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2.3 Louis de Broglie (Diffraction Pattern from Electrons - 1924)

In 1924, Louis de Broglie proposed that not only do light waves sometimes exhibit particle-
like properties, as in the photoelectric eIIect and atomic spectra, but particles may also
exhibit wavelike properties.

Broglie`s hypothesis was conIirmed experimentally in 1927 by C. J. Davisson and L. H.
Germer, who observed the the scattering oI electrons through crystals (which act as
diIIraction slits). The diIIraction oI the beam oI electrons occurred in a manner analogous
to the diIIraction oI a beam oI light.


2.3.1 Light: Particle, Wave, Both or Neither?

It is interesting to note that it was the diIIraction phenomenon in the 19
th
Century (through
Young`s double-slit experiment) that established light as being a wave, not a particle. The
implication is that Young`s slit experiment does not prove that light is not a particle since
matter classically thought-oI-as-particle can also exhibit wave-like properties.

The Iact that light exhibits wave-like properties during Young`s two-slit experiment does
not prove that light is not a particle.



2.4 Louis de Broglie (Concept of Standing Waves - Late 1920s)

In the late 1920s, de Broglie introduced the concept oI Standing Waves to explain the
discrete Irequency and energy states oI light and matter (standing waves only exist at
discrete Irequencies and thus energy states).



2.5 Schrodinger (Scalar nature of Standing Waves - Late 1920s)

It was Erwin Schrodinger who discovered that when Irequency f and de Broglie
wavelength y were substituted into general wave equations it becomes possible to express
energy E and momentum mv (Irom the above equations) as wave Iunctions - thus a
conIined particle (e.g. an electron in an atom/molecule) with known energy and momentum
Iunctions could be described with a certain wave Iunction.

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From this it was Iurther Iound that only certain Irequency wave Iunctions, like Irequencies
on musical strings, were allowed to exist. These allowed Iunctions and their Irequencies
depended on the conIining structure (atom or molecule) that the electron was bound to
(analogous to how strings are bound to a violin, and only then can they resonate at certain
Irequencies).

SigniIicantly, these allowed Irequencies corresponded to the observed discrete Irequencies
oI light emitted and absorbed by electrons bound in atoms/molecules. This Iurther
conIirmed the standing wave properties oI matter, and thus that only certain standing wave
Irequencies could exist which corresponded to certain energy states.

The agreement oI observed Irequencies and Schrodinger's Wave Equations Iurther
established the Iundamental importance oI Quantum Theory and thus the Wave properties
oI both light and matter.

And here we have a Iinal piece oI the puzzle in a sense, Ior it was Schrodinger who
discovered that the standing waves are scalar waves rather than vector electromagnetic
waves. This is a most important diIIerence. Electromagnetic waves are vector waves - at
each point in Space the wave equations yield a vector quantity which describes both a
direction and an amplitude (size oI Iorce) oI the wave, and this relates to the original
construction oI the e-m Iield by Faraday which described both a Iorce and a direction oI
how this Iorce acted on other matter.

Spherical Wave Motions oI Space are Scalar waves - at each point in Space the wave
equations yield a single quantity which simply describes the wave amplitude (there is no
directional component). For example, sound waves are scalar waves where the wave
amplitude describes the Motion (or compression) oI the wave medium (air). Likewise
Space is a nearly rigid Wave-Medium which propagates Wave-Motions.

Quantum theory was thus essentially Iounded on the experimental observations oI
Irequency and wavelength Ior both light and matter. These empirical Iacts are obviously
consistent with the Spherical Standing Wave structure oI matter.

1. Planck's discovery that energy is related to Irequency in the equation EhI

2. The Equivalence oI Energy, Frequency and Mass EhImc
2
, which deduces the
Compton Wavelength Yh/mc

3. The de Broglie wavelength yh/mv