AD11 - Erosion Control in The Tropics

Agrodok 11
Erosion control in the

tropics
Hil Kuypers
Anne Mollema
Egger Topper
© Agromisa Foundation, Wageningen, 2005.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photocopy,
microfilm or any other means, without written permission from the publisher.
First edition: 1983

Fourth revised edition: 1999
Sixth edition: 2005
Authors: Hil Kuypers, Anne Mollema, Egger Topper

Translation: P. Verhei
Printed by: Digigrafi, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
ISBN: 90-8573-013-9
NUGI: 835
Foreword
Foreword to second revised edition
This is a revised version of the first edition of this Agrodok. Hopefully
it is a useful introduction to the erosion problem and its control. We
want to thank Mr. Eppink from the Agricultural University of Wagen-
ingen for his remarks and corrections, and Hensen Trenning for the
illustrations.
The authors,
Hil Kuypers
Anne Mollema
Egger Topper
Wageningen, 1987
Foreword to the fourth revised edition

We have experienced that this Agrodok on Erosion control is quite
popular. Due to this we have to reprint regularly. For this fourth edi-
tion we have improved the layout and the pictures, and incorporated
improvements in the text.
We are very grateful to Arend Kortenhorst who has taken care of the
lay out with great patience and a good eye for details.
Agromisa welcomes readers to send us suggestions which could help

us to improve the contents of the publication.
Marg Leijdens
Coordinator Agrodok Publications
Wageningen, 1999
Foreword 3
Contents
1 Introduction 6
1.1 Objectives of this Agrodok 6
1.2 What is soil erosion 7
1.3 The seriousness of the erosion problem 8
2 How to recognize erosion 10

2.1 Symptoms of erosion 10
2.2 Other ways to discover erosion 14
2.3 Symptoms of degeneration of the environment 15
3 The erosion process 17

3.1 Splash-erosion and stream-erosion 17
3.2 Splash-erosion and soil condition 19
3.3 Stream erosion and the soil 21
3.4 An example on how to show the erosion process 23
3.5 The principles of measures against erosion 24
4 How erosion effects agriculture 26

4.1 Consequences for the soil 26
4.2 Consequences for farm management 27
5 Agronomic methods to control erosion 30

5.1 Contour farming 31
5.2 Strip cropping and strip reclamation 34
5.3 Limitation of tillage 37
5.4 Mulching and stubble mulching 39
5.5 Cover crops 42
5.6 Fertilizing 44
5.7 Multiple cropping 46
6 Using cropping systems to control erosion 48

6.1 Rotation and fallow 48
6.2 Grassland and fires 50
4 Erosion control in the tropics

6.3 Trees and woodland against erosion 52
7 Measures to reduce runoff 56

7.1 Different levels of measures 56
7.2 Barriers to reduce the speed of running water 59
7.3 Terraces 60
7.4 Drainage 65
7.5 Gully control 67
7.6 General remarks for technical measures 71
8 Underlying causes of erosion 73
9 Conditions for the success of operations 75

9.1 Trust 75
9.2 Awareness 76
9.3 Correct choice of operations 76
10 Conclusion 79
Appendix 1: Several techniques for levelling and

measuring heights 82
Appendix 2: Tree species for erosion control in the tropics

and sub-tropics 87
Appendix 3: Legumes; characteristics and utilization 90
Further reading 92
Glossary 94
Contents 5
1 Introduction
Agromisa’s Question and Answer Service receives many questions
about erosion and its control. In reply to the very specific questions,
an equally direct answer can usually be given. However, general ques-
tions come in as well, such as: “What can be done against erosion in
this area?”. Obviously, such a question can only be answered if a
number of counter-questions are asked, for example:
? What are the erosion characteristics?
? What is the rainfall distribution?
? What sort of crops are grown there?
? Are you situated in a hilly area?
? etc.
Only then would we be able to give the most important facts about
soil conservation. This Agrodok may be considered as an extensive
reply to such questions. At the same time it is an introduction to ero-
sion control.
With only this booklet at hand, you will not be in a position to lay out
a number of terraces straight away; for this, other books are available
(see the section ‘Further Reading’). Yet, we have tried to write a book
which will be useful for people who are confronted with the practical
aspects of erosion.
1.1 Objectives of this Agrodok

In compiling the booklet we have kept the following objectives in
mind:
? To emphasize the seriousness of the erosion problem. Erosion is not
always recognized in time, and certainly not when it takes place
surreptitiously.
? To give an insight into the causes and the course of the erosion
process, by stating the factors which influence the mechanism of
erosion and how these factors are linked up.

? To clarify the relation between erosion and the farming system. The
farming system (land-use) largely determines whether erosion will
occur; erosion in its turn again imposes limitations on agriculture.
? To enumerate the most important soil conservation measures and
the principles on which they are based, at the same time indicating
how they can be applied. How erosion can be prevented will be dis-
cussed at length here too.
For clarity, we have restricted ourselves to erosion caused by water. In

doing so, the connection between the causes of erosion and the princi-
ples of erosion control measures will always be kept in mind. The so-
called mass movements (earthquakes, mud streams etc.) will also be
discussed briefly because these phenomena are often related to water
erosion and the causes of it. The seriousness of wind erosion cannot be
underestimated but this is beyond the scope of this booklet.
To keep this booklet accessible for everybody we have not assumed a

previous knowledge. Therefore, you may well read things you already
know. Some technical terms will have to be used too, necessary to
prevent misunderstandings. The same terms will crop up anyway
when reading other literature. The explanation or the definition of the
relevant difficult terms can be found in the Glossary in the back.
If you find it difficult to get an overview of all the information, you

could refer to Chapter 10 in which the connection between the various
chapters is briefly given.
1.2 What is soil erosion

Since there are several different definitions of erosion, we will first
clarify what we mean by erosion here. There are really two types of
erosion, natural and accelerated erosion, also called man-made ero-
sion.
? Natural erosion is going on all the time; the weathering of moun-
tains, hills etc. caused by the influences of nature. New landscapes
are formed, but the process is very slow.
Introduction 7
? Man-made erosion occurs when people cause the soil to become
susceptible to be carried away by rain or wind. Cutting trees and
burning vegetation are examples of practices that destroy the natural
protection of the soil. This book is about man-made water erosion.
Another important factor is soil degradation, that is the decline of soil

quality as a consequence of people using the land. Soil degradation
and erosion overlap. Soil degradation is a wider term, erosion being
but one form of soil degradation, others are: pollution, salination, etc.
1.3 The seriousness of the erosion problem

Every minute, an estimated 10 hectares of agricultural land is lost to
erosion throughout the world. In some areas, very little occurs, in oth-
ers more than 200 tons of soil disappears every year from 1 hec-
tare...... (i.e. 20 lorry loads!). On average about 50 tons of soil per hec-
tare are lost each year. The soil lost is the top layer, which is the most
fertile part of the soil.
The rivers in which these soils are transported change into a brown
gushing stream in the rainy season. They occasionally flood the low
lying areas. The fish in these rivers are at the mercy of that dirty water.
If the water is used for irrigation, then ditches silt up, at best mainte-
nance costs rise alarmingly. Sometimes all the soil ends up in a dam
reservoir, as in the Shinen reservoir in Taiwan for example, which was
half full of silt within five years, whereas a life duration of 70 years
had been estimated.
These problems could be fatal and forces the governments to face up

to the seriousness of the erosion problem. A government can oblige
farmers to carry out erosion control (soil conservation) measures as
reafforestation and terracing. The farmers should then be compensated
with loans in these schemes. Many farmers are so badly in need of
their plot of land that any restricting regulation would mean starva-
tion.

If the threat of erosion is not yet as fatal as mentioned above, individ-
ual farmers or groups of farmers can carry out erosion control meas-
ures in order to protect their land and food security.
It seems that the seriousness of the erosion problem can be measured

by the amount of soil lost from one hectare. This is not always so sim-
ple. Especially in hilly areas the depth of the fertile top soil may vary
considerably from one place to another within short distances. There is
no cause for alarm if the depth of soil is a few meters, but if there are
only a few centimetres before reaching the subsoil or bare rocks, this
must be safeguarded at all cost.
It can be concluded that the seriousness of the erosion problem differs

not only on a worldwide scale, but locally as well. For two farmers
living on the same mountain slope, the situation may be quite differ-
ent. It is usually the poorest section of the community that is hardest
hit by the effects of erosion. In the light of this, it is not surprising that
in the U.N. report of 1984, erosion is considered to be the greatest
threat to mankind.
Introduction 9
2 How to recognize erosion
The previous chapter explained how erosion can impede development
of large areas and even whole countries. Now an attempt will be made
to illustrate the ways in which a farmer is confronted with the physical
characteristics of erosion in the daily work. For this, it is important to
know how to recognize erosion in the field.
Always keep the course of the erosion process in mind when looking
for signs of erosion in the field. When a certain characteristic is no-
ticed, one should ask oneself just why it should occur in that particular
place, and why it has that appearance.
More attention will then perhaps be given to the causes of erosion and
the more subtle characteristics of erosion will be observed. An impor-
tant rule of thumb is always to work upstream, in the same way as
when looking for water. So: ‘I am now standing in a gully where water
has accumulated. Where did this water come from? That is where ero-
sion is likely to be. Up the hill I go again’. Keep in mind though that
there might always be other causes for the erosion, which are not eas-
ily seen.
2.1 Symptoms of erosion

This section lists the symptoms that can arise from erosion. Of course,
several symptoms can manifest themselves at the same time.
Gullies
Gullies are deep fissures occurring in the soil and being caused by
large quantities of water that have to be transported in a short time.
Gullies are sometimes many meters deep (see figure 1).
Developing gully
A developing gully is less deep than a gully. If a number of these gul-
lies are more or less parallel and close together, then a whole gully-
system has formed.

Rills
Rills are fissures in the soil
that resemble a small gully (to
about 30 cm deep). A rill may
run into a gully. A system is
formed which tends to expand
in an upslope direction.
Bad lands
A bad land is an area being
made inaccessible by a very
close system of gullies. This is
especially a problem when Figure 1: Gully
using agricultural machines.
Exposed root system

Root systems of plants have the ability to retain soil. In trees, the fine
ramifications of the root system are important for this. If the top soil
layer is washed away, then the roots are exposed. Thus for annual
crops we can determine roughly how much soil is washed away in a
growing season (see figure 2).
Figure 2: Exposed root system
How to recognize erosion 11

Pedestal
Pedestals are seen when soil under grass clumps, roots and small
stones is staying in place while the soil in between is washed away.
Stones and the like protect the soil against the erosive force of the
rainfall and eventually come to lie on a little mound of soil (see figure
3). Pedestals are particularly found under the drip area of leaves
(mainly trees).
Figure 3: Pedestals
Stones on the surface

If a whole layer of soil is washed away stones will often remain be-
hind. The force of the water is not strong enough to carry the stones
away. The finer particles are removed. If the soil is very shallow, bare
bedrock may become exposed; the loose soil is washed away.
Mud-coloured water
If muddy water (yellow, red or brown colour) is noticed in a stream or
in a river, this indicates that soil is being carried along with the water.
You can show this by taking a sample of the water in a glass from dif-
ferent places in the stream and leave it to stand. It can then roughly be
seen how much sediment has been transported. Especially the finer
particles in the sediment have absorbed nutrients and the water should
be left to stand for a while before these particles settle (see figure 4).
Layers of soil
A fine layer of soil is often noticed in the lower lying parts of the field.
This has been deposited by water that flows more slowly or has
stopped flowing altogether. This can be observed too in irrigation fur-
rows and is almost certain to have come from the field in question.

Figure 4: Mud-coloured water
It is a sign that a form of erosion is going on in which as yet no great

quantity of soil is being transported over a long distance. Erosion is
probably still in a preliminary stage. Yet, this fine layer of soil mate-
rial may be 10 to 30 centimetres deep in places and may cover the
emerging crop over dozens of square metres (see figure 5).
Figure 5: Sedimentation of soil material
When thin layers of soil are eroded away evenly from the field, this is
known as ‘sheet erosion’. This sediment is found in watercourses, cul-
verts and the like. Irrigation and drainage canals often silt up com-
pletely.
Landslides
In areas with steep slopes, landslides may occur, for example along
cattle tracks. For various reasons the stability of a soil can be lost and
a large amount of soil slides down the slope. The phenomenon can be
observed too if the walls of a gully are undermined by the water
stream. In road building too, steep side slopes often collapse in heavy
rainfall.

The above examples all indicate that soil displacement has taken place
and this is not always easy to see. Irregularities such as rills can be
straightened out with the plough, and the crop hides a lot too.
Throughout the seasons different characteristics will catch the eye too.
2.2 Other ways to discover erosion

Apart from the soil being transported, there are still other ways to dis-
cover what has been going on in a particular place. For instance, you
could compare fields situated close by, or different spots within a
field. Yet with some experience and a little intelligence, much can be
observed. Here are some suggestions.
Comparing fields
Stand at the boundary of the two plots. There may be a considerable
difference between the two plots: sometimes there is even an abrupt
transition and one field may lie rather higher than the other (see Figure
6). Has soil been washed away perhaps? Or has it just been washed up
to the upper edge of the plot? What does the farmer do for the one
field that he would not do for the other?
Figure 6: Difference in level between two plots
Comparing soils
From a plot of land that is not used for agriculture, woodland for in-
stance, take some soil from the top layer from various places and do
the same from a nearby field. Put them next to each other. The colour,

crumbliness, moisture content, amount and composition of plant resi-
dues will demonstrate that on the uncultivated part there is much more
organic material in the soil. Notice the consequences this has for the
moisture retention and the structure of the soil.
Comparing yields
Different parts of one field may give different yields. Fields often have
a few poor patches, but usually the yields are lower on the higher
slopes.
This is often the result of erosion, the soil quality at the top of the
slope having further deteriorated than that on the lower slopes. It is
wise to look at the soil properties here too. If the field is not covered
by a crop, it will probably be noticed that the soil on the higher slopes
is lighter in colour. This indicates that organic material or clay has dis-
appeared from the profile (see Glossary). The soil is then more sus-
ceptible to drought, which can be felt by crumbling some soil from
two different places on the slope.
Failure of crops
As a result of erosion the moisture retention of the soil will decline.
Crops, such as maize may continually fail and the farmers would have
to switch over to another crop, sorghum for instance, which is more
drought resistant.
2.3 Symptoms of degeneration of the

environment
Finally, to the experienced eye, there are still a number of indications
that point to a degeneration of the natural environment:
? There may be a change in the plant composition of the vegetation.
? There may be less plant species because the surroundings impose
stricter demands on the plants.
If there is a sudden shortage of firewood in a certain place, this is also

a sign that the carrying capacity of that area has been exceeded. When

it becomes too time-consuming or too expensive to use firewood then
sometimes dung is used as fuel for preparing food. This manure is
however indispensable for maintaining soil quality and serious erosion
may be the result.
A thorough knowledge of the subject is needed to be able to observe

all this and to interpret it. Talking with the local people about such
matters is very useful. Often they can tell you about locally well-
known plant species and their disappearance.
It is perhaps amusing to relate here that on one occasion we were

standing looking at a layer of sediment between the sorghum plants,
intrigued by what type of soil it was that had eroded away from fur-
ther up the slope. A farmer standing nearby politely remarked that this
soil came from a flood from a river nearby. So erosion had taken
place, but from somewhere quite different from where we had ex-
pected it. In our search for erosion we had made it just a bit too easy
for ourselves!
We have tried to make clear that when observing the erosion phenom-
ena, the important thing is always to trace the causes of it. In the fol-
lowing chapters we will go more deeply into the erosion process,
which may help you to understand the characteristics that you see.

3 The erosion process
Some understanding of the way in which the erosion process takes
place is needed to appreciate the usefulness of preventive measures. A
few factors will be mentioned which together determine how much
and what type of erosion is likely to occur.
3.1 Splash-erosion and stream-erosion

Within water-erosion there are two types of erosion: splash erosion
and stream erosion. Certainly, they do occur at the same time, but for
clarity we will discuss them separately.
Splash erosion
In splash erosion, the falling raindrops break off small parts of the soil
aggregates (see Glossary). The loosened small soil particles fill the
gaps between the larger particles and a so-called crust is formed (see
figure 7). This layer or crust is not easily penetrated by water and air;
Water cannot easily infiltrate in the soil, and is not available to the
plant- roots; hence crop growth is hindered and the water will run-off.
Figure 7: Splash erosion and crusting
In splash erosion, the force of the falling raindrops is determined by

the size and the falling velocity of the raindrop. Both these factors are
of course closely related to the type of rainstorm from which the drop-
lets fall. If the raindrops are first intercepted by a cover crop before
The erosion process 17

falling on the soil their impact will be less. Those falling from a
greater height will have more impact.
Stream erosion
Water that cannot penetrate the soil, runs off to lower lying areas,
choosing the path of least resistance. This process causes the danger of
stream erosion. In stream erosion, the particles that were loosened by
the turbulence in the water are carried away by the streaming water
(see figure 8A & B).
Figure 8: Stream erosion
Where the water stream collects, the scouring action of the water is
greater and rills may be formed there. These become bigger through
collapsing of the sidewalls and scouring until a gully of several metres
deep is formed.
The amount of erosion that occurs depends mainly on the force with
which the water acts upon the soil and the degree to which the soil can
resist this force. The scouring force of the run-off depends mainly on
the velocity of the water. The steeper the slope and the deeper the
stream, the faster the water will flow. If the slope at a higher level is
very long, a lot of water can accumulate and the erosive force may
increase even more. The degree in which the soil can resist this force,
is handled in Paragraph 3.2.

Combination of splash- and stream erosion
The combined action of splash and stream erosion seems to be much
more serious than the effect they have individually. Erosion caused by
run-off appears to increase considerably when raindrops fall in a water
layer of a few millimetres. The water is churned around as it were,
loosening still more soil particles which are then washed away (see
figure 9).
Figure 9: Combination of splash and stream erosion
3.2 Splash-erosion and soil condition

There obviously is a relation between the type of soil and the suscep-
tibility to erosion. In general the bigger the soil-particles, the greater
the resistance. In steep areas only rocks are found. In less steep areas
stones and course sands are found. Naturally, the more vulnerable
soils are formed on places were the water-force is not strong. These
soils are of interest for agriculture. Man-made circumstances (e.g. de-
forestation), however, can change this.
Looking at the vulnerability of soils: One soil will offer much more
resistance to erosion than the other. This resistance mainly depends
on:
? the organic matter content of the soil.
? the moisture content
? the type and texture, (the mineral particles which compose the soil,
e.g. sand, silt, clay).

Organic matter content of the soil
Organic matter probably is the most important factor in binding the
soil particles. The better the soil particles stick together, the less easy
erosion will occur. As well as organic materials, clay, lime and iron
will also binds the soil particles together; hence the clods are less eas-
ily broken down by raindrops (see figure 10).
Besides, organic matter is very important for soil fertility and the wa-
ter holding capacity of the soil. The more water can be absorbed, the
less water will run off and cause erosion.
Figure 10: Adhesion of soil particles
Moisture content of the soil

Depending on the soil type, also the moisture content determines the
stability of the soil. Dry soils can be very hard, but because of that, the
water will not easily infiltrate and cause great run-off streams once a
rainstorm occurs. The moisture content of the soil is not the same
throughout the year so at certain times the soil is much more sensitive
to stream-erosion than at other times. The soil should be protected as
much as possible at these vulnerable times.
When dry, some soils are stone hard and difficult to work. They are
then not easily broken up by raindrops. If the moisture content is
higher, these soils are more manageable and the clods sometimes
break up on their own accord. These periods are usually at the begin-

ning and at the end of the rainy season when there is no protective
crop cover. If the soil becomes very fine through tillage operations, the
danger of splash-erosion is great. The rain no longer has to break up
the clods first, and the soil particles can be quickly carried away by
the streaming water, after heavy rains.
If the soil is very wet (in a saturated condition), the resistance to ero-
sion often disappears altogether. The top soil layer is completely dis-
rupted. Just before a shower, sizeable clods are apparent in the field
and afterwards the topsoil looks like a muddy pulp, certainly on
clayey soils. Different soil types will react differently. So it is advis-
able to first have a good look around in your surroundings to see how
the various soil types react to a number of rain showers. This gives a
good idea of the resistance of the soil. A simple manipulation test (see
Glossary) is very useful to give an indication of the type of soil con-
cerned.
Type and texture

The type of soil is depends for a great part on the texture: The compo-
sition of the mineral particles of the soil. This can indicate the vulner-
ability. However, since the texture of a soil can not be easily changed,
this does not offer a possibility for controlling erosion and we will not
go into this subject any further.
3.3 Stream erosion and the soil

Stream erosion is the ability of streaming water to loosen soil particles
and carry them away. In some clay soils it is not even necessary for
particles to be loosened, the top layer dissolves, as it were, in the wa-
ter and is transported is suspended load.
The stream velocity needed to transport this clay suspension is almost

nil which can be demonstrated by the length of time it takes before
stagnant water loses its muddy colour after a rain shower and becomes
really clear. For the same reason the very top layer of sediment mate-
rial is always very fine in composition.

In practice this can result in the field becoming more stony because
the finer particles are slowly washed away. If measures are not taken
in time, enormous damage may result from this often strong carrying
capacity of the water.
Rough soil surface

The faster the water runs, the greater the scouring force of the water.
The stream velocity increases as the resistance for the runoff declines,
that is, for a smooth soil surface. In other words: A rough soil surface
can hold back stream erosion. Obstacles such as plant stalks, stones
and a mulch also offer more resistance to the streaming water.
Stream erosion is best prevented by seeing that the water doesn’t run
off. The streaming water should not be allowed to accumulate either,
because large quantities of water are potentially dangerous.
Water that does not reach the stage of runoff will not be able to cause
stream erosion, but could well be beneficial to plant growth if allowed
to infiltrate into the soil. Much more water will infiltrate into a crum-
bly soil than through a smooth top soil layer. Consider a slight slope
with horizontal furrows. A lot of water can be retained here before it
eventually runs off (see figure 11).
Figure 11: Run off on smooth surface and infiltration in coarse sur-
face
Of course, the infiltration capacity (see Glossary) does not depend

upon just the coarseness of the soil. The soil texture (sand versus
clay), the organic material level and a healthy soil fauna may all en-

courage infiltration. In general the role of the soil organisms is too
little emphasized, but the presence of a healthy soil fauna is an indica-
tion that the soil is in good condition too.
3.4 An example on how to show the erosion

process
To illustrate how splash and stream erosion influence each other, the
following example is given:
Imagine an unexpected rain shower. From the shelter of a house the

clatter of raindrops can be heard on the roof giving an indication of the
force with which it is hitting the soil too. Venturing outside, an inter-
esting comparison can be made. It will of course be noticed that the
roof remains impeccably intact owing to the resistance it offers to the
force of the rain. This is quite a different story however if the rain is
falling on the bare soil. It will become literally washed out which you
probably can see happening before your eyes.
The force of the falling raindrops can be made visual at places where
rain has dropped from fairly tall height, such as from a roof or for in-
stance a solitary banana palm. A sort of hollow in the soil surface is
formed. Look at the stems of plants too (or the side of the house if it is
too wet outside). Notice the height to which the soil particles are spat-
tered by the force of the rain. This can be demonstrated by holding up
a piece of white paper and seeing how mud-splashed it becomes; of
course, if you are not careful the rain will wash it clean again. Sand
grains are also noticed on the lower sides of maize leaves up to a
height of more than half a metre.
To illustrate the force of the rain: Look at the water in a puddle of a few milli-
metres where the rain is beating down. This is reddish or brown, because of
the soil particles.
The structure of the soil remains much better in condition if the soil is
protected from the direct force of the raindrops (by a crop cover or a

stone for example). Water can penetrate more easily into the pores of
the soil that have not yet been clogged up by the rain washed particles.
To illustrate protection of the soil against the erosive force of rainfall:

During a shower; Put a coin or something like that, on the soil and leave it
there for a while. When you look at later, it may be found lying, as it were, on a
little mound, of about a few millimetres. Not only have the pores in the sur-
rounding soil become pressed together (which slows down infiltration), but
also a quantity of soil will have been transported from the field.
If the coin cannot be found again this will convince you that erosion costs
money!
Remember that this thin layer of soil, which over the whole field is a consider-
able amount, disappears as a result of the combined action of splash and
stream erosion.
Where water accumulates in furrows or on footpaths, fill a glass in the

turbulent water. Keep it upright for a little while to give the soil parti-
cles that have become dissolved in it, time to sink. This again gives an
idea how much soil is being transported with the water. After a while
it will be time to get inside again and go over all the things that you
have seen. The most important question is why these phenomena have
these particular characteristics.
It is also important to know whether the rain storm that you have just
experienced was an exceptionally heavy one. Or can heavier showers
be expected which are even more disastrous for the soil, especially at a
time that the field lies bare, awaiting the next downpour. It should be
added that a heavy rainstorm is just as erosive as rain falling less
heavily over a longer period.
3.5 The principles of measures against erosion

Knowing the erosion process and how it is related to the condition of
the soil, the measures to be taken can be decided upon. To summarize,
the principles of these measures are as follows:
? To reduce the force of the rain impact; that means protecting the soil
against direct force of rain.

? To improve the stability (the resistance) of the soil to retain its
structure in spite of the rain impact.
? To reduce the amount of water which causes run-off, this allows
more water to infiltrate into the soil.
? To reduce the speed or to regulate the distribution of the flood wa-
ter.
In chapter 5,6 and 7 measures against erosion are described. All these
measures are based upon the above-mentioned principles.
Benefit of crops
The benefit of a crop on the field becomes clear too. In the first place
the leaves reduce the force of the rain impact. Secondly the plants re-
duce the speed of the flowing water. At the same time, a crop increases
the stability of the soil and the infiltration of water into it. Organic
matter, formed from plant residues plays a leading role here.
Benefit of organic matter

? Organic matter plays an important role in the formation of soil ag-
gregates (see figure 10) through which the soil can better withstand
the force of the rain and there is less chance of crusting.
? Organic matter stimulates the biological activity in the soil, through
which there is a better decomposition of organic material into hu-
mus.
? Humus (decomposed organic matter) makes the soil more porous
allowing more water and air to infiltrate into the soil, encouraging
plant growth. Because of increased infiltration more water becomes
available to the plants and surface run off (and erosion) is reduced.
? Humus increases the capacity of the soil to retain the water that has
infiltrated. So water will be available for the plants for a longer pe-
riod.

4 How erosion effects agriculture
In Chapter 2 a few examples have been given as to how erosion can be
observed in the field. Sooner or later, all the changes observed have
consequences for agriculture. To mention one example: small rills,
unlike gullies, can still be ploughed by the farmer. If the gully system
is very close, then the land may become completely inaccessible (bad-
lands).
By a few examples we will try to show how the farmer in his daily
routine on the farm may be confronted with erosion.
4.1 Consequences for the soil

When thinking of the effect of erosion on the soil we often have ideas
of spectacular gullies in our minds. However, there are less obvious,
but just as serious, consequences for crops in the field. We will discuss
the two most important of these:
Limitation of the water retention capacity:

Because the pores in the soil are disturbed, erosion reduces the
infiltration and the water retention capacity of the soil. Less water can
then be retained in the soil and after the rains stop there is less water
available for the plants.
This results in a shortening of the growing season. Crops with a longer
growing period suffer more readily from dry spells. Some drought re-
sistant varieties may give lower yields, others are unable to survive.
The farmer has fewer crops to choose from.
Leaching of nutrients:
In areas with much rainfall, a decline in moisture retention by the soil,
may have other consequences too. Since the water cannot be retained
in the soil, part of the water percolates to a deeper level or to the
ground water. Through this process nutrients that are dissolved in the
soil-moisture, will leach to a deeper level and are out of reach for the

plant roots. Obviously, this will be at the expense of the crop yields.
Deep rooting plants are sometimes able to retrieve some of these nu-
trients. Especially trees fulfil this requirement and by doing so keep a
lot of nutrients in circulation (see figure 12). Crop rotation too can
prevent leaching of nutrients. First of all the various crops have differ-
ent rooting depths and by that way leave organic residues of the roots,
and secondly they utilize (partly) different or even add nutrients.
Figure 12: Nutrient circulation
4.2 Consequences for farm management

The most important effect of erosion on farm management is the de-
crease of crop yields. However, erosion also increases necessary daily
work. These effects of course are not always the same everywhere; on
the following pages we will give just a few examples:
Labour
? In the first place the soil which is washed away may, for example,
block up diversion drains, cover a crop or cover a path elsewhere.
How erosion effects agriculture 27

Removing this soil from the drainage system or the paths adds to
the workload of the farmer.
? The reverse applies of course to the field where the soil has been
eroded away: exposed roots will have to be covered again; the un-
welcome rills or gullies will have to be ploughed up or filled in; if
plants have been completely washed away, sowing must be done
again (the question then of course is whether the crop will still have
enough time to produce a harvest).
? In areas where two successive crops can be grown, another problem
arises. If the second crop is not planted in time it will fail. The
farmer must then decide what should be given preference: Later
sowing of the first (for example food) crop and not expect an in-
come from the second crop in that year (for instance, cotton, with
the threat of a broken contract if it is not delivered to the factory). If
the farmer chooses to sow the cash crop at the expense of the food
crop, then it remains to be seen how much money is left over for
food. These factors involve extra costs in the form of seeds and the
extra labour required. However, at the so-called labour peaks (usu-
ally soil tillage and harvest), there will be no time to organize extra
labour and the farmer is obliged to sow up a smaller area for in-
stance.
? When thin layers of soil are continually washed away from the field
by erosion, the bigger particles remain and the field will eventually
become stonier. Gradually, it becomes more difficult to plough the
field and outside labour may have to be hired to get the field pre-
pared in time. If more people are in the same position clearly the
cost of labour will rise. In fact some farmers will be unable to afford
it.
? Soils can only be well cultivated when at a certain moisture level;
when dry they are too hard and if wet they can hardly be worked.
Erosion causes soil degradation, dry soils are likely to be an effect
of that and more frequently waterlogging is caused. In other words,
cultivation becomes harder, the already limited time for tillage and

sowing becomes even more scarce .... a smaller area is cultivated, or
expensive labour is to be brought in.
It can be concluded that erosion causes the yields to decrease whereas
the costs increase. A few possibilities remain for the farmer:
? Look for work elsewhere to supplement the income and the food
supply. In practice, however, the effect is that the labour force on
the land is lacking just at the essential times (labour peaks) so that
food production is threatened.
? Move to the urban areas, where the farmer will have neither land
nor job.
? Move to a neighbouring area, where one can start from scratch, un-
til there is hardly any good soil left over.
Diversification of activities
If the soil quality is stable, there is a wider choice of crops. This will
give a diversification of activities (different growing periods, sowing
times etc.). A good example of this is the so-called ‘peasant farming
system’ or home gardens where a wide range of fruits and vegetables
are grown, usually by the women. Many hours are spent here between
all the other activities and this at least should be sufficient to keep
hunger from the door, should the main crop fail.
However, should the fire wood supply become scarce (an almost uni-
versal problem) and the women have to spend more time on collecting
fuel, their own food supply will be in danger because less time can be
spent on the home garden. An alternative to fire wood is to use cow
dung. The effect of removing the cow dung on soil fertility is known,
but there is barely a choice.
Shortage of fuel has resulted in dung becoming a much sought after
commodity and has created a new task for the farmers’ wife: to sell
this popular product. So we can conclude that erosion has a negative
effect on agricultural yields, expenditure, timing of operations, choice
of crop, the position of the women with a general prospect of poverty
and hunger.
How erosion effects agriculture 29

5 Agronomic methods to control
erosion
Agronomic methods include those erosion control measures that are
related to arable farming. It is concerned with crop cultivation itself as
well as tillage operations. Arable farming is an integral part of the
natural surroundings. Woodland and grassland influence arable farm-
ing. Think of the cattle pastures where manure will again benefit the
soil.
The felling of trees and the planting of trees also strongly influence
the cropping system. All this is called a farming system. We will treat
this in more detail in Chapter 6.
Agronomic measures play a key role in erosion control because in the

first place they can be carried out relatively easily and cheaply. More-
over, often results are obtained quickly and if it is still found necessary
to take technical measures, they contribute considerably to their suc-
cess (see Chapter 7).
In this chapter we will give a survey of the most important agronomic

measures. The principles of these measures are given in Chapter 3 and
should be clear.
? Contour farming and strip cropping aim at preventing water to run
off and at retaining the rain water.
? Minimum tillage, mulching and the use of a cover crops serve to
protect the soil against the force of the rainfall, at the same time
maintaining the soil fertility or increasing it.
? Manuring has the role of keeping the crop in good condition so that
it can stand up to erosion better.
? Finally, mixed cropping aims at good crop growth with optimal use
of available light, water and nutrients. This minimizes the chance of
erosion.

Of each measure principles and execution are treated as well as draw-
backs. Too detailed advice of course cannot be given for the execu-
tion; you will have to find out for yourself whether and how certain
procedures can be carried out best in your local situation. Mixed crop-
ping, for example will require a suitable combination of crops. Con-
sultation with the local population and institutions is important here to
benefit from the knowledge and experience of others. There will be a
greater chance that the operations succeed too.
You can find more information about agronomic measures to control

erosion and to improve infiltration of water and retention of water by
the soil in two other publications in the Agrodok series: No. 2: ‘Soil
fertility management’; and No 13: ‘Water harvesting and soil moisture
retention’.
5.1 Contour farming

Contour farming is a collective name for contour ploughing and con-
tour planting. This means that soil cultivation and planting are carried
out along the contours.
Purpose:
? To prevent water from running off down-slope (see figure 13).
? To encourage infiltration of water into the soil.
Figure 13: Contour farming
Agronomic methods to control erosion 31

Application:
In general contour farming is practised if the slope is not steeper than
about 10% but longer than 100m. On steeper slopes, combined meth-
ods are used. This is the easiest procedure (however remember the
10%). This method is sometimes combined with terracing and strip
cropping which makes it more effective.
To show how the contours run, hedges can also be planted along the
contours. If the farmer keeps ploughing parallel to the hedge, he will
have the assurance that everything is following the contour line. This
is difficult to see without a guideline. The hedge should not in any
way be an obstacle; it is even possible to make good use of them as
well (fodder crop, firewood, fruits, mulch) (see figure 14).
Figure 14: Hedges along the contour
For the purpose of erosion control only ridges and furrows should be
as horizontal as possible. However, in practice this doesn’t work out.
There is a chance that the water collects at a somewhat lower point in
a furrow behind a ridge and causes the ridge to break through, and
with it the lower lying ridges; the results of all this being disastrous.
So it is better to make a point of laying out ridges and furrows at a
slight angle; about 1%, so that run-off water can be collected and
safely removed via a discharge drain. The furrow should not be longer
than 100m to avoid over flowing and also to reduce the stream veloc-
ity. Drainage channels can of course be used provided they are kept
under plant cover.
Small dams (cross-ties) made of earth can be made at regular intervals

in the furrows to check the water velocity; this is known as the ‘tied

ridging system’ (see figure 15). If the rainfall is not so heavy it will be
completely taken up in the soil. The method is effective in dry areas.
Figure 15: Tied-ridging
Execution:
First a number of contour lines have to be established for ploughing to
be carried out. It is useful to set fixed orientation points for this so that
the contours do not have to be set out again every year (see also ap-
pendix 1).
Possible drawbacks:
? If ridges and furrows are badly laid out, this may lead to more ero-
sion. Water may collect at certain points and if the ridges break,
there is a danger of gully erosion.
? Contour farming can also be risky if:
1 The soil has a low infiltration velocity (see glossary). This is the
case on very heavy soils or if there is a hard layer in the profile.
2 The soil has a low infiltration capacity (Glossary). This is the
case if the soil layer is shallow or has impermeable layers.
? Under these circumstances, a lot of water will collect, increasing the
chance of breaking.
? On very irregular slopes it may be impractical to work along the
contours. Strip cropping may be more effective here.
? Finally, for contour ploughing, a plough with a reversible blade is
preferable.

5.2 Strip cropping and strip reclamation
Strip cropping is the cultivation of different types/sorts of crops
planted in separate strips along the contour. Strips that do not stand up
to erosion well are alternated with strips that can withstand erosion.
In strip reclamation the original vegetation is left to grow in places

where there is a danger of erosion. Strips that are a poor protection
against erosion are alternated with strips that are well protected by a
crop (see figure 16).
Figure 16: Strip cropping
Purpose:
? To hold back the run-off water with soil particles coming from the
poorly protected strip, in the strip with the dense cover crop. Here
water penetrates well and soil particles are held. In this way, the un-
derlying strips are protected.
? In addition, the ‘soil protective’ strips can be used to provide cattle
feed and/or mulch.
Application:
Strip planting is usually carried out on slopes that are not steep enough
to warrant terracing, which are slopes of 15 to 20%. From a financial
point of view and the technical know-how involved, strip planting is
often preferred to terracing; the results of all this being disastrous.

So it is better to make a point of laying out ridges and furrows at a
slight angle; about 1%, so that run-off water can be collected and
safely removed via a lower lying ridges.
Execution:
? The strips with a poor cover crop are alternated with different strips
that do protect the soil well.
? The best combination is to alternate strips of grass or grass mixtures
with (about 25%) legumes. The strips are very suitable for provid-
ing fodder. Arable crops with a dense leaf cover can also be grown
and permit very little erosion.
? In strip reclamation, only the ‘cultivation strips’ are reclaimed, and
the natural vegetation strip holds back erosion.
? Tree crops, if pruned back to a hedge and which have an under-
cropping also provide a good buffer strip. The pruned material can
be used as a mulch and sometimes as a cattle feed.
The width of the strip depends on the gradient of the slope and the
infiltration capacity of the soil (Table 1). The principle is that the run-
off water in the strips does not reach erosive velocity. The width of the
grass/legume strips depends on the ‘correction’ that has to be made.
The water in these strips has to be halted so that the underlying strips
only have to cope with their ‘own’ water.
Table 1: A guideline for the width of strips
Slope of Width of
0 - 2% 40 - 50 m
2 - 4% 30 - 40 m
> 4% 15 - 30 m
in very humid areas 15 - 30 m
This shows that the width of the strip also depends on the rainfall. It is
useful for the farmers to decide together on the width or length of
strips. When laying out strips, one tries to let the borders run along the

contour line. Slopes are not always regular though, so a contour line
may not be a suitable guideline for the strips to be laid out. The strips,
in order to correct the slope, will not be the same width everywhere.
This had disadvantages for arable farming in particular. Therefore ar-
able farming strips are kept the same width and the irregularities in the
slope are corrected in the buffer strips. This is less of a problem for
non-mechanized cultivation unless contour farming is carried out on
the arable strips. Strip cropping is most effective if combined with
crop rotations. The value of rotations is discussed briefly in Chapter 6.
As an illustration, we will give an example of how strip cropping is

carried out in Nigeria (Figure 17), with four crops each year.
Figure 17: Crop rotation in strip cropping
The ‘soil-protecting’ ground-nut is followed by corn which can still

benefit from the nitrogen fixed by the ground-nut. The poor soil-
covering cotton follows the corn. Three years of cultivation are fol-
lowed by three years fallow.

Possible drawbacks:
? An important disadvantage of strip cropping is that it takes up a
considerable area of arable land, about one half. This is likely to be
a problem if the farm area is small. However, this does not neces-
sarily mean that yields will be halved. For instance, the strips could
be used to produce mulch material, which will increase the yield in
the crop strips. If the buffer strips are left fallow, this can be very
beneficial too. The grass/legume strips can be put to good use if cat-
tle are kept in the area, as extra feed in the dry season for example.
If the strips are very narrow, then the fencing of the strips may be a
problem. You might then consider harvesting the cattle feed your-
self keeping the cattle in the stable.
? When weeding the buffer strips care should be taken that the grass
if not trampled too much, otherwise these strips would have an ad-
verse effect.
5.3 Limitation of tillage

Techniques known as reduced, minimum and zero tillage are consid-
ered here. In zero tillage, the land for crop cultivation is not ploughed
at all, just holes for planting are made; in minimum and reduced till-
age, only the places where the crop is going to be planted or sown are
prepared, short before planting takes place. Existing vegetation and
plant residues are largely spared.
Purpose of limiting tillage:

? To prevent loosening soil material that then might form a crust or be
carried away by water.
? Left crop residues or vegetation prevent water from flowing easily
over a smooth, erosion sensitive surface. On top of that organic
matter is increased.
? There is a considerable saving of labour. Especially at high labour
peaks, the time saved means an extension of the growing season.
Planting can be done earlier though.

Application:
Reduced tillage is especially advisable on soils that easily form a crust
on the newly worked soil. The soils should be well draining (i.e. not
too clayey) have a crumbly consistency and a coarse surface.
Other soils may be difficult to work or there may be root systems dif-
ficult to break through. This technique is often combined with strip
cropping and terracing.
Execution:
From the moment the soil is most sensitive to erosion (from tillage
until a cover crop forms) it should be protected against splash erosion,
by covering with plant residues. Only the vegetation around the plant
hole is cleared (Figure 18).
Figure 18: Cropping between the stubble of the previous crop
In ‘strip tillage’ only a narrow strip is worked for sowing the row crop.
Useful soil covers are often used too. As long as they do not over
grow the main crop, they are left to stand.
Minimum tillage is also often applied to relay cropping, whereby the

new crop is already sown before the previous one is harvested. A good
crop rotation can be applied in this way.

Possible disadvantages:
? The existing vegetation uses water which is then no longer available
for the ‘useful’ crops. To prevent this, herbicides are sometimes
used.
? Insects may thrive in the plant residues which sometimes necessi-
tates the use of insecticides.
? Initially, an increased fertilizer application, particularly nitrogen,
may be beneficial because the nitrogen from the decomposing or-
ganic material on the soil is not immediately available to the crop.
5.4 Mulching and stubble mulching

Mulching is the practice of spreading plant material or other organic
material on the surface of the soil.
In stubble mulching the crop residues from the field itself are used and
the root residues are left in the soil. In this case, tillage is restricted to
loosening the top soil (not turned over) to facilitate infiltration.
Purpose:
? To protect the soil as long as there is no cover crop. Splash erosion
and runoff are checked by the mulch layer because it prevents the
soil from becoming washed away (Figure 7).
? To reduce evaporation by the mulch layer itself.
? To keep weed growth down.
? To improve the soil structure through an increase of the organic
matter level after the mulch material has decomposed. This stimu-
lates the soil fauna and allows for better penetration and storage of
water (see figure 19).
Application:
Use mulch especially where good crop growth is important, such as in
gardens or orchards. Since it is a costly item it is wise to use it for the
most valuable crops.

A condition for mulching is that there is access to a plot of land that
will provide the mulch material or that it can be obtained from else-
where. Mulching is also carried out on steep slopes with erosion-prone
soils, provided something can be done about the runoff so that every-
thing is not washed away.
Figure 19: Mulching
Execution:
All available non-woody plant residues, such as grass, straw or refuse
can be used as well as any material from natural or fallow vegetation.
Hedges are also included in the cultivation to provide mulch material.

Branches cut to about 10 cm are brought on to the soil without work-
ing them under, to prevent runoff of water and soil. Runoff water from
elsewhere should not be allowed to stream under the mulch layer, be-
cause this is only detected later. It may be necessary to hold down the
mulch layer, from blowing away for instance, by covering it with a
layer of soil.

During sowing or planting, the mulch is put to one side, but afterwards
the planting hole is covered again.
Possible drawbacks:
? Sometimes the direct yields do not sufficiently compensate for the
effort put in.
? Cutting, transporting and spreading the material is a lot of work
whereas the high temperatures in the tropics often cause it to be
broken down quickly. To ensure that the soil is protected for a
longer time, it is advisable to use a mixture of quick and slow de-
composing material as a mulch.
? In orchards the mulch should not rest against tree stems since it
could be a carrier of disease.
? Sometimes, a mulch increases the fire danger of a field. It can then
be lightly worked in. Fire pathways around the field are a solution
too. Also, planting a closed hedge that remains permanently green
and is barely inflammable reduces the fire hazard, too.
? Especially in well-populated areas it may be a disadvantage if large
areas are needed to produce mulch. In this case marginal ground
should be used as far as possible.
? The mulch layer should not be too thick because instead of cooling
down it would then heat up, although this depends on the material
used. Only 3 to 5 month old twigs of trees and shrubs should be
used. Nitrogen fixing plants or cow dung could otherwise be used.
? Finally see that erosion does not occur in places from where the
mulch has been removed.
To inspire the reader we will illustrate this practice of mulching by
citing part of a letter from Brother Urbanus in North-East Brazil. He
writes:
“Our first step was to keep ‘precious’ moisture in the soil by covering
it and protecting it from the scorching rays of the sun. But what could

be used to cover the soil? This was the problem. I was lucky: this
month the council had started to tackle the problem of the water lilies
which had over grown more than half of a large lake. Hundreds of
lorry loads of water lilies were thrown away. I asked for a few lorry
loads and got 121. This was a good start and we could get to work.
At the same time we got down to cleaning our pond where the water
was too salty for irrigation purposes. This had never been done since
the dam was laid out 22 years ago. In some places the layer of silt and
mud was 1 to 1.5 m high. The salt concentration was found here, for
every time the silt dried out it left a white sediment.
We also dug field drains on the contours of the land for the new and
clean water later on. It will then penetrate via the drain into the
ground (which is also still covered) and no evaporation of moisture
can occur. The few rain showers that we had was a proof that the
mulch layer of water lilies was excellent for holding water in the soil.
We intend to introduce water lilies into our pond because then it will
be an extremely welcome supplier of organic material. The problem of
someone else has proved to be a blessing for us.
Planting is continually going on because the soil is moist. A small hol-
low in the organic layer, - the soil turned over a little with a trowel -
make a planting hole - beans sown and the hole filled up. That’s all.
Weeds don’t grow because the more we leave the organic layer alone,
the more the organic life will thrive. All that remains is sowing and
harvesting. But the experiment is still in a very early stage.”
5.5 Cover crops

Cover crops are plants that are sown in order to protect the soil and/or
increase the soil fertility. They are usually creeping legumes that cover
the ground surface between a widely spaced perennial crop.
Purpose:
? To protect the soil against the force of the rainfall, and to retain the
soil from being carried away by the rainwater.

? To protect the soil against too much heat from the sun and thus to
prevent the humus to be broken down too quickly.
? To suppress weed growth.
? To increase organic matter in the soil and thus to improve the soil
structure and soil fertility.
Application:
Cover crops are usually sown where crops themselves have a wide
spacing and are poor ground covers (trees for instance).
Legumes used as a cover crop improve soil fertility even more be-
cause they can fix nitrogen from the air. Through decomposition of the
plants this nitrogen becomes available for the main crop.
Green manuring
When the cover crop is worked into the soil in a green non-decomposed con-
dition, this is known as green manuring. Green manuring increases organic
matter in the soil and improves soil fertility, especially in the case of legumi-
nous plants. In the Agrodok no 2: ‘Soil fertility management’, more information
is given on this method to improve soil fertility.
In the Philippines it appears that of all the practices, the use of cover crops is
the most applied and successful. Particularly on poor soils the fertilizing effect
of green manures with legumes is very important. Green manuring is often
practised during the fallow period.
Execution:
Cover crops should be planted as soon as possible after tillage to be
fully beneficial. This can be done at the same time as sowing the main
crop, but also after harvesting it. In the last case the cover crops form
a fallow vegetation which serve as green manuring for the new season.
In making a choice, the following points are important:

? If possible choose a useful crop such as groundnut, beans or a fod-
der crop.
? The crop should be a quick starter.
? It should really be a ground-covering crop that is low lying.

? It should compete with the main crop as little as possible. For deep
rooting main crops, superficial rooting cover crops are used.
? The cover crop should not transmit disease to the main crop. The
chance of this is very small if both crops belong to different fami-
lies.
In appendix 3 a table is included giving the most common cover crops
and their properties. In practice, it is good to mix different types.
Possible drawbacks:
? If the annual rainfall is low (less than 500 mm) the cover crop could
take valuable water from the main crop whereby the costs will su-
persede the benefits derived. It would be cheaper then to let the
weeds stand although they are sometimes inclined to over run the
main crop and evaporate a lot of water. In cassava for example the
weeds are left standing only after 4 - 6 months since before this
time they are too competitive.
? Legumes often need to be fertilized with phosphorus.
? Legumes are rather sensitive to disease. Eelworms in particular are
often a problem. The age-old practice of crop rotation is indispen-
sable here.
? Sometimes it takes quite a long time, about a year, before sufficient
nitrogen becomes available for the main crop.
? If legumes are being used for the first time at a field, the Rhizobium
bacteria have to be brought into the field otherwise the fertilizer ef-
fect is not shown. It is often sufficient to bring soil from places
where legumes are growing.
5.6 Fertilizing
Fertilizing is the application of organic or mineral fertilizers to the soil
for the benefit of the plant.

Purpose:
? The improvement of the soil fertility to satisfy the nitrogen, phos-
phorus and calcium requirements of the plant. In this context, fertil-
izers have the same effect as mulching and green manuring.
Improved fertility has the following effects:

? Organic manure improves the structure of the soil (see Chapter 3).
? It accelerates and improves the crop coverage. The soil has better
protection and again more organic material is formed.
? Yields are higher. This is very important in densely populated areas
where the fallow periods are even shorter.
Application:
? Since tropical soils are generally deficient in nitrogen and phospho-
rus, manuring is usually beneficial. It provides an important com-
plement to other practices by increasing or accelerating their effect.
In other words, manuring alone hardly pays; it needs the support of
other measures to be fully effective.
Execution:
? Where there is cattle, the manure should be returned to the soil
where possible so that the nutrients, are not lost. In any case, you
could try to herd the animals together in a corral at night.
? If available, artificial fertilizer can be used. General directions for
fertilizer dosage cannot be given however. Each situation will be
considered on its own merit as to which fertilizer is required and
will pay. Artificial fertilizers do not improve the structure of the soil
directly.
? In the past, net profits of artificial fertilizers have often been disap-
pointing. Another drawback of its use is the dependence on outside
help, bringing with it the uncertainty of supply.

5.7 Multiple cropping
Multiple cropping is the cultivation of different arable crops and/or
other crops at the same time.
Purpose:
? Better protection of the soil by ensuring a more intensive and pro-
longed coverage. In this way the growing season is lengthened as it
were and yields are higher. More organic material is formed which
can benefit the soil structure.
? Reduce the risks by growing different crops taking into account the
market as well as diseases and pests.
? Prevent nutrients being washed out by ensuring that the soil is cov-
ered as long as possible. In multiple cropping the various types will
grow differently both under as well as above the ground. Water, nu-
trients and light are better utilized.
? The various types may even have a positive influence on each other.
Application:
? Multiple cropping is a traditional method of cultivation, which un-
fortunately has had to make way for monoculture. Especially in
densely populated areas this cultivation method offers perspective
by making a more intensive use of the land. The advantage of this
method is of widespread importance, especially if cultivation is not
yet mechanized.
Execution:
Well-known systems of multiple cropping are:
? Mixed cropping: The different crops are sown at random for the
various bean varieties for example.
? Inter cropping: The different crops are grown in rows next to each
other. Cassava is grown for instance between or under banana or
coconut.

? Relay cropping: The second crop is already sown before the first is
harvested. In India, sorghum and pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) are of-
ten grown at the same time; after the sorghum is harvested the bean
starts to branch and flower.
Maybe other examples can be given from your own surroundings.

Field crops can be thus combined with spacious taller or shorter crops.
In the first place the arable crop itself should be shade tolerant and it
can be combined with tree crops for example. Tubers such as Coloca-
sia and Xanthosoma, both with a low light requirement, are often
grown under banana. In South or Mid America, coffee is often grown
under Erythrina which is regularly pruned to provide cattle feed, fire-
wood and nitrogen-rich mulch material. This is a form of agroforestry.
? If tillage is necessary for a second crop, this cannot be planted be-
fore the first crop has been harvested.
? The different crops may be strong competitors for light or moisture.
? Watch out for soil exhaustion, which could lead to soil degradation.

6 Using cropping systems to
control erosion
6.1 Rotation and fallow

Many tropical farming systems have originated from shifting cultiva-
tion; a system of food production based on a rotation of cultivation
followed by a long fallow period. The fallow period ensures a natural
recovery of soil fertility. After a recovery period of 15 - 20 years the
vegetation is again cut back and burned and the land can again be used
for farming.
This farming system is still very common (it accounts for 8% of the
world’s food supply), but unfortunately a high population pressure in
many places undermines the system. The land is then used too inten-
sively and the fallow period is shortened. Too few nutrients are built
up so that the soil fertility declines.
The reasons for this system being more susceptible to erosion are:
? In the cropping period and to a larger extent after a year, erosion is
much greater than in the fallow period because the soil is less cov-
ered. The longer the cropping period the more the erosion.
? If the cropping period is longer, more crops are taken from the field
and thus more nutrients are removed from the soil.
? This results in a decline in the organic material production, the
structure of the soil deteriorates and with it the stability too.
? The condition of the crop and the cover crop also declines with an
increasing chance of diseases and pests.
? In time erosion itself again results in lower yields.
This illustrates that a sufficiently long fallow period in the cropping

system is very important for the soil. If the fallow period has to be

shortened out of necessity, precautions should be taken in the cropping
as well as in the fallow period, to minimize the risks.
The most important measure to keep the production up to level is to

fertilize with organic manure or artificial fertilizers. Extra precautions
will have to be taken to avoid the chance of diseases and pests.
The cropping techniques discussed in Chapter 5 are especially directed
toward improving the soil stability, to limit water runoff and to con-
serve water.
In the fallow period improvements can be introduced by:
? taking care that the soil is covered again as soon as possible. The
sowing of certain grass varieties will help here.
? taking care that the nutrients come into circulation again, and enrich
the soil itself by using nitrogen fixing crops.
This is really a transitional stage between the fallow period and a rota-
tion: variation in the times of different types of crop in the same field.
It is good to alternate arable crops with turf forming crops (botanical
caespitose) such as grass. It is therefore wise to include pasture in a
rotation with arable cropping so that erosion is considerably reduced.
In the crop rotation grass (preferably a grass-legume mixture 50/50)
should be included every two years or more, depending on the local
circumstances.
If the pasture is then converted to arable land, the arable crops benefit
considerably from the improved structure and there is very little ero-
sion. However in the second year after the transition, the ‘after effect’
has already considerably declined, so that the chance of erosion is
greater again. Otherwise the ‘after effect’ seems to depend on the du-
ration of the grass period. The area under grass is very slightly sensi-
tive to erosion so that steep slopes for instance can better be perma-
nently kept under grass (or woodland).
Other effects of the rotations are the limitation of pests and diseases
and the check on weed growth. Rotation between different arable
crops is important here too.
Using cropping systems to control erosion 49

6.2 Grassland and fires
It is well known that gully erosion often originates at cattle tracks, es-
pecially around the water sources and villages. Cattle often have to
walk kilometres every day to drinking places and in doing so they
trample down the soil.
During rain showers water collects in the trampled tracks (the rain
does not necessarily affect the structure; the hooves of the cattle have
already done this) and slight gullies are formed from the rills. Through
erosion the water will in the future stream off more quickly, the area
dries out more and more, the water source gives less water or may
even dry up completely. The cattle then have to go longer distances
every day in search of water, costing them extra energy and a need for
more food. Clearly this soon becomes a vicious circle.
Erosion increases through overgrazing, without an increase in cattle

numbers. To prevent this, water should be available on the premises
itself. For a farmer alone this is obviously not a working proposition.
However, he may be able to prevent overgrazing. This can partially be
realized by seeing that there are not more cattle than the pasture can
support. This again is not without its problems because herdsmen are
not always their own boss; the cattle may belong to someone from the
town, the offspring having been promised to a family member etc.
Another way to reduce the pressure on pasture land is to improve it.

For example, the food value of the pasture crop can be increased by
sowing nitrogen-fixing crops (for instance clover) between the
grasses. Fertilizers will of course improve the condition of the plants,
too, though they are often more scarce than rainfall. There is an over-
all shortage of nitrogen and often phosphorus is in short supply too.
Overgrazed areas should be given the chance to recover by not using

them for 3-10 years. Fencing will then be essential. For this, the so-
called ‘living hedges’ can be used, that is of a type which should pro-
vide mulch, cattle feed or fuel. Then a grass rotation system could be
applied.

Dried out pasture is often burned so that fresh new grass comes up
again. Burning is an integral part of cattle farming in the tropics and
improvements in the technique must be found. The timing and the
method of burning seem to determine whether it is damaging or not.
On erosion sensitive land it can best be done just before the rainy sea-
son, because the soil then lies bare for just a short while. The crop will
come up again quickly in the rainy season.
A very important disadvantage of late burning is that the fire may get
out of hand, because the vegetation is very dry. The strong fire causes
a decline in soil fertility, organic matter is burnt and the nitrogen and
sulphur released goes up with the smoke. Burning slightly at the be-
ginning of the dry season has the advantage that there is less chance of
spontaneous fires occurring later in the dry season when they are not
so easy to control.
It may be better to strike a balance between early and late burning de-
pending on the local circumstances. Regular and strong fires should
certainly be avoided because as a result of the considerable drying out,
hard layers form in the profile, the so-called hard pans which are
clearly very damaging.
Unfortunately you are also dependant on what other farmers do and it

would not be very effective to decide not to burn any more yourself.
However if you do decide not to, it is sensible anyway to protect your
land from the fires of others by laying out fire paths around your land.
To give an example, a farm in Ghana was the only one in the wide
surroundings not burnt by fire, thanks to a fire pathway. From this
pathway, firewood, mulch material and cattle feed was collected so
that there was no question of waste of land.
Finally it should be noted, that pastures are still communal ground in

many areas and it is not customary to make seed, fertilizer or labour
investment here.

6.3 Trees and woodland against erosion
Deforestation, often the result of increased population pressure or
commercial woodcutting, is the cause of erosion in many areas. De-
forestation exposes the deforested area as well as the low-lying parts
of the flood area to erosion: large floods in Bangladesh in 1974 led to
a great food disaster, the floods were partly the result of deforestation
in India and Nepal. The drying out of water sources and the silting up
of dams often go hand in hand with deforestation.
The effect of woodland on erosion is twofold:
? Protection:
In the first place woodland is protective against the force of rainfall.
The leaf cover of the trees plays a much less important role here than
the layer of fallen leaves from trees, shrubs and weeds. Large droplets
can form on the leaves of trees which when falling from a height of 6
metres or more have more energy than the small drops which fall di-
rectly from the sky. However, a ground cover of litter or weeds inter-
cepts this force. So this layer should not be removed to be used as fuel
or as fertilizer. (This is more applicable to solitary trees).
? Improved water conservation:

The second important property of woodland is that it can quickly take
up a lot of water. The woodland soil is compact with deep penetrating
roots. This opens up numerous pores in the soil so that there is plenty
of space for rainwater whereas there will be little run off water from
the surface. The soil can be compared to a sponge: quickly a lot of
water is absorbed and then slowly released. Low lying areas of a flood
area can benefit from this action, less water flows through at the same
time so that less soil will be eroded away there too. The water may be
released so slowly that in the dry season the lower lying areas still
benefit from it.
For these reasons reafforestation is often advised for an erosion con-

trol programme. The key question is then of course in how far this is
feasible and justified. There is usually a good reason why woodlands
have disappeared from certain areas.

? Is it because cattle have to graze there?
? Has the woodland been felled for fire wood?
? Does the land have to be used for arable farming?
When considering the reason for deforestation you can decide in how
far reafforestation is the most acceptable form of erosion control. Poor
soils and steep slopes should certainly be kept or brought under wood-
land since these soils are unsuitable for arable cultivation or cattle
farming anyway. For reafforestation fast growing species that form a
vigorous root system should be chosen. The so-called pioneer trees are
suitable here, trees which naturally grow on poor land and which are
adapted to the poor conditions. These are usually available locally so
that simple material can be obtained. The species used should not be
too susceptible to drought because the young seedlings may dry out on
account of their undeveloped root system.
(See appendix 2 for a list of tree species that can be used for erosion
control).
In most cases it is not possible to bring back an area completely under

forest. The possibilities should be investigated for making as much use
as possible of trees in the cropping system. In any case the species
chosen should be adapted to the local needs.
? If cattle feed is required, the trees should be grown which provide

appetizing material for the animals. In areas with a dry period, trees
make an important contribution to survive this drought. Legumi-
nous plants which form protein in their leaves, are often used as en-
ergy food for cattle. The local people can be asked what the prefer-
ence of the animal is.
? To provide mulch material, hedges with some leguminous plants are
grown around the field, following the contour. These hedges pro-
vide mulch material, firewood and food for cattle.
? As a fuel, almost any tree is suitable. Firewood is important because
it prevents plant residues or dung being used as fuel, since they can

be used on the field to keep soil fertility in equilibrium. Having
firewood at hand saves the farmer a lot of time too (see Chapter 9).
? Finally, the fruits of some species provide a welcome addition to
the daily menu and fruit trees are in popular demand by the farmers.
Nevertheless, trees are often considered a nuisance and planting often

fails. There are a number of reasons for this:
In the first place trees may compete with arable crops: Trees take up
nutrients and water from fields and pastures so depriving other plants.
However, deep rooting species often have a pumping effect by draw-
ing up leached and new minerals to the surface and via the fallen
leaves put them back into the soil again for the benefit of the crop.
Trees that fix nitrogen (such as Acacia and Prosopis) themselves have
a fertilizing effect. Light intervention may be a problem too, however
slight. On poor soils interception appears to be more favourable than
detrimental.
However, it is better not to plant trees which bear leaves in arable

fields in the growing season, but instead plant them along the bounda-
ries, for example on the higher level of a field to collect the water run
off from the slope.
Another reason is that young plants often dry out because planting
was done too late in the season or the water supply was neglected. It is
important to propagate the trees on the spot to establish the water sup-
ply and involve the local people in the nursery and its maintenance. It
takes some time before there are results.
An agroforestry investigation in Kenya showed that trees were not

planted because it was thought that they grew on their own accord
without having to do anything about it. However, productive trees
such as fruit (guava, citrus or mango) or timber trees (Eucalyptus or
Pinus) are commonly planted and looked after. As well as making the
importance of trees known, using fast growing species is a remedy to
this problem.

In conclusion, we suggest: plant trees wherever possible (so called
environmental farming) alongside rivers, roads, around houses and
villages. This will often have to be done communally by the local
people.
Also, planting should be carried out in places that are unsuitable for
agricultural purposes to build up the topsoil and provide fuel or tim-
ber.

7 Measures to reduce runoff
Often technical measures against erosion are not very beneficial in
themselves. They should go hand in hand with cultivation methods
and good guidance. An important question is whether the farmer him-
self can pay for the operations and/or execute them.
The purpose of technical measures is to prevent water causing dam-
age. This can be done by making better use of the available water for
the crop (water conservation) and/or by controlling the runoff water.
These subjects are covered in this chapter.
Another way is to develop a drainage system through which the run-
off-water is collected and diverged before it reaches the agricultural
land. Damage done by the uncontrolled runoff is then avoided. Drain-
age systems are explained in chapter 8.
7.1 Different levels of measures

The catchment area is the area from which the runoff contributes to
the discharge at a certain point in a stream or river. The borders of this
area are determined by the so-called watersheds, the tops of the sur-
rouding hills. This means the farther downstream, the larger the
catchment-area and the larger the flow in the stream. Further, the scale
determines clearly the extend of the measures to be taken. This seems
obvious, however, it determines a principle aspect of the problem. The
number of people involved and therefore the level of cooperation.
The people in the flood-prone areas will have most problems, whilst
the basic measures for prevention have to be taken mostly farther up
in the hills. So, not only can we distinguish here between different
methods, but it is also important to consider the level and the scale on
which the measures are taken. This can be at:
? farm level,
? slope level or
? watershed level (see figure 20).

Figure 20: Catchment areas
All measures will need regular maintenance in order to be effective in

the long run.
Farm level
At farm level the starting point is that the land is used according to its
potential. This is not always the case because of all sorts of other
(socio-economic) factors (see Chapter 8). Technical measures at farm
level can be carried out by the farmer himself, perhaps with some as-
sistance from colleagues. Contour farming is simple but effective to
apply (see Chapter 5).
To determine the contour lines, see appendix 1 in which some survey-
ing techniques are briefly described. Further information can be found
in Agrodok 6: ‘Simple Construction Surveying, for Agricultural Prac-
tices’.
Slope level
At slope level as well as at farm level, work is carried out as far as
possible from top to bottom (starting lower down involves the danger
that operations carried out are destroyed by flood water and mud
streams from higher up). The slopes should be well drained, for which
diversion ditches are needed.
Measures to reduce runoff 57

Gully formation will have to be kept in check too, if necessary (see
also 7.5). Serious gullies and ravines are often found in areas with
deep soil profiles and steep slopes. The type of precaution taken to
check such gullies depends on their size, the extent of the drainage
system and catchment area and the anticipated peak runoff (see glos-
sary). Smaller gullies can usually be kept in check by the farmer him-
self.
At slope level, the size of the operations generally determines whether
a farmer can take action single-handed or together with a few col-
leagues. However, depending on the nature and magnitude of erosion,
a bigger organization will have to be brought in. Apart from the gov-
ernment this could be a cooperative, a communal or village society. A
central government usually only becomes involved if greater interests
are at stake, for example the silting up of a dam.
Apart from the organization of the recurrent maintenance work, an-
other problem can be the costs and the labour involved. Not only those
who benefit directly from the measures should be responsible.
Watershed level
A watershed level in principle includes both sides of the river and then
erosion control is often part of a (civil engineering) development plan.
Operations carried out at this level include reafforestation, improve-
ment of rivers to prevent flooding in the lower reaches, and also ter-
racing on a large scale (see 7.3). Such a development plan will usually
cost a lot of time and money. Large-scale projects will then have to be
carried out by the government. A well set up water conservation engi-
neering plan for a larger area will make further small scale measures
more effective.
However, depending on the point in the river from where one counts, a
watershed area may be much smaller. So if the problems related to
erosion (flooding, silting up of canals) occurs in a small tributary, the
catchment area will be relatively small as well: perhaps as small as
just the property of a single farmer. In this case the farmer will be able
to, and has to, manage things by himself, for instance by terracing and
lining of susceptible points in the embankment of the river.

7.2 Barriers to reduce the speed of running
water
Contour farming has already been mentioned (in Chapter 5) as a
measure against erosion. But if the land is very split-up and a continu-
ous strip cannot be worked along the contour, then barriers can be laid
out along the contour to reduce the speed of the run off. These barriers
can be made of living vegetation or stones. Some farmers use plant
residues such as maize stalks etc.
These barriers reduce the speed of the runoff and prevent the soil to be
carried away by runoff-water. The soil carried along, piles up before
the barrier (Figure 21). Gradually terraces are built up which keep ero-
sion under control. As the slope decreases (division into terraces) the
velocity of the running water is reduced and the chance of erosion is
less. These measures are only suitable on gentle slopes.
Figure 21: Terrace formation by vegetation line or stone bund
On the terraces the superficial runoff water is controlled and collected.

The water can infiltrate into the soil (water conservation). See also
Agrodok no 13: Waterharvesting and soil moisture retention.
Banks or walls can be strengthened by stakes, fastened together by

liana or rope for example (Figure 22). Damage of the stakes by ter-
mites may be a problem here.

Figure 22: Strengthening of a bank
Planning of the work

Make sure that you choose the right measure to control erosion. Try
on a smaller area before you apply the measure for a large area, or
look for experiences of other people.
In order to make a good plan of operations it is important that good

preparations have been made. Materials should be ready and enough
labour available. Make sure you choose the right season.
7.3 Terraces
Terracing is a very effective measure against erosion. Terraces are
more or less horizontal beds on the slope, laid out along the contour
(Figure 23). The purpose of terracing is to prevent water flowing too
quickly over a sloping field, and thus minimize the risk of erosion.
This can be done by collecting the superficial runoff water on the
slope and then let it infiltrate into the soil. Through terracing on
steeper slopes the area for cultivation can be increased or improved.
There are a variety of terraces, depending on the way they are built or
on their function. The different types will be explained. Earthen ter-
races are most frequently used. This type and other types of terraces
are explained below.

Figure 23: Terraces (source: FAO)
Earthen terrace
One possibility is an earthen terrace. The farmer can lay this out him
or herself, perhaps with some help from neighbours, using a plough,
hoe or spade. This is precision work however, which requires experi-
ence and knowledge. Earthen terraces are the simplest kind of terrace
and are the most common in hilly regions.
Earthen terraces seem simple to make by oneself, but we advice to ask

help from an expert because if terraces are not made properly, they
might collapse in a hard rainstorm. The damage then will be worse
than normal erosion and hardly to recover. A schematic diagram of
such a terrace is figure 24.
Figure 24: Terrace with up-slope drain
Along the terrace a channel for drainage is laid out, in order to dis-
charge quickly of too much water in a heavy rainstorm. In dry areas

the terrace drain is often laid out down-slope (as in figure 25) because
there is not such a danger of silting up here as in wetter areas. In wet-
ter areas the drainage channel is laid out up-slope, as in figure 24. This
will reduce the risk of serious damage to the fields by a breakage in
the earthen bund during a heavy run-off.
Figure 25: Outline of an earthen terrace
Width of the terrace

The width of the terrace depends on the steepness of the slope. Table 2
gives the measurements of the width of a terrace according to the
slope percentage. Local conditions such as soil type and rain intensity,
of course influence these measurements.
Table 2: Width of a terrace according to the slope percentage
Slope (z/x * 100%) Terrace distance (x)

1% 40 - 60 m
2% 20 - 40 m
6% 15 - 30 m
10% 10 - 20 m
40% 5 - 10 m
If the slope percentage (see glossary) is 40% or more the terrace will
be very small. Much labour is required for laying out, which is expen-
sive. If such a slope does not have to be used for cultivation of crops,

a permanent vegetation might be considered such as woodland, fruit
trees, tuft-forming plants or suchlike (see Chapter 6).
Length of the terrace

The length of the terrace (that is, parallel to the contour) will of course
vary according to the local situation, obstacles, land ownership etc.
The terrace drain should not be too long because of the danger of
scouring out. A solution to this is to incorporate cross ties in these
drains at regular intervals. If runoff is not too much the velocity of the
water is reduced and the water can infiltrate (Figure 26). You will of
course have to calculate or experience whether the drain capacity is
adequate to take all the water.
Figure 26: Terrace drain with cross-ties
Absorption terraces
Apart from preventing erosion, absorption terraces have an extra im-
portant function: water conservation. These terraces collect runoff wa-
ter after a rainstorm, store it up temporarily and then let it infiltrate
into the soil.
This type of terrace is especially beneficial in fairly dry areas where

there is often a water shortage. As much water as possible can then be
collected in the sporadic and sometimes very heavy showers that do
occur.

The soil surface should be fairly rough here so that the greatest possi-
ble infiltration surface is obtained (see figure 11). For less penetrable
soils (such as heavy clay for example) and at very high peak runoff
these terraces are less suitable.
In contrast to normal terraces, absorption terraces are horizontal or

slope slightly backwards. Absorption terraces can best be laid out in
one operation (see figure 27).
Figure 27: Absorption terrace
Drainage terraces
The purpose of a drainage terrace is to safely transport the runoff wa-
ter from a field situated on a slope. Drainage terraces have a slight
slope parallel to the contour line (see glossary: longitudinal slope).
See figure 28.
Figure 28: Drainage terrace
Depending on the expected peak runoff, type of soil and length of the
terrace (catchment area) the slope perpendicular to the contour line is

between 0.2% and 1%. The water will run down side ways. At regular
distances drains carry away the runoff water preventing too much wa-
ter concentrating in the terraces which could cause bursting or flood-
ing. These secondary drainage canals diverge into a main drainage
system or a gully. See the next paragraph about drainage systems.
7.4 Drainage
An essential preventive measure against erosion is the design, devel-
opment and maintenance of a good drainage system for the catchment
area. The excess water has to be spilled in a controlled way. As ex-
plained in section 7.1, drainage also has to be implemented at different
levels, from catchment level to terrace level.
The principle of a good drainage system is that the large quantity of

water suddenly released by a rainstorm, is discharged quickly and
safely. This means that the ditches and overflows should have a capac-
ity for heavy rainstorms, which do occur only once in about 20 years.
A drainage system consists of several types of drains with different
functions (See figure 29):
Figure 29: Drainage system

When designing and making a drainage system the rule is to work
from bottom to top, that is: start with the main drain at the bottom so
that the amount of water flowing into the drainage system at a given
time can be led away in a controlled way. If you start at the top a gush
of water may suddenly come down (in the up-stream area water flows
away quickly) whereas the lower area of the drainage system is unable
to cope with it. Because of the large quantity of water accumulating
here, the catastrophe (gully formation, flooding) is soon complete.
Main drain
The main drainage serves as the main channel where all the water is
collected.
? One main drain at the bottom of the catchment area: all the col-
lected water ends up in the main drain which then leads it to a river
or so.
? Several secondary drains, which serve to collect the water from a
larger area within the catchment area.
? Collecting drains, which can be drains from drainage terraces (see
7.3) or diversion ditches.
The size and shape of the main drain should be adequate to accommo-
date a large quantity of water flowing through in a short period of
time. For main drainage, large natural drains, canals or stabilized gul-
lies are used.
Secondary drain
The secondary drainage consists of fairly wide discharge drains to
carry away surface water to the main drainage. These drains are often
artificially laid out and planted up with grass for example (they are
referred to as grassed water ways). The grass protects them against
damage from scouring water. These drains only carry water during
peak runoff, otherwise they are usually dry.
Collecting drain
The collecting drains of a terrace (especially the collecting drains) dis-
charge their surplus water into the secondary waterways. Water from
an established drainage system will flow in here too.

Diversion ditch
A diversion ditch is a ditch on the upper side of good agricultural land
that lies at the foot of steeper slopes. The runoff from up hill is col-
lected in the ditch and regulated toward a gully. The soil excavated
from the ditch forms a ridge down slope. Preferably this ridge is
planted with grass or other vegetation to secure it (Figure 30).
Figure 30: Diversion ditch
A diversion ditch is often a good starting point for controlling erosion.

The collecting drain should not slope too much lengthwise (to 1%)
otherwise these drains are themselves damaged by the high flow ve-
locity. Regular maintenance is also very important to prevent the
drains from silting up. If a drain gets blocked you can imagine the
problems that follow. These problems can best be prevented by ensur-
ing that no soil material or dirt gets into the diversion ditch.
7.5 Gully control

Gully formation may be severe in areas with deep soils and steep
slopes. On steep slopes the velocity of the water is very high and the
scouring effect will be great. A deep soil profile with only little cohe-
sion is susceptible to rapid and deep gully formation during heavy
rainfall.

The purpose of gully control is not so much erosion control as an at-
tempt to limit the effects of erosion that is taking place up-stream from
the gully. Of course, existing gullies should be prevented from devel-
oping further. What measures are taken to prevent or control the proc-
ess of gully formation depends on the size of the gully and the area to
be drained (the amount of water to be diverged).
First of all we try to check the amount of water coming into the gully
by protecting the soil upstream or even by diverging the water. The
velocity of the water in the gully also has to be checked so that it
doesn’t scour out further.
The farmer himself can keep smaller gullies in check as follows: as far
as possible the water is kept in the middle of the gully so that the walls
cannot be undermined. In shallow gullies small dams with an over-
flow can be laid out with rubble, twigs, stones and wire bolsters. The
water can then ooze through these fairly open constructions whereas
any transported silt is held back upstream. In this way the longitudinal
slope is reduced and with it the flow velocity too.
Figure 31: Controlling smaller gullies: view from above

If available, wire netting supported by wooden posts, can be used for
smaller gullies (Figure 31). For larger gullies small stone dams can be
used. (Figure 32).
Figure 32: Strengthening of a gully
Checkpoints for making dams

When laying out these check dams, the following points should be
taken into account:
? The principle is to shorten the length of the slope in the gully over
which the water flows, so that the flow velocity (and with it the
chance of further erosion) decreases.
? The gully walls at the position of the dam and also a part upstream
are graded to a slope of 1:2 (going up 1 meter over a distance of 2
meters) or less, so that the chance of breaking is minimized.
? There should be good contact between the dam and the gully wall
(well anchored); otherwise the temporary structure will wash away.
Fencing poles are always driven deep into the soil so this applies to
these structures too.
? The dam should be lowest in the middle where the flow has to con-
centrate at the overflow.
? The gully floor should be strengthened down stream against the
scouring force of the water. This can be done by making a type of

mattress or cover which is well sealed. (For example broken stone,
discarded car tires filled up, concrete rubble etc.). After overflow-
ing, the water is very turbulent. Even though the stream is concen-
trated in the middle of the gully, the walls will have to be extra
strengthened (Figure 32).
Obstacles within the gully that force the water to the sides have to be
removed in order to prevent further scouring out of the sides of the
gully.
In certain cases, the turbulence of the water causes undermining of the

head of the gully. This means that the head (starting point) of the gully
cuts in further backwards (up slope), see figure 33. Measures have to
be taken to prevent this happening.
Figure 33: An exemple of undercutting > process over a period of

time
Protection of the head of the gully can be done by protecting the soil
with broken stone, rubble, twigs or similar material. It is also advis-
able to keep the area around the head of the gully planted up with trees
or a tuft-forming crop, for example.
To prevent trampling by cattle (sometimes even the direct cause of

gully formation) preventive measures should be taken by making a
good fence (thorny hedge for example).
By leading the water along the lower parts of the land you must be
sure that water actually comes into the gully.

7.6 General remarks for technical measures
In the design and execution of mechanical works, the following lay
out directions could be useful:
? The main purpose is and remains to prevent erosion. Other motives
(such as encouraging infiltration or making a reservoir) should not
hinder this objective. This does not mean to say that the main pur-
pose and other goals are contradictory, on the contrary.
? Land use measures are not always necessary. Often a simpler solu-
tion will suffice following the principle of shortening the slope
length to limit the flow velocity. (Crop management techniques
such as strip cropping or contour farming).
? The simpler methods are usually best because there is only a small
chance of failure: Organization is less complicated; the work costs
less; simple measures are often very effective. Adaptation can also
be made after gaining some experience. Large-scale operations in-
volve more risks because more water is involved.
? Mechanical measures (with machines) can only be applied to arable
land, if required, because of the relatively high costs and the danger
of erosion is greater here.
? A plan or measure should always be adapted to the method of exe-
cution: depending on the available manpower for hand labour or
machines; size of operations should be in accordance with the
available equipment (plough or bulldozer, for example).
? As far as possible the works to be carried out should fit into the fu-
ture land development schemes. For example when laying out ter-
races, take into account the size so that still an easily manageable
plot is left over for the farmer. Don’t lay out terraces 30 m wide in a
field 40 m wide, preferably choose 20 or 40 m. There is always
some margin in the measurements of a terrace, make sure that the
terrace is safe.
? Land use measures are potentially dangerous: That is to say without
proper preparation or execution, the damage may only be worse.
Expertise is a must here!

? Earthen structures, terraces, dams etc. require continuous and scru-
pulous maintenance (see Chapter 9). This essential maintenance can
be made more attractive by growing fruit trees for example which
will literally and figuratively bear fruit if nursed well.
? The design and layout, and the calculation of structures and drain-
age canals require knowledge and experience for which a hydrolo-
gist can be consulted.

8 Underlying causes of erosion
In the previous chapters we have seen how the chance of erosion can
be lessened by taking certain precautions. However, circumstances are
sometimes such that a farmer cannot adopt another method of produc-
tion that would be less damaging. So we are confronted with the un-
derlying cause of erosion. A simple comparison can be made here with
a farm track (it is sometimes forgotten that roads and paths can be a
serious erosion hazard). Naturally a road is seldom covered with a
protective mulch layer; moreover roads are preferably laid out as
straight as possible, if necessary straight through an erosion prone
area, straight up a hill. This is for the simple reason that roads are laid
out to transport people and products and not to control erosion.
Just as it is for the road in our example, so is it too in agriculture; agri-
culture is primarily for food production or as a money earner. The
choices that are made in agriculture basically have an economic, social
or agronomic background.
Thus it is very important to study these backgrounds carefully when
asking yourself why erosion occurs in a certain area. Not only will the
deeper causes of erosion be found in the socio-economic backgrounds,
but the incentive will be found which motivates the farmer to alterna-
tive land use which would have less disastrous results for the soil.
Crop choice
In Chapter 5, the importance of a good crop choice was pointed out.
However, the choice of crop is not free. Under given circumstances
some crops would dry out, others require tillage for which there are no
machines. Some crops don’t protect the soil well, such as maize or
cassava but they are staple food. People are dependant on these crops
for survival.
Mulch
Farmers in certain areas used to use mulch before, but not any more.
The reason for this is probably the increasing population pressure
which brings with it an increasing need for fuel. The grasses that are
Underlying causes of erosion 73

there and the residues of harvested crops are used as cattle feed or
fuel, so that there is no material for mulching. The cattle manure and
the ash remains are put back.
Growing mulch material on marginal land that is not suitable for agri-
culture is a temporary solution, because the soil may deteriorate and in
turn succumb to erosion. Yet the farmers will have to be offered an
alternative. Maybe crops can be planted which can later be felled for
firewood. If these crops are grown in strips they have a protective
function too.
Cost sharing
A farmer may be convinced of the necessity for taking precautions
against erosion but if there is a question of share cropping, whereby
the farmer is responsible for the cost of erosion control and the yields
are shared with the land owner, of course he will not be inclined to
take precautions, they are too expensive for him!
Lack of security
Also, if the lease duration is shorter (one year for example), the tenant
farmer is not very sure of a prolonged use of the same piece of land.
Understandably the farmer will try to get the most out of his land in
the shortest possible time without bothering too much about maintain-
ing the soil quality.
Being forced to farm steep slopes

In the Andes in South America as in other places, small farmers are
driven from the highlands by large landowners wishing to start large
scale farming there. There remains little choice for the small farmer
than to move to the erosion prone steep slopes and try to go on farm-
ing there. The accepted farming methods are no longer suitable on the
steep slopes and only cause erosion. With the decrease in yields the
farmer slowly slides toward poverty.
Many other examples can be given but we hope that enough has been
said to illustrate that the socio-economic relationship as a driving
force behind land use, is often the deeper cause of erosion taking
place.

9 Conditions for the success of
operations
Erosion control will have the best chance of success if the underlying
causes are removed. Unfortunately this is not always within reach of
the farmer concerned or the well-intentioned development worker ei-
ther. Sometimes the causes can only be tackled by political influence
among the people themselves, a process in which you, as a develop-
ment worker, can exert very little influence.
This does not mean that nothing can be done. It indicates the direction
we should look when deciding on measures to be taken, not only con-
sidering the effects the plan will have on the soil, but just as much, if
not more, the consequences for the people. However, often the lack of
technical know-how and information is not the most important hurdle
for controlling erosion. The fact that a certain requisite for the success
of an operation is not satisfied is more important.
A few of these will be mentioned. Obviously you must decide for

yourself the factors that should be taken into account in your area.
9.1 Trust
The first condition is that one is accepted by the inhabitants. A touch-
ing example of farmers accepting the advice for water conservation
measures comes from a village San Lucas in Peru. A man on a donkey
was allowed to travel through the area and talk to the people about
water conservation. The man made himself known as San Lucas. For
the people in the village this man was a living legend and they took
his suggestions to heart. The advantage of this was that the effects of
water conservation were soon noticed in the increased crop yields. The
demonstration effect should not be underestimated.
Conditions for the success of operations 75

9.2 Awareness
Only if people appreciate the usefulness of the operations to be carried
out, will they be inclined to take them up themselves. They should be
aware of exactly what is going on in their neighbourhood. Farmers are
often well aware of the drawbacks of their methods but carry on in the
same way because they don’t know any alternative.
So you, becoming involved, can give timely advice so that money,

time and effort and especially goodwill need not get lost. Together
with the local people, other ways can be looked for to achieve the ob-
jectives in a manner which is better adapted to the soil. In this way the
people will feel more responsible for the measures taken.
9.3 Correct choice of operations

When making a choice, take note of:
The order of priority

Erosion should be trickled at the source. A gully is the result of ero-
sion during and after a heavy storm. The additional water upstream
from the gully, which could not infiltrate into the soil flooded away
and led to gully formation. If only the gully is kept under control then
it will have just as much water and sediment to transport in the next
heavy shower. As long as nothing is done upstream the mud and water
flow will not change. Whereas gully control is not erosion control;
erosion control is the way to control gullies. Preventing large amounts
of water flowing into the gully is preferable to controlling the gully.
Prevention is always better than cure and in this case cheaper too.
The money at one’s disposal

Complicated operations are expensive and at first have very little re-
sult so the erosion authority is often considered to be an expensive
luxury. However, if by taking measures to control erosion you also
succeed in increasing yields (which is possible by water conservation
for example) then there will certainly be a criteria in planning the pri-
ority of measures to be taken.

Associated with the costs is the risk for the farmer. The poorer soils
are often owned by the less affluent farmers. They are in no position to
take risks, so hardly invest in preventive measures whereas on these
soils the measures are most needed. Yet there are simple measures es-
pecially concerned with crop management that almost any farmer
could take without increasing the risks.
You could certainly point out erosion and its negative effects. But it is
doubtful if this is enough to motivate the farmers. We don’t want to
advocate short term thinking but sometimes it might be more effective
to motivate people through short term objectives.
The time available

If the harvest fails there is little left for the farmer but to try to keep
his head above water by working harder and longer. It should always
be remembered that the farmers’ family simply haven’t the time to
spend on erosion measures. The same applies to the problem of get-
ting firewood. If trees are gradually disappearing in an area, then peo-
ple will have to walk further and further to collect enough fuel. In Java
this may take up to 4 hours a day in labour cost. In the Himalayas
people sometimes have to work for 3 days to collect enough firewood
for a week.
So the time factor has to be taken into account when planning opera-
tions, in the first place to plan them at a time that is less busy for the
farmer. Secondly it must be taken into account that the soil may be
unfit for cultivation or the farmer may be working for his neighbour
or the landlord. The farmer will then be less inclined to put effort into
something for which he or she will not directly benefit.
Maintenance
Numerous examples can be given of projects which have failed simply
because of bad management. Many operations are pointless if they are
neglected. Since the inhabitants will have to carry on the works and
maintain them, it is essential that they see their benefit and feel re-
sponsible for them too. The people should feel that the project belongs
Conditions for the success of operations 77

to them. For this reason too, the local population should be involved in
the preparation and the execution of plans. After all, this is the land
that is to provide their subsistence. They are more likely to keep a
drain clean that they have dug themselves. Yet, we have also noticed
that the live barriers have not always been planted or maintained, be-
cause in spite of the encouragement from the advisory service, the
farmer was unable to do anything about it.

10 Conclusion
After reading this booklet you will probably be feeling confused by all
the different ways to control erosion and what it entails. Perhaps you
would have preferred some concrete advice; now you can’t see the
wood for the trees! Yet you will appreciate that we cannot give con-
crete advice to start you off because the situations vary too much in
different regions. It is better if you can fill in the gaps yourself (with
the help of this booklet), other literature, advice from different au-
thorities and especially with help from the local population and a little
common sense. However we can give you some assistance in making
a choice. For this we have made up a sort of questionnaire making
reference to the chapters in this booklet:
1 What are the signs of erosion in your area?

Make a tour, taking note in particular of the different erosion phenom-
ena that occur (see Chapter 2).
2 How exactly does erosion arise and which processes play

a role here.
Take a walk around a gully and try to explain how this originated (see
Chapter 3).
3 How could all this happen and what is the deeper cause of
it?
What crops are growing there? Why isn’t the soil well protected? Are
there social problems which determine the choice of crop and land
use? (Fragmented land ownership for example). (See Chapter 8).
4 Can anything be done to change the underlying cause?

In the first instance the answer will readily be ‘no’ but sometimes cer-
tain development trends can be recognised which can be followed up
or ignored (see Chapter 9).
Conclusion 79
5 What can be done about the phenomena?
A gully can be checked. Rill formation prevented by regulating runoff
water (see Chapter 7).
6 What measures are considered in principle?

A gully controlled by broken stone and by grass growth. Laying out a
drainage system, or terraces, making a mulch layer or all three to-
gether. (Chapters 5, 6 and 7).
7 What is needed to execute these operations?

Think of money, manpower, time, planting material, equipment or-
ganisation, knowledge and experience.
8 Can all this be obtained, and if so, is it readily at hand?

First make a plan so that you don’t waste time on something unfeasi-
ble.
9 What results can be expected:

1 For the soil, that is to say, how does the method work exactly?
2 Agriculturally, what does the farmer have to do, when, and has he
got the time then? Etc.
3 In the social sphere, commitments through loans the farmer makes
in order to pay for the execution etc.
10 Is all this really attractive to the farmer?

You should continually ask yourself whether it cannot be simpler or
cheaper and no doubt the farmer will have an opinion too.
Hopefully, following the train of thought of the questionnaire you will

find out more or less what is possible in your situation. You may have
to ask for help from authorities in your area, taking into account that
they all have different interests at heart. (A soil protection service for
example will be pleased to lay out beautiful terraces which will look
good in the annual report. The government or banks are prepared to
help farmers who grow export crops etc.)

Specialists can also give useful information but unfortunately they are
only well up in their own subject. The list of references gives titles of
further information, for example the design criteria applicable to a cer-
tain area. The procedures are often more extensively described than
we have been able to do here. Ministries, universities and the soil con-
servation service in particular will be able to provide useful informa-
tion, relevant to the local situation.
Finally we repeat a few remarks made earlier that are of vital impor-
tance.
Some procedures do more damage than good if not carried out prop-
erly!!
We welcome suggestions and experiences from practical situations, as

well as any questions and criticisms.
Conclusion 81
Appendix 1: Several techniques for
levelling and measuring heights
To determine the contour of a slope and the course of a terrace, some
simple surveying operations will have to be carried out. A levelling
instrument is essential for these measurements.
For further information and different surveying methods and instru-

ments, we refer to the Agrodok no 6: ‘Simple Construction Surveying
for Agricultural Practices’ by Agromisa. Along the lines of this book-
let, the required basic information is given below.
Levelling and making a simple levelling instrument.

In the action of levelling you measure the height difference between
two points. One pole is placed at the point you want to measure and
by means of a levelling instrument the height can be read off.
Figure 34: Height measurements with levelling instrument
For example: we have two points A and B and we wish to measure the
height difference between the two, then the pole is first placed at point
A (see figure 34). Using the levelling instrument we read the height,
for example 164,9 cm (read along the line of collimation in the tele-
scope). The pole is then placed at point B and we read, for example
143,6 cm. The height difference is then 164,9 – 143,6 = 21,3 cm.
Take note: The higher the reading, the lower the position of point A.

Well known levelling instruments are Wild, Zeiss, Kern, Sokkisha.
Such instruments are fairly costly. Therefore it is attractive to make a
simple levelling instrument yourself: a water-hose level. This is of
course less accurate but also less costly.
Water-hose level
The water-hose level can be used for staking out contours and for
measuring differences in elevation.
Figure 35: Water-hose level
Differences in height can be measured with the water-hose level. You

put one staff in position A and the other staff at 10 m distance. The
difference between the readings of the level in the water-hose on the
two staffs is the difference in height (Figure 35).
Construction:
Material needed:
– transparent/clear (water) hose of 15 - 25 m length, diameter
maximum 1 cm
– 2 laths, 200 x 10 x 2 cm with graduation marks
– pieces of inner tube (of a tire)
– U-shaped or L-shaped nails and a hammer
– rope, 10 m or more.
Appendix 1: Several techniques for levelling and measuring heights 83

The ends of the hose are fixed firmly to the lath. This can be done us-
ing part of an inner tube that is then fixed with U-shaped or L-shaped
nails. This makes it possible to move the hose up and down slightly
when necessary during the work. The top ends of the hose should ex-
tend above the lath slightly (15 cm) to make filling easier (see figure
35).
Before filling the hose for the first time, rinse the hose with soapy wa-
ter. This prevents the occurrence of air bubbles during use. Repeat this
when necessary. A rope of 10 m or more is sometimes fixed to the
laths to limit the distance between them. In this way the rope can help
to prevent damage to the tube. The length of rope has to be shorter
than the water-hose.
Water-bottle level
Another version can also be used: the water-bottle level (Figure 36).
You need the same length of water-hose and two plastic bottles. These
bottles are fixed (with tape, for example) to both ends of the water
hose.
Figure 36: Water-bottle level
Use of water hose and water bottle levels

? Water:
Always use clean water, otherwise the inside of the hose will be-
come dirty, making reading impossible.

? Filling:
Start sucking water from a tin or bucket through one end of the wa-
ter-hose, and fill the rest of the hose by lowering this (suction) end
below the surface in the tin or bucket. Stop filling when the water
reaches the end of the marks on the laths.
? Transport:
Close plastic hose ends with a cork or paper plug. Remove these be-
fore use!
? Air bubbles:
Persistent air bubbles must be removed by refilling the hose or rins-
ing it with soapy water. Tiny air bubbles, covering less than half of
the inside diameter of the hose, will not interfere with the measure-
ment.
? Checking:
1 Before use, always check whether the instrument works properly.
Place the staffs side by side at the same level. The water level
reading should be the same on both staffs.
2 The sum of the readings on both staffs is called the check value.
This value should not vary more than 0.5 cm between different
readings. If the difference is larger, the reading is not acceptable.
Do not use it and read again.
Figure 37: The reading
Appendix 1: Several techniques for levelling and measuring heights 85

? Reading:
The bottom of the water surface in the hose (called the meniscus), is
taken as the level to be read (see figure 37).
? Costs:
low (material is available locally)
? Accuracy:
5 cm per 100 m (water-bottle level: 10 cm per 100 m)
? Source of errors:
– air bubbles
– loss of water during measuring
– not alternating the position of the staffs (or water-bottles)

Appendix 2: Tree species for erosion
control in the tropics and sub-tropics
Acacia sp.
Many species suitable for (semi)-arid regions, often used under dif-
ficult growing conditions (‘adverse sites’): A. aneura, A. catechu, A.
cyanophylla, A. melanoxylon, A. nilotica. In sub-humid climates: A.
auriculiformis.
Ailanthus altissima.
Mediterranean climate. Many seed and root suckers.
Bambusa sp. and other bamboo sorts.
In various climatic zones, in lowland and highlands, useful for sta-
bilising steep slopes as well as river banks. Quick growing, spread-
ing by rhizomes, closed root system, much litter, useful product.
Casuarina equisetifolia
(Sub)-humid regions, possibly semi-arid provided air humidity
high.Much root-suckering.
Cupressus sp.
In mediterranean climate: C. arizonica, C. macrocarpa, and C. sem-
pervirens var. horizontalis (see Bibliography). In tropical highland
climate: C. lusitanica. Give much litter in close stand, but little un-
dergrowth: Dalbergia sissoo. Monsoon climate: to protect river
banks, gully stabilisation. Forms root suckers.
Eucalyptus sp.
In general not very suitable to control erosion: young plants, sensi-
tive to root competition, require intensive weeding; closed cultiva-
tion permits very little undergrowth. Can be used on terraced slopes.
Ficus sp. For stabilising gullies and river banks.
Gliricidia septum
For dry places in sub humid lowlands. N-fixer.
Appendix 2: Tree species for erosion control 87

Lantana camara
Hedge with wide ecological application: In semi arid to humid re-
gions, lowlands and low highland also on poor soils.
Leucaena leucocephala
Genetically very variable: Shrub or tree, suitable for ground stabili-
sation in semi-arid to humid areas. Easy to multiply by seed and
cuttings, fast growing, strong root system, good cover crop, N-fixer,
can be exploited as scrub. Many uses, such as firewood, fodder
crop.
Mimosa pigra
Shrub with many long thorny branches that can form dense thicket.
Used for stabilisation of riverbanks.
Parkinsonia aculeata
Shrub, can be used in very dry regions.
Pinus sp.
Favourable properties for erosion control: grown on dry, well
drained, poor soils; can withstand competition by grasses; forms a
good litter; in later stage undergrowth is often formed; thick bark
gives tree resistance to bush fires. Wood very useful.
Tropical sorts are best for climates with conspicuous dry season but
rainfall not below about 1200 mm/year: P. caribea in lowland (also
in (sub)-humid regions); most species suitable for highlands. e.g. P.
khasya, P. merkusii, P. insularis, P. oorcarpa, P. patula.
Mediterranean species: P. brutia, P. canariensis, P. halepensis, P. pi-
nasta and P. radiada (see also Further Readings).
Pithecolobium sp.
Large trees with extensive and deep root system. Alongside river
banks.
Populus sp.
Sub-tropics. Most species depend on good water supply often allu-
vial soils. P. suramericana, P. euphratica may be valuable in con-
solidation river banks. P. canescens is suitable in dry areas.

Prosopis chilensis
In semi arid climates: fast growing, also in difficult situations. Deep
rooting. High regeneration potential: seed, root and stem suckers.
Exploited as scrub.
Psidium guava
Small tree, edible fruit. In (sub-)humid tropics on various soils, also
on dry eroded ground. Spreads spontaneously by seed.
Salix sp.
Sub tropics (S. babylonica and others), and tropical highlands (S.
humboldtiana). Gully stabilisation and consolidating river banks,
superficial rooting system, can withstand severe drought, easily
multiplied by branch or root cuttings.
Tamarix sp.
Evergreen shrubs or small trees, for stabilisation of dried-out beds
in arid regions (wadis).
Appendix 2: Tree species for erosion control 89

Appendix 3: Legumes; characteristics
and utilization
Species Plant char- Adaptation Adaptation Utilization
acteristics to the soil to the cli-
mate
Arachishypogeae 1, 4, 5 4, 5, 6 1, 2, 3, 4 1, 2, 3, 4
Cajanuscajan 3, 4, 9 4, 5, 7 1, 2, 3, 4 1, 2, 3, 4
Calopogoniummucunoides 3, 4, 5 4, 5 1, 2, 3, 4 1, 2, 3, 4
Canavalis ensiformis 1, 4, 6, 8, 9 4, 5, 6 1, 3, 4 1, 3, 4
Cassia hirsula 3, 4, 7 4, 5 4 4
Centrosema pubescens 3, 5, 6, 9 4, 5, 7 1, 2, 4, 5 1, 2, 4, 5
Cicer arietinum 1, 8, 9 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 1, 3, 4 1, 3, 4
Crotalaria anagyroides 3, 4, 9 4, 5 4 4
Crotalaria juncea 1, 4, 8, 9 4, 5, 6 1, 2, 3, 4 1, 2, 3, 4
Crotalaria mucronata 3, 4 4, 5 1, 2, 4 1, 2, 4
Crotalaria spectabilis 3, 4, 7, 9 4, 5 4 4
Crotalaria usaromoensis 3, 4 4, 5 4 4
Desmodium adscendens 3 4, 5 2, 4 2, 4
Dolichos lablab 3, 5, 6, 8 4, 5 1, 2, 3, 4 1, 2, 3, 4
Glycine javanica 3, 6 4, 5 1, 2, 4 1, 2, 4
Lens esculenta 1, 4 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 3, 4 3, 4
Leucaena glauca 3, 4, 7 4, 5 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Medicago arabica 1, 4, 5 2 2, 4 2, 4
Medicago sativa 3, 4, 9 1, 2, 3, 5, 6 1, 2, 3, 4 1, 2, 3, 4
Mimosa invisa 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 4, 5 4 4
Pueraria Phaseoloides 3, 5, 6, 9 4, 5 1, 2, 4, 5 1, 2, 4, 5
Sesbania aculaeta 1, 4 4, 5 4 4
Sesbania exaltata 1, 4 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 4 4
Sesbania macrocarpa 1, 4, 9 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 1, 2, 3, 4 1, 2, 3, 4
Stizobolium aterrimum 1, 5, 9 4, 5 1, 2, 3, 4 1, 2, 3, 4
Stizobolium deeringianum 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 9 1, 2, 4 1, 2, 3, 4 1, 2, 3, 4
Stylosanthes gracilis 3, 4, 5, 9 1, 2, 4 1, 2, 4 1, 2, 4
Tephrosia candida 3, 4, 7 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8 3, 4, 5 3, 4, 5
Vigna oligosperm 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 9 6 1, 2, 3, 4 1, 2, 3, 4
Explanation of the numbers in the table:
Plant characteristics:
1= annual
2= biennial

3= perennial
4= upright habbit
5= creeping
6= winding, climbing
7= poisonous
8= slightly poisonous
9= drought resistant
Adaptation to the climate:

1= temperate zones, excessive rainfall
2= temperate zones, only winter rains
3= temperate zones, only summer rains
4= tropical and subtropical regions, excessive rainfall
5= tropical and subtropical regions, moderate rainfall
6= tropical and subtropical regions, irrigation
7= tropical and subtropical regions, arid and semi-arid regions
Adaptation to the soil:

1= light soils
2= heavy soils
3= limey soils
4= shallow soils
5= well drained soils
6= wet soils
7= alkaline soils
8= acid soils
Utilization:
1= fodder crop
2= pasture crop
3= human food
4= green manuring, ground cover
5= soil conservation cover crop (erosion control)
Appendix 3: Legumes; characteristics and utilization 91

Further reading
Agpaga, A., and others, Manual of Reforestation for the Philip-
pines. 1975, G.T.Z, Eschborn, West Germany. Practical handbook for
reforestation and soil conservation techniques, also useful outside the
Philippines.
ASPAC, Soil Conservation Handbook. 1977 ASPAC, Taipei, Tai-

wan.
Carruthers, I., Rodriguez, M., Tools for Agriculture: a Guide to Ap-

propriate Equipment for Smallholder Farmers. 1992, 238 pp., In-
termediate Technology Publications/GRET/CTA, London, United
Kingdom. ISBN: 1-85339-100-X.
Chleq, J.L., Dupriez H., Vanishing land and water: soil and water
conservation in dry lands. 1988, 128pp., Terres et
Vie/CTA/Macmillan, London, United Kingdom. ISBN: 0-33344-59-7.
Available from CTA, 20 credit points.
FAO. Conservation in Arid and Semi-arid Zones. 1976. FAO Con-

servation Guide no. 3, Rome.
FAO, Soil conservation for developing countries. FAO, Rome.
Greenland, D.J. and Lal, R. (ed). Soil Conservation Management in

the humid tropics. 1977, G. Wiley and sons, Chichester, New York.
Specialised handbook for Agricultural development workers who are
concerned with erosion in the wet tropics.
Hudson, N., Soil Conservation. 1971, B.T. Batsford Ltd. Guildford,

England. Much used book giving the principles of erosion and erosion
control. Fairly technical.

Hudson et al., Working with farmers for a better land husbandry.
1993, 280 pp., IT Publications, London, United Kingdom. ISBN: 1-
85339-122-0. Available from CTA, 20 credit points.
Reij, C., et al. Sustaining the soil: Indigenous soil and water con-
servation in Africa. 1996, 272pp., Earthscan. ISBN: 1-85383-37-2.
Available from CTA, 40 credit points.
Sistemas integrados de conservacion de suelos. 1985, 11CA - Re-

publica Dominicana. An interesting and practical book with good de-
scriptions of various simple measures for the small farmer in humid
and sub-humid regions.
Soil and Water Conservation Handbook. 1995, FFTC Book

Series-11.
Technical guide - Soil and water conservation for Northern States

of Nigeria. Agency for International Development and the USDA Soil
Conservation Service Advisors, in cooperation with the State Minis-
tries of Natural Resource. Handbook with detailed descriptions of con-
trol measures, many tables etc. Fairly technical.
Wenner, C.G. Soil conservation in Kenya, especially in small-scale

farming in high potential areas using labour intensive methods.
1981, 230 pp., Ministry of Agriculture, Nairobi, Kenya. Describes la-
bour intensive methods in small scale agriculture.
Agrodok series:
2. Soil fertility management, 1998, 80 pp.
8. The preparation and use of compost, 1999, 60 pp.
13. Water harvesting and soil moisture retention, 1997, 90 pp.
16. Agroforestry, 1999, 90 pp.
19. Propagating & planting trees, 1998, 80 pp.
Available from Agromisa, Wageningen, The Netherlands

The address you find inside on the inside of the front cover.
Further reading 93
Glossary
Catchment area
A catchment area can be described as an area where all the water to be
carried away leaves that area at one point. All this water comes to-
gether via the whole system of drains, field drains, canals and water-
ways until it finally flows into a river or the sea.
Two catchment areas are separated by a so-called water divide. This
may be a ridge, mountain, impenetrable layer or a larger river or canal.
Soil aggregates
Soil aggregates are naturally occurring clusters of non-organic and
organic soil particles. The strength of the forces combining the parti-
cles within the soil aggregate are bigger than the forces of the sur-
rounding environment, thus keeping the soil aggregate together.
Sand particles do not form aggregates, the soil has a grainy structure.
Clay particles form aggregates and the soil has a coarse, compound
structure. Organic matter plays an important role in the formation of
aggregates. Soils that easily form aggregates are less sensitive to ero-
sion.
Manipulation test
The manipulation test is a simple method to get an idea of the texture
of the soil. The test is based on the reaction of a small quantity of soil
material (under certain moisture conditions) to remodelling. About 2
cm soil is moistened until it becomes pliable. From this moistened soil
shapes are moulded as shown in the diagram below. With sand it is
only possible to form a cone, whereas sand with some loam (silty
loam) can be moulded into a slab.
If there is no problem with this, then a roll about 10 cm long is made
by rolling the soil between the hands. If there are cracks, the texture
will be like sandy loam; if there are no cracks then this is a so-called
loam. If the roll can be formed into a horseshoe-shape in which there
are cracks, then the soil is a clay loam; if there are no cracks then the

texture is even finer (loamy clay). If it is possible to mould the horse-
shoe still further into a ring without any cracking occurring, then we
have a clay (see figure 38).
Figure 38: Manipulation test
Infiltration capacity
The ability of the soil to take up water and to retain it, comparable to a
sponge. The water that infiltrates fills the pores, cracks, hollows or
adheres to soil particles. The water taken up can gradually be given
out again later by the soil to the plants (by capillary action), or it con-
denses on the soil surface or flows via the ground water (with excess
supply) to deeper soil layers.
Maximum infiltration capacity is the greatest amount of water which a
soil can hold. A shallow soil is easily penetrated, it doesn’t hold much
water and so the infiltration capacity is not great.
Infiltration velocity
Infiltration velocity is the rate at which a certain amount of water can
be taken up in the soil.
Peak runoff
The runoff water occurring after a very heavy storm which happens
occasionally (about once every five years), and has to be carried away
in a short time. A drainage system is often gauged according to the
expected peak runoff, which occurs every ten years for example. This
is called the maximum probable runoff of an area. Rainfall data over a
period of years is needed for this. This can be obtained from a nearby
Glossary 95
meteorological station, but make sure that the figures are accurate for
your area. Otherwise, this could be disastrous.
Permeability of the soil

The degree to which (and the speed with which) the water penetrating
the soil flows down to the deeper soil layers and finally to the ground
water. This depends on the soil structure, soil density, pore size etc.
For example a heavy clay has poor permeability (because of its com-
pact structure, small particles, very small pores) compared with sand
for example (crumbly structure, larger particles, larger pores) which is
normally very permeable.
Slope percentage
Gives the percentage of how many metres the surface vertically rises
or falls (A) if you cover a horizontally distance of 100 m (B).
vertical distance (A)

x 100% = slope percentage
horizontal distance (B)
For a slope percentage of 10% for example you go up 10 m (A) over a

distance of 100 m (B) (see figure 39).
Figure 39: Slope percentage
Longitudinal slope
A slope percentage of, for example, a terrace or drain in lengthwise
direction. A longitudinal slope of a terrace (C) is therefore the slope
measured along the length of the terrace. The length (B) is measured

parallel to the terrace and the height (A) is measured perpendicular to
it (Figure 40).
height of the terrace (A)

x 100% = longitudinal slope (C)
length of the terrace (B)
Figure 40: Longitudinal slope
Contour
An imaginary line joining all points of the same height on a land sur-
face. For more information see appendix 1. For more detailed
information see Agrodok 6, Simple Construction Surveying, for
Agricultural Practices.
Soil profile
A term to describe the formation of a certain soil. In the profile of the
soil (a section from top to bottom) various layers can often be distin-
guished relating to the soil compatibility, rooting, moisture level, col-
our, presence of organic material, state of decomposition, permeability
etc.
Glossary 97

AD11 - Erosion Control in The Tropics

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

AD11 - Erosion Control in The Tropics

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Agrodok 11

Erosion control in the

First edition: 1983

Authors: Hil Kuypers, Anne Mollema, Egger Topper

Foreword to the fourth revised edition

Agromisa welcomes readers to send us suggestions which could help

2 How to recognize erosion 10

3 The erosion process 17

4 How erosion effects agriculture 26

5 Agronomic methods to control erosion 30

6 Using cropping systems to control erosion 48

4 Erosion control in the tropics

7 Measures to reduce runoff 56

8 Underlying causes of erosion 73

9 Conditions for the success of operations 75

Appendix 1: Several techniques for levelling and

Appendix 2: Tree species for erosion control in the tropics

Appendix 3: Legumes; characteristics and utilization 90

1.1 Objectives of this Agrodok

6 Erosion control in the tropics

For clarity, we have restricted ourselves to erosion caused by water. In

To keep this booklet accessible for everybody we have not assumed a

If you find it difficult to get an overview of all the information, you

1.2 What is soil erosion

Another important factor is soil degradation, that is the decline of soil

1.3 The seriousness of the erosion problem

These problems could be fatal and forces the governments to face up

8 Erosion control in the tropics

It seems that the seriousness of the erosion problem can be measured

It can be concluded that the seriousness of the erosion problem differs

2.1 Symptoms of erosion

10 Erosion control in the tropics

Exposed root system

Figure 2: Exposed root system

How to recognize erosion 11

Stones on the surface

12 Erosion control in the tropics

It is a sign that a form of erosion is going on in which as yet no great

Figure 5: Sedimentation of soil material

How to recognize erosion 13

2.2 Other ways to discover erosion

Figure 6: Difference in level between two plots

14 Erosion control in the tropics

2.3 Symptoms of degeneration of the

If there is a sudden shortage of firewood in a certain place, this is also

How to recognize erosion 15

A thorough knowledge of the subject is needed to be able to observe

It is perhaps amusing to relate here that on one occasion we were

16 Erosion control in the tropics

3.1 Splash-erosion and stream-erosion

Figure 7: Splash erosion and crusting

In splash erosion, the force of the falling raindrops is determined by

The erosion process 17

Figure 8: Stream erosion

18 Erosion control in the tropics

Figure 9: Combination of splash and stream erosion

3.2 Splash-erosion and soil condition

The erosion process 19

Figure 10: Adhesion of soil particles

Moisture content of the soil

20 Erosion control in the tropics

Type and texture