THERMOELECTRIC COOLER

THERMOELECTRI C COOLERS
ABSTRACT
Thermoelectric coolers also called thermoelectric modules or Peltier coolers. They are
semiconductor based electronic components that function as small heat pumps. On applying a
low DC voltage to the thermoelectric module, heat moves through the module from one side to
the other. One face of the module is therefore cooled, while the other face simultaneously heats
up. This phenomenon can also be reversed by changing the polarity of the applied DC
voltage causing the heat to flow in the opposite direction. Thereby, a thermoelectric module may
be used for both heating and cooling which makes it highly suitable for precise temperature
control applications.
Conventional coolers used in homes and industries depend on refrigerants such as hydro fluoro
carbon, which is a threat to the ozone layer. On the other hand, thermoelectric coolers are
environment friendly, compact and affordable. Thermoelectric coolers are semiconductor based
devices. They have got several advantages like solid construction, quiet & reliable operation, no
CFCs, precise temperature control. A thermoelectric cooler permits lowering the temperature of
an object below ambient as well as maintaining the temperature of objects above ambient
temperatures. Thermoelectric coolers can be used for applications that require heat removal
ranging from milli-watts up to several thousand watts. Therefore they are used for the most
demanding industries such as medical, laboratory, aerospace, semiconductor, telecom, industrial,
and consumer. Uses range from simple food and beverage coolers for an afternoon picnic to
extremely sophisticated temperature control systems in missiles and space vehicles. A
thermoelectric cooler provide a solution that is smaller, weighs less, and is more reliable than a
comparatively small compressor system. It offers a convenient earth friendly alternative.
Researchers are working on improving the efficiency of thermoelectric devices, reducing their
cost and increasing their applications.


Submitted By:-
Kapil Agrawal
Regd NO- 1001217041


Electrical Engg.







1 Introduction
Although the principle of thermoelectricity dates back to the discovery of the Peltier effect in
1834[1], there was little practical application of the phenomenon until the middle 1950s. Prior to
then, the poor thermoelectric properties of known materials made them unsuitable for use in a
practical refrigerating device. It is only from the mid-1950s at which the major thermoelectric
material design approach was introduced by A.V.Ioffe, leading to the inventory of
semiconducting compounds such as Bi
2
Te
3
, which is currently used in thermoelectric coolers.
These materials made possible the development of practical thermoelectric devices for attaining
temperatures below ambient without the use of vapour compression refrigeration [1].
Thermoelectric coolers offer the potential to enhance the cooling of electronic module packages,
to reduce chip operating temperatures or to allow higher module powers. Thermoelectric coolers
also offer the advantages of being compact, quiet, free of moving parts, and their amount of
cooling can be controlled by the current supplied. Unfortunately, compared to vapor-
compression refrigeration, they are limited in the heat flux that they can be accommodated and
exhibit a lower coefficient of performance (COP). These two limitations have generally limited
thermoelectric cooling to be used in broad expect [1].
In recent years there has been increased interest in the application of thermoelectric to electronic
cooling, followed by efforts to improve their performance through the development of new bulk
materials and thin film micro coolers.
2 Principle of operation
Peltier Effect- when a voltage or DC current is applied to two dissimilar conductors, a circuit
can be created that allows for continuous heat transport between the conductors junctions. The
dx dT
x
/
c
o =


Seebeck Effect- is the reverse of the Peltier Effect. By applying heat to two different conductors
a current can be generated. The Seebeck Coefficient is given by:
, Where c
x
is the electric field

Figure 1 Peltier Effect
The current is transported through the charge carriers (opposite to the electron flow). Heat trans-
fer occurs in the direction of charge carrier movement. Applying a current (e
-
carriers)
transports heat from the warmer junction to the cooler junction.
3 Construction
A typical Thermoelectric Module consists of the following components:
3.1 Thermoelectric Material: The materials used for this purpose are generally semiconductors.
They are the optimum choice to sandwich between two metal conductors because of the ability
to control the semiconductors charge carriers as well as increase the heat pumping ability. The
most commonly used semiconductor for electronics cooling applications is Bi
2
Te
3
because of its
relatively high figure of merit. However, the performance of this material is still relatively low
and alternate materials are being studied with possibly better performance.
Alternative materials include: Alternating thin film layers of Sb
2
Te
3
and Bi
2
Te
3
, Lead telluride
and its alloys, SiGe (Silicon Germanium), Materials based on nanotechnology.




Figure 2 A Typical Thermoelectric Module

3.2 Ceramic Plates: An electrical insulator is provided between the heats generating device and
the conductor to prevent an electrical short circuit between the module and the heat source. The
electrical insulator must have a high thermal conductivity so that the temperature gradient
between the source and the conductor is small. Ceramics like alumina are generally used for this
purpose.
3.3 TIM (Thermal Interface Material): This principle requires the heat to be transferred from
the object being cooled (or heated) to the Peltier module and heat must be transferred from the
Peltier module to the heat sink. Realistically, the interface between the Peltier module surfaces to
the object being cooled and to the heat sink will not be perfect. There will be peaks and valleys
in the surfaces resulting in tiny air pockets which conduct heat poorly. So it is required to place a
"thermal interface material" (TIM) between the Peltier module surfaces. These include mainly
silicone based greases, elastomeric pads, thermally conductive tapes, thermally conductive
adhesives, old fashioned zinc oxide silicone heat sink grease.
3.4 Heat Sink: A heat sink is required for either heating or cooling a thermal load. They are
employed either to collect heat (in heating mode) or dissipate collected heat into another medium
(e.g., air, water, etc.). Without such provisions, the TE device will be vulnerable to overheating.
Once TE device reaches the reflow temperature of the solder employed, the unit will be
destroyed. When the heat sink is exchanging heat with air a fan is usually required to minimize
the size of the sink required.
3.5 Uses of two type of Material (p and n type): A simple thermoelectric device can be made
with a single semiconductor pellet, but it can't pump an appreciable amount of heat through it. In
order to give a TE device greater heat pumping capacity multiple pellets are used together. The
initial attempt would be to simply connect them in parallel both electrically and thermally. While
this is possible, it is not suitable for a practical device. The drawback is that the typical TE
semiconductor pellet is rated for only a very small voltage as small as tens of mill volts so it can
draw a substantial amount of current. For example, a single pellet in an ordinary TE device might
draw five amps or more with only 60 mV applied, if connected in parallel in a typical 254 pellet
configuration, the device would draw over 1270 amps with the application of that 60 mV
(assuming that the power supply could deliver that much current).
The only realistic solution is to connect the semiconductors in series and doing so in a way that
keeps them thermally in parallel (i.e., pumping together in the same direction). Here we might
think to simply zigzag the electrical connections from pellet to pellet to achieve a series circuit.
This is theoretically workable however; the interconnections between pellets will create thermal
shorting that significantly compromises the performance of the device. Fortunately, there is
another option which gives us the desired electrical and thermal configuration while better
optimizing the thermoelectric effect. By arranging N and P-type pellets in a 'couple' (see Figure


3) and forming a junction between them with a plated copper tab, it is possible to configure a
series circuit which can keep all of the heat moving in the same direction.

Figure 3 N and P type pellet
As shown in the illustration, with the free (bottom) end of the P-type pellet connected to the
positive voltage potential and the free (bottom) end of the N-type pellet connected to the
negative side of the voltage, an interesting phenomenon takes place. The positive charge carriers
(holes) in the P material are repelled by the positive voltage potential and attracted by the
negative pole and the negative charge carriers (electrons) in the N material are similarly repelled
by the negative voltage potential and attracted by the positive pole of the voltage supply. In the
copper tabs and wiring, electrons are the charge carriers. When these electrons reach the P
material, they simply flow through the holes within the crystalline structure of the P-type pellet.
Thus the electrons flow continuously from the negative pole of the voltage supply, through the N
pellet, through the copper tab junction, through the P pellet, and back to the positive pole of the
supply. This happens because two different types of semiconductor material are being used. The
charge carriers and heat are flowing in the same direction through the pellets (bottom to top in
the figure 3). Using these special properties of the TE 'couple', it is possible to combine many
pellets together in rectangular arrays to create practical thermoelectric modules (see Figure 4).
These devices can not only pump appreciable amounts of heat but with their series electrical
connection are suitable for commonly available DC power supplies. Thus the most common TE
devices now in use connecting 254 alternating P and N-type pellets and can run from a 12 to 16
VDC supply and draw only 4 to 5 amps (rather than 1270 amps at 60 mV, for example).


Figure 4 Several P and N type pellets connected together


In fabricating devices with multi pellet arrays a means to mechanically hold everything together
must be provided. A solution to this is to mount the copper tabs to thin ceramic substrates; the
outer faces of the ceramics are then used as the thermal interface between the Peltier device and
the outside world.
4 Working
Figure in the next page explains the working of the thermoelectric device. Electrons can travel
freely in the copper conductors but not so freely in the semiconductor. As the electrons leave the
copper tabs and enter the hot side of the p-type, they must fill a hole in order to move through the
p-type. When the electrons fill a hole, they drop down to a lower energy level and release heat in
the process. Then, as the electrons move from the p-type into the copper conductor on the cold
side, the electrons are again taken back to a higher energy level and in the process they absorbs
heat. Next, the electrons move freely through the copper tabs until they reach the cold side of the
n-type semiconductor. Now when the electrons move into the n-type material they must boost up

Figure 5 Working of thermoelectric device
to a higher energy level in order to move through the n-type semiconductor. Heat is absorbed
when this occurs. Finally, when the electrons leave the hot side of the n-type, they can move
freely in the copper conductors. They drop down to a lower energy level and release heat in the
process. Thus the charge carriers, negative electrons and positive holes transfer heat.
5 Thermoelectric Design
There are various factors that have to be considered in designing thermoelectric module. These
are discussed below:
5.1 Figure of merit: The figure of merit represents the quality of performance of thermoelectric
material, sometimes it is multiplied by temperature. It is defined as:


k
Z

o
2
=



Where is the electrical resistivity, k is the thermal conductivity, and o is the Seebeck
Coefficient. So lower electrical resistivity and thermal conductivity higher the figure of merit.
These values are temperature dependent therefore the figure of merit is also temperature
dependent. P and N type material have different figures of merit and are averaged to determine
materials overall quality.
5.2 Condensation: This is the most serious fact that has to be taken in to account while
designing a TE device. A common problem with TE cooling is that condensation may occur
causing corrosion and eroding the TEs inherent reliability. Condensation occurs when the dew
point is reached. The dew point is the temperature to which air must be cooled at constant
pressure for the water vapor to start to condense. Condensation occurs because the air loses the
ability to carry the water vapor that condenses. As the airs temperature decreases its water vapor
carrying capacity decreases. Since TE coolers can cool to low and even below ambient
temperatures condensation is a problem. The most common sealant employed is silicon rubber.
Research has been performed to determine the most effective sealing agent used to protect the
chip from water. Four sealants were used to seal a TE cooling device and the weight gain due to
water entering the device measured. The best sealants should have the lowest weight gain.
5.3 Thermoelectric Performance: TE performance depends on the following factors:
1. The temperature of the cold and hot sides.
2. Thermal and electrical conductivities of the devices materials.
3. Contact resistance between the TE device and heat source or heat sink.
4. Thermal resistance of the heat sink.
The current yielding the maximum COP is given by:


The maximum COP is given by:


Where T
m
= (T
H
+T
C
)/2
The COP corresponding to the maximum heat pumping capacity is:


] 1 ) 1 [(
) )( (
2 / 1
+

=
m
c h n p
ZT R
T T
I
o o
|
] 1 ) 1 )[( (
] / ) 1 [(
2 / 1
1 2
1 2
2 / 1
1
max
+ +
+
= =
m
m
in
c
ZT T T
T T ZT T
W
Q
|
c H
c H c
q
T ZT
T T ZT ) ( 2 / 1
2

= |


The current corresponding to the maximum heat pumping capacity is:


A simplified way of determining the voltage and the heat load are given by:



Where V is the voltage and Q
c
is the heat load, N is the number of couples, L is the element
height. R thermal resistance, K thermal conductivity, seeback coefficient, I current required, A
area of the module.
5.4 Design methodology: There are various design methodology that is being adopted in out of
which Mollar design is mostly used.
Mollar design method: This method involves various steps and can be better explained by the
help of example. In this design a TE performance curve is used. The various steps involved are
discussed below
1. Calculations of total heat load, all the heat loads are to be taken in account. Let the heat loads
be as describe below. The heat loads are expressed in watts.

Type of heat load Example (watts)
Active load 8.0
Radiation load 0.2
Convective load 0.8
Conductive load 0.0
Total heat load 9.0

2. Defining the temperature of hot and cold side.
Temperature Example (
0
C)
Hot side (T
h
) 27
Cold side (T
c
) -8
DT (T
h
-T
c
) 35
Figure 6 Performance curve
R
T
I
c n p
q
) ( o o
=
R I T T K IT Qc
c H c n p
2
2 / 1 ) ( ) ( = o o
(

=
A
IRL
T T N V
c h
) ( 2 o


3. Determining the number of stages required. The minimum number of stages required is
selected from the table below. This should meet the required DT.
Stage DT
max
(Dry
N
2
@ 1 atm)
DT
max

(Vaccum)
1 64 67
2 84 91
3 95 109
4 - 115
5 - 121

4. After doing this an appropriate TEC is selected or designed.
4(a). Determining the ratio of DT/DT
max
DT (from step 2) 35
0
C
DT
max
(from step 3) 64
0
C
DT/DT
max
35
0
/64
0

4(b). A horizontal line is drawn on the performance graph corresponding to DT/DT
max
.

4(c). The optimum value of Q/Q
max
is obtained at the intersection of the horizontal line just
drawn and the diagonal optimum Q/Q
max
line. Interpolation between curves may be necessary.
Optimum value of Q/Q
max
is obtained to be 0.25 in this case.
4(d). The maximum value of Q/Q
max
is obtained at the intersection of the horizontal line (drawn
in step 4b) and the right vertical axis.
Maximum value of Q/Q
max
is obtained to be 0.45 in this case.
Note: maximum Q refers to the maximum heat the thermoelectric device can pump which will
occur when DT = 0.
4(e). Calculation of the optimum and maximum Q
max
. The total heat load obtained in step 1 is
divided by optimum and maximum value of Q/Q
max
.
Optimum value of Q/Q
max
= 9/0.25 = 36 watts
Maximum value of Q/Q
max
= 9/0.45 = 20 watts
For this example, let us assume maximum efficiency is desired. Thus, the 5.6 amp, 8.2 volt
cooler is selected, because between these two potential TECs, its Q
max
(30 watts) is closest to the
optimum Q
max
(36 watts).


4(f). Select or design a TEC from standard product list with Q
max
greater than the maximum Q
max
(20 watts in this example), but less than the optimum Q
max
(36 watts in this example). Keep in
mind that within this range a TEC with a Q
max
close to the optimum Q
max
will provide maximum
efficiency and will yield smaller and possibly less expensive TECs.
5.5 Improving TE performance: Various methods have been used to improve the performance
of TE coolers which are its major drawback. Examples: thin film coolers or multistage (bulk)
coolers.
5.5.1 Thin film coolers: Thin films are material layers of about one micrometer thickness.
Alternating layers of Sb
2
Te
3
(antimony telluride) and Bi
2
Te
3
(bismuth telluride) are used to
produce thin film TE coolers. An example is shown below where the highest power components
are mounted on a diamond substrate which would be the top or cold side substrate of a thin film
TE cooler. Power densities were found to be above 100W/cm
2
. Thin film coolers considerably

Figure 7 Thin film thermoelectric cooler
reduce the size of TE devices because the cooling density of a Peltier cooler is inversely
proportional to its length. Smaller size is desirable
5.5.2 Multistage Modules: When the desired temperature difference between the cold and hot
side cannot be obtained with a single stage module, or when the cold side temperature must be
lower than a one stage cooler will provide a multistage module may need to be applied.
Multistage modules are essentially single stage modules stacked up in a vertical pyramid shaped
array. As the number of stages increases, the minimum cold side temperature will decrease. Also,
increasing the number of stages increases the coefficient of performance for a given cold side
temperature.



Figure 8 Multistage Modules
The Figure below compares the three types of coolers bulk (multistage), thin film, and current.



Figure 9 cooling power densities for different power design
6 Advantages and disadvantages
Advantages
1. No moving parts make them very reliable; approximately 10
5
hrs of operation at 100
degrees Celsius, longer for lower temperature.
2. Ideal when precise temperature control is required.
3. Ability to lower temperature below ambient.
4. Heat transport controlled by current input.
5. Able to operate in any orientation.
6. Compact size makes them useful for applications where size or weight is a constraint.
7. Ability to alternate between heating and cooling.
8. Excellent cooling alternative to vapor compression coolers for systems that are sensitive
to mechanical vibration.
Disadvantages
1. Able to dissipate limited amount of heat flux.
2. Lower coefficient of performance than vapor-compression systems.
3. Relegated to low heat flux applications.

7 Application
The industries which use TE cooling are Electronics, Medical, Aerospace and
telecommunication and their applications are
1. Electronic enclosures
2. Laser diodes
3. Laboratory instruments, DNA synthesis, Blood analyzers, Tissue preparation
4. Temperature baths
5. Refrigerators


6. Telecommunications equipment
7. Temperature control in missiles and space systems, CCD/LED/Infrared detector cooling,
Night vision equipment
8. Heat transport ranges vary from a few mill watts to several thousand watts, however,
since the efficiency of TE devices are low, smaller heat transfer applications are more
practical.

8 Conclusion
A new dimension has been added to the cooling challenge by the requirement to reduce
operating temperatures to achieve enhanced speed. With the continued demand for improved
cooling technology to enhance the performance and reliability of CMOS applications,
thermoelectric cooling may be considered a potential candidate for cooling enhancement.
To use the equations, detailed information in terms of the parameters , , K, and R pertaining to
the thermoelectric module under consideration is required. Unfortunately, today only one
thermoelectric vendor provides such information in their data sheets. It is to be hoped that in the
future other thermoelectric vendors will also make such information available for users.
As shown in the example, the application of thermoelectric coolers could provide cooling
enhancement for a limited range of powers. Unfortunately, in many cases MCM powers may be
simply too high for current thermoelectric modules to handle effectively. The current figure of
merit, Z, of the available candidate materials, and the coefficient of performance (COP)
attainable with existing thermoelectric coolers, need to be increased.
Until and unless improvements can be made to enhance heat pumping capability and COP,
thermoelectric will not be a serious candidate for higher power electronic cooling applications. It
is hoped that the work being done on development of improved thermoelectric materials and thin
film thermoelectric will eventually alter this situation.

















9 References
[1]. Nolas, G.S., Slack, G.A., Cohn, J.L., and Schujman, S.B., The Next Generation of
Thermoelectric Materials, Proceedings of the 17th IEEE International Conference on
Thermoelectrics, PP. 294-297, 1998.
[2]. Tellurex (2002) The 12 Most Frequently Asked Questions About Thermoelectric
Cooling. Retrieved May 2006, http://www.tellurex.com/12most.html
[3]. Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia (May 2006). Semiconductor Retrieved May 2006,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor.