islamic Judges
should not say) 2this su-Ject is an international la+suit and Islamic courts does not interfere
international affairs! this su-Ject is not our
courtsBs -usiness4. Hes! in classical Islamic la+ doctrine! +e do not find international
la+suits!-ut in the glo-al age!+e ha/e think these 0ro-lems.
Mecca city and its around +asGis like a national 0ark that hunting and cut of any tree or grass
+asGis 0rohi-ited in this region #% centuries ago. , =uestion is may -e thought) can Islamic
go/ernment 0ut a limit ?or can it 0rohi-itA to hunt some kinds of ?+ildA animals W ?like 0olar
-ears!lions!tigers...A &he Pro0het Muhammad had 0rohi-ited to slaughter of milch-shee0 and
said) 2,/oid to slaughter a milch-shee0 ?#:A
&o 0rotect the natural -eauty is a duty for Islamic State. &here is a general la+?ruleA in >uran
that)
95
2(rong not! and you shall -e not +ronged ?<;A ?.o not do cruel acts and
any one should not do any cruel act to youA. &he Pro0het also 0rohi-ited to use the leathers of
+ild animals ?<#A ,nd to ride on the saddles that they are co/ered +ith the leathers of tigers
?<<A. &his 0rohi-ition is /ery im0ortant to 0rotect the en/ironment and main rule in
en/ironmental la+. Islamic la+ su00orts the en/ironmental mo/ements like Creen Peace etc.
,llah taught the cleanness of en/ironment from harmful myro-ic o-Jects)
2&hen ,llahGCod sent a cro+ scratching u0 the ground! to sho+ him ?CainA ho+ to -ury
his -rotherBs ?,-elA cor0se.?CainA said) 2(oe to meZ ,m I not a-le to -e as this cro+ and
so -ury my -rotherBs cor0seW4 ,nd he -ecame re0entant.4?<3A
2&he other 0ro-lem is" 5; Q of the shi00ing of the +orld is 0etroleum trans0ortation.1; Q of the
tankers of the +orld 0our their -alasts to the tanks that they +ere 0re0ared for this +ork in the
rafineries! -ut <;Q of the tankers 0our their -alasts to the seas and these tankers cause the
0ollution of the seas. @n March #:8%! a tanker ran aground in the Strait of Magellan of S.
,merica and 1;!;;; tons of 0etroleum 0oured to the sea. &his +reck knocked a hea/y--lo+ to
the fishing in Pasific es0ecially in Peru and trillions of micro organismas died.4 In these matters"
former Islamic Jurists had said only) 2the high-seas are Fdar-al har-B. &hat is the high-seas are not
the 0ro0erty of Islamic countries e/en they had said that) 2It is im0ossi0le to disagree ?-et+een
t+o 0artsA in great ri/ers like &igris ?.iJlaA and Eu0hrates ?FuratA.4 It is o-/ious and normally
that our former Jurists could not think the 0ollution of the ri/ersGseas after the re/olution of
industry.
'ut today! the tragedy of tankers influences negati/e to the -iological li/ing creatures to the fish
and shellfish es0ecially minute 0articles on the fish are /ery harmful for human -ody. ,nd -ilges
of +ell +ere 0oured to the seas and oo6ings leakages of 0etroleum and li=uid fluids and for filling
the tankers or filling the shi0s! in this 0rocedurs the 0ollution of 0etroleum is ten tons 0er shi0 in
a year.
Islam does not 0ermit these 0ollutions! the Pro0het Muhammad 0rohi-ited to urinate in the calm
+ater! fourteen centuries ago.?<%A
#-Samuelson! Economics! 0!:3:
<-9e+s+eek! ,0ril <%! <;;;
3-&he Cha0ter of ,Braf! /erse!$$
%-&he Cha0ter of u=man! /!#:
$-'ukhari!'a--al .ua ,la-l Islam
5-Mu-arak Muhammad! Economic System in Islam! 0!#;$
8-Mu-arak! 0!#$%!?from ,-u HaBla! 0!<15A
1-,-u-al Suud Mahmud! Princi0les of Islamic Economy! 0!#<<
:-,-u Kahra Muhammad! Dsul al FN=h ?&he Methodology of Islamic a+A! 0!<%:
#;-*araman Hayreddin! Mukayeseli Islam Hukuku ?Com0arati/e Islamic a+A! /!<! 0!##%
##-Kukhaylee Lah-ah! ,l FN=h-al Islami! /! 8! 0! ##3
#<-Cha0ra Dmar! Islam and Economic .e/elo0ment! 0!35-#%:
#3-Cha0ra! 0!<8
96
#%-,l Masree 7afe= Hunus! &he Methodology of Islamic Economy! 0!18-1
#$-Mu-arak! &he System of Islamic Economy! 0!$:
#5-Encyclo0aedia of Seerah! /! <! 0! %$5
#8-,-u-al Suud Mahmud! 0!#<8
#1-,l &aJ! /!3! 0!#5<?from &ermi6i!Hadith hasanA
#:-Muslim! *!,shre-ah
<;-&he Cha0ter of 'a=ara! /! <<:
<#-&ermi6i! *.e-as! hd! #88;
<<-'ukhari
<3->uran! the Cha0ter of Maidah! /! 3#
<%-'ukhari and &ermi6i




SI9C,P@7E ,9. DUEM'@D7C)&(@ EU,MPES F@7
.ELE@PME9&
97
?&his 0a0er +as 0re0ared for the conference of Dni/ersity 'runei .arBus Salam and
0ositions <; small countries +ere estimated.A
u3em-ourg is a country that oil! natural gas and coal should -e im0orted and +e may say
no natural resources -ut a 0er ca0ita ?C.PA of ] $$!#;; that the highest in the +orld.
,rea)<!$15 s=.km"?half of 'runeiBs landA Po0ulation)%5<!5:;" C.P) ] <$!;# -illion

Since the second half of the #:th century!u3em-ourg industry has de/elo0ed
s0ectacularly!o+ing to the ra0id gro+th of the steel industry!the de/elo0ment of +hich is at the
-asis of the 0ros0erity and high standard of li/ing +hich u3em-urg enJoys today.
SCIE9CE ?Inno/ation!&echnologyA Is Lery Im0ortant F@7 .ELE@PME9&
In #185!English metallurgist Sidney &homas in/ented a refining 0rocess that led to the
de/elo0ment of the steel industry in u3em-urg and the founding of the ,r-ed com0any in
#:##.Hea/y industry!de/elo0ed +ith a considera-le influ3 of Cerman ca0ital.
@/errun -y Cermany in -oth +orld +ars!u3em-ourgBs neutrality ended in #:%1 +hen it
entered into the 'enelu3 Customs Dnion and the country -ecame one of the si3 founding
countries of the Euro0ean Economic Community ?and then EDA!and in #::: it Joined the Euro
Currency ,rea.
Dntil the da+n of economic crisis in #:8%G8$!u3em-ourg +as all characterised -y the
0ronounced monolithism of steel.In #:8%!e/en though efforts had -een made to+ards industrial
di/ersification since the start of the #:$;s ?ho+e/er!it +as only +ith the frame+ork la+ on
economic e30ansion of #:5< that the di/ersification mo/ement gathered 0ace.Since this
time!di/ersification has -ecome an ongoing economic 0olicy o-Jecti/eA!the steel industry still
easily held s+ay o/er the industrial sector and e/en the economy as a +hole.In the #:5;s!all the
industry sectors together ?a0art from energy and constructionA generated almost half the /alue
added of the economy!+ith steel alone accounting for 3;Q.

@9H I9 , SI9CE .EC,.E
&his fundamentally un-alanced situation e/ol/ed dramatically to u3em-ourgBs
disad/antage follo+ing the first oil crisis!+hich marked the start of the structural crisis in the
u3em-ourg steel industry after #:8%G8$.&he su-stantial increase in the energy -ill and the
e3istence of a large amount sur0lus ca0acity laid -are a steel industry infrastructure +hich +as
too old and too intensi/e in energy and la-our factors.Since then!the u3em-ourg economy has
undergone radical e3change from an industrial to a ser/ices economy.&he transformation
occurred almost in a single decade since #:8%.In #::<!the share of ser/ices in gross /alue added
of the economy +as $:.<Q!+hilst industry only still accounted for #8.8 Q of C.P ?%.3Q for the
steel industry aloneA.
In fact!the industrial decline is attri-uta-le to steel alone.&he other industries +ere a-le to
maintain their relati/e share in C.P.
&he industrial decline is also linked to the 0henomenon of the e3ternalisation of ser/ices!i.e
the dis0lacement of certain ser/ices!such as accountancy!com0uter ser/ices!ta3 and legal
consultancy!etc.!from industrial undertakings to s0eciali6ed undertakings of tertiary sector.
98
&he -iggest grou0 +ithin the ser/ice sector is 2/arious ser/ices4!+hich contri-ute 53.%Q of
C.P.'anking and insurance accounts for <3.%Q!Just ahead of commerce!hotels and restaurants
and trans0ort!+hich together account for <<.1Q of C.P.?<;;3A

&@@ SM, &@ ,'S@7'! &H,&BS (HH) EUP@7&
(ith the decline of the steel industry and under the im0etus of the di/ersification 0olicy!a second
s0here of industrial acti/ity started to de/elo0!com0rising the chemicals ?.u PontA! ru--er
?CoodyearA and 0lastics ?and artificial fi-resA industries!mechanical engineering and /ehicles
construction and food 0roduction.,lso non-metallic minerals sector has gained increasing
im0ortance!es0ecially during the 0ast decade!+ith the de/elo0ment of the glass industry along
side the more traditional ceramics industry.
,lthough u3em-ourg is a0tly descri-ed as the 2Creen Heart of Euro0e4 in tourist
literature!its 0astoral land coe3ists +ith a highly industriali6ed and e30ort-intensi/e economy.
&he u3em-ourg 0roducti/e system focuses mainly on the 0roduction of goods for e30ort!the
internal market -eing far too small to a-sor- the 0roduce of local industry.&raditionally!
industrial e30orts consisted of intermediate 0roducts and semi-0roducts!+ith the 0ro0ortion of
0roducts reser/ed for final consum0tion -eing relati/ely limited.It is only recently that there has
-een a significant increase in end 0roduct in e30orts.
u3em-ourg has recently -een more successful in di/ersifying its economy!+hich has
ena-led it to -ecome more resistent to economic fluctations affecting key sectors of the economy.

F@7EIC9 I9LES&ME9&
u3em-ourg offers a fa/ora-le climate to foreign in/estment.&he 0olicy of go/ernments
ha/e effecti/ely attracted ne+ in/estment in medium!light!and high-tech industry.Incenti/es
co/er ta3es!construction!and 0lant e=ui0ment.&he recent Euro0ean Dnion directi/e on ser/ices
su00lied electronically has caused a num-er of com0anies to look to u3em-ourg! +ith its
relati/ely lo+ /alue added ta3 rates!as a 0ossi-le location for directing their Euro0ean o0erations.
] 58 'II@9 @F D.S I9LES&ME9&
D.S firms are among the most 0rominent foreign in/estors.&otal D.S direct in/estment in
u3em-ourg ?on a historical cost -asisA +as nearly ] 58 -illion at the end of <;;3.?(e +ill see
-elo+!also total D.S. in/estments in Singa0ore stand no+ at ] 5#.% -illionA Foreign direct
in/estment data for u3em-ourg must -e inter0reted cautiously!ho+e/er!-ecause of
u3em-ourgBs role in financial intermediation!0articularly in/ol/ing u3em-ourg--ased holding
com0anies.

F@D7&EE9 &H@DS,9. H@.I9C C@MP,9IES
,00ro3imately #%!;;; holding com0anies are esta-lished in u3em-ourg!thatBs +hy
construction sector is /ery acti/e.7e0resenting $.$ Q of gross /alue added!construction is the
third most im0ortant -ranch of the economy.It continues to 0rofit from the arri/al of ne+
industries!com0anies!and the su-se=uent demand for office and li/ing accommodation.It is also
99
-enefiting from 0lans to de/elo0 the road and motor+ay net+ork as +ell as other state
infrustructure 0roJects.

I9&E7ES&I9C
,lthough u3em-ourg is a landlocked country!follo+ing the esta-lishment of a u3em-ourg
maritime shi00ing register in 9o/em-er #::;!+hich is considered a second 'elgian
register!a00ro3imately 8; oceangoing /essels fly the u3em-ourg flag.
&ECH9@@CH 7ECEILES S&,&E FD9.I9C
Dnder its almost 3; year old di/ersification 0olicy!u3em-ourg has successfully attracted hi-
tech firms.&he SociYtY Euro0Yene des Satellites ?,S&7, SatellitesA is highly com0etiti/e
firm.Com0anies that focus on research recei/e state funding.
SI9C,P@7E
Singa0ore is ?also like u3em-ourgA!has not got any natural resources!no oil!no natural gas!all of
the electricity 0roduction is from im0orted fossil fuel.&he maJority of the island is co/ered -arren
lands!and only #3 Q of the land is culti/ated.'ut +ith moderm agricultural methods!the half of
the culti/ated lands of the country +as transformed the most 0roducti/e and fertilest soils of the
+orld.&he other 0ro-lem for Singa0ore is the limited natural fresh +ater resources that the
maJority of +ater is taken from Malaysia. E30orts)] #%<.% -illion
?machinery and e=ui0ment ?including electronicsA!consumer goods!chemicalsA
Im0orts)] #<#.5 -illion ?machinery and e=ui0ment!mineral fuels!foodstuffsA
C.P)] #;:.# -illion
Singa0oreBs only resource that could -e a -asis for the economic de/elo0ment and
0ros0erity of Singa0ore is its la-or force!more s0ecifically the training of its la-or force.
Singa0ore could not ho0e to com0ete u0on the -asis of the chea0ness of its la-or"it had to create
technical skills that are una/aila-le else+here in the &hird (orld.
E9CISH SPE,*I9C (@7*E7S
Singa0oreBs today +orkforce is ranked among the +orldBs -est for 0roducti/ity!+ork attitude
and technical skills.(orkers!a maJority of +hom s0eak English 0roficiently are dedicated and
hard+orking!and keen to u0grade their skills and kno+ledge.
&@ 7IS* I9LES&I9C MII@9S
If +e look at the de/elo0ment of Singa0ore that its area is only 51<!8 s=.km ?one-eighth of
'runeiBs areaA and its 0o0ulation +as #!55$!;;; in #:5%.?9o+ %!3$3!1:3A ,t the early years!the
im0ortance and 0ros0erity of Singa0ore deri/ed 0artly from its geogra0hical 0osition on the main
route -et+een India and China and 0artly from its traditional status as a free 0ort!the main
functions of +hich +ere to store and distri-ute goods.Its largest e30orts +ere ru--er!tin!co0ra!and
s0ices!the chief 0roducts of Malaya!Indonesia!and 'orneo.It also ser/ed as the distri-ution center
of manufactured goods from the +est to the countries of East.
100
'et+een #:$;-#:5$ there has -een some de/elo0ment of light industry in the island!such as
lum-er and ru--er milling!fishing!shi0-uilding!tin smelting!and -rick manufacturing.In #:$1 an
economic de/elo0ment -oard +as esta-lished -y the go/ernment to encourage industry.
,t the early days!the local industry +as limited to trade and did not ha/e the ca0a-ility of
creating e30ort industry.Singa0ore sought to -ring in foreign industry.'ut!+ith much of the &hird
(orld trying to do the same thing it +as not easy task.@ne of the first goals +as to make
0otential em0loyers a+are of the relati/e incorru0ti-ility of the Singoa0orean -ureaucracy.In
much of the +orld la+s are ar-itrary and su-Ject to change -y the go/ernment.Cor0orations do
not +ant to risk in/esting millions of dollars in facilities in an area +here /arious elements of the
go/ernment can take 0art or all of it at any time.&he la+s in Singa0ore might not -e e3actly to
the liking of foreign com0anies -ut they +ould -e fairly enforced.&his 0ro/ed to -e a highly
attracti/e feature of Singa0ore.&he ta3 system +as also attracti/e to foreign com0anies!often
gi/ing lo+er ta3 rates for foreign in/estment than for local residents.
@ne of the keys to Singa0orean +as the u0grading of infrastructure!streets!roads!an
air0ort!0ort ficilities.&he u0grading +as financed not 0rimarily -y -orro+ing -ut -y a s0ecial
infrastructure ta3.
&(ICE , (EE* F@7 &H7EE-H@D7
&he strategy for raising Singa0orean incomes +as to im0ro/e the training of Singa0orean
+orkers through go/ernment training institutes., ty0ical training 0rogram +ould meet t+ice a
+eek for three-hour sessions o/er a t+o year 0eriod.&he training +as /oluntary and free and it
+as geared to the needs of the com0anies o0erating in Singa0ore at that time.
Mark Patinkin gi/es a good e3am0le),00le Com0uters +as one com0any that located
facilities in Singa0ore.Initially ,00le Just 0roduced electronic -oards in Singa0ore for assem-ly
into their com0uters in the D.S.,s a result of the 0roduction of more skilled 0ersonnel in
Singa0ore through the training institutes ,00le decided to 0roduce its entire com0uter in
Singa0ore.,00le made this decision on the -asis of Singa0orean +orkers -eing a-le to du0licate
the o0erations of its ,merican 0lant.'ut the ne+ly trained!highly moti/ated Singa0orean +orkers
not only re0licated the old 0roduction 0rocess -ut -egan to make im0ro/ements that further
lo+ered costs.&here de/elo0ed in Singa0ore a culture of inno/ation.
&he go/ernment training 0rogram 0ro/ed to -e so -eneficial to em0loyers that they
ac=uiesed to a s0ecial ta3 to hel0 0ay for it.
,s a result of the success of its technical training 0rograms the go/ernment of Singa0ore
-ranched out into the creation of)
_ a Science Park to share research -et+een go/ernment and industry
a 9ational Com0uter 'oard to encourage the com0uteri6ation of Singa0ores
schools!offices and homes
a tri0ling of the si6e of the t+o engineering uni/ersities
the creation of a ] $; million /enture ca0ital fund to encourage Singa0orean startu0
com0anies -ut +hich +ould also fund startu0s outside of Singa0ore.?#A
,(,7.S F@7 I99@L,&I@9S
Singa0oreans also say) 2@ur country has sha0ed an en/ironment in +hich ideas can -e turned
into -usinesses easily and 0rofita-ly.&he Enter0rise Creenhouse is nurtured -y E.' ?Economic
101
.e/elo0ment 'oardA +ith co-in/estment and seed funding 0rogrammes!and su00orted -y a +ide
range of /enture ca0ital funds!incu-ators!-usiness accelerators!and 7^. and test--edding
facilities.

'udding entre0reneurs can ta0 0rogrammes such as SEE.S ?Startu0 Enter0rise
.e/elo0ment SchemeA!+hich offers dollar-for-dollar e=uity matching.Inno/ation is
encouraged +ith a+ards!and ideas are ke0t safe +ith some of the -est intellectual 0ro0erty
0rotection measures in ,sia.
,n island-+ide net+ork of Hots0ots or locations and facilities for techno0reneurs!is -eing
-uilt.&hese 2Hot4!or 2Hu- of &echno0reneurs4 sites -ring together techno0reneurs and
technology-related com0anies in surroundings condici/e to the e3chance of ideas and the
e30ression of the s0irit of enter0rise. 2&echno0reneurshi0
Singa0ore4 is for 2E/erything you need to kno+ a-out starting and gro+ing a high-tech
-usiness in Singa0ore4
Singa0oreBs research institutes are +orking at the forefront of technology to deli/er -etter
/alue for industry.&he strong links and fluid e3changes -et+een industry and academia
make Singa0ore attracti/e to international com0anies as a key location in their glo-al 7^.
net+ork.4
&H7EE &H@DS,9.S MD&I9,&I@9, C@7P@7,&I@9S
&he CountryBs
?#A Skilled +ork force!
?<A ,d/anced infrastructure!
?3A Com-ined +ith cost-cutting measures!
?%A&a3 cuts!
?$A7ent reductions!
ha/e attracted in/estments from more than 3!;;; multinational cor0orations from the
Dnited States!Ea0an!and Euro0e.
F7EE &7,.E ,C7EEME9& (I&H D.S
Singa0oreBs Prime Minister &ong signed a Free &rade ,greement in (ashington last
year.It is 0ossi-le for the small states of ,sia-Pasific region to in/ite Singa0oreBs firms for
in/estment -ecause Singa0orean go/ernment has /igorously encouraged local firms to
regionali6e their o0erations and to in/est a-road.
&HE @PI9I@9S @F @9E &H@DS,9. PE@PE
&hese good sentences ?-elo+ 0aragra0hA of Singa0oreBs administration is also /ery good
e3am0le to in/ite the in/estment of foreign firms for all of the small states.,nd these sentences
also reflect ?gi/eA the reasons of de/elo0ment)
2&he go/ernment is highly attuned to the needs of -usiness.It regularly seeks the /ie+s and
suggestions of the 0ri/ate sector +hen sha0ing economic strategy!such as +hen the Economic
7e/ie+ Committee set out in <;;< to recommend 0olicy changes to strengthen Singa0oreBs long-
102
term gro+th 0ros0ects.&he Pro-Enter0rise Mo/ement solicits feed-ack from indi/iduals and
com0anies on ho+ go/ernment rules and regulations can -e made more rele/ant for
-usiness.Pro0osals can -e su-mitted e/ery time.Economic .e/elo0ment 'oard itself ta0s the
insights and ad/ice of many of the +orldBs to0 -usiness leaders!strategists and thinkers.Some
ser/e on our International ,d/isory Council!+hile others form a +orld+ide net+ork of
influential 0eo0le +ho ha/e contri-uted to Singa0oreBs gro+th and +ho act as am-assadors for
Singa0ore as an in/estment location. &he
Economic 7e/ie+ Committee sought the /ie+s of more than #!;;; 0eo0le!many of them in
-usiness!on +hatBs needed to -oost the Singa0ore economy and strengthen it for long-term
gro+th.If you see rules!regulations or 0rocesses that get in the +ay of -usiness!let us
kno+.(here/er 0ossi-le!+e +ill fi3 the 0ro-lem4 ?Singa0ore Economic .e/elo0ment 'oardA

&H7EE 2E4s @F SI9C,P@7E
(e also see in the 2<;;3 re0ort of Singa0ore4 these useful sentences for de/elo0ment)
2Singa0ore`&o+ards , Clo-al Entre0olis4 2Manufacturing-Ser/ices-Inno/ation4
2It ca0tures three -asic elements) Entre0ot!Enter0rise and Entre0reneurshi0!the three 0illars u0on
+hich Singa0ore +ill -uild as it continues to le/erage its uni=ue strengths as a com0elling hu-
for -usiness and in/estment.4
(H,& .@ MD&I9,&I@9, C@7P@7,&I@9S @@* F@7 W
Famous 0rofessor of economics of Har/ard Eohn *enneth Cal-raith used to say the same
o0inions a-out the a-o/e realities of de/elo0ment) 2Multinational cor0orations look for
hard+orking and chea0er la-or force in foreign countries.&he de/elo0ment of Singa0ore!&ai+an
and Hong *ong ha00ened in this +ay.4 Cal-raith also gi/es a good e3am0le) 2'ut if the chea0er
+ages +ould 0lay the most determined role!the +orld industry +ould gathered in India.&he other
factors like financial and sociological e30enses ha/e to -e less and legal 0rocedurs ha/e to -e
easy.4 ?<A
P7@.DC&ILI&H
&he other contem0orary famous 0rofessor of economics of Massachusetts Institute of
&echnology ?and columnist of 9e+ Hork &imesA Paul *rugman mentiones the ,sian
0roducti/ity and says ?as a general ruleA) 2Producti/ity is lo+er than +estern industry -ut 2high
resource mo-ili6ation4 and 2high sa/ings rate4 are the reasons of de/elo0ment in East
,sia.*rugman also mentiones the studies on the economy of East ,sia!in D.S.,l+yn Houng
from 'oston Dni/ersity com0ares the economies of Singa0ore and Hong *ong in 2Story of &+o
Cities4 and says 2&he economy of Hong *ong is more 0roducti/e than Singa0ore4.'ut Chang
Hsieh from Princeton says 29o difference -et+een these t+o great economies -ut 0roducti/ity is
lo+ in -oth of them.4 2'ig gro+ths are from in0uts4 is the common o0inions of all +estern
economists on East ,sian economies.,merican ?and the otherA economists acce0t the high
103
de/elo0ment s0eeds of HP,E ?High Performance ,sian EconomiesA countries and *rugman
notes the other characteristics of East ,sean de/elo0ment)
2Lery high sa/ings rate)Malaysia +as doing in/estment in #::8 more than %;Q of its C.P
and Singa0ore half of its C.P.,nd e3traordinary -asic education and +ith its influences high
literacy rate and high a0titude for mathematics.7a0id accumulation of 0hysical and human ca0ital
+ere -orn from these characteristics and these caused ra0id economic de/elo0ment.4 ?3A
Dmar Cha0ra says 2Singa0ore and Hong *ong ?and &ai+an!South *oreaA e/ol/ed the
0olicies of 2to set free4 and 2accord to e30ort4 ?like in Ea0anA for su00orting the de/elo0ment.
&hese 0olicies ga/e more initiati/e and acti/ity to 0ri/ate sector for moti/ation of the ra0id
de/elo0ment of these countries.@0ening to foreign markets not only ga/e increasing for
em0loyment and more e30ort -ut made 0ossi-ility of less foreign de-ts for gro+th of their
economies.4 ?%A
Cha0ra and Paul *rugman say 2Hong *ong is different than the other countries of the
region.Hong *ong 0erformed all of the rules of 2laisse6-faire4 and *rugman adds 2(hen the
&hird (orld +as -elie/ing in that years that the +ay of de/elo0ment +as 0assing from the
0rotectionism and central 0lanning!-ut Hong *ong had got the 0olicies of 2free trade4 and
2encouragements to entre0reneurs!enter0risings4 and de/elo0ment theorists could not guessed
+ith this o0en economy!Hong *ong +ould catch the highest de/elo0ment rates.4?$A
Cha0ra says 2Singa0ore and Hong *ong ?and the other East ,sian statesA imitated Ea0ans!in
interfere of go/ernment!encouragements!regulations a-out ca0ital market! sa/ings!and in all of
the 0hases of economy.&he go/ernment orientated ?and controlledA the 0ri/ate sector to the
target 0oints in the su-Jects of licenses!foreign credits!technology aggrements.
In reaching to high sa/ings rate!Singa0ore and Hong *ong imitated Ea0ans.&he 0eo0le +as
in -ig economic trou-les after (orld (ar II!in Ea0an.E/ery Ea0an understood a ne+ national
structure +as necessary in using of economic resources ?sociologic im0act on 0sychological
-eha/iours.A &his is the cultural /alues of to a/oid from demonstration effect in consum0tion and
to li/e a sim0le!modest life.E/eryone +ould follo+ these rules.E/en small ?and 0oorA families
folo+ed a +ay of thriftiness.In #:18!total sa/ings had reached to %;Q of C.P in Singa0ore
?3:.:Q.A ?&hese high rates +ere in South *orea 38.5 Q!&ai+an 38.; Q!Ea0an 33.% Q!Hong
*ong 3;.8 Q!?-utA atin ,merica States #:.1 Q!Middle East and 9orth ,frica #8.; QA ?5A
H@9C *@9C
Hong *ongBs gro+th as an entre0ot of East-(est trade +as the 0roduct of com-ination
factors)
?#A a magnificent har-our!
?<A efficient administraton!
?3A sta-le currency!
?%A a-sence of custom duties!
?$A +ell de/elo0ed shi00ing ser/ices!
104
,s a result the colony -ecame the head=uarters of the chief 'ritish merchant houses in the Far
East.Industry gre+ slo+ly until after (orld (ar II!+hen the refugees -rought ca0ital and skill to
the city"light industries!attracted -y a 0lentiful su00ly of
?#Aindustrious!
?<Aeasily trained!
?3Achea0 la-or!e30anded ra0idly.
,rea) #!;%< s=.km Po0ulation) 5!1$$!#<$ C.P)]<#<.< -illion
and a /ery high Per Ca0ita) ]<1!8;;
Hong *ong ?like u3em-ourg and Singa0oreA has not got any natural resources.@il!natural
gas!food and ra+ materials must -e im0orted.
E30orts) ] <<$.: -illion ?including re-e30ortsA"?electrical machinery and a00liances!
te3tiles!foot+ear!+atches and clocks!toys!0lastics
Im0orts) ] <3;.3 -illion ?electrical machinery and a00liances!te3tiles!foodstuffs!
,S@ , SM, S&,&E @F HICH &ECH9@@CH
Israel is the most 0o+erful ?in industry!technology!militaryA country of Middle East!-ut has
got an area of <;!333 s=.km that 9ege/ desert in the south!almost +holly desert!the 9ege/
em-races half of the countryBs total land area.Israel has not got also natural resources -ut has got
a high technology industry including a/iation!communications!com0uter-aided design and
manufactures!medical electronics.
Po0ulation)5!#::!;;1 C.P) ] #<;.5 -illion Per Ca0ita) ] #:!8;;
E30orts) ]<:.3< -illion Im0orts) ] 3<.<8 -illion
&he leading e30orts are cut diamonds!high tecnology e=ui0ment!and agricultural
0roducts?fruit and /egeta-les.A
.es0ite limited natural resources ?limited ara-le land and limited natural fresh +ater!0ose
serious constraints!desertificationA!Israel has intensi/ely de/elo0ed its agricultural ?and
industrialA sector o/er the 0ast <; years.Israel im0orts su-stantial =uantities of grain -ut is largely
self-sufficient in other agricultural 0roducts.
In the first decade ?#:%1-$1A IsraelBs go/ernment took energetic measures to ma3imi6e the
use of a/aila-le +ater!e30anding the irrigated 6one -y a-out 3;; Q.&he yield +as further
augmented -y the use of mechani6ed e=ui0ment and im0ro/ed techni=ues.
,s a result!-y #:$1 Israel met 8; Q of its domestic food re=uirements des0ite the dou-ling of
its 0o0ulation.Striking gains +ere made in the 0roduction of milk!0oultry!
li/estock!/egeta-les!grains!and fruits" and eggs! fruit Juices! and 0eanuts +ere e30orted..In
addition!the sale a-road of citrus fruits!the main agricultural e30ort!under the mandate ?of
'ritishA!more than dou-led -y #:5;.Sugar -eets!first introduced in #:$#!-ecame a maJor item
+ithin a fe+ years.Cotton +as 0lanted for the first time in #:$3.(ithin fi/e years the acreage
under culti/ation 0ro/ided nearly %; Q of the countryBs needs.
&he de/elo0ment of industry +as ham0ered in IsraelBs early years -y the 0ressing need to
di/ert a good deal of the a/aila-le ca0ital to immigrant housing and maintenance.&hus the
0rogram for the 0romotion of manufactured and its di/ersification did not really get under +ay
105
until the mid-#:$;Bs.&o o/ercome the shortage of ca0ital!0articularly foreign e3change! the
go/ernment enacted a la+ in #:$$ offering 0ros0ecti/e in/estors e3em0tion from income and
realty ta3es!generous de0reciation allo+ances!and limited transfer rights in original currency.'y
the early #:5;Bs maJor industries included food 0rocessing!diamond 0olishing! and manufacture
of te3tiles!clothing!metal 0roducts!0harmaceuticals!0lastics!ceramics!and electrical e=ui0ment.
@ne of the 0rimary 0ur0oses of industriali6ation +as to make the further e30ansion of the
economy self-generating through the 0romotion of foreign trade.&hus to the traditional e30orts of
citrus fruits and 0olished diamonds!+hich accounted for almost half of the total! +ere added
te3tiles and +earing a00arel!ru--er tires and tu-es!0ly+ood!cement! -ooks! medicines!stam0s!as
+ell as other agricultural 0roducts.E30orts e30anded fi/efold in the first decade.
7@SES ,9. CH7HS,9&HEMDMS @F D9I&E. ,7,' EMI7,&ES

In Culf region!Dnited ,ra- Emirates ?0o0ulation)<!$;;!;;;A sho+ed the good results of
+orking on agriculture!in recent years.&he D,E has s0ent more than ] 3 -illion in the 0ast #$
years on afforestation and on transforming -arren desert areas into fertile farm and 0asture land.
Co/ernment is no+ 0lanting more than <;;!;;; ne+ date 0alm trees e/ery year.&he total area
under culti/ation!has soared to $%!$;; hectares in #::% from #$!;$; hectares in #:88.
,gricultural 0roJects throughout the D,E are mainly concerned +ith dairy 0roduction!
0oultry farming and cereal cro0s.,nnual milk 0roduction has increased from to 1;!;;;
tonnes!meeting :; Q of the domestic consum0tion demand.,nnual egg 0roduction has reached
<;; million satisfying %; Q of the local market.
,gricultural research is an essential 0art of the D,EBs 0rogramme to esta-lish self-sufficiency
in food su00ly.
7oses and chrysanthemums are no+ e30orted to Euro0e.In 7as ,l *haimah there has -een a
num-er of agricultural in/estment 0roJects creating e30orts of tomatoes!au-ergines! -eans! mai6e
and melons annually to Euro0e.
&oday there are more than 3!;;; fishing -oats +orking in D,E +aters!har/ested around
:8!;;; tonnes of fish in #::%!a 0art of +hich +as dried for animal feed and fertili6er.In #::$! sea
food 0roduction had increased to #;$!11% tonnes.&he annual fish catch no+ meets $; Q of the
domestic consum0tion demand.
M@7E D9ILE7SI&IES
&o -e a 2science community4!it is necessary to esta-lish ne+ uni/ersities.&here are ##
uni/ersities in D, Emirates.&he main uni/ersity 2Dnited ,ra- Emirates Dni/ersity4 has got
#8!;;; students ,nd there are Higher &echnology Colleges ?t+o years after high schoolA in
diferent cities and to+ns that a lot of students attend.&here are -at least 3!;;; uni/ersities- in
DS, ?that some sources gi/e a num-er e/en 2%!$;; uni/ersities4.A &hat is!there is for e/ery
#;;!;;; 0ersons!one uni/ersity in DS, ?<:< million 0o0ulation.A &here are more than %;;!;;;
students in only CD9H ?City Dni/ersity of 9e+ HorkA &here are #$; uni/ersities in Canada ?3#
million 0o0ulationA!that is for e/ery <;;!;;; 0ersons!one uni/ersity. &o gi/e
0ermissions for esta-lish ne+ uni/ersities for 0ri/ate ?foreign or localA com0anies! +ill -ring
foreign students from a-road and this means a good income for the small states!and this
uni/ersities +ill -ring com0etition in the science for the country.Israel has the highest ratio of
106
uni/ersity graduates 0er ca0ita in the +orld as +ell as one of the highest 0er ca0ita rates of
0atents.
, re0ort of Singa0ore go/ernment 0oints to this su-Ject)
2&he ,sia-Pasific market is the fastest-gro+ing source market for international students and
Singa0ore is +ell-0ositioned to ta0 on this gro+th.4
Ministry of Education of Singa0oreBs ad/ertisement in/ites the +estern uni/ersities to o0en
ne+ cam0uses in Singa0ore)
2 8; Q of the glo-al demand for international higher education in <;<$ is e30ected to come
from ,sia.(hat are you +aiting for W 'e 0art of the action no+ Z &he Dni/ersity of Chicago
Craduate 'usiness School set u0 a 0ermanent cam0us here!the first leading DS -usiness school to
do so in ,sia..4
F@7EIC9 I9LES&ME9& @@*S ,&..
Foreign com0anies looks at)
?#A la-or skills!?Malta a small state of 0o0ulation 3:5!1$#!has not got an im0ortant natural
resources -ut a 0roducti/e la-or force gi/es to this country a 2] #8!8;;4 of 0er ca0itaA
?<A ta3 0olicy!
?3A foreign reser/es ha/e to -e ?at least relati/elyA healthy state!
?%A the country can 0ay its e3ternal de-t!
?$A -ureaucratic 0rocedures ha/e to -e less and not com0le3!
?5A inflation has to -e lo+
?8A 0er ca0ita has to -e high
?1A rate of crimes ha/e to -e lo+ ?as a small state Eamaica ?area)#;!::# s=.kmA )gro+ing
crime 0ro-lem is ham0ering economic gro+th of EamaicaA
C@9CDSI@9

In this study!+e searched the economies of <; small states.Incomes of some small states are
from 0etroleum)>atar!&rinidad and &o-ago!'ahrain" some are from tourism)Cy0rus!
Maldi/es!'ahamas"some are from remittances)Camoros! Eamaica"some are from
trans0ortGtransshi0ment)Ca0e Lerde!.Ji-outi!and some from industry)Hong *ong! u3em-ourg.
'ut all of them are +orking on di/ersification 0roJects.For e3am0le)&he 'ahamas)in addition to
tourism and financial sector!the go/ernment su00orts the de/elo0ment of a 2third 0illar4! e-
commerce.Monaco as a famous tourism and recreation country!the go/ernment has successfully
sought to di/ersify into ser/ices and small!high-/alue-added!non0olluting industries.'ar-ados as
a famous sugar country!0roduction in recent years has di/ersified and tourism and manufacturing
sur0assed the sugar industry in economic im0ortance.Samoa as a coconut country!tourism is an
e30anding sector!accounting for <$ Q of C.P!no+.&he Samoan Co/ernment has called for
deregulation of the financial sector!encouragement of in/estment!and continued fiscal disci0line.
*u+ait!'ahrain and>atarBs 0olicy of economic di/ersification has led to a surge in in/estment in
0roJects for the e30ort of li=uefied natural gas ?9CA and 0etrochemicals.&hese go/ernments
e30ect that it +ill -e a-le to earn more -arrel of crude oil 0roduced if it can e30ort refined
0roducts and 0etrochemicals!as +ell as create 0ri/ate sector Jo-s Oin a country +hich has -een
hea/ily de0endent on go/ernment ministries- to 0ro/ide em0loyment for the 0o0ulation.
107
FD&D7E HE,7S
?#A &he amount of +orld trade +ill increase in the future years and es0ecially in the East
,sia!South ,sia region.&he economies of East ,sia countries +ill go on increasing and East-
(est commerce +ill gro+ ?es0ecially after <;;$ +ith ne+ C,&&.A &he +orld trade +ill -e in
need of ne+ free 0orts.'runei can take this role in the region.
?<A Increasing of 0o0ulation in Indonesia!Malaysia!,ustralia and incresaing of incomes in
India!China!S.*orea!&ai+an!Pakistan!Iran +ill o0en ne+Gmore demands for mutual trading and it
+ill -e more demands for entre0ot trade ?and free trade 6onesA.?etBs remem-er)in ,0ril
<;;%!follo+ing a <:-year hiatus!a delegation led -y Singa0oreBs &rade and Industry Minister
made an official tri0 to Iran!aiming to -uild stronger 0olitical and -usiness ties -et+een the t+o
nations.&he tri0 came on the heels of /isits in Fe-ruary and March <;;% -y /arious Singa0ore
officials to Egy0t!Eordan!'ahrain and to D,E.&he general stated 0ur0oses of the tri0s included
the esta-lishment of Joint free-trade agreements +ith se/eral /isited Middle Eastren countries!and
de/elo0ment of the 0otential markets for Singa0orean com0anies in the energy-rich region.A
?3AIf ,frica ?+ith its natural resources and great lands for agriculture and animal hus-andryA
destroys 0o/erty in the future decades!also trade -et+een ,frica and East ,sia +ill increase and
'runei and other small states ?also as a free-0ort!re-e30ort and incomes from ser/ices and then
+ith the other industriesA can take -enefit from this.
?%A Po0ulation of +orld ?and incomes of this 0o0ulationA +ill increase in the future years and
tourism +ill go on rising
?#A &hayer (atkins! 2Economic History of Singa0ore4 ?from 2&he Silent (ar4 of Mark Patinkin
and Ira Maga6inerA
?<A Eohn *enneth Cal-raith! 2&out sa/oir ou 0res=ue sur IBYconomie4 ?.aily Pro-lems of
Economic ifeA ?+ith =uestions of 9icole Salinger to Cal-raithA!Paris!#:1;
?3A Paul *rugman! 2&he 7eturn of .e0ression Economics4!(.(.9orton^Com0any!9e+
Hork!<;;#!0!35
?%A Cha0ra Dmar! 2Islam and Economic .e/elo0ment4!Islama-ad!#::3!0!1:
?$A *rugman!00!#3%-3$
?5A (orld 'ank!(orld &a-les!#:11-1:!/!#!00!55-:
'ritannica and Crolier Encyclo0aedias! (e- sites of go/ernments of
u3em-ourg!Singa0ore!Dnited States








108









2EC@9@MICS @F HIS&@7H4 ,9. HIS&@7IC, SCE9ES @F >D7,9
,-stract)
@riginal historical conce0ts like) 2history engineering4! 2catechism of history4! 2audit
of history4!2misusing of history4! 2al6heimer of a nation4! 2eti=uette of history4! 2economics of
history4! 2mani0ulation of history4! 2tradition as an in0ut4! 20ollution of kno+ledge4! 2history as
a sources of ins0iration4!2history as a mental e3ercises4! 2using of historical sources as
0roducti/e4! 2history as a rich store4! 2acti/es and 0assi/es of social -alance-sheet4! 20ositi/e
and negati/e in0uts to social -alance-sheet4! 2conscious of history4!
2romantical nation -uilding4! 2history) for learning of great -rains and ho+ they thought and
searched4! 2gradual ado0ting ?systemA of societies4! 2harms of interfering to social 0rocesses4
and 2function of taJdeyd ?rene+ingA in Islamic tradition and iJtihad4! 2non-sto0 intellectual
tradition4! 2o0timumi6ation of historical sources4. (e see these! in last study of .r. Sa-ri
@rman. I sa+ this study has got original o0inions and theories for history! social sciences and
+ider academic en/ironments. In the first 0art of this article! +e circulate on these original
conce0ts! and in the second 0art! +alking on this method! +e +ill -e on historical su-Jects of
>uran. &hat there are #!8;; /erses a-out history! in >uran! in my count. &his article +ants to do
a contri-ution to social sciences ?stillA 2in the crisis4

Introduction
Sa-ri @rman ? a faculty mem-er of IS&,CGMalaysiaA is on a +ay of traditional scholars line that
,hmad Ea+dat Pasha Prof. Sa-ri Dlgener Prof. Sa-ri @rman. ,hmad Ea+dat Pasha ?#1<<-:$A
+as an @ttoman Em0ire statesman of #:th century. He +orked as Islamic Judge and then
go/ernor in different 0ro/inces of the Em0ire. ,nd as Minister of Home ,ffairs! Minister of
Pious Foundations! Minister of Education and then Minister of Eustice. 'ut ,hmad Ea+dat Pasha
is famous in Islamic (orld +ith his scholarshi0. ,s a famous Islamic Jurist! he +as the chair of
MaJallah Commission ?of Islamic a+A. ,nd he studied in this commission a00ro3imately t+enty
years. Pasha also +as a famous historian. He +as a00ointed as a mem-er to ,nJuman-i .anish
?,cademy of ScienceA of @ttoman Em0ire in #1$#. His duty +as to 0re0are an @ttoman history
and to com0lete the translation of I-n *haldunBs Mu=addimah into &urkish. ,lthough some 0arts
of Mu=addimah had -een translated into &urkish in the #8th century. 'ut Pasha com0leted and
added /alua-le notes in his translation. He +rote the history of @ttoman Em0ire ?-et+een the
years of Em0ire of #88%-#1<$A in #< /olumes that this study +as named +ith PashaBs name as
109
&arikh-al Ea+dat. &he most interesting note that! Pasha +as influenced in +riting of this study -y
I-n *haldun. ,nd he had looked for the History of @ttoman Em0ire! in the in/estigating of the
Em0ireBs institutions.?#A
Prof. Sa-ri Dlgener ?#:##-13A is the su0er/isor of .r. Sa-ri @rman! in his doctorate dissertation
?#:88-1#A in Faculty of Economics of Istan-ul Dni/ersity. Prof DlgenerBs interest +as the
0hiloso0hy of @ttoman Economics. ooking for 2characteristics of @ttoman Economics4 and
asking 2(hy did not @ttoman Community -ecome a ca0italist society W4 Dlgener +ent on his
studies a00ro3imately fifty years to his death. He! at the -eginning! +anted to a00ly (e-erian
sociology on @ttoman Community! -ut sa+ (e-erBs conce0ts +ere (estern conce0ts and he
tended to I-n *haldun and ,hmad Ea+dat Pasha. Prof. Dlgener +as 0re0aring a -ook on I-n
*haldun +hen he died in #:13. 'ut! more than $$ years ago! Dlgener had gi/en -ig 0laces to I-n
*haldun! in his -ook ?<A that the maJority of the academic en/ironments had not noticed this
as0ect of I-n *haldun! in that date. Dlgener says 2I-n *haldun is the Patron Saint of &heorists of
Euncture4. Dlgener es0ecially studies on I-n *haldunBs o0inions of Fo/er 0roductionB and Funder
consum0tionB. He had read either original te3t of Mu=addimah and its &urkish translation ?in
@ttoman ,l0ha-et of ,hmad Ea+dat Pasha had doneA. He follo+ed the traces of I- *haldun in
(estern &hought. Dlgener also +rote another article in #:%# ?3A +alking on methods of I-n
*haldun.
,hmad Cuner Sayar says) Dlgener also used ?in his researchesA the #< /olumes of @ttoman
History of ,hmad Ea+dat Pasha +ith a great interest and took out o0inions of Pasha a-out
economics as if digging a +ell +ith a needle. Pasha had declared that @ttoman Em0ire had to
gi/e im0ortance to o/erseas trade and he +as also su00orter of li-eral trade. Dlgener also +rote
an article in #:%8! its title +as) 2@0inions of ,hmad Ea+dat Pasha on State and Economics4 ?%A
He also -egins his macro-economy ?te3tA -ook 29ational Income! Em0loyment! and Economic
Cro+th4 =uoting PashaBs sentences a-out) 2ra0idly circulaton of money in the society is a
solution for unem0loyment4. ?$A .r. ,.C. Sayar +rites at the end of a ?%;; -ig-0agesA -ook
a-out Prof. Dlgener) 2Dlgener +as a 0hiloso0her of history. He se0arated economics and
sociology in a healthy +ay and then +alked to history.4 Dlgener had seen that ,hmad Ea+dat
Pasha +as a good follo+er of I-n *haldun! after fi/e hundred years. I-n *haldunBs im0act on
Pasha! and I-n *haldunBs and PashaBs im0acts on Dlgener are clearly seen in their -ooks.
Dlgener in/estigated es0ecially 2the reasons of colla0se of @ttoman Economy after #8th century4
and asked 2+hy @ttoman Economy could not ado0t ne+ techni=ues of Industrial 7e/olution W4

, 9e+ Picturing of the History)
9o+! +e +ill summari6e the ne+ thesis of Sa-ri @rman in four 0ages) Sa-ri @rman +as the last
doctorate student of Prof. Dlgener. .r. @rman mentiones this in the 0reface of his -ook
FCa66aliBs Philoso0hy of EconomicsB saying that 20riceless contri-utions of Prof. Dlgener..4 ?5A
,s an economist Sa-ri @rman has -een in historical sources in last thirty years! for his 0roJect.
He has -een +orking on a com0rehensi/e research 0roJect entitled 2.e/elo0ment of Economic
&hought in the Islamic Ci/ili6ation.4 &his 0roJect is intended to co/er in fi/e /olumes the
de/elo0ment of economic thought throughout Islamic History u0 to the decline of @ttoman State.
Sa-ri @rman says in his study a-out methodology of history) 2 FPastB is a category of e3isting
that has got a reality like F0resent ?timeAB e/en it has got more reality from F0resentB. 'ecause
F0resent timeB re0resents a reality of ?still in the 0osition ofA formation! -ut F0ast timeB is a reality
110
of com0leted. &hatBs +hy it is 0ossi-le to interfere to the F0resentB! -ut im0ossi-le to F0astB! and
Frealities of 0astB are acce0ted com0ulsorily.4
Fi3 a Suita-le Position &o Contem0orary 7ealities
29early all of the contem0orary 0henomenons are the continuation of historical 0henomenons!
thatBs +hy a 0osition against history is to -e against to a ?mainA source of contem0orary realities.
&his 0osition is a starting 0oint of a communityBs normati/e ?0olitical! Judicial! ethical and
administrati/eA system. 9ot to -e a-le to de/elo0 ?and e3hi-itA an a00ro0riate and rational
attitude ?and modeA to history is one of the 0ro-lematic e3am0les of our sociological +eakness.
Insistenly +e ha/e to state that in the source of a lot of 0ro-lems --that +e are in a /iolent fight
that this fight e3hausts our social energy and our sources and from time to time it seems Fno
solutionB- this /ital +eakness is seen... F,udit of historyB is an analysis and criticism to
corollaries of interest to history! conce0t of history and reality of history. FEti=uette of historyB
is! F+alkingB from this FauditB to reach a 0oint to o-tain clues of an a00ro0riate 0osition to
history. F,udit of historyB tells to settle accounts mutually and meet face to face +ith historical
0rocess +ith using historical kno+ledges that these kno+ledges are analyses and comments that
0roduced -y disci0line of history.
Change and 7e0etition
Conce0t of FhistoryB associates another conce0t FchangeB. It is said that if FchangeB is a-sent in a
0lace! history is also a-sent in that 0lace. If +e mention! for e3am0le! an e0istemological
meaning of history! +e -in ad/ance- ha/e to acce0t FchangeB. 'ecause! e/ery historical study
contains a story that it is +anted to tell and if Fno changeB is e3isted! this means Fno storyB to tell.
'ut +hat +ill +e say to +hom that they say) 2History 7e0eats Itself4 It is a reality that history is
a /ery rich store that e/eryone takes out a lot of suita-le materials for himself. @ne of the
0ossi-le formulations is to a00roach to these t+o 0henomenons +ith the categories of Fsha0eB and
FcoreB. (e may say) FChangeB is in the Fsha0eB! -ut history re0eats itself in FcoreB. etBs think an
ordinary FmanB . ,-solutely a man is -the same- man in his childhood and his old age that his
name is not changed. 'ut if +e 0ut t+o 0hotogra0hes of this man -a 0hoto +hen he +as a -a-y
and another +ith a +hite -eard-! +e also a-solutely see the difference of FchangeB.

&he ?someA communities esta-lished a ci/ili6ation in the history that they had noticed the
reality of historical 0rocess is a sensiti/e com0osition of FchangeB and FcontinualityB and these
communities had reali6ed their general mo/ement from this reality. Its o00osite is also true. &he
?someA communities did not com0rehend this reality they caused hea/y cost for theirsel/es and
also for the other communities ?of the +orldA and they hindered the march of ci/ili6ations.
Islamic ci/ili6ation is one of the most understanding historical su-Jects that noticed this reality
that 2historical 0rocess is a sensiti/e com0osition of FchangeB and continualityB4 It is also a
reality that Islam came into -eing as a religious mo/ement and in the course of the time! it
-ecame one of the most remarka-le ci/ili6ations of history. In our o0inion! the founders and
re0resentati/es of Islam had got a mature Fconcious of historyB that suita-le to the nature of
historical 0rocess. E/eryone -+ho is con/ersant a-out Islam- kno+s that >uran 0uts itself as a
follo+er of 0recedent ?HolyA 'ooks! and Muhammad ?P'DHA is a 0ro0het that confirms
0receding 0ro0hets! Islam is a follo+er of the 0receding .i/ine 7eligions. In short! this is a
111
confirmation of FcontinualityB +ith generous e30ressions. 'ut >uran also critici6es these
religions and their re0resenti/es. &his is an another as0ect of >uran that confirms FchangeB.
,nother e3am0les! +e find in Islamic la+) Islamic a+ acce0ts 2SharBu man =a-lana4 ?la+s of
old nationsA as a source of Islamic la+" and 2urf4 ?common la+A also another source.&hese t+o
are e3am0les of FcontinualityB in Islamic la+. 'ut it is a reality that Islam -rought an original
and authentic la+ +ith its ?original A 0hiloso0hy! methodology! techni=ue! Judicial 0rocedure!
institutions and normati/e -ody that this ne+ la+ system sho+s reality of FchangeB in la+. ,s an
another e3am0le +e see in the e/olution of Islamic Monetary System. Early muslims had
acce0ted -imetalism that it +as a s0ontaneous marriage of Sassanian sil/er monetary system and
'y6antium gold system. Islamic coin +as coined after a long time. &hat this -imetalism +as
su00osed as if an Islamic rule in long centuries.
(hy (e ,re Interested In History W
?S. @rman goes on)A Main reasons of to -e interested in history are) 0sychological! 0edagogical!
e0istemological!sociological health! mani0ulation! and 0ragmatical reasons. Studies on history
?historiesA do not 0romise economic incomes -ut in s0ite of this! indi/iduals +ork in this field
and societies allocate funds for this. (hy W &o understand F0resent timeB and for 0lanning
Ffuture timeB is necessary to kno+ Fthe 0astB that is FhistoryB. Indi/iduals and societies do not
0ercei/e this reality! they can not understand Ftheir ?0resentA ageB! and they can not 0lan their
future! 0ro0erly. @n the other hand! 0ersonal memory fastens the indi/idual to hisGher F0astB.
FPersonal memoryB is F0ersonal historyB. If +e think Fthis memoryB has gone com0letely or 0artly"
this man is not a healthy man. 'ecause the lost of memory is an 0sychiatrical illness and it is
necessary to cure. If this man does not go to the doctor! this illness +ill cause a lot of 0ro-lems
for him and for his relati/es and his community. Societies ?did not gi/e im0ortant their historiesA
also -ecome 0ro-lematic and unhealthy societies and their reha-ilitations is /ery im0ortant to
find the reasons of their illness! to sol/e their 0ro-lems.
(e see! fre=uently! the misuse of history that this is Fmani0ulation of historyB. Sometimes
FhistoryB is used for religious! ideological! 0olitical and for other 0ur0oses and +ith good or -ad
intentions. &his is a Fhistory engineeringB. Dsing of history for mani0ulating 0ur0oses causes
F0ollution of kno+ledgeB and this is a Fsa-otageB to disci0line of history. &o do mistakes in
historiogra0hy is 0ossi-le! -ut using history for -ad intentions is not a +ork accident -ut is a
Fkind of murderB. &o -e interested in history for 0ragmatical reasons is also 0ossi-le. For e3am0le
to take out direct and su-stanti/e lessons! +arnings from history. ,nd for 0edagogical reasons)
Mind of man sees endless e3am0les of human e30erience in the history and this act increases the
0erformance of mind +ith the kno+ledges of this rich e30erience! and the intelligence matures
and gains fle3i-ility and acti/ity. E/en FhistoryB may -e studied for only as a /ehicle of mental
e3ercise.

@ne of the rules of Feti=uette of historyB is not to a00roach history for general categories and to
a/oid general Judgements. FMen li/e in their times if they notice this or notB Historical
0henomenons ha/e got their -unches. If +e muff a shot this reality +e fall anachronism. &o fight
history and to -e interested in history in the categories of FfriendB or FenemyB! e30resses ra+ness
of that 0erson. For e3am0le) although there +ere discussions and contro/ersies -et+een Ca66ali
112
and I-n 7ushd! -ut! +e Oat the same time- may 0ossess Ca66ali and I-n 7ushd! and +e ha/e to
sho+ the same interest to their legacies. &o -e a su00orter of one of them is an unJust -eha/iour
and doing this harms ?first of allA this su00orter. History is an Fendless com0le3 legacyB and it is
necessary a Fmore refinedB and Fmore so0histicated a00roachB. It is also 0ossi-le to -e interested
in history of thought. (hat and ho+ thought a lot of great genius W 9ot to take direct lessons
from their 0erformances and manoeu/res +hen they +ere struggling! -ut only to do this for
mental e3ercises. &o read the te3ts of former thinkers for o-taining ne+ sources of ins0irations.
History ,s a Multias0ect In0ut and Economical ,00roach &o History
(e +ant to use Fhistorical sourcesB as a +ider meaning that it +ill -e 0ossi-le this FhistoryB to
0roduce a +ider s0ectrum of /alues. &he 0ro-lem of using of historical sources is im0ortant. (e
may say this) Feconomical use of historical sourcesB. 2 FEconomics of historyB is to look at history
as a suita-le scarce in0ut that has got ?a 0o+erA to 0roduce multias0ect /alues and to look for! for
o-taining ma3imum 0roduct and out0ut! in short to a00roach history from the 0ers0ecti/e of
rationality and effecti/eness.4 In this meaning Feconomics of historyB contains as +ell as a mode
of -eha/iour inclined to o0timum using of historical sources and theoretical and academical
in/estigate of this mode of -eha/iour. , general characteristics of underde/elo0ed countries is
not to -e a-le to use their sources in a 0roducti/e +ay. &hese countries also can not use their
historical sources. ,s a 0arado3 these cuntries ha/e got a lot of historical sources! in general. 'ut
this is also a 0ro-lem of underde/elo0ment that +e see they can not use the historical sources
rationally! also. ?(e may thinkA Continuation of underde/elo0ment 0henomenon may -e from
the Fnot to -e a-le to a0roach to historical sources in a suita-le and rational +ayB. 'ecause
historical sources are a kind of +ealth and a sort of /alua-le in0ut and neglect of these in0uts
may cause a com0arati/e lost of ad/antage of these countries.

,nother 0ro-lem is) like the other in0uts! historical in0uts are ra+. It is necessary to o0erate these
in0uts in a suita-le +ay for using. ,nd for a good 0roduction! +e need e30erts. 9eed to social
scientists that they ha/e got good =ualities! is necessary. History as a Social In0ut) , lot of
elements that take 0laces in acti/es and 0assi/es of social -alance-sheet ha/e got historical
characteristics. &hatBs +hy to notice this reality of history and to -eha/e in this direction is
im0ortant for all of the mem-ers of the society -ut es0ecially for +hom that they sho+ directions
to the nations! and they are in the 0osition of guidance ?as statesmen or intellectuals.A &o
em0hasi6e this reality again and again is not an e3aggeration. &he societies are dragged to
unnecessary ad/entures and the nations +aste their energy! source and times! in /ain. ,ttem0ts to
0erform Fnation -uildingB and Fsocial engineeringB in underde/elo0ed countries are the e3am0les
of this. &hese attem0s do no gi/e much gainings to their romantic entre0reneurs Z and to their
nations. ,nd these attem0ts are dramatical and e/en tragical realities of modern history and
history of moderni6ations..
?Economics ofA &radition) &radition is one of the most im0ortant social categories. In0uts of
socio-cultural history are s0read out a /ast land. 'ut +e ha/e to com0are these in0uts to
FtraditionB. &radition is a rich and /alua-le social in0ut that history carries it to social -alance-
sheet. &radition is one of the most im0ortant founders of social concensus! and social concensus
is one of the most im0ortant founders of social life. (ith the hel0s of FSocial concensusB and
FtraditionB" Fsocial -eha/ioursB are defined in an easy +ay! and Fsocial rolesB are 0layed /ery +ell
+ithout any trou-le +ith this +ay. ,nd then 0roducti/ity increases e/en reaches ma3imum
113
degree in social milieu! and sources of dis0utes decreases! social costs fall e/en to the lo+est
le/el.
&+o 2 & 4s &raffic and &radition)

Sto00ing of the FtrafficB system in a city -ecomes this city as a 0araly6ed 0osition. ,lso sto00ing
of FtraditionB gi/es great harms to social system. ,nd costs of these harms are /ery hea/y for
nations.4 .r. Sa-ri @rman gi/es e3am0les ?mistakesA from 0eriods of the late @ttoman and
7e0u-lic of &urkey 0eriods and mentiones Fformulations of moderni6ations.B Fack of social-
0sychology as0ectBs of moderni6ation of muslim countries and Flack of social 0hiloso0hyB Flack
of marketingB in these 0roJects to their Fnatural customerBs ?0eo0lesA and Fnot to o-ser/e
F0sychology of ?theseA customerBsB are e30lained in details. Sa-ri @rman defends Fa non-sto0
intellectual traditionB for Fdynamic! creati/e and 0roducer intellectual life.B ,nd he! in this 0oint!
0resents the Fconce0t of taJdeyd ?rene+ingAB as a FtaJdeyd institutionB for Finterfere and tasheyh
?rectification and correctingA.B &aJdeyd is ?an element of IslamicA FtraditionB itself. FFunction of
taJdeydB in Islamic tradition gi/es FlegitimacyB for Finterfere.B ,0art from! FtaJdeydB is
encouraged and e/en ?is acce0tedA Fsocial res0onsi-ilityB and is a social o-ligatory in the status
of Ffar6-al kifayahB ?Far6-al kifaye means) a Fcom0ulsary dutyB that at least some of the muslims
must do this! in muslim community.A (hen +e think this FtaJdeyd institutionB +ith the
Finstitution of iJtihadB in Islamic la+! these t+o can o0en /ast o00ortunities as Ftasheyh!
?rectificationA and to freshen u0B for FtraditionB.4
In more than #;; 0ages his ne+ thesis ?8A Sa-ri @rman also mentiones the transformation of
historical sources to economic /alues as tourism! film industry and anti=ue material trading. 'ut
he 0oints that) 2,merikan history has only got fe+ centuries -ut endless films! stories! no/els are
0roduced from this history. ,nd history of @ttoman Em0ire a longer history and richer historical
e/ents -ut +e do not see its e3isting in +orld film industry or in +orld literature.&his situation
also sho+s the difference of t+o societies in Fconscious of historyB and Fskill of using of the
sourcesB in transformation of e3isting 0otentials to ?economicA /alues. S. @rman com0letes his
study saying) 2historical legacy can -e used for ne+ /alues. &here is a different in0ut-out0ut
realation in this a00roach to historical 0henomenon. &here is ?com0letelyA Fhistorical legacyB in
in0ut side and! social /alues in out0ut side. Historical legacy is /ery rich and most /alua-le kind
of source. &o -e Fnonchalance to historyB! Fnot to -e a-le to use it +ith a good +ayB e/en Fto
misuse itB! is a +aste of source.Dsing of history in a rational +ay! like using of the other sources
in economics is im0ortant. FEconomics of historyB is the effort of o0timumi6ation in historical
sources and historical in0uts and means Facademic /ersion of this endea/ourB. , 6eal for
o-taining ma3imum out0ut from Fhistorical in0utsB4
Historical Su-Jects in >uran
Eesus Christ ?as Pro0het IsaA takes 0lace in different <$ /erses in >uran. Lirgin Mary ?Maryam
as motherBs of IsaA in 3< /erses! Kachariah in 5 /erses! Patriarch ,-raham in 53! Moses in #33!
Patriarch 9oah in %< /erses. Some cha0ters ha/e got some 0ro0hetsBs name) the Cha0ter of
Hunus ?EonahA! Cha0ter of Husuf ?Eose0hA! Cha0ter of ,-raham! Cha0ter @f 9oah. ,nd +e also
see Cha0ter of Maryam ?MaryA! Cha0ter of al- ,n-iya ?Pro0hetsA! Cha0ter of u=man. u=man
a sage +hose memory the ,ra-s re/erenced! one regarded as the father of medicine! and some
114
Islamic scholars said he +as also a 0ro0het to his community. @ne cha0ter is named Cha0ter of
Sa-a ?&he She-a ?in 9e+ &estamentA that +as destroyed -y the Flood af ,rim a-out #; C.EA
&urkish historian Ihsan Sureyya Sirma says 2(orld history is the history of 0ro0hets.4 ?1A
Indeed! a lot of historical su-Jects of (estern (orld are seen in >uran. For E3am0le ,aron ?in
>uran! HarunA the -rother of the 0ro0het Moses! +e see in different <; /erses in >uran. ,dam
?also he is mentioned in >uran +ith the same name" the first man and the first 0ro0hetA in
different <$ /erses in >uran. E/en F,damBs a00leB that @3ford .ictionary mentiones) 2F,damBs
a00le! 0art that 0roJects in the front of the throat! es0 in men and mo/es u0 and do+n +hen one
s0eaks4. ,lthough +e do not see ,damBs a00le in >uran -ut a lot of muslims kno+ the story of
this a00le like +estern 0eo0les. I follo+ed the @3ford .ictionary! from the -eginning to end! that
this .ictionary as a -ook reflects general +estern cultures and linguistics and reflects the mental
form of +estern 0eo0les! and I sa+ a lot of historical conce0ts are common -et+een the (est and
Islamic +orld. &o see these conce0ts sho+s that all of the Holy 'ooks are from the same .i/ine
source that >uran fre=uently em0hasi6es this reality. 9o+ +e gi/e first the +ord in @3ford
.ictionary ?:A @3ford and e30lanation of @3ford and then sho+ the same conce0tBs 0lace in
>uran in ?... A 0arenthesis)
2&he ,nnunciation! the announcement -y the angel Ca-riel to Mary that she +as to -e the
mother of Eesus Christ4 ?>uran) Cha0ter of Maryam ?MaryA ?#:A! /erse! #:A
2Lirgin 'irth! doctrine of -irth of Eesus Christ +ithout a father from Lirgin Mary +ith the 0o+er
of Holy Chost4 4 ?although the Holy Chost is not the &hird Person of the &rinity in >uran ?that
>uran does not acce0t &rinityA Lirgin 'irth is also the same in >uranA
2the &+el/e ,0ostles ?the &+el/e .isci0lesA the t+el/e 0ersonal follo+ers of Eesus Christ!
chosen -y Eesus to s0read his teaching4 ?these ,0ostles +ere seen in % /erses in >uran in the
Cha0ters of ,l-i Imran?3A! /! $<" al-Maedah?$A! ###-#<! al-Saff?5#A! #%A
2ark ?in the 'i-leA ?#A co/ered shi0 in +hich 9oah and his family +ere sa/ed from the Flood4
?&he @ld &estament! Cenesis! cha0ter $:A" ? as FfulkB or FsafiynahB ?shi0 of 9oahA in different 1
/erses of >uranA
2ark ?<A ,rk of Co/enant! ?,rk of &estimonyA +ooden chest in +hich +ritings of Ee+ish la+
+ere ke0t4 ? as F&a-utB! Cha0ter of al-'a=ara?<A! /erse! <%1A
2the &en Commandments! the ten la+s gi/en -y Cod to Moses4! 2the .ecalogue! the &en
Commandments of Moses4 ?Cha0ter of ,nBam?5A!/erses! #$#-$< in >uran! that these ha/e -een
gi/en to all 0ro0hets from ,dam to the Pro0het Muhammad P-uhA
2the .eluge! the flood at the time of 9oah4 2Cataclysm! ..es0. flood of 9oah4 ?as F&ufanB!
Cha0ter of ,nka-ut?<:A! /!#%A
2-e descended from! ha/e as ancestors) ,ccording to the 'i-le! +e are all descended from
,dam4 ?in >uran! Cha0ter of 9isaB?%A!/! #A
2the .is0ersion! the Ee+s dis0ersed among the Centiles4! 2the .ias0ora! the dis0ersion of the
Ee+s among the Centiles after their 0eriod of e3ile4 ?&he /erses of $ and 5 of Cha0ter of Isra?#8A
0oint this e3ile and commentators of >uran gi/e detailsA.
2the E3odus! the e3odus of the Israelites from Egy0t! in a-out #3;; 'C4 ?the E3odus is stated in
>uran! in the Cha0ter of &a-Ha?<;A! /! 88-1;A
2manna ?in the 'i-leA food 0ro/ided -y Cod for the Israelites during their forty years in the
desert" in the E3odus of @ld &estament! #54 ?as ?alsoA manna and =uail! in different three
cha0ters of >uran) 2@ Children of Israel Z (e rescued you from your enemy! and (e made a
co/enant +ith you on the right side of Mount Sinai! and (e sent do+n to you manna and =uails4
?&a-Ha?<;A!/! 1;A &he right side) cf. #:)$<. &he ,ra-ian side of Sinai +as the 0lace +here
115
Moses first recei/ed his re/elation -efore going to Egy0t! and also +here he recei/ed the a+
after the E3odusA
2Eden ?'i-leA garden +here ,dam and E/e li/ed4 ?Eannat-u ,dn in different ## cha0ters of
>uranA
2E/e ?in the 'i-le story of CreationA the first +oman4 ?&hree /erses al-'a=ara?<A!/! 3$" ,l-i
Imran?3A!/! #:! &a-Ha?<;A!/! ##8 0oint E/e and in the sentences of the Pro0het Muhammad her
name is Ha//aA
2the E3odus of Israelites from Egy0t! in a-out #3;; 'C4 ?Cha0ter of Shuara?<5A! /! 53-5$A
2fig-leaf!?+ith reference to the story of ,dam and E/e4 ?Cha0ter of ,Braf?8)<<A
2the Fall ?of manA! ,damBs sin and its results! ?old useA sin" gi/e +ay to +rongdoing) E/e
tem0ted ,dam and he fell4 ?Cha0ter of &a-Ha?<;A! /! #<;-<#. ,lthough >uran does not mention
E/eBs 0osition in the fall of ,dam! -ut in Islamic tradition! +e see similar e30lanations. ,nd In
Islamic /ision FmanB is not inherently e/il. Islam reJects decisi/ely any doctrine of Foriginal sinB.A
2arch-enemy!satan4 ?also in >uran and (est tradition! struggle against satan -egan -efore the
man came to this +orldA
2,-el and Cain) t+o sons of ,dam4 ?,lthough >uran does not gi/e their names -ut the first
murder in the earth is told in the Cha0ter of Maedah?$A! /! <8-3#A
2,d/entist! 0erson +ho -elie/es that ChristBs second coming and the end of the +orld are near4
and 2Second ,d/ent4 ?in @3fordA ?>uran does not tell anything a-out Second ,d/ent -ut +e
find the sentences of the Pro0het Muhammad inform this in the 0arts of FfetanB and Fashratu al
saatB in all of hadith -ooks.A
2the ,scension!the de0arture of Eesus from the earth! on the fortieth day after the 7esurrection4
?In >uran! in the Cha0ter of 9isaB ?%A!/! #$1) F'ut ,llah raised him u0 to Himself...B In Islamic
&radition) Cod 0rotected His 0ro0het Eesus from the Ee+s so that they could not slay him! and
then raised him to Himself. &here are different inter0retations a-out ho+ and +hen he +as raised
to Hea/en. ,ccording to the maJority o0inion! ,llah lifted him u0 to Hea/en! and 0laced him in a
s0ecial 0lace there. 'efore the day of 7esurrection he +ill return to the +orld! and ...A ?## see
D6unoalu meal! 0. #;<A
2'enJamin! the youngest son of Eaco-4 ?,lso in >uran! Cha0ter of Husuf ?Eose0hA?#<A! /! 5%..A
2Colden Calf4 ? in different eight /erses! +e see Fgolden calfB of the 0eo0le of Moses. @ne of this
/erse ?al-'a=ara! /! $#A ) F ,nd the 0eo0le of Moses! after ?he had left themA! chose a calf ?for
+orshi0A! ?madeA out of their ornaments! of saffron hue! +hich ga/e a lo+ing sound. Sa+ they
not that it s0eak not to them nor guided them to any +ay W &hey chose it! and -ecame +rong-
doers.B In the >uranic inter0retations +e see these details) (hen the a-sence of Moses +as
e3tended for another #; days on Mount Sinai ?see al-,Braf?8A! /! #%<A a man named Samiri from
the Children of Israel had melted all the 0eo0leBs gold ornaments! and made the image of calf
like the -ull of @siris located in the city of Mem0his in Egy0t. Samiri told the 0eo0le) 2&his the
Cod of Moses and of you.4 So great a craftsman +as he that +hen the +ind -le+ through the
golden calf it -ello+ed like a li/e -ull. >uran indicates SamiriBs acts in the cha0ter of &a-Ha?<;A!
/! 1$-:5 A
2&a-les of the la+! ten commandments gi/en to Moses -y Cod ?co/enantA4 ?,Braf?8A! #%$-#$;-
$%A
2&orah4 ?as &a+rat in #$ different /erses of >uranA
2&hree Hears of Eesus4 ?also in Islamic -ooks ?e.g al Milal /a-l 9ihal! /! #A Islamic scholars say
Eesus Christ stayed among the Children of Israel three years and three monthsA
2Isaac! 0ro0het! the son of ,-raham and Sarah! father of Eaco-4 ? as Esha=! in different #5 /erses
of >uranA
116
2Ishmael! he is a 0ro0het like his father ,-raham..4 ?,s Esmail! in different #< /erses! in
>uranA
2Eaco-! 0ro0het! the son of Isaac and 7e-ecca4 ?as HaB=u-! in different #5 /erses of >uranA
2Eohn! 0ro0het! St. Eohn the 'a0tist! son of Kachariah and Eli6a-eth! he +as killed -y the decree
of Herod ,nti0as4 ? as Hahya! in $ /erses in >uranA
2Eo-! 0ro0het! from Eo- in the 'ook of Eo- in the @ld &estament! 0erson of great 0atience4 ?as
,yyu-! in % /erses of >uranA
2Comorrah and Sodom! cities in the old Palestine! sinful cities destroyed -y Cod4 ?the Pro0het
ot ?utA is seen in >uran in different <5 /erses. He +as sent as a 0ro0het to the 0eo0le of
Sodom and Comorrah! ?Cities of the PlainA in the 0lain east of the .ead Sea. ,ccording >uran
the 0eo0le of this city ?in some inter0retations ?see *ha6in for e3am0leA fi/e cities in this regionA
committed an offense +hich no other nation had indulged in! homose3suality. &he 0eo0le of
Sodom and Comorrah did not 0ay heed to the counsel of ot. Cod 0unished them +ith a rain of
-rimstone! and a de/astating earth=uake! so that none of the in/erts sur/i/ed.A
2Coliath! a commander that +as killed -y .a/id! in the @ld &estament! # Samuel! #84 ? as Ealut
in >uran! al-'a=ara?<A! /! <%:-$;-$#A
2Ca-riel! one of the se/en ,rchangels in the 'ook of Enoch4 ?Ca-riel also is one of greatest
angels as Ee-reyl in three /erses of >uranA
2,6rael! name of the angel of death4 ?the same in Islamic traditionA
2Sera0h! ?-i-licalA one of the highest order of angels4 ?Esra0heyl in Islamic tradition! the angel is
charged +ith Fthe last trum0BA
2Michael! one of the most im0ortant angels4 ?as Mekael in >uran! al-'a=ara! /! :1A
2the ast &rum0" the &rum0 of .oom! the trum0ed call +hich +ill! some 0eo0le -elie/e! -e
sounded on the last .ay! the day +hen e/eryone +ill -e Judged -y Cod.4 ?in >uran as FSurB +e
see in different ten /erses of ten cha0tersA
2Se/en Slee0ers! se/en youngs esca0ed from the cruelty of *ing .ecian! they slee0ed #18 years
in a ca/e4 ?there is a s0ecial cha0ter in >uran a-out these se/en! Cha0ter of *ahf ?Ca/eA! they
are mentioned as ,sha- al-*ahf ?Com0anions of the Ca/eA! -ut >uran says they stayed in the
ca/e 3;: years) ?al-*ahf?#1A! <$A
2>ueen of Hea/en! Lirgin Mary4 ?the term of >ueen for Lirgin Mary is suita-le for the
e30lanation of the sentence of the Pro0het Muhammad that he said) 2the Hea/en of the +omen
are four) Mary!...4
20eace-offering! gift 0resented to Solomon -y 'il=is! >ueen of She-a! for 0eace -et+een t+o
states4 ?in >uran! in the Cha0ter of 9aml?<8A! /! 35! 2So +hen ?the en/oyA came to Solomon he
said) 2(hat Z (ould you hel0 me +ith +ealthW 'ut that +hich ,llah has gi/en me is -etter than
+hich you ha/e gi/en me. 9ay! it is you +ho e3ult in your gift4A
2'aal! idol! icon of the 0eo0le of the 0ro0het EliJah4 ?EliJah is Elyas in >uran!his struggle for
Dnity of Cod is seen in the Cha0ter of al-Saffat?38A! /! #<3-#3;A
2day of reckoning!4 2last day4 2doomsday4! 2day of the last Judgement4 ?as ya+m al->eyamah!
in different 8; /erses of >uran" and as Fya+m al-hashrB! FsaatB?destined A Hour! Fya+m al-
akhirBA
From FPrimordial Co/enantB to History of the Future
&he -ig name of historians of <;th century Fernand 'raudel ?some say for him FPo0e of HistoryBA
used to say) 2 FyesterdayB! FtodayB and Ftomorro+B are not understood! if they are not dealt +ith
all together4 and 2for understanding FtodayB +e should mo-ili6e all of the history.4?#;A (e
117
/ery clearly see Fyesterday! today and tomorro+B +ork together in >uran. &hese three are seen
together! e/en in the maJority of the 0ages of >uran. History of >uran -egins +ith the creation of
the hea/ens and earth) 2He ?CodA is (ho created the hea/ens and the earth in si3 days..?in
consecuti/e si3 0eriodsA 4?al-Hadid?$8)%A ,nd then creation of ,damBs soul) 2,nd ?remem-erA
+hen your Cod -rought forth from their reins! their seed! and made them testify of themsel/es!
?sayingA) 2,m I not your CodW4 &hey said) 2Hes! assuredly. (e testifyZ4 &hat +as lest you
should say at the .ay of 7esurrection) 2@f this +e +ere una+are4 ?al ,Braf! 8)#8<A In this /erse
is re/ealed the doctrine of the 0rimordial co/enant! -y +hich e/ery soul! -efore its -irth! +as
made to declare its recognition of the .i/ine E3istence and Dnity. In Islamic tradition this e/ent
is named 2MaJlis ,-last4 ?Con/ention of 2,m I not4A or 2'a6m ,-last4 ?in PersianA
,nd /i/id scenes from the history of the future)
2,nd the &rum0ed +il -e sounded! all those +ho are in the skies! and the earth +ill s+oon!
e3ce0t those +hom ,llah may allo+ ?to li/eA. &hen the &rum0et +ill -e -lo+n a second time!
and they +ill all stand u0! looking. ,nd the earth +ill shine +ith the light of her Cod! and the
-ook +ill -e 0laced o0en! and the Pro0hets and the +itnesses +ill -e -rought! and the 0eo0le +ill
-e Judged +ith full e=uity! and none +ill -e +ronged4 ?al-Kumar?3:A! 51-:A

Fre=uently! +e see! in the same 0ages the FCenesisB and the FHereafter.B &o look at the daily life
from the /ie+0oint of >uranic historyBs three dimensions gi/e ne+ hori6ons to the reader.
,lthough >uran mentiones the histories of 0ro0hets -ut 0ro0hets are not di/ine creatures! are not
holy. &hey are not su0ermen. >uran fre=uently em0hasi6es this reality) 2?@ Pro0hetA! say ?to
themA 2I am only a man like you...4 ?al Fussilat?%#A! /! 5A" 2&hey ?dis-elie/ersA said) 2.o +e
follo+ a FmanB +ho stands alone among usW...4 ?al >amar?$%A! /! <%A
@-Jecti/ity of >uranic History
Sometimes >uran critici6es the Children of Israel) 2 ,nd (e ?CodA -rought the Children of Israel
across the sea! and they came to a 0eo0le +ho +ere +orshi00ing to idols. &hey said) 2@ MosesZ
Make for us a god e/en as they ha/e gods.Z4 He said ) 2Surely you are an ignorant 0eo0le.4 ?al-
,Braf! 8)#31A 'ut >uran also notes the goodness and success of them) 2...,nd the fair +ord of
the Cod +as fulfilled for the Children of Israel -ecause of their endurance"...4?the same cha0ter!
/!#38A Coodmen and -admen of them in the same /erse) 2,nd Moses chose of his 0eo0le
se/enty men for @ur a00ointed tryst and! +hen the trem-ling came on them! he said) 2My CodZ If
Hou had +illed Hou had destroyed them long -efore! and me +ith them. (ill you destroy us for
that +hich the ignorant among us didW..4 ?/! #$$A" 2,nd of the 0eo0le of Moses! there is a
community +ho lead +ith truth and esta-lish Justice there+ith.4 ?/! #$:A ?&he 2community4
mentioned in the a-o/e /erse Ee+s +ho during the time of Moses! remained faithful to the Cod!
and continued to guide others along the straight 0athA" and another Ee+s) 2'ut those of them +ho
did +rong changed the +ord +hich had -een told them for another saying...4 ?/! #5<A" 2...Some
of them are righteous and some far from that...4 ?/! #51A @-Jecti/ity of >uran is seen e/en in
e/ery /erse. >uran does not 0ermit a Fmani0ulation of historyB! goodmen and others are said
0lainly) >uran critici6es some -eha/iours of Christians! Ee+s! 0olytheists! hy0ocrites -ut also
critici6es Muslims in a lot of /erses) 2 ?@ MuslimsZA Should you not ha/e said! +hen you heard
of it! 2It is not right of us to talk a-out this...4 ?al 9ur! <%)#5A" trust+orthy non-muslims and
others) 2 ,mong the Peo0le of the Scri0ture there is he +ho! if you trust him +ith a +eight of
118
treasure! +ill return it to you. ,nd among them there is he +ho! if you entrust him +ith a single
gold coin! +ill not return it to you! unless you kee0 standing o/er him...4 ?,l-i Imran! 3)8$A

Li/id scenes from the ancient history)
In teaching method ?of historyA of >uran! +e fre=uently see li/ely 0ictures) For e3am0le) in the
first moments of the .eluge of 9oah) 2&hen it +as said) 2@ earth! s+allo+ u0 your +aters" @
sky! +ithold ?your rainAZ4..4 ?Hud ?##A! /! %%A" 2&hey said ?for ,-rahamA) 2'urn him
?immediatelyA and hel0 your gods! if you are doing anything4. ?then they thre+ ,-raham into the
fire +ith his hands and arms -ound.A 2(e ?CodA said) 2@ fireZ 'e coolness and 0eace for
,-rahamZ4 ?al ,n-iya?<#A! /!51-:A" 2@r +ere you 0resent +hen death came to Eaco-W He said to
his sons! 2+hat +ill you +orshi0 after meW4 &hey ans+ered...4 ?al 'a=ara?<A! /! #33A

Economies of ,ncient 9ations in >uran)
>uran condems Ftaking of interest and usury of Ee+sB ?9isaB ?%A!/! #5#A" and reminds that Cod
had made a co/enant +ith the Children of Israel F..to lend to ,llah ?to -elie/ersA a goodly ?non-
interest!interest freeA loan...B ?al-Maida ?$A! /! #<A" and also reminds the story of -ig -oss!
0ro-a-ly the richest man of ancient Egy0t! *orah ?>arunA ?al >asas?<1A! /! 85-1<A
Crisis in the Social Sciences and >uran
,-out the im0ortance and using of history! +e +ill see o0inions of (allerstein! and then return
>uranic history

Immanuel (allerstein! chair of the international Cul-enkian Commission on the 7estructuring of
the Social Sciences ?#::%-:$A He +rites in three domains of +orld-systems analysis) the
historical de/elo0ment of the modern +orld system" the contem0orary crisis of the ca0italist
+orld-economy" the structures of kno+ledge. ?HisA 'ooks in each of these domains include
res0ecti/ely &he Modern (orld-System ?3 /ols.A" Dto0istic! Historical Choices for the &+enty-
first Century" and Dnthinking Social Science) &he imits of 9ineteenth-Century Paradigms.
...
In the last sentences of his -iogra0hy! (allerstein says) 2...?FernandA 'raudel made me
conscious! as no one else did! of the central im0ortance of the social construction of time and
s0ace! and its im0act on our analysis...I ha/e argued that +orld-systems ?historical social systemA
analysis is not a theory -ut a 0rotest against neglected issues and dece0ti/e e0istemologies. It is a
call for intellectual change! indeed for FunthinkingB the 0remises of nineteenth-century social
science! as I say in the title of my -ooks4. ? #<A
?,s a characteristics of (allerstein! he is a far-seeing man. His famous s0eech in the Dni/ersity
of Lermont in #::$ a-out ?His0anicA immigrants! -ecame true! after ele/en years in May <;;5.
(allerstein had 0ointed the 0ro-lems of this 0eo0le that they had ?ha/eA got no citi6enshi0 or
right of /ote! -ut +ork in la-or 0o+er of Dnited StatesA ?#3 A

(e see .i/ine and 9on-.i/ine Ci/ili6ations in >uran. Ci/ili6ation of Egy0t ?PharaosA!
Ci/ili6ation of the Children of Israel ?0ro0hets .a/id and Solomon and othersA" Ci/ili6ation of
D00er Meso0otamia ?0ro0hets ,-raham! EonahA" Ci/ili6ation of ,ra-ian 0eninsula ?0assages
from Middle and South of 0eninsulaA" Ci/ili6ation of Mediterranean ?0ro0hets EliJah and three
119
the other 0ro0hets to ,ntioch ?Cha0ter of Ha-SinA. Ceneral rules are seen that destroy states!
em0ires) Fneglect of 0rayersB and Ffollo+ their +orldly desiresB) 2'ut after them there came a
generation +hich neglected 0rayer and follo+ed 0assions...4?Maryam?#:A! /! $:A ,nd sometimes
there are different reasons destroy different societies) trickery in -usiness) 2,nd to Midian ?(e
sentA their -rother ShuBay- ?EethroA. He said) 2@ my 0eo0leZ (orshi0 ,llah. Hou ha/e no other
Cod sa/e Him. Indeed! a clear sign has come to you from your Cod" so gi/e full measure and full
+eight! and +rong not mankind in their goods and +ork not corru0tion in the earth...4 ?al-
,Braf?8A! /! 1$A Midian +ere descendants of a son of 0ro0het ,-raham. &hey are sometimes
-elie/ed to ha/e d+elt in a city located on the shore of the 7ed Sea -et+een Palestine and the
HiJa6. @ther historians locate them in South Hemen.
&he second destroying resaon is ?to li/e inA lu3ury ?-ut to forget CodBs hel0 and 0o+erA)
2,sha- al HiJr ?&he Peo0le of the 7ocky &ract! Mount HiJr! some #$; miles from MadinaA also
denied the 0ro0hets...,nd they used to he+ out d+ellings from the hills! feeling secure4. ?al
HiJr?#$A! /! 1;-#A"
,nother reason is to -e arrogant) 2&o Pharaoh and his nota-les! -ut they +ere arrogant! and they
+ere haughty 0eo0le4 ?al- MuBminun?<3A! /! %5A. FHomose3ualityB ?al 9aml ?<8A! /! $1A and
Fidoli6e of the leaders and religious menB ?al &a+-a ?:A! /! 3#A and Fto -elie/e in the +ealth
earned is not from Cod -ut he himself earnedB ?al >asas?<1A! /! 81A are the destroying reasons of
communities and indi/iduals.

History ,nd Social Sciences
In his magnum o0us History of Economic ,nalysis ?#:$%A Schum0eter says) 2&here are three
+ays to a00roach economics) history! theory of economics! and statistics" -ut if I +ere a ne+
-eginner I -ecome a historian.4 ?#%A P. M. S+ee6y also 0oints this as0ect of Schum0eter and
notes) 2,fter 0u-lishing of F Ca0italism! Socialism and .emocracyB?#:%<A" (orld of ,nglo-
,merican Social Science inclined to understand Fsocial scientistB Schum0eter4 ?#$A
Historiogra0hy of #:th and <;th centuries +as influenced from the 9e+tonian understanding of
kno+ledge.?(allerstein 0ointed this! a-o/eA Historians had studied to a00ly this method ?of
0hysicsA on history. 'ut +hen 0hysicists -egan to use in another language ?and they left
9e+tonian 0hysicsA it -ecame a /ery difficult 0ro-lem for historians and other social scientists.
Social scientists sa+ that their +ay +as a -lind alley. @n the other hand! contrasts like factG/alue
or idiogra0hicalGnomothetical! +ill -e in/estigated! from the -eginning 0oints ?againA! -y
historians and other social scientists ?like economists! sociologists! scholars of 0olitical scienceA.
Historian of @ttoman Em0ire ,hmet &a-akoglu says) 2&here is no difference -et+een history
and social sciences! on the contrary there is an integration. It is im0ossi-le a social science!
economics! sociology! la+ +ithout history. Social sciences and history are like t+o faces of a
medallion.4 ?#5A
In the definition of I-n *haldun) history has got a com0rehensi/e and -road characteristics that a
lot of different and inde0endent disci0lines of today enter to this definition) 2Hou ha/e to kno+
that the duty of history is to mentione the 0laces of the +orld that the human-eing can li/e! to
li/e in communities and to im0ro/e ?umranA! to gi/e kno+ledge a-out the +orks! earnings and
gains of man and sciences! skills! crafts and in general ?to tellA the industry and de0ending on
this! ci/il +orks and to narrate the ne+s a-out these.4 ,fter =uotation of I-n *haldunBs sentence!
120
.r. I-rahim Erol *o6ak says) 2&oday also there are some scholars that they say) Fhistory has to
-e understood that Fall of the social sciences are interested in historyBB. (right Mills notes that
the most suita-le term in 0lace of Fsocial scienceB and Fsocial researchesB is FhistoryB . &he
0roducts of historians are indis0ensa-le things for all of the social sciences. &he o0inions of a
serious sociological study should de0end on a historical /ie+0oint and ha/e to get fully -enefits
from the historical materials. &he 0ro-lems of today ?are not understood! e/enA are not e30ress
unless to com0rehend that history is the -ack-one of sociological searches and ?unlessA to
0rogress a human 0sychology that this 0sychology has got a coherent angle of history. ?#8A
Sociology ,nd History
Fernand 'raudel had +anted to mi3 history and sociology and to -uild ?and transformA a single
+ay ?ofA F/enture of thought.B 'raudel had said) ?history and sociologyA are not inside and out of
a cloth -ut these t+o are material of cloth and ?allA essence of the thread. ?#1A .. Mehmet .ogan
also 0oints that 2history is a guidance that +ith its guidance +e com0rehend the institutions and
formations that they are all of essences of the social interactions of history. History is a sociology
of last years. &hatBs +hy +ho are -usy +ith todayBs institutions they find the foundations of
these! in the history.?#:A @ne of greatest @ttoman Historians of <;th century Hilma6 @6tuna says
2the mystery of re-orn of ?state ofA Israel after t+o thousand years is! not to +eaken the
conscious of history in Ee+s community! in s0ite of a long centuries4 ?<;A &his sho+s the
influence of history on the sociology of a 0eo0le.
@ld ?and 9e+A Social Scientism
Immanuel (allerstein had said in early #::;s that) 2@ld Social Scientism came to FEndB.4 Social
Scientists! in last #$ years! ha/e -een struggling to 0ut ne+ 0roducts ?e/en ne+ draftsA in social
sciences. (allerstein had said that 2this 0rocess +ould last a fifty years.4
Conclusion ,nd Ho0e
&here are #!8;; /erses in >uran a-out history! in my count. ,nd a-out economics ?also in my
countA a00ro3imately $1; /erses. &raditional Islamic Jurists used to say there are -et+een 3;;-
5;; /erses a-out la+ in >uran. ,lso +e see /erses a-out sociology! 0sychology! 0olitical
science. &o look at the +orld from the /ie+0oint of >uran ?a00earance of +orld from >uranic
0ers0ecti/eA +ill o0en ne+ hori6ons for F@0en the Social Sciences.B >uran can -e 2the 0oint of
Ftake offB4 for 9e+ Social Scientism. ?Muslim and 9on-muslimA Social scientists ha/e to ?reA
read >uran +ithout 0reJudice.. F(ithout 0reJudiceB is im0ortant! -ecause +e see these sentences
in one of the main sources of (estern (orld) 2, Certain historical consciousness is found in all
ci/ili6ations.'ut in /ery fe+ ci/ili6ations has historical thought ad/anced -eyond an elementary
stage! and only in (estern ci/ili6ation has it assumed a fundamental role in 0olitics and general
culture4 ?<#A (ithout forgetting the +arning of (allerstein ?for F@0en Social SciencesBA) 2to
think on Fneglected ci/ili6ationsGculturesGdomains4" F&o think and search on #% centuries of
Islamic tradition and >uranB" this may -e a second aid of Islamic (orld to (estern (orld ?after
121
a thousand years! like aids of ci/ili6ations of ?IslamicA S0ain and ?IslamicA Sicily! for a ne+
renaissance of ?all ofA humanity.
?#A see Sayar! ,hmet.C.! Sa-ri Dlgener! Eren Hayincilik! Istan-ul! #::1! 00. 3%8-$;
?<A Dlgener! Sa-ri.! ?&arihteA .arlik 'uhranlari ?Istan-ul #:$#A! the second edition! Mayas
Hayinlari! ,nkara! #:1%
?3A Dlgener! S.! Xktisadi Hayatta Kihniyetin 7olu /e &esirleri! Iktisad Fakultesi
Mecmuasi?Eournal of Faculty of EconomicsA! /! <! 9o! 3-%! ?#:%;-%#A
?%A Dlgener! S.! ,hmet Ce/det PasaBnin .e/lete /e Xktisada .air .usunceleri! Is Mecmuasi!
85! #:%8! 00.$-<3
?$A Dlgener! S.! Milli Celir Xstihdam /e Xktisadi 'uyume! .er Hayine/i! Istan-ul! #:1;! 0.3
?5A @rman! Sa-ri.! Ca6aliBnin Xktisat Felsefesi! Insan Hayinlari! <th edition! Istan-ul!
<;;<!0.#;
?8A @rman! S.! Xktisat &arih /e &o0lum! *ure Hayinlari! Istan-ul! <;;#! ?in the first 0art of
this study)A!00. #3-##%
?1A Sirma! Ihsan S.! &arih Suuru! Seha 9esriyat! Istan-ul! #:18! 0.L
?:A Horn-y! ,.S.! @3ford ,d/anced .ictionary! @3ford Dni/ersity Press! #:1<! ondon
?#;A'raudel! F.! Maddi Medeniyet Le *a0itali6m! ?,fterthoughts on Material Ci/ili6ation
and Ca0italism! &he Eohn Ho0kins Dni/etsity Press!'altimore! #:88A &ranslation into
&urkish! @6el.! M.! Istan-ul! #::#! 0.:
?##A (allerstein! I.! &he Essential (allerstein! 9e+ Press! 9e+ Hork! <;;;
?#<A (allerstein! I.! ,merica and the (orld ,fter i-eralism! &he 9e+ Press! 9e+ Hork!
#::$ ?&urkish Edition @6el! M.! ?in &icaret Sa/aslari! 0! $;! #::8 andA Istan-ul #::$A
?#3A @6el! M.! ?editorA! Xktisad 7isaleleri ?&he 'ooklets of EconomicsA! I6 Hayincilik!
Istan-ul! #::%! 0.3# ?from 'raudelBs -ook! Fontana Press! ondon! #:1%A
?#%A Sayar! i-id! 0.#;;
?#$A @6el! M.! Medeniyet /e Modernlik! *ita-e/i Hayincilik! Istan-ul! #::8! 0.18
?#5A *o6ak! I. E.! Insan &o0lum Xktisat! .egisim Hayinlari! ,da0a6ari! <th edition! #:::!
0.<$! ?endnote! 0.$;A
?#8A 'raudel! 0.#;
?#1A.ogan! ..M.! &arih /e &o0lum ?History and SocietyA! 7eh-er Hayincilik! ,nkara! #:1:!
0.#5
?#:A@6tuna! H.! 'uyuk &urkiye &arihi ?Crand &urkish HistoryA! Istan-ul #:5:! ?/ols.#-#%A!
/!#!0.#$
?<;A Crolier Dni/ersal Encyclo0edia! Stratford Press! Inc.! 9e+ Hork #:55
122
Culture Of Islamic Economics In %urkey
A.stract. ,fter the Councel of MinistersB .ecree dated .ec. #5! #:13 non-interest
finance houses took 0ermission for esta-lishing in &urkey. &his +as an im0ortant
date -ecause conce0t of 2non-interest4 took 0lace the first time in &urkish la+s. In
the 0eriod of <$ years! es0ecially in last three years ha/e -een /ery successful term
for these institutions. ,nother successful organi6ation has -een Musiad
?Inde0endent 'usinessmenBs ,ssociationA founded on May $! #::; in Istan-ul. &he
mem-ers of this association as the re0resentati/es of an economicG-usiness life
de0ends on ?IslamicA ethics and their main characteristics are to defend a noninterest
economic /alues in &urkey.
,lthough es0ecially in last ten years a decreasing is seen in studies and translations
on the theory of Islamic economics! -ut if +e look at the studies of last thirty years
123
totally! /alua-le efforts are noticea-le. 2Economic Philoso0hy of Cha6ali4 +as
0u-lished in #:1% ?and in <;;<A in Istan-ul that it +as Sa-ri @rmanBs doctorate
dissertation. Sa-ri @rman also translated ,-du al-,6i6Bs .uriBs FMu=addema fi al-
&arikh al-I=tisad al-,ra-iB into &urkish in #::# and he +rote an article 2Sources of
the HNstory of Islamic Economic &hought4 in Istac Eournal of Malaysia and
collected some articles in a &urkish -ook) 2I=tisad! &arih! &o0lum4 ?Economics!
History and SocietyA! in <;;#. Study of I-rahim Erol *o6ak on o0inions of I-n
*haldun on economics ?a study of 3$; 00.A +as 0u-lished in #:1% ?and in #:::A.
Ensar ?,nsarA Foundation organi6ed conferences on Islamic economics in #:1%-1$
and the te3ts of these conferences +ere 0u-lished. Dmar Cha0raBs -ooks +ere
translated into &urkish in #:88! #:18 and last <;;< ?, Strategy for .e/elo0ment
+ith Eustice and Sta-ility.A 'ooks and -ooklets of &he Islamic Foundation of
eicester +ere translated also into &urkish from #:13. Cengi6 *allek is also a
0rolific author) 2Market and State in the Period of the Pro0het ?MuhammadA4 ?in
&urkishA in #::<" 2&he History of Islamic Economics &hought4 in <;;%" 2*haraJ4!
2Maks4! 2&houghts of Ma+ardiBs on Economics4 as detailed entries in the .iyanet
Islam ,nsiklo0edisi 0roduced -y *allek. ,-dullah @grak also +rote a master thesis
on 2Ma+ardiBs &houghts on Economics4 in #::8 that Ma+ardiBs o0inions es0ecially
are im0ortant for todayBs ta3-0ayers that he su00orts them against Fstate.B He e/en
estimates the distance of 0roduction to markets and 0uts conditions for 0aya-le
ca0acity of ta3-0ayers ?in al-,hkam al Sultani! 0. #1%.A &he details +ill -e gi/en in
the 0a0er and mentioned ne+ studies.
Introduction
FLery high inflationB! Fde/elo0mentB and Fcandidacy and to -e a mem-er of
Euro0ean DnionB ha/e -een the most circulated talks in last thirty years in &urkey.
Hea/y economic crisis in #::%! #::: and <;;# left unforgetta-le traces in the history of
State and families. In F.ark (ednesdayB Eanuary! <5! #::% foreign e3change ra0idly
increased and an economic =uake hit all com0anies. Foreign de-t had reached 5< -illion
dollars at the end of #::3. Paying of interests had reached to <$ Q of the StateBs -udget.
State &reasury +as 0aying an interest of o/er #;;; Q nightly for gather money from the
financial markets. ?#A MoodyBs and Standart and Poors decreased the credit note of
&urkey and in the night of <5 Eanuary interest rates of de0osits reached to 11Q from
8%Q. ,nnual interest rate Jum0ed u0 to #3; Q from 8; Q. ?<A In reality from the last
years of #:1;s to <;;3 &urkey +as 0aying the foreign de-t instalments taking ne+ de-ts
+ith higher rate of interest. ,fter #::# mal0ractice and em-e66lements +ere the main
characteristics of ten years to <;;<. In this 0eriod all of the sources say that
a00ro3imately ]#;; -illion +as stolen from the StateBs -udget. In the first ten nights of
Fe-ruary <;;# the nightly interest rates reached $;;; Q and the economic system
colla0sed. ,fter that! an inde0endent man *emal .er/is de0uty 0resident of (orld
'ank +as in/ited and a00ointed as de0uty 0rime minister. ,fter one year successful
crisis administration *emal .er/is left his 0ost and after 9o/em-er <;;< general
elections! &ayyi- Erdogan go/ernment continued the economic 0olicy of *emal .er/is.
,fter si3 years under the ErdoganBs go/ernment &urkeyBs economy no+ is in the
healthiest 0osition of last thirty years.
124
Es0ecially in t+o decades ?#:88-:8A &urkish intellectuals looked for solutions for
0ro-lems of economy. &urkish socialists and communists offered a socialist system
es0ecially after #:5# -ecause ne+ Constitution of #:5# had 0ermitted to +rite and
0ro0agate the socialist o0inions. 'ut socialism remained an uto0ia of a marginal leftist
intellectuals although they 0roduced articles in their dailies and maga6ines and
sometimes organi6ed conferences. Partici0iants of their meetings +ere al+ays limited.
,nd after colla0se of iron curtain in #:1: the maJority of the leftist intellectuals -ecame
the su00ortersGdefenders of the ne+ social order ?neo-ca0italismA
It is reality that Fnon-interest systemB +as fre=uently mentioned -y 9ecmeddin Er-akan
in the media! t/ 0rograms in his long 0olitical career. From #:8% 9ecmeddin Er-akan
-ecame de0uty 0rime minister in different ca-inets u0to #:81! and then o00osition
leader till #::5! and 0rime minister in #::5-:8. &he conce0t of Fnon-interest systemB as
the main 0olitical slogan of Er-akan 0arties ?Milli 9i6am Partisi #:8;-8#! Milli Selamet
Partisi #:83-1;! 7efah Partisi #:13-:1! Fa6ilet Partisi #::1-<;;# all -anned -y
Su0reme Court of &urkeyA +as e30ressed in 0arty meetings and 0ress conferences. &he
harm of interest in an economy +as +ritten in the -rochures of declarations -efore
e/ery election and +as mentioned in election s0eeches in radio and tele/isons. ,nother
&urkish conser/ati/e 0olitician &urgut @6al de0uty 0rime minister #:1;-1<! 0rime
minister #:13-1: and 0resident #:1:-:3 +as one of 0artici0iants of the Ist Science and
&echnology Congress in Mecca in #:85 ?3A. @6al +as a candidate for 0arliament
mem-ershi0 from Er-akanBs Milli Selamet Partisi in #:88 and had hel0ed for o0ening
of first non-interest -ank of &urkey after #:13. In this 0a0er! first! theoretical studies in
last thirty years in &urkey! are sur/eyed and useful statements from the conferences and
sentences from the -ooks and articles that 0rotect their freshness are =uoted. ,
sufficient literature ?on Islamic economics studies in &urkey -et+een #:88-<;;8A are
listed. &hey are the -est that ha/e -een +ritten in this 0eriod. In the second 0art interestfree
-anking culture in &urkey has -een that these -anks got 0ermission in last days of
#:13 and they ha/e com0leted a0ro3imately a =uarter century in &urkey. Dnsuccessful
initiati/es of some com0anies that they collected great funds from the nation in #::;s
and their colla0se ga/e negati/e im0act to the culture of Islamic economics are noted in
the third 0art. FMusiadBs struggles for Islamic ethics in -usiness life and +orld +ide
coo0eration as a -usinessmen association is seen in the fourth 0art.
!- %heoretical Studies
,nother right-+ing 0olitician &ansu Ciller minister of economy ?#::#-:3A! 0rime
minister ?#::3-:$A! and de0uty 0rime minister of Er-akanBs go/ernment ?#::5-:8A had
done a 0ress conference as an academician on Se0tem-er #:1: +ith the other
academician Murat Ci6akca and they -oth offered 0rogress of &urkish non-interest
-anks and said) 2Models of Islamic -anking and risk ca0ital should -e used for
decreasing of financing costs" risk ca0ital institutions are +ides0read in DS and Canada
and there are structural similarities -et+een these institutions and non-interest -anks.
&his system +ill -e /ery useful for 0ri/ate sector of &urkey as long term non-interest
financing resources. If &urkey +ants to de/elo0 risk ca0ital system! the chea0est +ay is
to change the in/estment 0olicy of Islamic -anks and their 0utting funds +ith the +ays
of mudarabah and musharakah. 7isk ca0ital system +ill 0re/ent mono0oly of
?con/entionalA -anks and 0ut a com0etition and a 0ressure for decreasing the interest
125
rates.4?%A
29on-disci0lina-le -anking system of &urkey4 +as 0ointed out as one of the main
0ro-lems -y ,li Coskun as he +as the 0resident of 'usiness (orld Foundation in #::#
?he +ould -e minister of industry in &ayyi- Erdogan go/ernment <;;<-<;;8A saying)
2this -anking system is encouraged and 0ro/oked -y a usurious ?systemA and the other
im0ortant reason is a non-0re/enta-le s=uandering that causes deficits of 0u-lic finance.
,ll grou0s of the community li/e +ith e3tra/agance and almost a demonstration
economy is seen clearly.4?$A In those days incomes of high interest +as going to
#;;!;;; 0ersons that they had got high -ank accounts. ,lthough this reality +as
mentioned fre=uently in media and re0orts -ut more than ten years u0to <;;# this
system continued" and a00ro3imately 8; million &urkeyBs 0o0ulation +orked for that
one or t+o thousand userers in the 0eriod of #$ years.?5A FMuslim-man ty0eB and Fty0e
of Muslim societyB +as coined in that years -y 'esir Hamidogullari?8A! Fmodel of
Muslim manB -y Sa-ahattin Kaim ?1A Fman of IslamB -y Hayreddin *araman ?:A in the
conferences of Islami ,rastirmalar Lakfi ?Foundation of Islamic 7esearchesA and Ensar
Lakfi ?Ensar FoundationA and early thoughts +ere e30ressed on Islamic economics
from #:13. ,ll of the 0artici0iants agreed that 2consum0tion is not the engine of Islamic
economics4! 2ad/ertisements ha/e not an inJection 0olicy for e3tra/agance culture in
Islamic economics4! 2non-interest loan and anti-inflationary monetary 0olicy are the
main characteristics of Islamic StateBs monetary and credit system4! 2s0eculati/e deeds
and e30loitations are s=uandering natural and human soueces and -oth are alien to
Islam4 ?#;A 2FHomo IslamicusB is that ty0e of man +ho +ould find solutions for the
crisis4! says 'esir Hamidogullari an academician from ,nkara Dni/ersity! 2&here is a
different FIslamic 0roduction formB that does not 0ermit for 0roducing of 0roducts of
lu3ury and sho+off. Islamic economics is a social economics from the foundation.4 He
mentiones the sentences of Eohn *enneth Cal-raith and asks like Cal-raith) 2,ffluent
for +homW4
Prof. Hamidogullari also asks 2(hat is real de/elo0mentW! F=uality of inter-human
relationsB! F+hich dimensions are seen in statistical charts and +hich are not seenWB!
Fgro+ing of an economy +ith hormones and a kind of gro+ing cancers in an
economy.B4 He narrates sentence of I/an Illich) 2schools are only factories gi/e
di0lomas ?in (estern +orldA4 and 0oints) 2 Fforgotten solidarity in the myth of
economic gro+thB!F-rutish gro+thB! F0haraos ?-ossesA of consum0tionB4 in his 0a0er in
#:1%. In those days e/ery &urkish intellectual +as com0laining from much
e3tra/agance -eha/iours of the indi/iduals and the State ?it is also an ongoing 0ro-lem
no+! although e/en religious scholars used to gi/e sermons against e3tra/agance.A
&here are t+o e3am0les in the maga6ines of that year! one of them" in Eune #::#! HoJi
@ka-e the President of Sumitomo 'ank of Ea0an had /isited Istan-ul and said to a
Journalist) 2&urkish 0eo0le -uild /ery large and lu3ury houses. (e ha/e not got a
chance like this. I +ent this morning to sho00ing +ith my +ife! I looked at the 0eo0le at
the street their costumes like in fashion sho+" e/ery-ody has got smart and u0-to date
costumes and /ery e30ensi/e Je+elleries.4 Mrs. @ka-e also says) 2&urkish +omen
+ear really e30ensi/e Je+elleries. 'ut my o0inion is Je+ellery does not 0ro/ide you
much things.&here are more 0leasant things than to carry Je+elleries.4?##A In another
maga6ine in Se0t.! #:1:! Paul McMillan a +estern citi6en +ho +orks in Istan-ul says)
126
2.escartesBs sentence changed in &urkey no+. .escartes had said 2cogito ergo sum ?I
think! therefore I amA4 -ut no+ in &urkey 2I s0end! therefore I am4?#<A
Prohi-ition of kanz ?accumulation of moneyA +as also discussed in that conference.
Emin Isik ?Islamic studies faculty mem-erA stated that 2Muslims -uy gold -ecause of
high inflation! to 0rotect the /alue of their money ?+ealthA! +hereas to -uy gold and to
hold in an idle inacti/e 0osition is also 0rohi-ited like interest. &hat is taking acti/e
ca0ital ?goldA from the market and to change this to a0assi/e ca0ital is also 0rohi-ited.4
Prof. Hamidogullari also su00orts Emin Isik and says) 2not only indi/iduals -ut e/en
State has not got a right to accumulate and hold money as idle! -ecause if you do this!
em0loyment +ill not e3ist and affluence +ill not occur. Circulation of money is
necessary.4 'ut I-rahim E . *o6ak re0lies that 2in classical Islamic 0eriod gold
?moneyA +as the /ehicle of -artering! e3chaning and thatBs +hy to accumulate gold +as
to 0re/ent this /ehicle from traffic ?like to sto0 the traffic in the high+ays of a
metro0olisA -ut today gold is an ordinary good! 0ro0erty. &oday! to do stock of gold is
like to stock another 0ro0erty4 ?#3A
Ea0anBs economy attracted the attention of &urkish intellectuals es0ecially after #:1;.
Islamic intellectuals first studied Ea0anBs economy -ecause they thought it as an
alternati/e for (estern economic thought. &hey +anted to find non-material as0ects of
Ea0anBs economy and +alking from here to defend Islamic /alues in economics. &+o
academicians -rought ne+ ideas a-out this and com0ared them +ith Islam) .r. 'esir
,talay ?#%A in his 0a0er 2Position of &raditional Lalues in Economic .e/elo0ment
?Ea0anBs E3am0leA4 -rought ne+ ideas a-out this and com0ared them +ith Islam)
2...encouraged consum0tion in the (est forms a manBs ty0e that 0ercei/ed identical
+ith 0ro0erties and -elongings. Economic 0olicies that take ?onlyA gro+th as a?n onlyA
target destroy nature! society and humanity. &hatBs +hy a /ast literature has -een seen
in the (est in last century) &he onely Cro+d! #:$$! Hork ?.. 7iesman! 9! Cla6er! 7
.enneyA" Has Man a FutureW #:5#?.ora and 'ertrand 7ussellA" Colla0se of the (est
?.er DntergangA I-II! #:#1-<< ?@s+ald S0englerA. F&raditional LaluesB sha0es the
thoughts and -eha/iours of a society and indi/idual in the centuries along the
generations and these /alues are the most im0ortant legacy of the history for ne+
generations. ,-solutely FtimeB changes some of them and adds Fne+ onesB sometimes.
'ut FIslamB is a-o/e than traditional /alues for Muslims. 'ecause commands and
0rohi-itions of Islam are /ey im0ortant for Muslims and they limit the acts of a Muslim.
,nd Islam is not only a traditional /alue! it is a Fli/ing /alueB and al+ays Fne+.B
E/ey-ody himself is res0onsi0le to the religion in Islamic community and he himself
+ill -elie/e! think! decide! acce0t! learn and kno+ his res0onsi-ilities. 'ut in Ea0anBs
e3am0le it is /ery difficult +hat is tradition and +hat is religion! they are /ery mi3ed!
one +ithin the other. 9o dou-t e/ery economic system is in a main ideology. It is
im0ossi-le to think an economic or social system that has not got any ideology. &hree
reasons +hy +e selected Ea0anBs model" one) it is the ?the first andA only orient country
that -egan industry after (estern countries -ut 0assed them" t+o) in s0ite of high
technology and de/elo0ment they 0rotected their form of community at least some of
the traditional /alues are still li/ing" third) from the industriali6ation -egan in late #:th
century ?to todayA! leaders of the com0anies and 0oliticians insistingly em0hasi6ed that
traditional /alues! -eliefs and moti/es are /ery im0ortant in their de/elo0ment.4
127
Kokutai
*okutai)Ea0anBs ideal or soul of the nation. 'esir ,talay gi/es details from Ea0anBs
history and he focuses es0ecially after (orld (ar II. 2&ie of family! soul of the
community de0ending on the authority are the foundations of Ea0an national character.
E/ery Ja0anese is a 0art of kokutai. Family and the State relations are /ery 0o+erful and
the State uses family to reach its targets. Family and the State are e/en like a united 0art
and the family 0ro/ides this homogenity and this -elief e/en reaches to +orshi0 to
ancestors. ,fter (( II! the 0o+er of the authority +as carried from Em0eror to
'oss.?#$A
F.e0endance to StateB -ecame Fde0endance to the com0anyB FHigh 0roducti/ity is
gained -y moral /aluesB. FIsolation and inno/ationB +alked together in Ea0anese
community. @n the othrer hand! Ea0an has -een the most F-orro+erB country from the
ancient ages. 'enefits of the country and grou0 ha/e -een /ery im0ortant. FMeritocracy)
gi/ing the 0osts! duties to high 0ractical and intellectual a-ilitiesB has -een /ery
im0ortant. ,nd this conce0t -rought to train a lot of e30erts in e/ery field. FControl
ourselfB and F0atienceB +ereGare taught in 'uddhist tem0les. FSamurai ethicsB is essential.&o like
the conce0ts FsmallB! Fsim0leB! Ffe+B! to furnish small houses +ith ordinary materials. .ynamic
and re/olutionary traces of non-material /alues are seen e/ery time in Ea0anBs life. Ea0anese
administrators also su00ort moral /alues.
M&aciti&s and Kokutai. Immigration from /illages! +orking of +omen! ur-ani6ation
and ur-an indi/idualism! diminishing control of the family ties in greater cities made
serious identitiy crisis in ne+ generations es0ecially in last <$ years. ,lthough Ea0anese
go/ernment took different 0recautions -ut youths do not +ant a family mem-er of their
com0anies and to gi/e all of their energies to the 0roduction. Co/ernment uses tele/ison
0rograms to 0re/ent the disengage in *okutai! -ut 0articular -eha/iours of +estern
industry societies are -ecoming +ides0read in the youth. 9urseries! old age asylums
entered Ea0anese society as an ine/ita-le t+o institutions of +estern industrial-ur-an
societies.4 'esir ,talay mentiones these e3am0les from Ea0an de/elo0ment and asks)
2Ho+ a Muslim society +ill -e moti/ated and for +hich ideal +ill moti/ate our
+orkersW In the MeiJi 0eriod ?#158-#:%$A at the -eginning Em0eror MeiJi and his team
ga/e /ery im0ortance to the /alues of Ea0ans that the Ea0an history carried them and the
team 0ut im0ortant 0lans to kee0 ali/e these /alues. It should -e em0hasi6ed that if the
ideals of a community come together +ith its /alues that they are felt dee0ly -y all
indi/iduals and all indi/iduals -elie/e in them +ith sincerety. If you gi/e 0unishment to
a +orker for his -eard ?like in &urkeyA! for +hich ideal this +orker +ould +ork and
ho+ you moti/ate himW a+s ?codsA of a?n IslamicA country should -e deri/ed from
social /alues of that society. &he duty of the Fsociology of la+B is to make +ides0read
sociological researches and to hel0 la+makers for this. &he achie/ement is im0ossi-le if
the targets and ideals of indi/iduals are different from the ideals and targets of their
State. If administrator of a State -ecome enemies to the /alues of indi/iduals it is
im0ossi-le to moti/ate them for economic de/elo0ment or for any other 0rogress. If +e
think grou0 solidarity for Islamic communities" it is o-/ious that the de/otion of
Muslims to their ?IslamicA system and ?MuslimA community more 0o+erful than
128
Ea0anBs de0endant to their system and community. &he senses and meanings of
commands of ,llah are more 0o+erful for Muslims than de0endance of a Ea0anese man
to his Em0eror. &hat is! Islam has got more moti/e 0o+er as inner dynamic than any
other ideology.4?#5A
&he other academician +ho studied on Ea0anese economy in last t+enty years is
Mustafa @6el that he still notes the s0iritual! /irtual /alues of Ea0ans fre=uently in his
monday columns in daily Heni Safak. ,lthough a lot of &urkish intellectuals com0ared
the 0erformance of Ea0an and &urkey in last hundred years and from Sultan
,-dulhamid of @ttoman Em0ire?his reign #185-#:;:A en/oys +ent to Ea0an and sa+
the methods and +orks of Ea0anese. 'ut Mustafa @6el from his master thesis to today!
in/estigated es0ecially -usiness life of Ea0anese com0anies and talked to to0 le/el ceoBs
to learn the soul of the Ea0anBs 0o+er. He noticed that the e30orts and C.Ps of Ea0an
and &urkey +ere a00ro3imately e=ual in #:%1. 'ut in #::% C.P of &urkey is ] #%;
-illion -ut Ea0anBs C.P is ] %!$ trillion.
@6el says) 2the main reason is Ea0anese looked for Fthe 0o+erB in no east no +est! -ut
their 0o+er +as in their s0iritual /alues. &he main characteristic of Ea0anese economy
is a F0roduction economyB" and they do not think Fconsum0tionB like us. ?#8A Ea0anese
com0anies ha/e o0ened ne+ o0inions that came from their +orkers. &he +orkers of
Matsubita that there +ere 53!;;; em0loyees in #:8$ had offered 553!%8$ ne+ o0inions
and an a+ard of ] 3;;!;;; they took. In #::# there +ere :$!;;; em0loyees and
%!;;;!;;; ne+ o0inions came in the same com0any. ?#1A
FSoul of enter0reneurshi0B +as discussed in the same conference. I-rahim E. *o6akBs
0a0erBs title +as 2Psychological Factors for Economic .e/elo0ment ,ccording to I-n
*haldun4 *o6ak focuses on ho+ critical^creati/e thought is gi/en to the students e/en
from the 0rimary schools to the uni/ersities. He narrates that I-n *haldun says 2 one of
the duties of the State is to control the teachers if they a00ly hea/y 0unishments to the
students or notW 'ecause hea/y 0unishments lea/e -ad and dee0ly traces in the souls of
children and cut desire and eagerness of their study and achie/ements.4 I-n *haldun
also critici6ed that method of ?onlyA memori6ing in (est ,frican countries in his time
although students s0end their years in the schools -ut they are +eak in critical thought
+hen a to0ic is discussed.4 *o6ak says) 2the reason of economic crisis in Islamic
countries is Fcultural crisisB4?#:A ,t the end! Prof. Sa-ahattin Kaim closed the t+o days
conference saying) 2It is 0ossi-le to ha/e different a00roaches ?for study on Islamic
economicsA! -ut the main reality is FmanB and FmanBis essential element in Islam.
Muslims are educated man naturally" it is 0ossi-le that they ha/e not got di0lomas -ut
they go to mos=ues and take lessons! courses there. Ignorance is a-sent in Islam. &hatBs
+hy to train FMuslim manB is the main ?-ut not difficultA 0ro-lem.4 ?<;A
Sa-ahattin Kaim is one of the 0artici0iants of the First Congress on Islamic Economics
in #:85 from &urkey. He also +as a+arded the I.' 0ri6e in #::3 for his contri-utions
to Islamic -anking . He fre=uently mentiones si2 &mpty tracks and looks for FrunnersB
for these tracks) 2First! FPhiloso0hy of Islamic EconomicsB that interested in /alues and
0hiloso0hical a0roaches of Islam" second FMethodology of Islamic EconomicsB" third
FEconomic ,nalysis from the /ie+0int of Islam ?0roduction! +age! 0rice... analysis for
129
e/ery economic conce0t from Islamic as0ect" fourth F,00lied Islamic EconomicsB" fifth
FCom0arati/e Economic Systems and IslamB" si3th FHistory of Islamic EconomicsB ?and
ho+ +e +ill transfer this rich legacy to today.A Methodology of Islamic Economics is
an a00roach that 0rinci0als and /alues of Islam form a grou0 of a3ioms. If +e
formulate this grou0 of a3ioms! the rest of the economics +ill follo+ this +ith a
deducti/e and true logic. ,nd after 0re0aring of these a3ioms e/en a non-muslim
economist can contri-ute for Islamic economics.4 ?<#A
,fter encouragements of S. Kaim! t+o res0ected institutions in Istan-ul! Ensar Lakfi
?Ensar FoundationA and Islami Xlimler ,rabtirmalar Lakfi ?Foundation for 7eserach of
Islamic SciencesA organi6ed conferences on different as0ects of Islamic economics
-eginning from the year #:13) 2Inflation and (ays of Solution from the Islamic
Lie+0oint4! 2Stock E3change from the Lie+0oint of Islam4! 2Economic .e/elo0ment
and Islam4! 2Money! Interest and Islam4 2Financing matters in Islamic Economics4!
2a-or and Em0loyee-Em0loyer 7elations in Islam.4 &urkish scholars su-mitted
0a0ers in these conferences. ast sym0osium +as reali6ed on 2a-or ife and Islam4 on
9o/em-er <$-<8! <;;$! I6mir?city.A
@ne of the scholars that has studied in Islamic Economics in last thirty years is Sa-ri
@rman. He -egan to study on a /ast research 0roJect as FProgress of Economics
&hought in Islamic (orldB in the -eginning years of #:1;s. First his doctorate
dissertation +as on Cha66aliBs Philoso0hy of Economics. His target is to com0lete his
researh 0roJect in a fi/e /olume study on the history of Islamic economics. He says)
2memory of societies is like the memory of a ?oneA man. If a society does not gi/e
im0ortance to its history! that society is in the 0osition of a man +ho lost his memory.
History is a social memory and history is a mutual hel0 among generations.4 ?<<A
@ne of his 0a0ers is 2Ilm Tadbir al-Manzil! @ikonomia and I?tisad.4 He in/estigates in
this 0a0er Fmanagement of householdB from the 0hiloso0hers of ancient Creece to 9asir
al-.in &usi and Shah (aliyy al-,llah al-.ihla+i. I-n Sina had +ritten a -ooklet on this
to0ic) Fal-Siyasat al-Man6iliyyaB that this -ook is the main source of literatures of ilm
tadbir al-manzil that +ere +ritten after that. I-n Sina says FmanB is an insufficiant
creature for his need. He com0ares FmanB +ith animals. FManB! a0art from his daily food
and +ater needs! should also -e 0ro/ided +ith his tomorro+Bs needs. &hatBs +hy FmanB
is in need of a FhouseB and a +oman.
Sa/ings Portfolio of &usi. 9asir al-.in al-&usi adds these FsecurityB and Fneed of
resting.B ,nd FmanB can not eat uncooked foods ?unlike animalsA thatBs +hy the other
materials that he should 0ro/ide. *inali6ade another Fauthor of ilm tadbir al-manzilB
mentiones a0art from accumulation and store FmanB also must ha/e a house for
0rotecting him from hot and cold! sno+ and rain. Shah .ihla+i adds these Faids of the
othersB that from time to time FmanB -ecomes ill or a calamity! disaster occurs and that
time FmanB looks for the hel0s of the community. &usi had +ritten Fa house should -e in
a 0lace that can take clean +eather and clean +indsB eight centuries ago. He also had
0ointed much consum0tion in -uilding houses and furnitures is harmful for family
-udget. It is a reality that -eha/iours of the family is more im0ortant than -eha/iors of
indi/iduals in current consum0tion theories that economic -eha/iours of a family still
0rotects its im0ortance as analytical element in modern economics theory. I-n Sina says
130
that a man has to store some grain -ecause future is uncertain. &usi also mentiones
Fsa/ingsB and store of grains for famine years and gi/es details for different sa/ings.! as
cash! foods and real estates! lands and animals like camels! co+s and shee0s. He sees
that to 0re0are a suita-le com-ined sa/ings 0ortfolio is a re=uired rationality for e/ery
man. &he -alance of sa/ings and consum0tion is also im0ortant according to &usi and
after some sentences that e30ress the Fmanagement of sa/ings.B &usi ad/ises four
0rinci0les for consum0tion and his +ritings are more systematic than I-n Sina.?<3A. ,
large num-er of -ooks and research 0a0ers on Islamic economics ha/e -een +ritten -y
&urkish scholars listed in the ,00endi3 at the end of this 0a0er.
-- Culture of Non-Interest ,anking in %urkey
@ttoman Em0ire took first de-t from +estern -anks in #1$% and from this date to the
colla0se of the Em0ire ?in #:<<A! the @ttoman go/ernments +anted ne+ de-ts from
Euro0ean -anks and sometimes +ith /ery high interest rates. &hese ne+ de-ts +ere
used sometimes to 0ay ?onlyAthe interests. Ziraat $ankasi ?'ank of ,gricultureAand
*smanli $ankasi ?'ank of @ttomanA o0ened their -ranches in a num-er of cities of
&urkey at the last =uarter of #:th century. Emniyet Sandigi and in the first years of <;th
century Itibar-i Milli $ankasi +ere the other -anks in Istan-ul that they +ere +orking
on interest 0rinci0les. @nly 9amik *emal ?famous 0oet and thinkerA had mentioned a
2Muslim -ank4 in daily Ibr&t in #18<) 2It is /ery strange that trade has got honour ?in
last years.A 'usiness life ?in (estern countriesA 0roduces! no+! some men that their
+ealth are much more than one thousand com0anies and ?+e see alsoA some com0anies
are more 0o+erful than a country. (hen +ill +e take +arningW (e ha/e not got any
factory. (e could not achie/e to form a com0any. Is it a 0ossi-le 0rogress in -usiness
life in this +ayW Is there a 2-ank of Muslim4W Ho+ ?-igA+ealth e3ists ?for
industryAW4?<%A ,lthough 9amik *emal says 2-ank of Muslim4 -ut he does not gi/e
any other kno+ledge a-out it that +hat kind of -ank he thinksW ,nd after colla0se of
@ttoman Em0ire! ne+ strong secular re0u-lic! essentially! did not follo+ an Islamic +ay
and did not think Islamic solutions for economic 0ro-lems.
,fter the Councel of MinistersBs .ecree dated .ec. #5! #:13 non-interest finance
houses took 0ermission for esta-lishing in &urkey. &his +as an im0ortant date -ecause
conce0t of 2non-interest4 took 0lace the first time in &urkish la+s. &urkey! after a long
+esterni6ation 0eriod that goes -ack to the year #13: &an6imat 7eforms of @ttoman
Em0ire! sa+ and then has li/ed in last <$ years +ith these institutions. ,l-'araka &urk
and Faisal Finans +ere the first entered to this sector of &urkey. ,t he -eginning!
&urkish la+ named them as 2s0ecial finance institutions4 and in <;;5 they -ecame
2Partici0ation 'anks4 -y regulations of la+. Since its inauguration in #:1$ ,l 'araka
&urk -rought a different financial model and conce0t. Its foreign shareholders 55.$# Q
?,l-araka 'anking Crou0 $%.;5 Q ! &he Islamic .e/elo0ment 'ank 8.1% QA! local
shareholders #<.:< Q and others <;.$8 Q.A ,nother non-interest finans house ,nadolu
Finans! local shareholders had got all of its ca0ital +as esta-lished in #::#. Starting
from .ecem-er #::: *u/eyt &urk entered the sector and shareholders of *u/eyt &urk
are *u+ait Finance House ?5<QA! *u+ait Social Security Institution ?:QA! Islamic
.e/elo0ment 'ank ?: QA! Ceneral .irectorate of Endo+ments of &urkey ?#1QA! and
other shareholders. *u/eyt &urk mentiones that one of its targets to gain the funds of
131
Culf) 2interest free -anks +hich are called S0ecial Financial Institutions in &urkey!
encourage interest free in/estments and attract a -ig deal of fund into the circulation of
&urkish economy. ,nother aim of S0ecial Financial Institutions in &urkey is to recei/e
funds from the Culf Countries and finance real sector in/estments.4
'ank ,sya also entered the sector on @cto-er <%! #::5 as also a non-interest -ank.
'ank ,sya increased its 0aid-u0 ca0ital in line +ith year-end 0roJections. It currently
stands at DS ] #1; million. &he ca0ital increase +as effecti/e as of .ecem-er #:th!
<;;$. @n ,0ril <;;8! 'ank ,sya concluded first Mura-aha Syndication" signing of
their DS] $; million syndicated Mura-aha Financing Facility! ,'C Islamic 'ank
?E.C.A! Standard Chartered 'ank and Dnicredit Markets ^ In/estment 'anking ?acting
through 'ayerische Hy0o- und Lereins-ank ,CA are the 2Mandated ead ,rrangers4
for the Facility. &he Facility has -een structured as a dual # and < year tranche facility.
Proceeds of the Facility +ill -e used -y 'ank ,sya for its general financing acti/ities.
&he syndication achie/ed significant o/ersu-scri0tion and 'ank ,sya elected to
increase the facility to DS] #8$ million.
Economic crisis in #::: and <;;# of &urkey hit these s0ecial finance houses the
hea/iest -lo+ in their history of =uarter century in &urkey and one of them Ihlas Finans
+ent to -ankru0tcy and this -ankru0tcy im0acted the other non-interest houses and
thousands of de0ositors closed their accounts. &hatBs +hy last fi/e years +ere the
reco/ery years and from <;;% they again -egan to regain their 0restige. In this 0eriod
Faisal Finans and ,nadolu Finans Joined together under one structure as &urkiye
Finans. &oday four Interest Free 'anks are o0erating in &urkey. ,nd all of these noninterest
houses esta-lished a union. <;;8 +as a turning 0oint for these institutions. For
e3am0le! ,l-araka &urk Partici0ation 'ankBs total assets gre+ <%.3Q in the first half of
<;;8 and continues its ra0id gro+th in the third =uarter net 0rofit of the -ank has
reached H& 8<!1;3!;;; ?after ta3 H& $8!3<:!;;;.?DS] #P#.<; H& ?9e+ &urkish
iraA. ,s the first 20artici0ation -ank4 of &urkey! ,l-araka &urk! +hose shares ha/e
-een floating in the Istan-ul Stock E3change ?ISEA since Eune <;;8 is relaying its
second announcement to the 0u-lic on =uarterly -asis. &he -ank also announced that the
total assets of the -ank increased -y 3<.:Q in the first : month of the year! reaching
H& 3!33#!$:1!;;;. In this conte3t! the 'ankBs total credit 0ortfolio +as increased -y
3<.#Q in the same 0eriod of <;;8 reaching H& <!5#:!:#3!;;; +ith includes the net
recei/a-les of the 'ank accruing from its financial leasing o0erations. It +as also
announced that the si6e of the funds collected! inclusi/e of the 0rofit ^ loss
0artici0ation accounts 0lus the s0ecial current accounts! increased -y <$.3Q reaching
H& <!5:8!13%!;;; as of Se0tem-er <;;8. &he released that the e=uity of shareholders
has reached H& $;5!#3;!;;; -y the closing of third =uarter of <;;8! +hich co/ers the
fully 0aid u0 ca0ital after the initial 0u-lic offering! inclusi/e of issuance 0remiums! and
the 0rofit accrued +ithin first : months of <;;8. ?<$A ,n interesting e/ent occured in
<;;5 that &urkish go/enment +anted to a00oint ,dnan 'uyukdeni6 ?general manager
of ,l-araka &urkA as the President of Central 'ank of &urkey. 'ut ?formerA President
?of &urkeyA ?a strong secular manA ,hmet 9eJdet Se6er 0re/ented his a00ointment. &his
e/ent sho+s that non-interest -anks are no+ 0o0ular in &urkish financial system as
trust+orthy institutions.
132
&urkiye Finans is another interest-free -ank that the financial highlights of <;;8Bs
second =uarter of this non-interest -ank also indicates that gro+ing im0act of this sector
in &urkey)
&otal ,ssets DS ] 3!5;5! <;<!;;;
.e0osits DS] <!:1$!13<!;;;
oans ?cash loansA <!:<#!#:<!;;;
?non-cashA #!5$1!;%<!;;;
ShareholdersBs E=uity 315!85;!;;;
9et Profit $3!8<%!;;;
9um-er of 'ranches #<$
9um-er of Em0loyee <315
,s a good e3am0le that these interest-free institutions -ring foreign in/estment to
&urkey that Saudi ,ra-ian 9ational Commercial 'ank -ought 5;Q of &urkiye Finans
0aying DS ] #!;1 -illion in ,ugust <;;8. &urkish 0ress ga/e im0ortance to this sale.
9C'Bs President Sheikh ,-dullah 'ahamdanBs sentences +ere) 2&his coo0eration is a
turning 0oint for our targets and a great ste0 for our regional gro+th strategy" and the
ne+est e3am0le of good relations -et+een Saudi ,ra-ia and &urkey.4 In signing
ceremony President of &urkiye Finans Mustafa 'oydak +as saying) 2,fter Joining
?Family Finans and ,nadolu FinansA in <;;$ that ?ne+A &urkiye Finans -ecame the
leader of sector of 0artici0ating -anking of &urkey and 9C'Bs e30ertness in interestfree
-anking and /ast s0ectrum of its 0roducts +ill gi/e ra0id the gro+th of &urkiye
Finans.4 ,lso statements of ,-dulra66a= M. ,l-*haraiJy head of Islamic 'anking of
9C' found /ast 0laces in ?Islamic and laicA dailies and maga6ines of &urkey in ,ugust
<;;8 that ,l-*haraiJy said) 2<1 ne+ -ranches +ill -e o0ened in &urkey and +e +ill
ser/e +ith #1 different Islamic funds to our customers! that #< years ago +e +ith only
one -ranch had -egun Islamic -anking in Saudi ,ra-ia and today +e reached 8<
-ranches in 3< different cities of Saudi ,ra-ia.
Chea0 @r E30ensi/eW &he sale of 5; Q of &urkiye Finans to a Saudi ,ra-ian firm +as
discussed /astly in &urkish media and 0ress that this sale ?of DS] #!;1 -illionA +as
chea0 or e30ensi/eW In a detailed article Fikri &urkel said) 2this sale is also good for t+o
0artners ?&urks and Saudis.A ?(e see in the history of &urkiye FinansA Dlker
grou0?famous -iscuit com0any of &urkeyA had -ought Faysal Finans in the year of <;;#
0aying ?totallyA DS] 3; million in the crisis nights of <;;# from *om-assan Holding.
(hen Dlker grou0 entered the interest-free -anking sector! thousands of customers felt
relie/ed as after -ankru0tcy of ?most ra0idly gro+ing non-interest -ankA Ihlas Finans!
thousands of customers +ere running a+ay from non-interest -anks in the first months
of <;;#. Dlker grou0 had taken a great risk in that day. 'ut in the course of the time
financial markets and economic condition of &urkey reco/ered and +hen Faysal Finans
and ?the other non-interest -ankA ,nadolu Finans Joined together in <;;$ and the
-iggest non-interest -ank of &urkey +as -orn. 9o+! Dlker sold 3;Q of its shares ?the
other <;Q are still in DlkerBs handA taking a00ro3imately DS] 5;; million?+ith the
0rofit of <;;8.A &his sale to 9C' is /ery good 0rofit for Dlker ?and the other 0artner
'oydak family +ill also take DS] 5;; million A! -ut it is also /ery good 0rice for Saudi
9C'. 'ecause a ready and good +orking ?non-interestA -ank in the rising star country
133
?&urkey as economic and 0olitical indicators 0oint.A Paul (outers an e30ert on Islamic
financial 0roducts in &urkey ?a 'elgian -orn solicitorA also e30resses) 2Saudis took a
good 0osition +ith this sale...4 ?<5A ,fter 'ank ,syaBs mura-aha syndication in ,0ril!
&urkiye Finans signed also a mura-aha syndication of DS] #;; million in mid-,ugust
<;;8 from a consortium that HS'C leadeed. &urkiye Finans +ill use it for real sectors
of &urkey.?<8A
8- 1eo&le4s Com&anies
In the first 0art of #:1;s! another formation -deri/es from the culture of Islamic
economics- +as seen in &urkey. Some enter0risings O against the dominant
con/entional -anking system that +as 0aying high interest to the 0eo0le- es0ecialy from
the conser/ati/e Muslim cities of central &urkey -egan to gather small amounts of
money from middle class families to -uild factories and they /isited the Euro0ean
countries to take the ca0itals of &urkish +orkers. E/en some meetings +ere held in
mos=ues and hundreds of millions of dollars had -een collected -y these com0anies.
,lthough some factories in the cities of Central ,natolia +ere o0ened -ut the maJority
of these com0anies +ent to -ankru0t es0ecially after the crisis of #::: and <;;#. @ne of
the reasons of their -ankru0tcies is that they did not em0loy 0rofessional staff and they
did not canali6e their funds to suita-le fields. Es0ecially Prof. Sa-ahattin Kaim +arned
them ?in March #:::A their lo+ 0roducti/ity -ut the heads of these com0anies did not
0ay attention to the +arnings. &he other reason +as the go/ernment and media of that
0eriod accused them as 2green ca0ital4 and a00lied am-argos and e/en the -ank
accounts of some of these com0anies +ere fro6en -y the ?strong laicA go/ernment ?of
that day.A , lot of negati/e +ritings and s0eeches +ere seen in media -y strong laic
Journalists. ,nother reality +as that these com0anies ga/e only a recei0t that they took
the money from the shareholders -ut they could not gi/e any 0artnershi0 certificate
-ecause they did not take 0ermission to sell their shares! from the FCa0ital Markets
'oard of &urkey.4 ,nd these situations influenced the 0u-lic o0inion as a negati/e
/ie+ for Islamic economics.
>- Musiad4s ?orks for Islamic Economics
Musiad ?Mustakil Sanayiciler /e Xsadamlari .ernegiG,ssociation of Inde0endent
Industrialists and 'usinessmenA +as re0resenting youth and dynamism and
indigenousness in #::;s. &oday this organi6ation is a community of e30erinced
-usinessmen. Mustafa @6el had com0ared them hilf-al-fudul of 0re-Islamic Mecca! in
#::$. Musiad +as an alliance and Fcoo0eration of /irtuous men.B?<1A Ending of Cold
(ar in #:1: and rising of neo-ca0italist mo/ement in the +orld im0acted also &urkish
indi/iduals. ,nd a 0ost-modern laic cou0 dBetat in &urkey in #::8 against Islami6ation!
influenced &urkish society. 'ut a successful mo/ement has -een seen in the MusiadBs
struggles. Musiad is a 'usinessmenBs ,ssociation! founded on May $! #::; in Istan-ul.
&he mem-ers of this association as the re0resentati/es of an economicG-usiness life
de0ends on ?IslamicA ethics and their main characteristics are to defend a non-interest
economic /alues in &urkey. &hey define themsel/es)
2Musiad is a 20latform for de/elo0ment Odialogue- coo0eration and solidarity4 created
134
for the 0ur0ose of contri-uting to the social! cultural! 0olitical! economic! scientific and
technological de/elo0ment of indi/iduals and institutions! our country and society! our
region and the +orld.4 ,-out FMissionB) 2First! on condition of glo-al /alue and with
r&sp&ct to th& history of our nation and r&sp&ctful to h&r cultur& and id&ntity +ith the
aim to 0rotect our national and intenational inde0endent structure. (ith the initiati/es of
Musiad! I'FBs ?&he International 'usiness Forum a non-go/ernmental 0latform for
gathering of mostly Muslim -usinessmen from all o/er the glo-e +as founded in
Pakistan in #::$A head office +as mo/ed from Pakistan to Istan-ul and annual
congresses take 0lace e/er year in another Muslim country. &he first o-Jecti/e of this
congresses is 2to coin and utili6e the Islamic ethical /irtues among the con/entional
-usiness life4 and the second 2to direct and em0o+er the commercial relationshi0s in
line +ith national 0rinci0les and interests! co-o0eration among the mem-ers and among
the ?MuslimA mem-er countries at regional and glo-al le/el4 and the third 2to enhance
the commercial acti/ities and to de/elo0 trade among the mem-ers and the mem-er
countries.4 &he congress of <;;$ took 0lace in Eeddah and #;th Musiad International
&rade fair took 0lace in Istan-ul +ith 338 0artici0ant firms #!8;; -usinessmen from %;
0artici0ant countries in Istan-ul in <;;5. Hear <;;8 Congress held ?9o/em-er <8-<:A in
,-u .ha-i. In #8 years! Musiad has in/ited a lot of statesmen! scholars and
-usinessmen for gi/ing seminars from Muslim countries for co-o0eration! de/elo0ment
and for eradication of 0o/erty and unem0loyment in Islamic and underde/elo0ed
countries.
Musiad e30resses I'FBs o-Jecti/es) 2&he idea -ehind International 'usiness Form is to
set u0 a 2Clo-al 'usiness 9et+ork among Muslim 9ations4 0ro/iding a forum to
identify and stimulate trade and mutual in/estment relationshi0s among Muslim
'usinessmen throughout the +orld) &o coin and utili6e the Islamic ethical /irtues
among the con/entional -usiness life.
&o direct and em0o+er the commercial relationshi0s in line +ith national 0rinci0les and
interests! co-o0eration among the mem-ers and among the mem-er countries at regional
and glo-al le/el" to enhance the commercial acti/ities and to de/elo0 trade and
in/estment among the mem-ers and mem-er countries" to su00ort the co-o0eration
among the mem-ers /is-a-/is technology transfer! technical assistance! consultancy and
kno+-ho+.4?<:A
Conclusion
&o sum u0) it is o-/ious that the -eginning of Islamic economics studies thirty years
ago has 0roduced a lot of o0inions and organi6ations to sol/e the 0ro-lems of Islamic
+orld and has gi/en /alua-le thoughts for the 0ro-lems of the +orld economic system.
, general culture of Islamic economics has -een gi/en to ?interestedA readers and
intellectuals of &urkey. 'ut ordinary men are not a+are of these su-Jects. More study is
necessary for 0u-lic. ,lthough <;;8 +as one of most -rilliant year in last <$ years for
non-interest -anks of &urkey -ut muslim economists and religious scholars should
0roduce more theoretical studies on Islamic economics for stimulation of a more ethical
-usiness life in &urkey and a Just +orld economic system.
Endnotes
135
?#A Mustafa @6el! .e/let /e Ekonomi ?State and EconomyA ! 0! <#
?<A Mustafa ,ykac! .algalanma Soku /e Sistemin *ri6i?Shock of Fluctuations and
Crisis of the SystemA ! Islam .ergisi ?Islam monthly maga6ineA! Mart
?MarchA#::%
?3A Sa-ahattin Kaim! Islam-Insan Ekonomi ?Islam-Man-EconomicsA! 0! #$1
?%A *o0ru .ergisi ?*o0ru Maga6ineA! Ekim ?@cto-erA #:1:
?$A ,li Coskun! 2Iktisadi .urumumu6 /e 'eklentilerimi6 ?@ur Economic Condition
and E30ectationsA4! Islam .ergisi! Ha6iran?EuneA #::#! 00! <<-<3
?5A ,-dulkadir ,kgun! 2Ekonomide ,cil @nlemler Cerekmektedir ?Drgent
Precautions are 9ecessary in the EconomyA4! i-id! 00! <:-3;
?8A 'esir Hamidogullari! 2Xktisadi-Lahsi 'uyumenin 'unalimlari /e Islam *alkinma
Modelinin Ladettikleri ?Economic-'rutal Cro+th and Promises of Islamic
.e/elo0ment ModelA4 in Iktisadi kalkinma /e Islam ?Economic .e/elo0ment and
IslamA?ed. ,.&a-akoglu-I.*urtA! 00! 3; ?:-33A
?1A Sa-ahattin Kaim! Islam-Insan Ekonomi! 0! #1#
?:A Hayreddin *araman! Islam ,cisindan 'orsa ?Stock E3change in IslamA! 0! #<3
?#;A ,hmet &a-akoglu! 2Islam Iktisadi ,cisindan *alkinma ?.e/elo0ment from the
Lie+0oint of IslamA4! in Iktisadi *alkinma /e Islam! 00! <%#-$#
?##A 'i6im ,ile ?@ur FamilyA ?monthly maga6ineA ,gustos ?,ugustA #::#! 0! 8
?#<A *o0ru! Ekim?@cto-erA #:1:! 0! %;
?#3A Iktisadi *alkinma! 0! 5#
?#%A ,t the time of the conference of #:1%! .r. ,talay +as the minister of State
?affairsA in <;;<-<;;8 in the first &ayyi- ErdoganBs go/ernment and he is no+
?<;;8A minister of interior in the ca-inet.
?#$A ?from) 7o-er 9. 'ellah! 2Continuity and Change in Ea0anese Society4! Sta-ility
and Social Change! ?ed. -y '. 'ar-er and ,. InkelesA 'oston! ittle! 'ro+n and
Com0any #:8#! 0! 3:%" 7einhard 'endi3! 9ation-'uilding and Citi6enshi0!
'erkeley! Dni/ersity of California Press #:5:! 0! <$%" 9yo6ekan Hasega+a!
Ea0anese 9ational Character! Ea0an 'oard of &ourist Industry! #:%<! 0! 33A
?#5A 'esir ,talay! 2Iktisadi *alkinmada Celeneksel .egerlerin Heri ?Ea0on @rnegiA
?Position of &raditional Lalues in Economic .e/elo0ment?Ea0anBs E3am0leA4! in
the 0roceedings of Iktisadi *alkinma /e Islam! 00! 5$-#;<
?#8A Mustafa @6el! .e/let /e Ekonomi! 00! #<1-<:
?#1A i-id! 0! %5
?#:A I-rahim Erol *o6ak! 2I-ni HaldunBun Xktisadi Celismede PsikoloJik Faktorlere
Lerdigi Her ?Position of Psychological Factors in .e/elo0ment ,ccording to I-n
*haldunA 4! Iktisadi *alkinma /e Islam! 00! ##%-3:
?<;A Sa-ahattin Kaim! i-id! #8#-8%
?<#A Sa-ahattin Kaim! Insan-Islam Ekonomi! 00! $;! #$:-5;
?<<A Sa-ri @rman! Ca6aliBnin Iktisat Felsefesi ?Cha66aliBs Philoso0hy of EconomicsA !
0! <$
?<3A Sa-ri @rman! Iktisat! &arih /e &o0lum ?Economics! History and SocietyA! 00! 3;#-
35;
?<%A Serif Mardin! Siyasal /e Sosyal 'ilimler ?Political and Social SciencesA! 0! 18
?<$A detailed kno+ledges a-out non-interest -anks of &urkey ?in EnglishA)
136
+++.al-arakaturk.com.tr"+++.turkiyefinans.com.tr"+++.ku/eytturk.com.tr"
+++.-ankasya.com.tr
?<5A ?dailyA Kaman! ,ugust <! <;;8A
?<8A +++.nt/msn-c.com ?,ugust #5! <;;8A
?<1A Mustafa @6el! .e/let /e Ekonomi! 0! #3
?<:A +++.musiad.org.tr
,i.liogra&hy
,talay! 'esir ?#:18A! 2Iktisadi *alkinmada Celeneksel .egerlerin Heri ?Ea0on @rnegiA
?Position of &raditional Lalues in Economic .e/elo0ment ?E3am0le of Ea0anA A4
?in the 0roceedings ofA Iktisadi *alkinma /e Islam ?Economic .e/elo0ment and
IslamA! Istan-ul) Islami Ilimler ,rastirma Lakfi
Hayinlari ?Pu-licationsA
,kgun! ,-dulkadir ?#::#A! 2Ekonomide ,cil @nlemler Cereklidir ?Drgent Precautions
are 9ecessary in the EconomyA4! Islam ?Monthly Maga6ineA! Ha6iran?EuneA
,ykac! Mustafa ?#::%A! 2.algalanma Soku /e Sistemin *ri6i?Shock of Fluctuations and
Crisis of the SystemA4! Islam! Mart?MarchA
Coskun! ,li ?#::#A! 2Iktisadi .urumumu6 /e 'eklentilerimi6 ?@ur Economic Condition
and E30ectationsA4! Islam! Ha6iran?EuneA
*araman! Hayreddin ?#::%A! his discussions ?in the 0roceedings ofA Islam ,cisindan
'orsa ?Stock E3change in IslamA! Istan-ul) Ensar 9esriyat ?Pu-licationsA
*o6ak! I-rahim Erol ?#:::A! Insan-&o0lum-Iktisad ?Man-Society-EconomicsA!
,da0a6ari) .egisim Hayinlari
Mardin! Serif ?#:::A! Siyasal /e Sosyal 'ilimler ?Political and Social SciencesA!
Istan-ul)Iletisim Hayinlari
@rman! Sa-ri ?<;;<A! Ca6aliBnin Iktisat Felsefesi ?Cha66aliBs Philoso0hy of
EconomicsA! Istan-ul) Insan Hayinlari
@rman! Sa-ri ?<;;#A! Iktisat! &arih /e &o0lum ?Economics! History and SocietyA!
Istan-ul) *ure Hayinlari ?Pu-licationsA
@6el! Mustafa ?#::$A! .e/let /e Ekonomi ?State and EconomicsA! Istan-ul) I6
Hayincilik
Kaim! Sa-ahattin ?#::$A! Islam-Insan Ekonomi ?Islam-Man EconomicsA! Istan-ul) Heni
,sya Hayinlari
A&&endi9
A List of Literature on Islamic Economics .y %urkish Scholars ?in chronological
orderA
Husuf 'o6kurt @6al! Pro-a-le Macroeconomic Im0acts of Kakat ,00lication
?un0u-lished 0a0erA! ,nkara #:81"
,hmet &a-akoglu! Introduction to Islamic Economics! Istan-ul #:8:"
Halil Sahillioglu!4(orldBs Circulation of Money?CoinsA and Metals in @ttoman Money
History ?#3;;-#8$;A4! 7esearches on History of &urkish Economy! Celisim
.ergisi ?EournalA Pri/ate Issue of #:81! ,nkara #:8:"
Keyne0 .iyar-ekirlioglu! 2Customs 7ate ist of @ttoman-,ustria4 ?thesis in Faculty of
137
,rts! Istan-ul Dni/ersity #:8:A!
Celal Heniceri! Princi0les of Islamic Economics! Istan-ul #:1;"
Sa-ri Erdogdu! Economic and Social ,s0ects of Kakat ?doctorate dissertationA! Istan-ul
#:1;"
Mu-ahat S. *utukoglu! 27olls ?7egistersA of Customs House of SaraJe/o in #<$3
Hegira Hear4 Eournal of Sout-East Euro0e 7esearches! 1-: ?#:1;A! 0! <8! Faculty
of ,rts! Istan-ul Dni/ersity"
Mu-ahat S. *utukoglu! 2@ttoman Customs 7ecords4 &he Eournal of @ttoman Studies! I
?#:1;A! 00! <<;-3%"
Meral Sen! 2Customs 7ate ist of @ttoman-7ussia4 ?thesis in Faculty of ,rts! Istan-ul
Dni/ersity #:1;A"
Fahri .emir! .istri-ution of (ealth and Pro0rietorshi0 ?Pro0ertyA! ,nkara #:1#"
@sman Sekerci! a+s of Com0anies in Islam ?.ormant Partnershi0A! Istan-ul #:1#"
Hayreddin *araman! 7elation of Em0loyer-Em0loyee in Nslam! Istan-ul #:1#"
Ismail 'uyukcele-i! Com0any of FInanB and Its *inds in Islamic a+ ?doctorate
dissertation! ,taturk Dni/ersity! Faculty of Islamic Sciences #:1#A"
,li 'ardakoglu! ,=d al-IJara ?Contract of HiringA in Islamic a+ and Modern a+!
?doctorate dissertation #:1#A ,taturk Dni/ersity"
Ser/et ,rmagan! 7elation of Em0loyer- Em0loyee in Islamic a+ and Some @0inions!
Istan-ul #:1<"
MuJgan Irencin! 2Customs 7ate ist of @ttoman-France4! ?thesis! Faculty of ,rts of
Istan-ul Dni/ersity #:1<A"
Mu-ahat S. *utukoalu! Institution of F@fficially Fi3ed PriceB in @ttomans and 7ole of
Fi3ed Price ?.aftar of 9arhA of the Hear of #5%;! Istan-ul #:13"
Mu-ahat S. *utukoglu! 2Im0ortance and (orth of 7e0orts of ,m-assadors for
@ttoman Economics History4! Eournal of South-East Euro0e 7esearches! #;-
##?#:13A! 00! #$#- 55A"
*orkut @6al! Social Systems and Islamic System ?un0u-lished 0a0erA! Istan-ul #:13"
9a6if @6turk! ?IslamicA Endo+ments! &heir @rigins and Historical .e/elo0ment!
,nkara #:13"
Ha/u6 Ercan 2Eudicial! Social and Economic Conditions of 9on-muslims of &urkey
?@ttomanA in UL. and ULI Centuries! 'elleten ?Eournal of &urkish History
,ssociation &&*A! ULIIG#11?#:13A! 00! ###:-%:"
Inflation and (ays of Solution from Lie+0oint of Islam ?0a0ersA! Istan-ul #:13"
,-durrahman >urayshi! Economic and Social Coo0erations ,mong Islamic Countries!
Istan-ul #:13"
Hamdi .onduren! imits of Profits in 'uying and Selling in Islamic a+! 'alikesir
#:1%"
Salih &ug! Progress of Islamic &a3ation a+! Istan-ul #:1%"
Sa-ri @rman! Economic Philoso0hy of Cha66ali! Istan-ul #:1%"
Sa-ri Dlgener! Economic Crisis and Policy of Islamic Economics! Istan-ul #:1%"
I-rahim Erol *o6ak! Man-Society-Economics ?, Multilateral ,nalysis +ith I-n
*haldunA! Istan-ul #:1%"
Celal Heniceri! 'udget of Islamic State! Istan-ul #:1%"
,hmet &a-akoglu! @ttoman Pu-lic Finance ?-efore the -ack+ard 0eriodA! Istan-ul
#:1$"
138
Selman 'asaran! (ith ,ll ,s0ects) Hadiths of Pro0het Muhammad on Interest! 'ursa
#:15"
Cihangir ,kin! 9on-Interest 'anking and .e/elo0ment! Istan-ul #:15"
Ismail *urt! ,naly6ing of Eudicial 7ecord of Istan-ul Sharia Court of 9um-er #;5!
&urkish Economic History! Istan-ul #:18"
Ismail @6soy! 9on-Interest Finance Houses and Islamic 'anking in &urkey! Istan-ul
#:18"
Ersin Curdogan! Culture and Industriali6ation Istan-ul #:18"
Economic .e/elo0ment and Islam ?0a0ers edited -y ,hmet &a-akoglu-Ismail *urtA!
Istan-ul #:18"
,hmet ,kgundu6! Institution of Endo+ments in Islamic a+ and @ttoman ,00lication!
,nkara #:11"
,hmet &a-akoglu! 2Protecting of Consumer ?an ?IslamicA Historical and &heoretical
,00roachA4! Islam?monthly maga6ineA! ,ugust #:11! 00! <#-<3! Istan-ul"
Culer *i/rak! Customs House of Edirne ?cityA in the first half of UIU. Century ?master
thesis! Institute of Social Sciences of Istan-ul Dni/ersity! #:1:A"
Husuf Halacoglu! 2Social! Economic and .emogra0hic ,s0ects of Some @ttoman
Cities in 'alkans in ULI. Century4! Eournal 'elleten! &urkish History
,ssociation ?&&*A! IIIG<;8-<;1?#:1:A! 00! 538-85"
,-dullatif Sener! @ttoman &a3 System! Istan-ul #::;" ,li 'ardakoglu! ,nnulment of
Contract of Ser/ice and Its 7esults! ?in Em0loyer-Em0loyee 7elations in
Com0arati/e a+ and ,00lication! 00! 5:-#;;! Istan-ul #::;"
,hmet ,kgundu6! 2(orking Hours in @ld and 9e+ a+! 7ights of 7esting! Lacation
and Prayer! i-id! 00! #;#-#<%! Istan-ul #::;"
Mehmet Erdogan! 2(age in the &heory of Islamic a+ and in ,00lication4! i-id!
00#<$-#$$"
Israfil *ibla! 2Em0loyer-Em0loyee 7elations in Nslamic Countries! i-id! 00! <3:-<83!
Istan-ul #::;"
Mikail 'ayram! ,hi E/ren and ?'eginning ofA ,hi ?trade guildA @rgani6ation! *onya
#::#"
Ha/u6 Ercan!4&a3es Paid -y 9on-muslims in @ttoman Em0ire and &heir Social
7esults4! 'elleten ?Eournal of &urkish History ,ssociationA! LG<#3?#::#A!
00!38#-:#"
Cengi6 *allek! 7elation of Co/ernment-Market in ,sr al-Saadat Istan-ul #::<"
Sa-ri @rman! 2Sources of the History of Islamic Economic &hought4! ?Eournal ofA Ilim
/e Sanat! 3<-33! 00! $;-$8"
M. Said Polat! 'usiness ife in ,natolian ?&urkeyA SelJukians!?master thesis! Institute
of &urcology of Dni/ersity of Marmara #::<A"
Sa-ri Erdogdu! Sa/ings and Economic Progress in Islamic Economics! Istan-ul #::<"
Ismail @6soy! Interest and Its Pro-lems! I6mir #::3"
,dem Esen! (age from the Lie+0oint of Social Politics! ,nkara #::3"
Mu-ahat S. *utukoglu! 2Form of @ttoman Economics4 History of @ttoman State and
Ci/ili6ation! 00! $13-11! Istan-ul #::%"
Stock E3change in Islam ?0a0ers of &urkish scholarsA! Istan-ul #::%"
Idris 'ostan! Economic and Political 7elations of Car- @caks ?i-ya-&unis-,lgeriaA
+ith Euro0e ?#$1;-#5<%A4 Eournal of History Institute of Faculty of ,rts of
Istan-ul Dni/ersity! #%?#::%A! 00! $:-15"
139
Sa-ahattin Kaim! Islam-Man-Economics! Istan-ul #::$"
Murta6a *ose! Eoint Stock Com0anies in Islamic a+ ?doctorate disssertations! ,taturk
Dni/ersity! Institute of Social Sciences #::5A"
Murat Ci6akca! , Com0arati/e E/olution of 'usiness Partnershi0s! eiden #::5"
,hmet ,tilgan! IslamBs Economic Policies! Istan-ul #::5"
,-dullah @grak! &houghts of ,-u al-Hasan al-Ma+ardi on Economics!?master thesis!
Institute of Social Sciences of Dni/ersity of Sakarya #::8A"
Fethi Cedikli! Culture of F@ttoman Com0anyB! ,00lication of Mudara-a in ULI-ULII
Centuries4! Istan-ul #::1"
@sman Eskicioglu! Islam and Economics! I6mir #:::"
Sa-ri @rman! Economics! History and Society! Istan-ul <;;#"
,li Sensoy! Solidarity and Social Security in Islamic Economics! Istan-ul <;;#"
,-dula6i6 'ayindir! 2?Is aA Fine ?Permissi-leA for +ho .elayed HNs .e-t in 9oninterest
SystemW4! Eournal of the Faculty of .i/inity of Istan-ul Dni/ersity! /! 3!
00! $#-8;! Istan-ul <;;#"
Mefail Hi6li! 2&he Imarat ?the kitchens for the 0oorA of Sultans in 'ursa?cityA4! Eournal
of .i/inity of Dni/ersity of Dludag! /! #;G#! 00! 33-5<! 'ursa <;;#"
Murta6a *ose! 2,n Essay on Co-influence of Mudara-a and Commenda in 'usiness
a+4! Eournal of Faculty of .i/inity of ,taturk Dni/ersity! /!#8! 00!#$#-88A!
Er6urum <;;<"
Ser/et 'ayindir! 2Modes of ,00roach of Commission ,gents to FCa0italB in the
Historical Period! Eournal of the Faculty of .i/inity of Istan-ul Dni/ersity! /!
IL! 00! <%#-$#! Istan-ul <;;<"
Mahfu6 Soyleme6! 2Im0acts of Economic Crisis to Carrison-Cities in the Period of
Dthman 7.,.4! Eournal of Faculty of .i/inity of Dni/ersity of Hitit! /! ##G3! 00!
53-15! Corum <;;3"
Cengi6 *allek! 2Ma+ardiBs &houghts on Economics4 entry to .iyanet Islam
,nsiklo0edisi! /! <1! 00! #13-1%! ,nkara <;;3"
Cengi6 *allek! Meks ?a detailed successfully entry for MaksA! i-id! 00! $13-11" Faruk
'eser! Social Security in Islam! Istan-ul <;;%"
Cengi6 *allek! History of Islamic Economics &hought! Istan-ul <;;%"
*asif Hamdi @kur! 2Some 9otes on @ttoman a+ @rder and E-ussuud EfendiBs
Euridical Lie+s Concerning Cash (a=fs in @ttoman Em0ire4! Eournal of Faculty
of .i/inity of Dni/ersity of Hitit! /! %G8-1! 00! 33-$1! Corum <;;$"
Salih *umas! 2'usiness Partnershi0 as a Financing Method) 2, Com0arison 'et+een
Mudara-e and Commenda4! Eournal of Faculty of .i/inity of Dni/ersity of
Dludag! /! #$G#! 00! 35:-18! 'ursa <;;5"
utfi Sey-an! 2,ndalusian Scholars in ,dministartion and 'usiness ife ,ccording to
I-n al-FaradiBs &arikh al-Dlama al-,ndalusia4! Eournal of Faculty of .i/inity of
Dni/ersity of Sakarya! /! #3! 00! <#:-3:! Sakarya <;;5.
%ranslations.
M. 'a=ir Sadr! .octrines of Islamic Economics! ?translated -y Mehmet *eskin-Sadettin
ErgunA! Istan-ul #:81"
M. ,. Mannan! Islamic Economics &heory and Practice ?translated -y 'ahri Kengin-
&e/fik @merogluA! Istan-ul #:1;"
140
*hurshid ,hmad! Economic .e/elo0ment In ,n Islamic Frame+ork! ?translated -y
Fatih *ulA! Istan-ul #:13"
Mahmud ,-u al-Suud! &he Princi0les of Islamic Economics!?translated from ,ra-ic -y
,li @6ekA! Istan-ul #:13"
Maurice om-ard! Islam) In Its Lictory Hears!?translated -y 9e6ih D6elA! Istan-ul
#:13"
M. 9aJatullah Siddi=i! Islamic Economics &hought! ?translated -y Hasar *a0lanA!
Istan-ul #:1%"
Monetary and Fiscal Economics of Islam ?0re0ared -y Islamic Foundation of eicester
and translated -y Conul HamanA! Istan-ul #:13"
Irfan Mahmud 7ana! Economic Structure in the Period of Dmar ?7.,A! ?translated -y
,hmet *otA! Istan-ul #:1$"
Hasan al-Kaman! &he Economic Functions of the Early Islamic State ?translated -y
Sinan ErsoyA! Istan-ul #:18"
9asir al-.in al-&usi! &houghts on State ?Pu-licA Finance?7isala der 7asm +a ,yina-i
Ilkhani! Persian te3t +ith &urkish and English translation -y Mehmet
'ayraktarA! ,nkara #:11"
,-d al-,6i6 .uri! Introduction to the History of Islamic Economics! ?translated from
,ra-ic -y Sa-ri @rmanA! Istan-ul #::#"
Islamic Economics and Social Security System ?se/en 0a0ers! edited and translated -y
Faruk Hilma6A! Istan-ul #::#"
7afi= Hunus al-Misri! Methodology of Islamic Economics! ?translated from ,ra-ic -y
Huseyin ,rslanA! Istan-ul ?no dateA" 'ooklets of I=tisad ?ten 0a0ers! edited and
translated -y Mustafa @6elA Istan-ul #::%"
,hmad al-Hasani! Money in Islam ?translated from ,ra-ic -y ,dem EsenA! Istan-ul
#::5"
M. Dmar Cha0ra! Islam and Economic .e/elo0ment! ?translated -y ,dem EsenA!
Istan-ul <;;<"
Economy! 'ank and Insurance in Islamic &hought! ?0a0ers of M. ,.Kar=a and ,.M.
9aJJar and article of M.,-u Kahra" translated from ,ra-ic and added an
introduction of 5$ 0ages -y Hayreddin *aramanA Istan-ul <;;3"
Michael ecker! 2@n the Markets of Madina?Hesri-A in Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic
&imes4! ?translated -y Mahfu6 Soyleme6 in Eournal of Faculty of .i/inity of
Dni/ersity of Hitit! /! ##G%! 00! #$8-8<A! Corum <;;3.
Some Notes from the @istory of Islamic Maritime La+

IN%#O(6C%ION
141


&he Maritime a+ +as codificated /ery late in (estern (orld. It started +ith 9etherland in
#13: CE" and the other Euro0ean countries com0leted the studies of codification in the last 0art
of the #:
th
century.
&he maJority of the Islamic countries ha/e got thousands of kilometers sea-shores. Some of the
Islamic countries are on the 0eninsulas of the +orld and some of them are on the islands.
&he Maritime a+ is /ery com0licated to understand for reader. In s0ite of this! +e 0ro/ided a
lot of e3am0les that made this study easy to com0rehend. &he su-Jects that +ill -e studied in this
0a0er include the sailor com0anions of the Pro0het Muhammad! the 0ro-lem of the 0ollution of
seas! and the Cham-er of Maritime of Istan-ul a-out t+o hundred years ago! and the studies of
Islamic Jurists a-out maritime la+ a thousand years ago.

%@E CONCE1% O0 SEA IN /6#AN

&here are a lot of /erses in >uran a-out sea. E3am0les like) &he Pro0het MosesBs /oyage +ith
*hidr on the sea ?#A! the 0osition of the Pro0het Eonah in the a-domen of a ?-igA fish ?<A! and
-uilding of 9oahIs ark of the Pro0het 9oah. ?3A
>uran as the most im0ortant source of Islamic a+ has got the +ord of 2sea4
%< times. (e see the +ord of FsafenaB ?shi0A % times! the +ord of FfulkB ?also shi0A <3 times and
FhutB and FheytanB ?fishA $ times in >uran. ?%A
@ne of the /erses a-out sea! shi0ment and fishing is)
2It is He ?,llahG CodA +ho su-Jected to you the sea! so that you may eat of its fresh meat! and
-ring u0 from ornaments +hich you +ear. ?Hou take out 0earl from the dee0 of the seaA. ,nd you
may see the shi0s clea/ing through it. ?,ll these! He ?,llahA has createdA so that you may seek
His -ounty and render thanks ?looking for your sustenance from sea -y sea-trading or fishingA4
?>uran! Cha0ter of 9ahl! /erse) #%A
, sea0ort-to+n Eeddah +as the +harf of Mecca and another sea0ort-to+n Han-u +as the +harf
of Medina! in the time of the Pro0het Muhammad ?on the 7ed-SeaA. &he first immigration of
142
o00ressed Muslims of Mecca had occurred to ,-yssinia. &hey had gone on a shi0 to ,-yssinia.
,nother /erse in >uran)
2,nd t+o seas are not e=ual" this! fresh! s+eet! good to drink! this ?otherA -itter! salt. ,nd from
them -oth you eat fresh meat and deri/e the ornament ?0earl etc.A that you +ear. 4 ?Fater" /! #<A
NAAIBA%ION IN %@E %IME O0 %@E 1#O1@E%

&he third +ar of the Pro0het Muhammad +as the -attle of Dsayra. Dsayra +as a name of a
0lace in /alley of Han-u. Han-u +as far from Medina ?the ca0ital cityA #1; miles and +as the
0ort of Medina. &he Com0anions of the Pro0het used to go and come to ,-yssinia and they used
to kno+ sea and sea-trade.
&he Pro0hetIs +ife ,isha says) 2In the time of Jaheliyya ?ignoranceG0aganist 0eriodA the ,nsar
?the 0eo0le of MedinaA used to /isit the idols of Esaf and 9aela that these idols +ere on the coast
of 7ed-sea and then they used to go Mecca for HaJJ ?0ilgrimageA4 ?$A
, sailor com0anion had come to the Pro0het Muhammad and said)
2@ En/oy of ,llah ?Pro0hetA. (e sail on the sea. 'ut +e ha/e not got much +ater. If +e use this
+ater for ritual a-lution! this time +e ?+illA -ecome thirsty. .o +e use the +ater of sea for ritual
a-lutionW4
&he Pro0het said that 2its +ater ?the +ater of seaA is clean and its cor0s are halal ?eata-leA4. ?If
it is fresh and not rotten! 0utrid! and s0oiled.A?5A
,nother com0anion of the Pro0het - most 0ro-a-ly he +as also a sailor- asked the Pro0het
that)
2@ Pro0het! +hat do you say a-out the fats ?tallo+-suetA of cor0s of animals! the fats a carrion
of an animal ?es0ecially domesticated animals like carrion of a shee0 or carrion of co+A. &he
shi0s are 0olished +ith this tallo+! the skins are greased and the men are illuminated ?-urning it
in the lanternsA.4 'ut the Pro0het said that) 2?the fats of carrion of animalA do not sell it" do not
use it! it is for-idden ?in the religionA4 ?8A
, com0anion of the Pro0het! Ea-er mentions a fish of an-ar ?0ro-a-ly it +as a +hale.A &hey
had gone to the shore of 7ed-Sea to control this region that the Pro0het had sent them. &he
commander +as ,-u D-ayda and they sa+ the +hale on the sands of the -each. It +as a -ig one.
&hirteen com0anions had sit in the hollo+ of the eye of the +hale. &he soldiers ?com0anionsA
143
said that 2etIs eat from this meat of fish4. 'ut the commander ,-u D-ayda said 2It is carrion.4
'ut the soldiers insisted and they said that 2this is not rotten! is not s0oiled or 0utrid.4 &his time
,-u D-ayda said 2Hou may eat it.4 &hey ate it. ,nd some 0arts of the +hale +ere salted! had
-een done -rained for 0ickling. ,fter returning to Medina they ga/e a 0art of this -rined +hale to
the Pro0het! and the Pro0het had eaten it. ?1A

MA#I%IME-LINES
,-u Musa and his fifty-three friends +anted to -ecome Muslims and +anted to see the Pro0het
Muhammad. (hen they +ere going on a shi0 on the 7ed-Sea from Hemen to Han-u ?the 0ort of
MedinaA a stormy-sea caught them. &he storm thre+ them to ,-yssinia coasts. &he 0assengers of
the shi0 landed there. ,nd they met the son of uncle of the Pro0het! Eafar ?-.,-u &ale-A. Eafar
and family had come to ,-yssinia as an immigrants from Macce years ago.?:A
&his e3am0le sho+s that the maritime-lines +ere -eing used for 0assengers and
trans0ortation of loads) a Je+ had come to Muhammad and asked him that) 2(hat is the gift of
that men ?or +omenAthey +ill enter the Paradise at first W4 &he Pro0het said 2a 0art of li/er of a
fish.4?#;A &his e3am0le also sho+s that the conce0ts of sea and sea-0roduct and shi00ing that the
0eo0le of Medina +ere ac=uaintance ?familiarA of those conce0ts.
%@E (ESC#I1%ION O0 MA#I%IME-LA? AN( I%S @IS%O#ICAL
EAOL6%ION

&he maritime la+ is all of the rules of sea-la+ that it arranges ?it 0uts in orderA connections
among 0ersons a-out traffic of merchant shi0s ?##A. In Islamic la+ +e see e3am0les of maritime
la+ es0ecially in the 0arts of Islamic la+ -ooks in the 2*ita--al EJaarah4 ?&he -ook of rentingA.
,nother -ranch is near close to this matter is 2the 0u-lic la+ of sea4 2the 0u-lic la+ of
maritime4. It arranges the relations of that ha00en -et+een 0erson and state or states.
,nother -ranch is 2international maritime la+4. &his la+Is su-Jects are inde0endence of high
seas! -orders of territorial +aters" -lockade the shi0s and loads of enemy ?in the +artimeA. ?#<A
,nother matter connected +ith the last t+o -ranches of la+s is 0ollution of seas. &his matter is
the most im0ortant for Islamic countries that most of the maJority of these countries ha/e got the
144
sea shores of thousands kilometers. For e3am0le! +ho +ill -ear the risk of damage in the
im0ortant 0ositions! for e3am0le) going ?transitionA in the channels! straits that threat thousands
of 0eo0le that they li/e on the -oth sides of channels! and lia-ility of shi0-o+ners.
&here are a lot of 0ro-lems in the modern maritime-la+ like these 0ro-lems. @n the other
hand! 5;Q of the shi00ing of the +orld is 0etroleum trans0ortation.1; Q of the tankers of the
+orld! 0our their -allasts to the tanks that they +ere 0re0ared for this +ork in the refineries! -ut
<; Q of the tankers 0our their -allasts to the seas and these tankers cause the 0ollution of the
seas.
&housands of tons crude 0etroleum are 0oured to the seas -y the great tankers of 0etroleum in
the shi0-+recks. Se/en years had lasted the tanker had ran on the rocks on the sea-shores of
England in March #:58. &he Englishmen and French -rought la+suits of indemnity against the
shi0-o+ner of the tanker! -ut the shi0-o+ner only si3 million dollars had 0aid! the damages had
reached hundreds of million dollars.?#3A
In March #:8%! a tanker ran aground ?strandedA in the strait of Magellan of South ,merica and
eighty-thousand tons of 0etroleum +ere 0oured to the sea. &his +reck knocked a hea/y--lo+ to
the fishing in Pacific es0ecially in Peru and trillions of micro organisms died.
In these matters! the Islamic Jurists had said only cthe o0en seas are dar-ul har-.4 ?.ar-ul Har-
means these lands are the lands of enemies or these lands are not the lands of Muslims.A &hat is
the o0en seas are not the 0ro0erty of Islamic countries and they had said that it is im0ossi-le to
disagree in the great ri/ers like &igris ?.eJlaA and Eu0hrates ?FuratA. It is o-/ious and normally
that our old Jurists could not think the 0ollution of the seas that had occurred after the industry
re/olution.
'ut today! the tragedy of tankers influences negati/e to the -iological li/ing creature to the fish
and shellfish es0ecially minute 0articles on the fish /ery harmful for human -ody. ,nd -ilges of
+ell +ere 0oured to the seas and oo6ing leakages of 0etroleum and li=uid fluids and for filling the
tankers or filling the shi0s! in this 0rocedures the 0ollution of 0etroleum is ten tons 0er shi0 in a
year.
Islam does not 0ermit these 0ollutions! the Pro0het Muhammad 0rohi-ited to urinate in the
calm +ater! fourteen centuries ago.?#%A
Se/enteen states that they ha/e sea-shore of the Mediterranean-Sea! they signed the ,greement
of 'arcelona and another agreement the Dnited 9ations the Conference of Maritime a+ +as
145
signed in #:1<. ,nd the com0anies of tankers ?of 0etroleumA esta-lished funds to 0ay the fines
?of 0enaltiesA that courts Judge after shi0-+recks.
,ll of the com0anies are the mem-ers of the fund of &o/alo0 and 1; Q of them are the
mem-ers of the Crystal Fund. ,ccording to those /oluntarily agreements of the com0anies! the
limit of indemnity! according to the tonnage of gross of the shi0 ?tankerA is #5; dollars 0er-ton or
at least for e/ery tanker is #5.1 million dollars.
In Islamic a+! some of the rules may -e admitted the 0rinci0le of reci0rocal of the
international la+ ?also in these indemnities.A Some +estern Jurists say2fine ?money as a 0enaltyA
and 0enalty of 0rison and cancelling of certificate of ?ca0tain or shi0o+nerA may -e thought in
maritime la+.4 'ut my o0inion is against to 0enalty of 0rison. &he 0enalty of financial crimes
does not ha/e to -e the 0enalty of 0rison. In Islamic la+ there is a rule that) 2,l Ea6a-u min Eens-
il ,mal4 that is 2&he 0unishment is ?has to -eA from the kind of crime. &he 0unishment of
economic crimes or financial crimes has to -e economic or financial.
,nother -ranch of maritime la+ is maritime criminal la+. &he rules of this la+! 0unishes some
crimes that these crimes take their characteristics from maritime la+. &hey are e3am0les as
o00onent acts to the rules of to hoist the flag! against acts to rules of secures the confidence of
life and 0ro0erty! the rules that 0unish the 0ersonnel of shi0s +ho acted against the rules of shi0...
In the Islamic la+ -ooks! +e see this sentence! in the 0art of >asama of criminal la+)
2If 2a killed man4 is found in a shi0! his >asama and -lood money are on the 0ersonnel of
the shi0 and 0assengers of the shi0. It is e=ual in res0onsi-ility! the o+ner of the shi0 and others.
?#$A
%@E @IS%O#Y
&he disagreements in this field +ere -eing sol/ed according the rules of fi=h ?Islamic la+A.
&here are t+o fat+a ?o0inion of Islamic Jurists on a legal matterA of ,-durrahiym ,ffandi. In
these fat+a) it +as 0ossi-le to 0ractice of the rules of a/erage. &hey had referred the fat+a and
0racticing of the rules of Islamic la+ it +as admitted that the rigger is com0ulsory to indemnity
for the loads of thro+n o/er-oard.
&here +as a Cham-er of Maritime in Istan-ul that its mem-ers +ere merchants ?0ro-a-ly
riggers or im0ortersA. If a disagreement occurred -et+een the rigger and 0ersonnel of the shi0!
146
these kinds of disagreements +ere -eing sol/ed in this cham-er. Some merchants used to -een
a00ointed as an ar-itrator. For some disagreements! one ar-itrator or! in some cases! t+o or three
e/en four ar-itrators used to sol/e the 0ro-lems. If the 0ro-lem +as not sol/ed! this time the
0ro-lem used to -een transferred to Islamic Shareyah Court.
&o a00ly of riggers to the committee of ar-itrators -efore ?the a00lying ofA Islamic Court is a
characteristic of Islamic la+. In Islamic la+ -ooks there is a 2Fasl al &ahkeym ?Part of
,r-itrationA4
(e see in these 0arts) 2the 0ro-lems of family4 or 20rofessional ?Jo-G+orkGindustrialA 0ro-lems4.
&he -oth sidesB claimant and defendant may a00ly to the committee of ar-itrators. &his institution
is a factor that reducesGdecreases the num-er of la+suits in the Islamic courts.
In the time of Sultan ,-dul-,6i6 ?#15#-85A! the Court of Maritime +as esta-lished in
Istan-ul. In the other cities of seashore the Commercial Courts +ere interested in the la+suits of
maritime-trading.
*anunnama-i &eJarat-i 'ahreyya ?&he a+ of Maritime-&radingA is a translation of the Second
'ook of Commercial Code of France. E3ce0t a-out 0assengers that this section is a-sent in the
Code of France! this 0art had -een +ritten from the Code of 9etherland and of Cermany. ,fter
that the Study of MaJallah has got a little kno+ledge a-out maritime-trading. 2&he Code of
Maritime4 after the colla0se of cali0hate of @ttoman Em0ire! in the 0eriod of &urkish 7e0u-lic!
is the translation of the Fourth 'ook of Cerman Commercial Code. If +e notice the a-o/e
historical 0rocess! -efore the esta-lishing of laicism in &urkish 7e0u-lic! laic codes ?from
+estern countriesA had entered to the @ttoman Cali0hate Em0ire.
%@E )6#I(ICAL 1OSI%ION O0 %@E S@I1
&here are some dis0utes a-out the Juridical 0osition of the 2shi0.4 Current &urkish ci/il la+
deems 2shi04 as a mo/a-le 0ro0erty -ut in e3ecution in mortgage and in 0erforming the usufruct
admits as a real estate. &he maJority of Islamic JuristsB imagines the shi0 as a mo/a-le 0ro0erty
and they com0are shi0 to animals ?in trans0ortation like horse or muleA that these animals carry
loads. Imam Malik ?leader scholar of Malikis that one of the -iggest Sunni Islamic la+ schoolsA
admits 2shi04 as areal estate. If +e admit shi0 as a real estate this time +ill -e another matter that
if it is 0ossi-le on the shi0 2the right of shuf Bah ?0reem0tionA or not. Some scholars say that there
147
is shuf Bah in e/ery thing. &hey sho+ as a 0roof that the sentence of the Pro0het Muhammad in
&erme6ey ?hadith -ookA that Muhammad said) 2Shuf Bah is in e/ery thing4 Some scholars say
e3ce0tion animal from mo/a-le 0ro0erties that they say it is 0ossi-le shuf Bah in animals. ,lso
the scholars of the Kahereyyah ?schoolA say) 2shuf Bah is 0ossi-le in a lot of 0ro0erties include
animals.4
%@E #IBBE# AN( %@E CA1%AIN
@ne of the main conce0ts of the Maritime a+ is 2rigger4. 7igger corres0onds to the
merchant of land-trading. &o -e a rigger! it is necessary to -e the o+ner of a shi0. Indi/idual or
cor0orate -odies! com0anies e/en the states may -e rigger. Islamic Maritime a+ also says
similar conditions for rigger. In &urkish &rading a+ there is another conce0t that it is 2the
0ur/eyor of shi0 management4. &his is a 0erson ?or a cor0orate -odyA +hich he uses this shi0 for
maritime trading. &he shi0 o+ner +ho let out on hires this shi0 and earns money +ith this
renting! he is ?no+A not a rigger! he is a ca0italist that gains money from his ca0ital ?shi0A. (e
also see this conce0t ?the 0ur/eyor of shi0 managementA in Islamic la+. In Islamic renting ?la+A
-ooks! +e find) a renter of a /essel may make an agreement +ith the o+ner of the /essel in detail!
this -oth may +rite item -y item and an item in the form of 2..+ho +ants to use ?this /esselA he
may use..4 may -een 0ut! in result of this item! another one ?or com0anyA may use this /essel.
&he most im0ortant 0erson after rigger is ca0tain. In /oyage! the ca0tain is the only dominant
0erson. It is necessary in a shi0! to 0rotect the 0u-lic order and to 0erform some 0u-lic affairs
+hile the shi0 is on the high seas that the shi0 is ?no+A out of the influence of the state! an
authority has to do these affairs that this authority is ca0tain. Ca0tain can use force to the 0ersons
on the shi0! he can confine the diso-edient 0ersons to an a00ro0riate-0lace or remo/e from shi0!
look for their clothing or their luggage. &he ca0tain also may kee0 the 0ersonnel luggage of the
shi0! he may not gi/e these things to them! he may command to catch the 0ersonnel that they
esca0ed from the shi0. ,lthough these authorities for ca0tain can not -een found in the Islamic
maritime la+ -ut Islamic la+ also has to gi/e this authority to the ca0tain -ecause the /oyages on
shi0s ?e/en on the oceansA are full of dangerous in +inter and summer. ?&here is an <5th article in
MaJallah that 2S0ecial ?indi/idualA damages are 0referred for 0re/ent the general damages4A
148
&o act or -eha/e 2as a 0ro/ident and cautious ca0tain4 for e/ery ca0tain is com0ulsory in all
affairs. He is res0onsi-le that ha00ened damages for his faulty acts.
In the 0ast! the ca0tain used to carry loads in his o+n account. &here +as not any rigger out of
ca0tain. 'ut in the historical e/olution the ca0tain -ecame as an em0loyee ?from his historical
0ost of em0loyerA. From this direction! the ca0tain is an 2,ceyr-i khas4 ?0ri/ate ?for his
em0loyerA la-orerA e/en in a sentence of Pro0het Muhammad 2...al *ha6en-ul ,meyn...4
?7es0onsi-le-0rotecti/e +ith a com0letely authorityA
In the a-o/e matters! the +estern la+ and Islamic la+ tell the similar statements. In addition to!
in +estern la+! there is an authority for ca0tain that he can sell the shi0 in some e3traordinary
cases. In the 0ositions that! the continuing of the /oyage is im0ossi-le and in /ery hard cases that
it is not found any solution e3ce0t selling of the shi0 and the shi0 is far from the riggerBs agent or
com0any. (e do not find this authority of the ca0tain in Islamic maritime la+. May ,ceyr-i khas
?0ri/ate la-orerA sell the 0ro0erties of his em0loyer +ithout his 0ermission.
'ut if +e think on this 0ro-lem ?in Islamic la+A) if the rigger gi/es an authority or 0rocuration
?0ro3yA that the ca0tain can sell the shi0 in some e3traordinary cases! it is not a 0ro-lem
according to Islamic la+. 'ut if there is not any authority or 0ro3y and the ca0tain can not
communicate +ith the rigger +ith tele0hone ?fa3! e mail etc.!A or the rigger ?agentA a/oids talking
the ca0tain ?a reason may -e much de-t of the com0any or -ankru0tcyA! in that case! +hat does
the ca0tain doW ,nd! the 0ersonnel of the shi0 or the 0assengers may -e in difficult conditions.
?May -eA &he 0ersonnel of the shi0 are far from their o+n countries and ha/e not got any money
for returning their country and the rigger is not interested in the 0ro-lems of the shi0! if he is
careless ?and it is 0ossi-le! today! to ask the 0osition of the rigger from the em-assy of the
country of the riggerA according to Islamic la+) the authority of the selling of the shi0 has to -e
gi/en to the ca0tain.
A#%ICLES A,O6% MA#I%IME %#ANS1O#% IN MA)ALLA@
In the +estern countries la+s a-out maritime had -een codificated /ery late. &he maritime
la+s of S+eden! .enmark and 9or+ay in #11#-:3! Finland in #183! Ea0an in #1:: after #:##!
Cermany in #15# after #1:8! 9etherland in #131! Italy in #11<! S0ain #11$! Portugal #111. &here
+as a Islamic la+ study in the @ttoman Em0ire at the same 0eriod. &his study +as named
149
MaJallah-i ,hkam-i ,dleyyah ?'ook of Eudicial EudgmentsA. 'ut there is a su0erficial study
a-out maritime la+ in MaJallah. &he reason of this! there +as a *anunnama-i &eJarat-al
'ahreyya ?Maritime-&rading Code that +as a translation of the second -ook of Code of &rading
of FranceA +as in effect.
&he first statement a-out maritime-trading is the <;:th article of MaJallah. It is +ritten in this
article) 2It is non-/alid to sell a thing that its deli/ering is not 0ossi-le4 and as an e3am0le +e see
in this article) 2it is non-/alid to sell a ro+--oat that it +as sunk into the sea and it is im0ossi-le
to take out this ro+--oat4 In the <<;th article of MaJallah) 2, ro+--oat is full of fire-+ood! it is
0ossi-le the +holesale of this load4
(e ha/e to 0oint out Oagain- in classical times! the maJority of Islamic Jurists com0are shi0 to
the animals of carry loads. (e can estimate the some articles of MaJallah from this stand-0oint.
In this form" according to <:#st article! it is said that) 2&he shi0 -rought the load! +here does this
shi0 unload its loadW Is it to the 0ort of the city or the +harf of the com0anyW ?If the com0any has
got a 0ri/ate +harfA. In this case 2the tradition ?common usageA of this city is considered4.
,nother matter on maritime trans0ortation is the time of taking of -uyer the load from the
seller. In the <:3rd article) 2If 0ro0erty is ruinedG0erished -efore the -uyer takes it! indemnity is
for the seller4. &he seller is res0onsi-le for the load to deli/er it to the shi0. 'ut if the 0urchaser
does not 0ay the money! the seller makes ?+ritesA a consignment-note +ith ca0tain after deli/ered
the load to the shi0. &he seller takes a co0y of this consignment-note from ca0tain and gi/es it to
the -ank. &his -ank o0ens F-ank creditB ?letter of creditA for the -uyer ?recei/erA and the -ank
0ays the money of the load to the seller. In this 0rocess! there is not any reason to a disagreement
-et+een t+o sides. &he seller deli/ers the load to the shi0 according to -uyerBs demands and
takes the money ?from -ankA. Is there any o-Jection in this 0rocess according to Islamic la+W
@nly the -ank ?factorA is seen as an instrument of interest system. 'ut -ank is only a
mediatorGagent in this 0rocess.
In the 311th article ?of MaJallahA! it is mentioned a-out the -uilding of shi0. 2,nyone agree on
a 0rice +ith a car0enter to -uild a shi0. &he length! +ideness and its other s0ecialties are said ?or
+rittenA in the agreement. &his is a com0act of istisna ?orderedGcustom-madeA.4 &his Judgment is
the same in the +estern la+.
In the %<<nd article) 2a -oat-man of +harf4 is mentioned. 2&he -oat-man of a +harf is an
2,cer-i mushtarak4 ?an inde0endent +orkerA that +orks for e/eryone ?like tailor or dyer of
150
cottonsA -ut a man rent a -oat and -oat-man to go a 0lace! this time the -oat-man is acer-i khas
?0ri/ate la-orerA4
In the %38th article) 2(ith taatey renting ?renting +ithout any con/ersation -et+een -oth
sidesA is 0ossi-le! if the fare is o-/ious for e/eryone! for e3am0le for 0acket--oat or the -oat of
+harf ?that its fare is kno+n e/ery-odyA. &he 0assenger gi/es this fare! if the fare is not fi3ed this
time the 0assenger gi/es aJr-i mesl4 ?the fare that is 0aid generally in the sectorA that the other
o+ners of the 0acket--oats or -oats take from their 0assengers.A ?Sho00ing in su0ermarkets
?+ithout con/ersationA is an e3am0le for FtaateyBA
&here is a 2com0letely-charter4. It is a kind of renting of a shi0 for e3am0le to trans0ortation of
ore or coal. In this kind of trans0ortation! the kind of load has to -een said ?%$3rd articleA! the
shi00er shi00ing agent 0ro/es right to take the fare after trans0ortation ?%5:th articleA! in the
renting of a shi0 Oin a fi3ed time- if this ?fi3edA time is o/er -ut the /oyage is going on! in this
0osition! the time of the renting goes on to the shore.
#EN% A YAC@%

2If a man rents a yacht or cutter -oat or a shi0 from a com0any -ut the o+ner of the /essel says)
2the renter +ill not go out from this distance and Fa 0osition of out of re0airB occurs or a -roken!
the renter 0ays this damage4 ?com0aring to the trans0ortation of horse or cartA ?article $%8A
In these renting! it is necessary to say to 0oint out the name of city like .ahran! not the name
of region likes ,ra- Culf ?,rt.! $%<A. If the /essel -ecomes out of order during the /oyage! the
renter cancels the renting and 0ays an aJr-i mesl to the o+ner of the /essel ?,rt.! $3:A. , man
rents a 0acket--oat for 0assengers! it is for-idden for him to load this /essel load! -ut if he loads
and damage occurs in the /essel! the renter 0ays this damage ?,rt.! $$;A. In these renting! Is there
any damage -y reason of -ad-use of renter or -ad-use of the ca0tain of the renterW &he renter
0ays the damage ?,rt.! 5;<-3A
, distance that arri/al lasts at least t+o days! -ut renter uses the /essel -ad ?at full ?to0A s0eed!
continuous" or fatigues of engineA and arri/es in one day -ut a damage occurs in the /essel! the
renter 0ays this damage ?,rt.! 1#%A
, shi0 anchors and tided to the +harf! o-eying the rules of maritime! -ut +ith a great storm or
+ith another effect or influence! this shi0 runs into a shi0 on the sea or runs into some things on
151
the land ?residence etc.A and occurs damage! the rigger does not 0ay the damage! -ecause! there is
not any e/il intent and he took the necessary 0recautions.
In the 2 &arey=-i ,mm4 that is a kind of com0ulsory-route like the strait of Istan-ul! if a shi0
does not o-ey the rules of this strait and occurs damage! +ho -reaks the rules 0ays the damage.
?,rt.! :3%-$A
, shi0 is tided to a +harf of a 0erson or +harf of a com0any +ithout 0ermission and this shi0
runs into a shi0 of the o+ner of +harf and damage occurs! the damage is 0aid -y the shi0 of tided
+ithout 0ermission. 'ut a shi0 is tided to the +harf of the country ?o-eying the maritime rulesA
and runs into another shi0! or! t+o shi0s anchored to the +harf of the country or t+o shi0s
anchored in the high seas and runs into each other and damage occurs! no one 0ay the damage.
?,rt.! :31-3:A
In the #.;#8 the article! MaJallah acce0ts the o0inion of Hanafi school ?sectA and says) there is
not shuf Bah ?0reem0tionA in shi0.
&here is an interesting 0ro-lem in the #.;8$th article) the riggers of a shi0 let the shi0 to a renter
+ithout 0ermission of the other 0artners and in this /oyage a damage or a loss of management ?in
res0ect of monetaryA +ho 0ays this damage or loss of moneyW In these 0ositions! ho+ the ca0tain
?or su0er-cargoA actsW ?Su0er-cargo) 0erson on a merchant shi0 +ho manages the sale of the
cargo! etc. he is the 0ro3y ?re0resentati/eA of the riggerA.
, shi0 has got a lot of o+ner! this shi0 is rented and some money comes from trading. Some
o+ners take the money of ?their sharesA -ut one of the o+ners does not take the money. (hat
shall they doW ?In the ##1%th articleA
, shi0 -ecame old ?got old in ser/iceA. It is necessary to re0air to s0end some money. 'ut one
of the riggers does not gi/e any money. In this 0osition! the Islamic Judge may gi/e three or si3
months and the Judge may say to this rigger 2if you do not gi/e this money! I +ill sell your share4
?,rt.! #.3<;A
%@E %@I#( 1A#%
CONCE1%S AN( S6,)EC%
A5 )OIN%-AAE#ABE
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In a /oyage! the relation is -ased on a shi0 during a /oyage! the o+ners of loads and o+ners of
freight charge. &here is a coo0erati/e-ad/antage and 0rofit in the ending of a /oyage in the
safety. In a cyclonic storm! to 0re/ent sinking of a loaded-shi0! some loads are thro+n out or
some fuel or other materials to the sea. @r if the /oyage lasts much more from normal-time and
the shi0 is on the high seas and there is not any fuel) in this condition to -urn some loads or some
other materials of the shi0 in the cauldron to a/oid the similar dangers and to 0ay for sa/ing
ser/ices. @r to damage some loads +hen the e3tinguishing a fire in the shi0.
,ll in these ?a-o/eA 0ositions! it is an inJustice action to make undergo to the interested firm
?or 0ersonA all of the damage. ,nd in +estern la+ the conce0t of 2Joint ?coo0erati/eA-a/erage4
+as -orn.
,fter the sal/ation ?from storm or fire etc.A the damage and e30enses ha/e to -e shared
-et+een ?the o+ner ofA the shi0 ?and the o+ner ofA the loads and the /alue of freight.
In the la+ of maritime! +e see &he Customs of 7hodes. &he Customs of 7hodes +ere the
common rules in the maritime trade of Mediterranean. &o 0rotect from the strong storms! to
thro+ some of the load of the shi0 to the sea or to thro+ some of the sets of ?materialsA shi0 and
in the 0osition of to 0ay ransom to the 0irates...in these conditions the damages and e30enses
+ould ha/e -een shared out according to the Customs of 7hodes. &he tradesmen of 7oman
Em0ire a00lied to the Em0eror Claudius and the Senate of 7oman Em0ire decreed the Customs
of 7hodes in $3 CE. ,fter that! the rules a-out coo0erati/e a/erage are seen in the .ecree of
Maritime of France in #51# CE. &hese rules took their 0laces almost in the Code of Commercial
a+ in #1;8. &he Coo0erati/e ,/erage is seen in the modern times in the Code of Commercial
a+ of Prussia.
(hereas the famous Islamic Jurist I-n Ha6m ?from S0ainG,ndalusiaA that his death +as #;53
CE! in his famous Islamic la+ -ook ,l Muhalla! and another famous Islamic Jurist I-n >udama
that his death +as in #<13 CE! in his famous -ook ,l Mugney! they -oth mentioned this su-Ject.
&hey -oth said) In the sinking of a shi0! if it is feared! some of the load is casted. &he o+ners of
these loads! if they cast the loads to the sea they ha/e not got any right to demand the /alue
?+orthA of the loads. First of all! it is necessary! according to Islamic la+! to cast the loads of
+ithout soul. ?Nn Islam animals and mankind ha/e got soulsA ,fter that! if it is feared to sinking
the shi0! the animals are casted to the sea. &he human -eings are not casted. If one of the
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0assengers says to an o+ner of a load 2cast your load to the sea4 and the o+ner of the load casts
on this manBs order! the 0rice of the load is not 0aid. 'ut this 0assenger if days 2cast it! I +ill 0ay
you its /alue4! this 0assenger 0ays his share ?that the /alue of this casted load is di/ided to the
num-er of 0assengers.A
,lso if this 0assenger says 2cast it to the sea! all of us +ill 0ay you its /alue4! this 0assenger
0ays the com0lete /alue of this load. 'ut if the other 0assengers hear this sentence of the
0assenger -ut they stay in silence! they do not say anything! they do not 0ay any money. 'ut if
they sho+ consent ?that is! if they say for e3am0le 2okay4A this time! all of them 0ay.
If it is feared to sinking a shi0 from a trou-le in the sea! the hea/iest load is casted to the sea!
first of all. &he other 0assengers and the o+ners of the loads in the shi0! they do not 0ay anything
to the o+ner of the hea/iest load. 'ut according to Imam Malik ?great scholar and founder of
Malekey SchoolA the casted load to the sea! if this load is a commercial load! it is necessary to
0ay its /alue to its o+ner. 'ut if this load is a kind of food! it is not necessary to 0ay an
indemnity. Imam MalikBs this o0inion is interesting o0inion -ut I think it is in/alid in the modern
+orld.
'ut according to Kahiris) if the cast of the hea/iest load +ill -e trou-le and +ill take ?lastA a
long time ?to thro+ outA and if they fear the sink of shi0! this time the load of the lighter in +eight
+ill -e casted to the sea.
,5 ACCI(EN%S ON %@E SEAS
In our time! the shi0s and their tonnages ha/e -ecome /ery -ig. In the sinking! huge damages!
loss of money! loss of 0ro0erties! loss of loads and sometimes loss of casualties may ha00en. &he
causes of the sea-accidents sometimes are from natural e/ents like fogs! mists! storminess!
sometimes technical 0ro-lems like o/er s0eed! the errors of maneu/ers! the errors of courses
?routesA and the -reakdo+ns of machine ?of the shi0A and the -reakdo+ns of rudder that they are
une30ected and ine/ita-le. &he accidents of sea are t+o 0arts that are the faulty accidents and
non-faulty accidents.
If the ca0tain ?of the shi0A acts as a ca0tain of cautious and follo+s the 0re/enti/e rules and
takes the necessary 0recautions and after all these! if the accident occurs! this is a non-faulty
accident. In non-faulty accidents! +ho 0ays the damagesW Interested-side 0ays the damage. &he
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rigger 0ays the damage of the shi0! the o+ner of the load 0ays the damage of the load! the
0assengers 0ay the damages ?occur to ?inA their -odiesA! and also interested-man ?sideA 0ays their
?otherA losses.
In the accident in +hich the cause of the accident is unkno+n and uncertain! according to the
*anunnama al &eJarat-al 'ahreyya ?&he .ecree of Maritime &radeA) 2the riggers are res0onsi-le
at the rate of their shi0s.4 ,ccording to the Code of &rading of France! it is said) 2the riggers are
res0onsi-le on a fifty-fifty -asis.4
In Islamic la+! a contem0orary Islamic Jurist Hayraddun *araman says) 2@ne of the ca0tain of
t+o shi0s! if he is faulty! for e3am0le) it +as 0ossi-le to sto0 his shi0 or it +as 0ossi-le to turn the
direction the shi0Bs course -ut he did not do and ?orA he had not got com0lete instruments and
0ersonnel ?some instruments and 0ersonnel in the shi0 +ere a-sentA the ca0tain 0ays the
indemnity. ,nd ?for e3am0leA one of the shi0 is motionless and the other is going! ?or in the
ri/ers) one of the shi0 is in the direction of current ?flo+A and the other shi0 is on the o00osite
directionA the indemnity is 0aid from the ca0tain of going ?and the ca0tain on the direction of
currentA ?-ut this ca0tain is faulty alsoA.
If the accident occurs from the reason of ine/ita-le e/ents! for e3am0led -ecause of storm! -oth
of the o+ners of the shi0s do not 0ay any indemnity. In the other e/ents! the indemnity is
com0ared to the accidents of land.
C5 %@E MA#I%IME INS6#ANCE
In +estern +orld! the conce0t of insurance +as -orn from the o/erseas trade. &he oldest
maritime-insurance 0olicy! its date #3%8 CE and it had -een +ritten in Italian in Cenoa. ,nother
maritime-insurance 0olicy ha/e -een hidden in the 'ritish ,dmiralty .e0artment that its date is
#$%8 CE. 'ut Ed+ard loyd +ho had done the insurance! as an esta-lishment! he +as a Je+ that
he had got a coffee-house in &o+er OStreet in ondon. loyd -egan this Jo- in #555. (hen he
died in #8#<! he had de/elo0ed his Jo-.
In +estern +orld and in Islamic +orld the insurance system had not de/elo0ed for centuries.
&he reason of this! the inculcations of religious men that 2(hat Cod +rote! it occurs4. In the
@ttoman Em0ire the maritime insurance +as acce0ted /ery late. 7eligious and social reasons
influenced this delay. ,t the end! a fat+a ?o0inion of an Islamic JuristA +as decreed from the
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.e0artment of Shaykh-al Islam ?Shaykh-al Islam +as the official of the most su0erior scholar of
@ttoman Em0ire! he +as the third man in the @ttoman 0rotocol after Sultan ?PadishahA and
Crand Li6ier ?Sadra6am.A In this decree 2e/ery 0erson has to 0rotect his 0ro0erty that these
0ro0erties are gi/en -y Cod.4 &he first Judgments of insurance! +e see! in the *anunnama
&eJarat-al 'ahreyya ?&he .ecree of Maritime &radeA of #15%. ,nd in #:;5 +as added <$ articles
a-out the other su-Jects of insurance system and these amendmentsB source +as the maritime
insurance.
,CC@7.I9C &@ IS,MIC ,(! the maJority of Islamic Jurists still look to the insurance
system +ith dou-ts. &he Islamic trade system has -een /ery sensiti/e a-out sus0icion
?uncertaintyA of interest. In Islam! interest-free system is for-idden. &o reali6e the /alues
?0remiumsA in interest-free system is not a00ro0riate according to Islam. ,nd also there are some
other 0ro-lems in modern insurance system that is for-idden according to Islamic rules. &hatBs
+hy to de/elo0 the system of coo0erati/e-a/erage +ill -e the more a00ro0riate for Muslim
sailors and tradesmen.
(5 %@E #IB@% O0 1A?N
&he +estern maritime la+ gi/es a right of kee0ing ?0a+nA to the o+ner of the shi0 on the load
?cargoA. ?In some conditions) for e3am0le! the customer did not 0ay the 0rice of trans0ortationA In
Islamic la+! on the contrary! there is not any right kee0ing the load. If the rigger kee0s the load
and the load is ruined! the rigger 0ays the damage ?/alueA of the load.
E5 LOAN ON ,O%%OM#Y
&he loan on -ottomry is a taking loan of the ca0tain ?that he is the Judicial res0onsi-le for the
shi0A that he 0a+ns shi0 or freight or load or one of them or more and on condition that 0remium
to taking of creditor his right. For this 0ur0ose the ca0tain +rites a -ond of loan on -ottomry and
signs. &he amount of money is +ritten and 2to 0ay a 0remium4 is undertaken. &he 0remium is a
fi3ed 0ercent of the ca0ital and is higher than la-or.
oan on -ottomry is an interest-free 0rocedure. &hatBs +hy Islamic la+ does not 0ermit this
kind of loan. 'ut in e3traordinary conditions! if the rigger of the shi0 does not stand as 0rotector
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or 0atron and the shi0 is far from its agentBs country ?com0anyBs countryA and the ca0tain can not
find any ca0ital to return to the country! in this condition of o-ligation! the ca0tain may sign a
-ond of loan on -ottomry.

CONCL6SION
,t the end of this study +e sa+ a lot of su-Jects of modern maritime la+ that they also can -e
found in the -ooks of Islamic la+. Es0ecially in the 0arts of Islamic fi=h -ooks in *ita- al-IJarah
?&he easingG7enting 'ookA *ita--al 'ayB ?&he &rading ?'uying and SellingA'ookA *ita- al-
ShufBah ?&he 'ook of Pre-Em0tionA and *ita--al 7ahn ?&he 'ook of Pa+nA.
(e -elie/e that the studies a-out Islamic Maritime a+ +ill -e /ery useful to codificate of this
-ranch in Islamic la+ and for Islamic culture and it +ill gi/e useful thoughts to (estern a+.
?#A&he Cha0ter of *ahf! /! 5;-1<
?<A&he Cha0ter of Saffat! /! #3:-%8
?3A&he Cha0ter of Hud! /! 38
?%A,l MuBJam-ul Mufahras
?$AMuslim! Sahih! *.HaJJ! '. %3! Hd! <$:
?5AI-n MaJeh! Sunan! *.&ahara
?8A'ukhari! Sahih! *.'uyu! '.##<" Muslim! *.Musa=at! '.#3
?1A'ukhari! *.Maga6i" Muslim! *.Sayd +a-6 Ka-aih! '!%
?:AMuslim! *.MasaJed! '!3:
?#;A'ukhari! *.7i=a=
?##ACaga &ahir! &he History of Maritime a+! /!#! 0!3
?#<AI-id! 0! <
?#3AKilelioglu Hilal! egislati/e Precautions for Pre/ent &he Pollution @f Seas! 0! $#<
?#%A&irmi6i! Sahih! /!#! 0!#;; ?+e see this sentence in all of the hadith -ooksA
?#$A,l Marghinani! al-Hedayah! /! %! 0! <<#" al-Ma/sili! al-Ikhtiyar! /! $! 0! $8" .amat!
al-MaJma al-,nhur! /! <! 0! 51%
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,I,LIOB#A1@Y
'ilmen Dmar 9asuhi! Istilahat-i Fikhiyye *amusu ?>amus-al Estelahat-al Fi=heyyaA! #:1$
'ukhari Muhammad -. Ismail! ,l Eamiu al-Saheyh! #<1: ,H
Caga &ahir! .eni6 Hukuku ?&he Maritime a+A! #::;
Ceker @rhan! Fikih .ersleri ?&he essons of Fi=hA! #::#
.amad! Shaykh6adeh ,-durrahman! MaJma-al ,nhur fi Sharh al-Multa=a al-,-hur! #3#8 ,.H
*araman Hayreddin! Islam Hukuk &arihi ?&he History of Islamic a+A! #:1:
MaJallah! #3<: ,.H.
Muhammad Fuad ,-du al-'a=i! al-MuBJam al-Mufahras
Marghinani 'urhanuddun! al-Hedaya! #:5$
Ma+sili ,-dullah -. Mahmud! al-Ikhtiyar! #:1;
Sofuoalu Mehmed! Sahih al-Muslim and its &ranslation! #:8%
Sha+kani! al-9ayl al-,+tar! #:8#
&irmi6i Muhammad -. Isa! Sahih al-&irmi6i!
Ha/asca Cemalettin! &he Maritime a+! #::3
Kilelioglu Hilal! egislati/e Precautions &o Pre/ent the Pollution of Seas! #::#


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