1

Joint Scientific Statement: Nuclear Power

TABLE OF CONTENTS:

PAGE 3: How does nuclear fission work? You should describe the process in general and then
describe the exact mechanism of one fission process (i.e. U-235 or Pu-239).
PAGE 3-4: Explain the meaning of E=mc
2
and the relevance of this relationship to nuclear
power. Include a sample calculation that is relevant to a nuclear fission power plant. Make sure
your explanation addresses the idea of conservation of mass and energy.
PAGE 4-8: How are radioactive materials for nuclear power plants mined, milled and enriched?
What are environmental and safety issues associated with the mining and refining of
nuclear fuel?
Where is uranium mined and approximately how much is available in the US? In the
World?
How much of our energy needs can uranium provide?
PAGE 8-10: Describe the design of a light water nuclear power plant. You description must
include the following elements: reactor, containment structure, primary coolant, secondary
coolant, tertiary coolant, fuel, fuel rods, control rods, turbine, heat exchanger, condenser,
generator, cooling towers, active safety features, passive safety features and may include a
comparison between boiling water reactors and pressurized water reactors.
PAGE 11-15: Describe the operating processes of a light water nuclear power plant. Your
description should include:
What is the fuel for light water nuclear reactors and what form does this fuel take?
How much energy does a typical power plant produce? How many homes can this serve?
How often fuel rods and control rods need to be replaced and how this process is
conducted?
How do power plant operators control the rate of power generation and how easy is it to
change power supply to meet demand?
What do power plant designers and operators do to ensure safety?
What is the lifespan of a typical light water reactor nuclear power plant? What is the
current status (age & condition) of the US nuclear power plant fleet?
What is the typical efficiency of a light water nuclear reactor?
PAGE 15-17: What safety risks accompany the use of nuclear power?
How much radiation is the surrounding environment subjected to from a properly
function nuclear power plant?
What risk for nuclear meltdown exists in light water reactors in the United States?
What safety features are being built into future light water reactors?
What are potential risks to nuclear power plants from events like natural disasters and
terrorist attacks?
PAGE 17-18: What is nuclear waste? Describe in general and then characterize the nuclear
waste of a standard light water reactor.
What radionuclides are typically in radioactive waste and in what concentrations?
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What are the half-lives of the radionuclides found in radioactive waste?
What are the types of decay the radionuclides in radioactive waste undergo? What are
their decay energies? You may describe the entire decay chain or only the most relevant
decay processes.
How much radioactive waste is produced by a typical light water reactor?
PAGE 18-19: What are environmental and safety considerations for the storage of nuclear
waste?
PAGE 20-21: What are emissions from nuclear power plants?
How have the emissions from nuclear power plants affected local air quality as compared
to other forms of energy production?
PAGE 22-27: Describe the science involved in global climate change and how it relates to
emissions from nuclear power plants and fossil fuel power plants.
What is the greenhouse effect and how is it related to global climate change?
What are greenhouse gases and what about their structure makes them greenhouse gases?
How has the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere changed over time?
What are some predictions of global climate change?
How do the emissions from energy production by nuclear power plants compare to that of
coal and of natural gas?
How is the combustion of fossil fuels related to global climate change?
PAGE 27-28: What are the best estimates for the purely financial cost of nuclear power
generated electricity?
What are the levelized costs per kWh?
What are fuel costs annually or per kWh? Construction costs for a new plant? Operating
and maintenance costs?



Riley Rifkin:
How does nuclear fission work? Describe the process in general and then describe the exact
mechanism of one fission process (i.e. U-235 or Pu-239).
Nuclear fission is the process of splitting an atomic nucleus into fission fragments. The products at the
end of the reaction are greater than the initial mass which creates lots of energy. Generally fission
fragments are in the form of smaller atomic nuclei and neutrons. Fissile nuclei are generally heavy atoms
with large numbers of nucleons. The fission process begins once neutrons have struck the nucleus and the
neutron is captured in the fission reactor (Farley). U-235 is the most commonly used fissile material. Here
is one reaction that can occur when the nucleus of the Uranium-235 is struck by a neutron and then split
apart causing a chain reaction (Nuclear):
1 neutron + U-235 U-236 Ba-141 + Kr-92 + 3 neutrons
3



"Physics of Uranium and Nuclear Energy." Physics of Uranium and Nuclear Energy. N.p., n.d. Web. 24
Apr. 2014.
"Nuclear Fission Product." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 23 Apr. 2014. Web. 24 Apr. 2014.
"Uranium-235 Fission." Uranium-235 Chain Reaction. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Apr. 2014.
Farley Visitors Center. "An Introduction to Fission & Fusion." Georgia Power. PowerPoint.
Uranium Fission Process. Photograph. Web. 25 Apr. 2014.

Explain the meaning of E=mc
2
and the relevance of this relationship to nuclear power.
Include a sample calculation that is relevant to a nuclear fission power plant. Make sure
explanation addresses the idea of conservation of mass and energy.
E=mc
2
tells us that a small amount of mass can be converted into a very large amount of energy. The E
stands for energy, the m stands for mass, and the c stands for speed of light in a vacuum which is a
universal constant. A very small amount of uranium can be converted to a great amount of energy because
it is being multiplied by the speed of light (Farley). Here, the law of conservation of mass is not shown
because a greater amount of pure energy is being produced from the initial reaction.
Sample calculation:
E = .004 kg of U-235 x 299,792,458
2
m/s
E = 2.8 x 10
11
J
The atomic mass of U-235 is 235.0439299 and based off of the nuclear fission reaction that it goes
through, 0.186033 amu of pure energy is created. With .004 kg of U-235, 2.8 x 10
11
J is calculated
into pure energy.

Farley Visitors Center. "An Introduction to Fission & Fusion." Georgia Power. PowerPoint.

Nolan Stowers:
How are radioactive materials for nuclear power plants mined, milled and enriched?
Radioactive materials are collected from three types of mining operations, open pit, underground and In
Situ Recovery (ISR). ISR mining involves dissolving radioactive materials such as uranium and
harvesting the solution that we then pump out of the ground. The orebody that contains the radioactive
materials must be permeable enough so that we can pump a dissolving agent into the ground. ISR
recovery of radioactive materials leaves very small amounts of tailings or surface disturbance, especially
compared to open pit or underground mines.
4

http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf27.html

Open pit mining, also known as strip mining, involves the heavy clearing of overburden to upwards of
400 feet deep into radioactive material deposits. The ore grades that contain uranium tend to hover around
0.5%, meaning very large open pits must be excavated in order to collect large amounts of radioactive
material.
Saskatchewan Schools

Underground mining is used to mine high concentrations of radioactive material from deposits that are
too deep to reach from open pit mining, or strip mining. The ore is drilled and blasted into small,
manageable rubble that can be transported to the surface and taken to a mill.
5

Cameco Corp.'s filing to US Securities & Exchange Commission, March, 2008

For both open pit and underground mines the milling process is the same. The collected ore from the
mines is transported to a mill and crushed up into fine fragments. Water is then added to these fragments,
creating a type of slurry that sulphuric acid or another alkaline solution is added to, this allows for the
release of radioactive substances from the collected ore. This yellow-cake uranium can then be
transported to an enrichment site.



Energy Information Administration, Office of Coal, Nuclear, Electric and Alternate Fuels.


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At the enrichment site the uranium, which is now uranium 238, is turned into a gaseous state by reacting
it with hydrofluoric acid. The uranium being reacted with the hydrofluoric acid typically consists of
around 99% uranium 238, but for the purpose of creating power we need uranium 235. The uranium that
has been reacted with hydrofluoric acid creates the gas uranium hexafluoride, which is put into a
centrifuge. A centrifuge is a gas chamber that spins very quickly (upwards of 100,000 rpm) and separated
the U-238 from the U-235. This occurs because the uranium hexafluoride containing U-238 is heavier
than the U-235 that is contained in the uranium hexafluoride and the U-238 is pulled from the U-235,
leaving the U-238 surrounding the U-235 in the centrifuge. We then react the Uranium hexafluoride
gasses with calcium. Calcium reacts with the fluorine, neutralizing it and leaving us with U-238 and U-
235 separately.

http://www.nrc.gov/materials/uranium-recovery/extraction-methods/comparison.html
This site has a section on employee health and sustainability
http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/nuclear-fuel-cycle/mining-of-uranium/uranium-mining-overview/
Oak Ridge National Laboratory

"In Situ Leach (ISL) Mining of Uranium." World Nuclear Association. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 Apr. 2014.
<http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Nuclear-Fuel-Cycle/Mining-of-Uranium/In-Situ-Leach-Mining-of-
Uranium/>.
Brain, Marshall. "What's a Uranium Centrifuge." How Stuff Works?. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 Apr. 2014.
<http://science.howstuffworks.com/uranium-centrifuge.htm>.
"Uranium Mining Overview." World Nuclear Association. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Apr. 2014.
<http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/nuclear-fuel-cycle/mining-of-uranium/uranium-mining-overview/>\

What are environmental and safety issues associated with the mining and refining of
nuclear fuel?
ISR recovery is the most environmentally safe way of mining nuclear fuel, some of the only concerns that
occur when ISR mining is that we must be careful to not contaminate the natural groundwater with the
slurry created by the dissolved radioactive material. ISR recovery leaves no tailings and is the least
invasive form of mining as far as radioactive waste being put into tailings piles, but the most invasive as
far as land usage goes. ISR facilities span thousands of acres while Underground doesnt affect the earths
surface as much as its subterranean tunnels and facilities do.
Underground mining has the same risk as ISR recovery in that it might become subject to natural
groundwater, exposing our drinking water to harmful radioactive substances. Underground mining also
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leaves tailings piles, which in contact with large amounts of water can contaminate local rivers and
streams with harmful amounts of radioactive substances. The miners who work in these underground
mines are exposed to higher amounts of radiation than people who are not miners, though there is not a
large concern for their safety.
Open pit, or strip mining, leaves a massive environmental footprint. Overburden tailings containing small
amounts of harmful radioactive substances are left out in the open, Any rain or runoff that comes in
contact with these tailings can have a higher amount of radiation levels in the water afterwards. This type
of mining is much safer for the miners, they have much more exposure to oxygen and no chance of being
killed by a cave in or something of the sort. Another large concern with open pit mines is the amount of
radioactive dust kicked up, some studies have shown the dust to carry radon and other harmful radioactive
substances.

Ulmer-Scholle, Dana S. "Uranium-How is it Mined?." New Mexico Bureau of Geology and Mineral
Resources. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 Apr. 2014. <http://geoinfo.nmt.edu/resources/uranium/mining.html>.

Where is uranium mined and approximately how much is available in the US? In the
World?
The U.S. harvests uranium primarily on the western half of the country, the deposits in Texas and
Wyoming being the largest options for ISR mining. The U.S. can harvest only 5% of the world's uranium,
The majority of it comes from Australia (35%). The U.S. is only projected to be able to produce 207,000
tonnes of uranium, while the entire world is capable of producing 5,404,000 tons of uranium. Uranium is
not considered a rare element and it is projected to be readily available for the next century or more.

"Uranium Mining Overview." World Nuclear Association. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Apr. 2014.
<http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/nuclear-fuel-cycle/mining-of-uranium/uranium-mining-overview/>\
How much of our energy needs can uranium provide?
The U.S. uses 20% of the worlds annual energy average. The U.S.s 104 nuclear reactors require an
average of 55 million pounds of enriched uranium-235 annually, or 25% of the worlds supply. The U.S.
only harvests around 5% of the world's uranium, leaving 90% of it to be imported to the U.S. Each gram
of uranium produces around the same amount of energy as a ton of coal, but only 20% of the U.Ss power
comes from nuclear power plants.

"Uranium Market and U.S Uranium Sources." Virginia Uranium. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 Apr. 2014.
<http://www.virginiauranium.com/uranium-101/uranium-market-u-s-uranium-sources/>


Miles Rivera:
Describe the design of a light water nuclear power plant. You description must include the
following elements: reactor, containment structure, primary coolant, secondary coolant,
tertiary coolant, fuel, fuel rods, control rods, turbine, heat exchanger, condenser, generator,
cooling towers, active safety features, passive safety features and may include a comparison
between boiling water reactors and pressurized water reactors.

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A nuclear power plant works in a very similar way as other thermal power stations, a heat source is used
to heat water to create steam and turn a turbine connected to a generator which generates electricity.
(Nuclear Power Plant) A light water reactor (LWR) is a type of thermal-neutron reactor that uses normal
water as both its coolant and neutron moderator. Thermal-neutron reactors are the most common type of
nuclear reactor, and light water reactors are the most common type of thermal-neutron reactor. There are
three varieties of light water reactors: the pressurized water reactor (PWR), the boiling water reactor
(BWR), and the supercritical water reactor (SCWR). (Light) The family of Light Water Reactors tends to
be cheaper and simpler to build than other types of reactors, so that is why they make up the majority of
nuclear reactors. A pressurized water reactor has water heated at 300C under pressure in its primary
cooling/heat transfer circuit, and generates steam in a secondary circuit. Boiling water reactors make
steam in the primary circuit above the reactor core, at similar temperatures and pressure. Both types of
reactors use water as both coolant and moderator, to slow neutrons. Water normally boils at 100C, so
they have robust steel pressure vessels, or tubes, to enable the higher operating temperatures. (Nuclear
Power Reactors)
(pwr cycle)
Above is a diagram of how energy is generated in a nuclear power plant with a pressurized water reactor.
Fuel, is Uranium 235. Usually pellets of uranium oxide are arranged in tubes to form fuel rods. The rods
are arranged into fuel assemblies in the reactors core. Control rods are made with neutron-absorbing
material such as cadmium, hafnium or boron, and are inserted or withdrawn from the core, covering the
fuel rods, to control the rate that the fuel reacts. The primary coolant is a fluid that circulates through the
core to transfer the heat from it. In light water reactors the water moderator also functions as a primary
coolant. A steam generator, or heat exchanger, is part of the cooling system where the high-pressure
primary coolant brings heat from the reactor to make steam for the turbine in a secondary circuit.
Essentially a heat exchanger transfers heat from one fluid to another. Reactors may have up to four loops,
each with a steam generator. The containment structure is typically a metre-thick concrete and steel
structure around the reactor which is designed to protect it from outside intrusion and to protect those
outside from the effects of radiation in case of any serious malfunction inside. (Nuclear Power Reactors)
The condensers main function is to condense and recover the steam that passes through the turbine.
Condensers are used in all power plants that use steam as the driving force. The condenser has thousands
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of small tubes that are made out of admiralty metal (alloy with more than 70 percent copper), copper,
stainless steel, or titanium. (Condensers) After passing the steam through a condenser, a cooling tower is
used, where an up draft of air through water droplets cools the water. Normally the cooling is mostly
through evaporation, with simple heat transfer to the air being less significant. (Cooling)
In nuclear engineering there are active and passive safety features in every power plant. Active safety
contrasts to passive safety in that it relies on operator or computer automated intervention, whereas
passive safety systems rely on the laws of nature to make the reactor respond to dangerous events in a
favorable manner. (Active Safety) PWRs and BWRs, have been designed with one kind of passive
safety feature in the event of an excessive power condition, as the water in the reactor core boils, pockets
of steam are formed. These steam voids moderate fewer neutrons and cause the power level inside the
reactor to lower. An example of an active safety feature is the reactor protection system, which is
designed to terminate the nuclear reaction in the core with the use of the control rods and primary coolant,
which must be done by an operator or computer. (Active Systems)

"Active Systems in Nuclear Reactor Design." Society of Plastics Engineers: Texas A&M University. N.p.,
n.d. Web. 24 Apr. 2014. <http://plastics.tamu.edu/content/active-systems-nuclear-reactor-design>.
"Active safety." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 18 Apr. 2014. Web. 24 Apr. 2014.
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_safety>.
"Condensers in Nuclear Plants." Condensers in Nuclear Plants. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 Apr. 2014.
<http://www.nucleartourist.com/systems/cr.htm>.
"Cooling power plants." Cooling Power Plants. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 Apr. 2014. <http://www.world-
nuclear.org/info/current-and-future-generation/cooling-power-plants/>.
"Light water reactor." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 22 Apr. 2014. Web. 24 Apr. 2014.
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_water_reactor>.
"Nuclear Power Reactors." Nuclear Reactors. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 Apr. 2014. <http://www.world-
nuclear.org/info/nuclear-fuel-cycle/power-reactors/nuclear-power-reactors/>.
"Nuclear power plant." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 24 Apr. 2014. Web. 24 Apr. 2014.
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant>.
"pwr cycle." nucleartourist. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Apr. 2014. <http://www.nucleartourist.com/images/pwr-
cycle.gif>.
Araaa Aquarian:

Describe operating processes of a light water nuclear power plant. Your description should
include:
What is the fuel for light water nuclear reactors and what form does this fuel take?
Enriched uranium is the fuel used for light water nuclear reactors. The typical fuel form for the enriched
uranium consists of a column of ceramic pellets of uranium oxide, clad and sealed into zirconium alloy
tubes. As explained by the World Nuclear Association, before enrichment the uranium oxide has to be
converted to a fluoride at a low temperature so that it can be processed as a gas. Uranium that is found in
nature consists mostly of two isotopes, U-235 and U-238. The energy produced from the nuclear reactors
is produced from fission or the splitting of the U-235 atoms. U-235 is the main fissile isotope of
uranium. When fission of the U-235 atoms occur, it releases energy in the form of heat. The separation of
the isotopes is a physical process to concentrate or enrich one isotope relative to other isotopes. Most
reactors are Light Water reactors and because of this they require the uranium to be enriched from 0.7%
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to 3% to 5% U-235 in their fuel. Almost all of the 500 commercial nuclear power plant reactors that are
operating under construction require uranium enriched within the U-235 isotope for their fuel. `

"Regulators Fight Third-time 'tax' on Nuclear." Uranium Enrichment. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Apr.
2014.

How much energy does a typical power plant produce? How many homes can this serve?
According to the Nuclear Energy Institute (NEI) and the World Nuclear Association (WNA), USA is the
largest producer of nuclear power. It accounts for more than 30% of worldwide nuclear generation of
electricity. USA has around 104 nuclear reactors that produced about 821 billion kWh in the year 2011
which is equivalent to over 19% of the total electrical output. A typical nuclear power plant can supply
about 740,000 homes with all electricity use while also absorbing about 13 gallons of water per day per
household in a once-through cooling system and about 23 gallons per day per household in a wet cooling
tower system. The average U.S. household of three people uses about 94 gallons of water a day.

"DoE Concludes WIPP Release Was Preventable." Nuclear Power in the USA. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Apr.
2014.

"Fact Sheets." Nuclear Energy Institute. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Apr. 2014.



How often do fuel rods and control rods need to be replaced and how is this process is
conducted?
Control rods are rods used in nuclear reactors that control the rate of fission of uranium and plutonium.
These control rods are made of chemical elements that are able to absorb many neutrons of different
energies. The compositions of the control rods has to be designed for the neutron spectrum of the reactor
it is supposed to control. A control rod is either disconnected or inserted into the core of the nuclear
reactor. This is done to control the decrease or increase of the number of neutrons which will split further
uranium atoms. This affects the thermal power of the reactor, the amount of steam that is produced and
also the electricity that is made. A fuel rod is a slender metal tube that contains pellets of fissionable
material. These fuel rods provide fuel for the nuclear reactors. The fuel rods are assembled into bundles
called fuel assemblies. These fuel assemblies are individually loaded into the reactor core. As explained
in NEI ,typically, the fuel rods need to be changed after about four-and-a-half to six years of being used.
They are changed in order to replace older fuel that is depleted meaning that it cannot efficiently produce
energy from nuclear fission reactions. This is normally done by removing all the fuel from the core and
placing it into a fuel pool. By placing it into a fuel pool it makes it easier to conduct maintenance on the
actual reactor core itself. The process happens when the fuel assembly is turned onto its side and then
moved through an underwater canal into the fuel pool. Once all of the fuel is in the fuel pool, workers
remove about one-third of the fuel and replace it with new fuel. They also conduct a process called a
core shuffle. A core shuffle is when the new fuel is intermixed with older fuel (that will continue to
power the reactor) in order to make sure there is an efficient use of fuel. The nuclear fuel cycle is shown
in this diagram, from the WNA, below.
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"The Nuclear Fuel Cycle." Nuclear Fuel Cycle Overview. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Apr. 2014.

"Control Rod." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 22 Apr. 2014. Web. 29 Apr. 2014.

"Fuel Rod." NRC: Glossary --. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Apr. 2014.

"NEI Nuclear Notes." : What Happens During a Refueling Outage? N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Apr. 2014.

How do power plant operators control the rate of power generation and how easy is it to
change power supply to meet demand?
Power plant operators are able to control the rate of the power generation by using the control rods. The
operators have to control the energy that is given off by the enriched uranium and they also have to allow
it to heat water into the system. By raising and lowering the control panels, it allows the operators to be
able to control the rate of the nuclear reaction. For example, if an operator wants the uranium core to
produce more heat, the control rods are lifted out of the uranium bundle (when it does this, it absorbs a
fewer amount of neutrons). When they want to reduce the heat they lower the control rods into the
uranium bundle. The rods can also be lowered into the uranium bundle completely in order to shut the
reactor down in the possible event of an accident or to change the fuel. To identify the inside structure and
control rods of a Nuclear Power Plant, refer to the picture below.

12

Brain, Marshall, and Robert Lamb. "How Nuclear Power Works."HowStuffWorks. HowStuffWorks.com,
09 Oct. 2000. Web. 29 Apr. 2014.


What do power plant designers and operators do to ensure safety?
Designers and operators try to ensure the safety of reactor and the safety of the public. In order to do this
the design of the reactor is developed according to industry standards. When a reactor is being built
designers have to find a suitable site, design the power plant to fit the chosen site; fabrication of the
components and construction of the plant; low power commissioning ; and lastly they have to ensure full
power operation. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) overviews the process and also issues
mandatory permits and licenses at different times in order to allow the work to proceed. Designers and
operators also have to take into consideration the amount of radiation that will be made. They have to
ensure that there is a small amount of radiation that people will be exposed to. In order to do this,
designers and operators have to create a way to control the amount of radiation being produced to ensure
not only the safety of the people but also the safety of the land and the safety of the workers.

"Nuclear Reactor Safety." ANS. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Apr. 2014.

Miles Rivera:
What is the lifespan of a typical light water reactor nuclear power plant? What is the
current status (age & condition) of the US nuclear power plant fleet?
Most nuclear power plants still active today were originally designed for 30 or 40-year operating lives.
But with major investments in systems, structures and components lives can be extended. In the USA
most of the more than one hundred reactors are expected to be granted license extensions from 40 to 60
years. (Nuclear) The average age of U.S. commercial reactors is about 33 years. The oldest operating
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reactors are Oyster Creek in New Jersey, and Nine Mile Point 1 in New York. Both entered commercial
service on December 1, 1969. (U.S.)

"Nuclear Power Reactors." Nuclear Reactors. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 Apr. 2014. <http://www.world-
nuclear.org/info/nuclear-fuel-cycle/power-reactors/nuclear-power-reactors/>.
"U.S. Energy Information Administration - EIA - Independent Statistics and Analysis." How Old Are U.S.
Nuclear Power Plants and When Was the Last One Built? N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Apr. 2014.

What is the typical efficiency of a light water nuclear reactor?
Most nuclear power facilities can produce energy at a 86-91 percent efficiency rate 24/7. This means that
only a small percent of the energy created from the fuel is lost in converting it to electricity. This is more
efficient than other types of energycombined-cycle natural gas, with a 56 percent capacity factor; coal-
fired at 55 percent; and wind at 31 percent. (11 Facts)

"11 Facts About Nuclear Energy." Do Something. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 Apr. 2014.
<https://www.dosomething.org/tipsandtools/11-facts-about-nuclear-energy>.
Fact Sheets." Nuclear Energy Institute. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 Apr. 2014.

Conner Murphy:

What safety risks accompany the use of nuclear power?
How much radiation is the surrounding environment subjected to from a properly
functioning nuclear power plant?
Most radiation that comes from nuclear power plants is contained within the structures. But nuclear power
plants do tend to release radioactive some gasses and sometimes radioactive liquid into the environment.
The release of these radioactive substances is always closely monitored so that the environment around
the power plants is not damaged. Radioactive gasses that are produced by the power plant dissolve into
the air once in the atmosphere. Radioactive liquids that are produced are dispersed in a large amount of
water. After these sources of radioactivity are dissolved into the air or water, radiation levels drastically
decrease, and it would be hard to detect much radiation. According to the United States Nuclear
Regulatory Commission if someone lived within 50 miles of a nuclear power plant, they would be
exposed to around 0.01 millirem per year. A citizen in the U.S. annually is exposed to 300 millirem per
year.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) About Radiation Protection." NRC:. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 Apr. 2014.
http://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/radiation/related-info/faq.html#10


What risk for nuclear meltdown exists in light water reactors in the United States?
One of the biggest concerns when talking about a nuclear meltdown is having a nuclear reactor over heat.
A nuclear meltdown happens when the heat produced by a reactor is higher than the amount of heat
removed from that reactor. Heat is removed from the reactors by nuclear reactant coolant. The coolant is
used to cool down the reactor core. A nuclear meltdown can be caused by a loss of coolant or loss of
coolant pressure. If either of these occurs, then the reactor core will begin to overheat. Once this happens
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nuclear fuel such as uranium will also overheat and begin to leak. About 80 percent of these events are
because of human error, and around 20 percent to equipment failure. According to Risk Study of Nuclear
Power Plants there is a 39.9% percent chance of a nuclear meltdown (worldwide).

The closest the United States has come to a nuclear meltdown was an incident at one of the two nuclear
reactors on Three Mile Island in 1979. In this incident there was a leak in the nuclear reactant coolant due
to human error. The reactor began to overheat and the uranium to melt through the reactor and leak.
About half of the reactor core melted down. This meltdown exposed radioactive gasses into the
environment.

"Nuclear meltdown." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 9 Apr. 2014.
Web. 25 Apr. 2014.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_meltdown

"Three Mile Island accident." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 23
Apr. 2014. Web. 25 Apr. 2014.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Mile_Island_accident#Emergency_declared

"The Probability of a Nuclear Meltdown." N.p., n.d. Web.
http://www.ippnw-students.org/chernobyl/meltdown.pdf

What safety features are being built into future light water reactors?
There are two main safety features that are built into nuclear reactors to prevent a nuclear meltdown.
Probably the most important are the control rods of the reactor. When the process of decay begins in the
reactor core, the nuclear fuel creates a chain reaction of decay between fuel pellets. If this chain decay
happens to quickly then the fuel will over heat and could cause a meltdown. It could also cause an
explosion much like a bomb. What the control rods do is slow down the decay by absorbing the radiation
from the uranium and only allowing part of nuclear fuel to decay. This prevents the fuel from
overheating.

Another important safety feature is the reactor coolant. The reactor coolant surrounds the reactor core,
preventing it from overheating. Each reactor is built with a primary coolant system and an emergency
coolant system. Emergency systems are there to back the primary ones in case they shut down in result of
something like a natural disaster. Water is put into the core and cools it down. Once coming in contact
with the core the coolant is turned into steam. In order for the coolant systems to remain running there
must be a power source, and in case of things like natural disasters there is a backup diesel generators that
are placed so they would not less likely to be affected in a natural disaster.

"Nuclear meltdown." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 9 Apr. 2014.
Web. 25 Apr. 2014.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_meltdown


15
What are potential risks to nuclear power plants from events like natural disasters and
terrorist attacks?
Natural disasters pose much more of a threat to nuclear power plants then evens like terrorist attacks.
Natural disasters such as hurricanes and earthquakes have the ability to seriously damage a nuclear
reactor. Disaster like these can bring damage to the reactor itself or to things like power generators. If the
reactor itself is damaged there can be an immediate leak in radiation, or failure to cool the reactor. If the
power generators fail then there is a chance there will be a lack of cooling in the reactors causing a
meltdown. There are backup generators to prevent this from happening but these generators can also be
damaged. This is what happened at Fukushima. If the emergency generators were not on ground level it is
more likely they wouldnt have been damaged.

Now obviously the same threats are posed in a terrorist attack. If a terrorist were to target the reactor itself
or things that affect the reactor such as power generators then the outcome would be just as devastating.
The NRC practices drills every three years for about three weeks that specifically used to prevent terrorist
attacks and what to do if there is one.

"Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia,
The Free Encyclopedia, 30 Apr. 2014.Web. 30 Apr. 2014.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Cite&page=Fukushima_Daiichi_nuclear_disaster&id
=606409692

"Vulnerability of nuclear plants to attack." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia,
The Free Encyclopedia, 29 Apr. 2014. Web. 30 Apr. 2014.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Cite&page=Vulnerability_of_nuclear_plants_to_attac
k&id=606305173


Riley Rifkin:
What is nuclear waste? Describe in general and then characterize the nuclear waste of a
standard light water reactor.
What radionuclides are typically in radioactive waste and in what concentrations?
What are the half-lives of the radionuclides found in radioactive waste?
How much radioactive waste is produced by a typical light water reactor?
Nuclear waste, also known as radioactive waste, is waste having radioactive material. It consists of low-
level waste, intermediate-level waste, and high-level waste. The low-level waste is contaminated items
that are slightly contaminated from the power plant such as work clothes and tools. Intermediate-level
waste can often include liquids from reprocessing, steel mechanisms from inside the reactor, and used
filters. The high-level waste is the spent (used) nuclear fuel left over after it has been in the nuclear
process for creating heat after about three years. Tailings are also parts of radioactive waste as a result of
the mining and refinement process. They typically have low concentrations of radioactive materials.
These tailings occur due to the extraction of thorium or uranium and their half-lives are fairly long
(Chimney, Harnessed, Radioactive). The half-lives of the radionuclides found in radioactive waste can be
between a few days or even millions of years. It is dependent on if they are short-lived isotopes or spent
nuclear fuel (Spent). The table below shows common radionuclides with their half-lives and percent yield.
16
Radionuclide Half Life Percent Yield
Sr-90 28.8 years 5.7518%
I-131 8.0197 days 2.8336%
Pu-239 24,100 years
U-235 703.8 million years
Cs-137 30.17 years 6.0899%
Sn-126 230,000 years 0.0236%

The amount of radioactive waste produced by a typical light water reactor of 1,000 MWe (Megawatt
electric) will be between 200-350 m
3
for low- and intermediate-level only. In terms of high-level waste,
the spent fuel, it will be about 20 m
3
(Light, Nuclear).

"Chimney Work Changes Sellafield Skyline." Radioactive Waste Management. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 Apr.
2014.
"The Harnessed Atom." ORAU:. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 Apr. 2014.
"Light Water Reactors." Light Water Nuclear Reactors. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Apr. 2014.
"List of Radioactive Isotopes by Half-life." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 15 Apr. 2014. Web. 23
Apr. 2014.
"Nuclear Waste." - RationalWiki. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Apr. 2014.
"Radioactive Waste." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 25 Apr. 2014. Web. 23 Apr. 2014.
"Spent Nuclear Fuel." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 23 Apr. 2014. Web. 22 Apr. 2014.
"WHATISNUCLEAR?" What Is Nuclear? / Nuclear Waste. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Apr. 2014.

Nolan Stowers:
What are the types of decay the radionuclides in radioactive waste undergo? What are
their decay energies? You may describe the entire decay chain or only the most relevant
decay processes.

The complete decay chain of Uranium-235 can be seen in Table 1 below. This chart also names the types
of decay emitted by each resulting radionuclide.


Table 1: Complete Decay
Chain for Uranium-235

Radionuclide Type of Decay Decay Energy
U-235 Alpha 185.7
Th-231 Beta 84.2
Pa-231 Alpha 27.4
Ac-227 Alpha 70
17
Th-227 Alpha 236.0
Fr-223 Alpha ------------
Ra-223 Alpha 269.5
At-219 Alpha -----------
Rn-219 Alpha 271.2 (9.9%)
Bi-215 Beta ?
Po-215 Alpha -----------
Pb-211 Beta 404.9 (3.82%)
Bi-211 Beta 351.1 (12.8%)
Tl-207 Beta 897 (0.16%)
Po-211 Alpha 596.6 (0.0016%)
"Radionuclide Decay Chain." Risk Assessment Information System. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Apr. 2014."U235
Decay Series." N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Apr. 2014.
<http://www.csupomona.edu/~pbsiegel/decaychain/U235.html>.

The decay energy of different elements is the amount of potential energy these elements are willing to
give up during nuclear fission. This decay energy is calculated by using Einsteins Theory of Relativity,
or E=mc
2
. This helps us make decisions regarding which element we can use to create nuclear power
along with the information regarding the half-life of these elements.


Sarah Lawton:
What are environmental and safety considerations for the storage of nuclear waste?
One of the most daunting concerns with nuclear power is the storage of the radioactive waste. There are
two types of radioactive waste: high-level waste and low-level waste (Background). Low-level waste is
items that have been radioactively irradiated or contaminated such as boot covers or mops used inside the
nuclear power plant. This waste is stored on-site until it decays enough to be considered non-threatening.
At this point, the waste is moved to a low-level waste disposal location, which is regulated by the state in
which it resides (Low-Level). However, the storage of high-level radioactive waste is much more
complicated.

High-level waste is typically the spent fuel rods, and there are many concerns surrounding the safety and
efficiency of high-level waste storage. This includes the possibility of human or animal life being
irradiated by the radioactive waste or ground water being contaminated due to insufficient storage
containers. If water were to leak from the storage vessels, the contamination of ground water could enter
the life cycle in small amounts, slowly causing disturbances to the natural world. Radiation that may be
18
emitted from spent fuel rods is known to cause various types of cancer, and can also cause mutations in
DNA and fetuses (Health). However, these concerns have been taken into consideration during the design
and manufacturing stages of the storage vessels. Each vault resembles a swimming pool, and its
outermost layer is composed of several inches of concrete, which is layered with stainless steel. The rods
of nuclear waste are placed on the bottom of the pool in specially designed racks beneath about twenty
feet of water. Both the water and the stainless steel layers rebound radiation back into the pool, therefore
eliminating the threat of radiation to any type of life outside of the vault (Used). These pools do not drain
and the walls are heavily reinforced, therefore never allowing the water to leave. This eliminates any
chance of contamination of groundwater. However, these vaults only are only efficient as short term
storage vessels.

The government is still trying to create a consistent plan for long-term storage of spent fuel. As of right
now, two types of storage exist: near surface and deep geological. Near-surface vaults are the only form
of efficient storage that we use today in the United States. Deep geological storage is used to store
radioactive material with extensive half-lives and is being used in other countries such as Finland and
Sweden. Placed in underground tunnels and caverns, the radiation of the spent fuel rods is contained by
natural formations, such as clay and rock, and engineered blockades (Storage). Deep geological storage is
preferable to storage in near-surface vaults because it doesnt have to be actively monitored and can be
used for an extended period of time without great energy use.

"Backgrounder on Radioactive Waste." NRC. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, n.d. Web. 24 Apr.
2014. <http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/fact-sheets/radwaste.html>.
Health Effects." EPA. Environmental Protection Agency, n.d. Web. 29 Apr. 2014.
<http://www.epa.gov/radiation/understand/health_effects.html>.
"Low-Level Waste Disposal." NRC:. United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission, n.d. Web. 29 Apr.
2014. <http://www.nrc.gov/waste/llw-disposal.html>.
"Storage and Disposal Options." Radioactive Waste Management. World Nuclear Organization, n.d.
Web. 29 Apr. 2014. <http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-
wastes/appendices/radioactive-waste-management-appendix-2--storage-and-disposal-options/>.
"Used Nuclear Fuel Storage." Nuclear Energy Institute. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 Apr. 2014.
<http://www.nei.org/Issues-Policy/Nuclear-Waste-Management/Used-Nuclear-Fuel-Storage>.

What are emissions from nuclear power plants?
Nuclear power plants are one of the cleanest forms of power production. Unlike the majority of the
worlds main power sources, such as coal and natural gas, nuclear power plants do not emit carbon
dioxide, nitrogen oxide, or sulfur dioxide while producing energy. The only emission that leaves the
power plant and directly enters the atmosphere is water, which rises from the power plants cooling
towers in the form of steam.

"FAQ About Nuclear Energy." NEI. Nuclear Energy Institute, n.d. Web. 24 Apr. 2014.
<http://www.nei.org/Knowledge-Center/FAQ-About-Nuclear-Energy>.
Owens, Derek. "Physics 13.5.1b - Nuclear Power Plant." YouTube. YouTube, 28 Sept. 2009. Web. 24
Apr. 2014. <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1SZcMn_oQ-I>.

19
How have the emissions from nuclear power plants affected local air quality as compared to
other forms of energy production?
Nuclear power as an industry produces greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide,
during the mining, milling, and transportation of the uranium fuel rods. However, the only emission from
the actual nuclear power plant is steam, or water in its gaseous form. As compared to fossil fuel power
plants, which release 40% of man-made carbon dioxide emissions, nuclear power is a very clean energy
source. Although coal-fired power plants may be thought of as more reliable than nuclear power, they
produce thirty times more emissions that nuclear power plants (Air). These emissions cloud local air,
sometimes creating smog, and increase the greenhouse effect in the atmosphere.

"Air Emissions." EPA. Environmental Protection Agency, n.d. Web. 23 Apr. 2014.
<http://www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/energy-and-you/affect/air-emissions.html>.
air-emissions.html>.


Heidi Williams:
Describe the science involved in global climate change and how it relates to emissions from
nuclear power plants and fossil fuel power plants.
What is the greenhouse effect and how is it related to global climate change?
Global climate change is due to an increase of the suns energy being trapped in Earths atmosphere.
Anthropogenic behaviors such as the combustion of fossil fuels change the composition of the
atmosphere. Naturally, the Earth reflects most of the energy from the sun and radiates the rest back into
space, this allows for the abundance of life on Earth. However, these gases act as a blanket, surrounding
the Earths surface. Therefore much of the solar radiation is not able to escape to the extent that it should,
which causes the earths atmosphere to become warmer. This process is known as the greenhouse gas
effect. Greenhouse gases occur naturally and are essential in creating an optimal climate on Earth.
However, human activities in the past century have substantially increased the amount of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere, causing the atmosphere to trap more heat and leading to changes in the Earth's
climate such as the rising of global temperatures.

What are greenhouse gases and what about their structure makes them greenhouse gases?
Water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, ozone and nitrous oxide are the main greenhouse gases found in
our atmosphere. Out of the 6,526 million metric tons of these greenhouse gases were currently emitting
82 percent is carbon dioxide, according to the EPA. The electrons in greenhouse gases repel each other,
so the gas molecules are more stable when the electron pairs are arranged as far away from each other as
possible. Water vapor, for example, takes on the shape of a tetrahedron because of its two lone electron
pairs. A tetrahedral geometry is meant for an atom with four things attached. However, a water molecule
is an oxygen with only two hydrogens attached leaving the two lone pair to take up the extra space. This
formation repels the electrons most efficiently. Molecules containing different elements can vibrate in a
variety of frequencies and directions due to the energy of a photons being absorbed and emitted.
Therefore, greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, are able to absorb infrared energy and then re-radiate
it. As the carbon dioxide molecule vibrates, in an excited state, it gives up excess energy by emitting an
infrared photon. Once the extra energy has been removed the carbon dioxide stops vibrating.This ability
to absorb and re-emit infrared energy is what makes carbon dioxide an effective heat-trapping greenhouse
20
gas.The figure below portrays the infrared spectra and the vibrations caused in carbon dioxide by
absorbing the suns infrared radiation. The arrows on the molecule indicates the direction of the bends
and vibrations of the bonds. The infrared spectra indicates the specific energies at certain wavelengths
which are absorbed by the carbon dioxide. Radiation that has 100% transmittance is not blocked and the
dips in the lines are caused by the absorption of energy, hence only 10% of the energy is transmitted.
(EPA)


How has the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere changed over time?
According to NASA scientists, 2014 and 2013 are tied with 2009 and 2006 as the warmest years since
1880. The 10 warmest years in the 134-year time period being observed have all occurred since 2000,
with 2010 and 2005 ranking as the warmest years on record, with the exception of 1998. Earth continues
to be hotter than it was several decades ago (NASA). The figure below shows concentrations of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere from hundreds of thousands of years ago through 2012. Climate change in the
past 30 years has contributed to a 20% decline in coral reefs, a 16% decline in the ice caps, and a 12%
increase in the world's deserts due to the intense solar radiation hitting the earth on the tropical belt
(between latitudes 23 degrees South and 23 degrees North). Furthermore, this observed climate change
sets off air currents that bring dry winds to sub-tropical areas (within latitude 25 degrees and latitude 35
degrees, either North or South), thus denying them precipitation and making them deserts. (UNEP)
21

Figure from EPA
What are some predictions of global climate change?
The rapid increase in carbon dioxide emissions observed during the last 250 years is expected to
continue for several decades to come says Dr. Froth from IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change). Through examining many scenarios regarding the future of fuel use and efficiency, scientists
have found that the increase of carbon dioxide emissions will stay on the rise until 2040 (see figure
below). The carbon dioxide emissions that are being emitted at this very moment from the use of natural
gas and fossil fuels will be experienced by our great great grandchildren says another member of the
IPCC. Below are some of the effects that the United Nations on Environmental Protection UNPE) expect
will be implicated by global climate change.
Changes Examples
Sea levels are expected to rise Between 18 and 59 centimeters by the end of the century and
continued melting at the poles could add between 4 and 8 inches (10 to
20 centimeters).
Hurricanes and other storms
are likely to become more
devastating.

About twice as many Atlantic hurricanes form each year on average
than a century ago, according to a new statistical analysis of hurricanes
and tropical storms in the north Atlantic. (SSTs)
Symbiotic relationships
between certain species will
become compromised
Plants could bloom earlier than their pollinating insects become active.
Floods and droughts will
become more common
Rainfall in Ethiopia, where droughts are already common, could
decline by 10 percent over the next 50 years.
22
Less fresh water will be
available
If the Quelccaya ice cap in Peru continues to melt at its current rate, it
will be gone by 2100, leaving thousands of people who rely on it for
drinking water and electricity without a source of either.
Ecosystems will change,
causing some species to
migrate and others to become
extinct.
Wildlife research scientist Martyn Obbard has found that since the
mid-1980s, with less ice on which to live and fish for food, polar bears
have become considerably malnourished. Polar bear biologist Ian
Stirling has found a similar pattern in Hudson Bay. He fears that if sea
ice disappears, the polar bears will as well.

Information from a study from IPCC, transmitted through the UNEP


Graph from IPCC report
How do the emissions from energy production by nuclear power plants compare to that of
coal and of natural gas?
How is the combustion of fossil fuels related to global climate change?
Greenhouse gas emissions from that of nuclear power production is significantly less compared to power
produced from coal and natural gas (see graph below). This is because when producing fossil fuels, they
must undergo a process of combustion which emits many gases such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,
and many other greenhouse gases. These gases accumulate and surround the earths surface trapping heat
in the atmosphere, increasing the temperature at global level, thus increasing temperatures at the global
level.


23



Graph from World Nuclear Association Greenhouse Gas Emission Source

Citations:
"Atmospheric Concentrations of Greenhouse Gases." EPA. Environmental Protection Agency, n.d. Web.
29 Apr. 2014. <http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/science/indicators/ghg/ghg-concentrations.html>.

"Earth Will Cross the Climate Danger Threshold by 2036." Scientific American Global RSS. N.p., n.d.
Web. 29 Apr. 2014. <http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/earth-will-cross-the-climate-danger-
threshold-by-2036/>.

"Global Deserts Outlook." Global Deserts Outlook. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Apr. 2014.
<http://www.unep.org/geo/gdoutlook/045.asp>.
"Global Warming Art." Global Warming Art RSS. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Apr. 2014.
<http://www.globalwarmingart.com/>.
"IPCC - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change." IPCC - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Apr. 2014. <http://www.ipcc.ch/>.
"Global Climate Change ." NASA. NASA, n.d. Web. 27 Apr. 2014. <http://www.nasa.gov/>
"U.S. Energy Information Administration - EIA - Independent Statistics and Analysis." U.S. Energy
Information Administration (EIA). N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Apr. 2014. <http://www.eia.gov/>.
"U.S. greenhouse gas emissions are at a 20-year low." Saloncom RSS. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Apr. 2014.
<http://www.salon.com/2014/04/17/u_s_greenhouse_gas_emissions_are_at_a_20_year_low/>.
"US Environmental Protection Agency." EPA. Environmental Protection Agency, n.d. Web. 27 Apr.
2014. <http://www.epa.gov/>.
24
"WNA." World Nuclear Association. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 Apr. 2014. <http://www.world-nuclear.org/>.

Sarah Lawton:

What are the best estimates for the purely financial cost of nuclear power generated
electricity?
When a nuclear power plant is up and running, the cost of producing nuclear energy is only two cents per
kWh (FAQ).

"FAQ About Nuclear Energy." NEI. Nuclear Energy Institute, n.d. Web. 24 Apr. 2014.
<http://www.nei.org/Knowledge-Center/FAQ-About-Nuclear-Energy>.

What are the levelized costs per kWh?
A levelized cost models the comparison between overall production of electricity and the cost of building,
operating, and maintaining a power plant. The levelized cost of a nuclear power plant is approximately
ten cents per kWh (U.S.).

U.S. Energy Information Administration - EIA - Independent Statistics and Analysis." EIA Annual
Energy Outlook. U.S. Energy Information Administration, n.d. Web. 25 Apr. 2014.
<http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/electricity_generation.cfm>.

What are fuel costs annually or per kWh? Construction costs for a new plant? Operating
and maintenance costs?
Today, the cost of building a new plant is between six and eight billion dollars. The annual cost of nuclear
fuel is 0.75 cents per kilowatt hour (kWh). The operation costs, not including the cost of fuel is 1.65 cents
per kWh (Costs).

"Costs: Fuel, Operation, Waste Disposal & Life Cycle." Nuclear Energy Institute -. NEI, n.d. Web. 24
Apr. 2014. <http://www.nei.org/Knowledge-Center/Nuclear-Statistics/Costs-Fuel%2C-
Operation%2C-Waste-Disposal-Life-Cycle>