What is a Sample?

- Is the group of elements, or a single element, from which data are

obtained.
Sampling in AR is purposive sampling, which means that researcher selects
particular elements from the population that will be representative /
informative abt the topic.
Based on the researchers knowledge of the population, judgment is made
about which cases should be selected to provide the best information to
address the purpose of the research. E.g:
In research on effective teaching, it may be most informative to
observe expert or master teachers rather than all teachers.
Sample Size
Sample size selection is an important consideration because it determines the
extent to which the researcher can generalize. (Onwuegbuzie & Leech, 2005).
Generally, the sample size should not be too large that it is difficult to analyze
and extract the thick and rich data.
On the same time, it also should not be too small until it is difficult to reach its
theoretical saturation or therell be informational redundancy (Lincoln & Guba,
1985).
Sample motivation also contributes to the consistency of the data / result.


Main issue in a non random sample selection is the existence of SAMPLING
BIAS. (sampling error caused by the researcher)
The sample is bias (berat sebelah) when not all have chance being chosen / not
being chosen secara adil. (Azizi Yahaya et al, 2007) result in misleading
findings.
Occasionally researchers will deliberately skew the sampling. The most obvious
deliberate bias is selecting only those subjects that will respond in a particular
way to support a point or result. For instance,
If a researcher is measuring the values of college students and wants to
show that the students are concerned about helping others and being
involved in community service, bias would result if the researcher
deliberately selected students in education or social work and ignored
majors that might not be so altruistically oriented.
Sampling bias also occurs non deliberately, often because of inadequate
knowledge of what is required to obtain an unbiased sample and the
motivation to prove a desired result or point of view. In qualitative studies,
the researcher needs to be particularly careful about possible unintended bias
if sampling changes during the study.
Bias is more likely when a researcher is proving something to be true, with
convenience samples, and when volunteers are used as subjects.




CHAPTER 9 ACTION RESEARCH: DATA
COLLECTION CONSIDERATIONS

SAMPLING &
BIAS



Meaning?
Does the research do the things it claims to do, and can the reader
believe the results?
Measure what it should measure.
The validity of the research is the degree of a review that is honest and
true in terms of intent, context, and report. It is the result of your
integrity as a teacher & a researcher. It raises questions "Does your data
say what you say it says? (MacLean & Mohr, 1999, p. 117)
High validity = information obtained is based on fact / evidence that could be
justified secara tepat.
You can ensure validity of what is being studied thru the use of several data
sources. Using 3 diff data sources (triangulation) helps to validate the research
findings. + makes the research study rigorous.
External Validity / Critics (originality of data)
Reflects whether findings could be extended beyond the immediate case. The
more variations in places, people & procedure a study can withstand & still
yield the same findings, the more external validity. (sama ada dapatan kajian
ini boleh digeneralisasikan/ diaplikasikan kepada sampel, lokasi & masa yg lain)
Factors affecting external validity:
1. Individual
2. Place
3. Time

Ways to ensure research validity:
Use correct measures for the concepts being studied to ensure
construct validity.
Use multiple sources of evidence

Internal Validity / Critics (accuracy of data)
Menangani ketepatan maklumat dan sama ada ia sesuai/selari dengan realiti
(Merriam, 1988).
Sejauh mana dapatan sesuatu kajian dapat diinterpretasikan dgn tepat.
(penyelidik mempunyai bukti bahawa apa yg dilaksanakan mempengaruhi apa
yg diperhatikan)
Factors affecting internal validity:

history
maturation
impact
test
instrumentation
choose of
sampling
kehilangan
subjek
VALIDITY
Ways to overcome threats in internal validity.
1. Seragamkan keadaan dlm penyelidikan e.g: cara rawatan dilaksanakn,
lokasi, cara data dikumpul
2. Kumpul maklumat ttg subjek penylidikan
3. Dapatkan butiran tambahan ttg penyelidikan.

TRIANGULATION
Used to increase the validity of the findings & results of the research made
secara QUALITATIVE.
It is a combination of few kaedah penyelidikan, observation & methods of
collecting data to study the same phenomena. this will kurangkan BIAS as
well as problems regarding VALIDITY & RELIABILITY.
Denzin (1978) identified 4 categories of triangulation i.e:
DATA TRIANGULATION Data diperoleh drpd byk sumber.
(temubual, sola selidik, pemerhatian)

RESEARCH TRIANGULATION Lebih dr seorg penyelidik terlibat

THEORY TRIANGULATION Lebih dari 1 theory utk menyelidik
fenomena yg sama.

METHOD (kaedah)TRIANGULATION Involve various methods utk meyelidik
fenomena yg same.










Trustworthiness of the data being gathered.
Stringer (2008) = ukuran sejauh maman keputusan dr sample populasi
kajian yg dikaji boleh digeneralisasikan kpd konteks & masa yg lain.
Walaupun AR beri kefahaman yg bernilai & boleh kembangkan amalan,
tapi ia hanya spesifi bg konteks tertentu & kurg stsbil ikut masa. E.g:
Apabila dtg guru besar baru, persekitaran sekoolah turut
berubah!
3 categories of RELIABILTY:

KESTABILAN
Ukuran ketekalan mengikut
peredaran masa bg sampel yg
sama iaitu alat kajian
berkenaan boleh digunkan
sepanjang masa.


KESETARAAN
Ukuran kesetaraan antara
skor bg dua uianyg setara iaitu
ujian yg berbeza tapi
mengukur kandungan yg
sama.


KETEKALAN DALAMAN
apabila semua item mengukur
konsep / konstruk yg sama.

RELIABILITY
(DATA GENERALISATION)
Ways to increase RELIABILITY:
. Melalui penggunaan inter-rater (data temu bual) : beberapa org penyelidik
mengenal pasti tema-tema dalam transkripsi yang sama
2. Pemerhatian secara berulang-ulang sehingga tepu (tingkah-laku
diperhatikan tidak berubah lagi)
3. Menggunakan nilai cronbach alfa (untuk soal selidik) (nilai > 0.60
digunakan) (Mohd Majid, 1990)
























Continuation:
Plagiarism
Memalsu / mengubahsuai data bagi mendapatkan hasil sebagaiman
dikehendaki. kena jujoq!



ETHICS
Safeguard the information provided by the sample. - use code or
nama samaran.
Explain the purpose of the study to the sample. to get
cooperation & support.
It is prohibited to cheat on the sample involves / making
observation secara rahsia / tersembunyi.
It is forbidden to disclose confidential information.
Do not share own experiences during the interview.
Masa kajian tidak menggangu individu kajian di lokasi kajian cth:
temumual terlalu lama.
Menyebabkan kemudaratan atau kecederaan fizikal mahupun
mental e.g Responden diminta bekerja di tengah panas/hujan
tanpa perlindungan / penyelidik mengkaji keberkesanan
pengetua di sekolah-sekolah pengetua rasa tertekan & tidak
selesa dinilai.