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TECHNIQUES FOR DETECTION AND LOCATION OF PARTIAL DISCHARGES IN POWER

TRANSFORMERS


S. M. Markalous* and A. Wilson**

*LDIC GmbH, Germany, **Doble PowerTest, UK

SUMMARY

On site partial discharge (PD) measurements using
UHF and acoustic emission probes are now viable.
They can be used for the measurement of PD levels,
long term monitoring with remote access through
substation communications or the web, and for location
of the discharging source. This approach is important
for the lifetime management of ageing transformers.
For this situation the key tasks are to identify the onset
of PD and monitor the levels for any sudden and
worsening change that would require an urgent
replacement outage. The techniques are described,
together with case studies of their application in the
field.


INTRODUCTION

At the previous INSUCON conference the failure
experience of UK transformers was described [1].
Lightly loaded well designed transformers in a
transmission system with N-1 security may well be
capable of lifetimes approaching 100 years. But a
significant proportion of the power transformer base in
the developed world has reached the stage where
weaker designs and those with onerous operating
conditions are now showing the onset of unreliability
and shortened lifetimes. The concern for the network
or power station owner is to have reliable estimates of
the risk of failure of any of their transformer fleet, and
this is more complicated than if a simple age or time at
elevated temperatures criterion applied. Managing that
risk is the key task for those responsible for the assets.
The first step in the decision process will be a
condition based assessment. Further steps will include
evaluating the consequences of an in-service failure
and managing a now identified higher risk on a
specific unit. It may be some time - months or years
until either the planning cycle for the unit, or circuit
containing the unit, allows an opportunity for
replacement with minimal business interruption.
Within this period critical worsening may occur and
the risk of ongoing operation becomes unacceptably
high. Therein lies the key tasks-
- how to identify a unit with a higher likelihood of
failure
- how to monitor condition with an increased
precision to identify a worsening trend requiring a
more immediate outage for replacement.

MANAGING THE RISK OF FAILURE IN AGED
TRANSFORMERS

The approach adopted in UK by Doble PowerTest
relies heavily upon the evidence gained during the
100-150 tear downs undertaken over the last 10 years
[2], [3]. Most of these units have failed beyond
economical repair. Investigation is intended not only to
identify the root cause, but also to research all key
design areas for ageing or damage that is higher than
normal for age. In this way a detailed understanding of
design groups from the various manufacturers has been
built up. This allows the first step in a failure mode and
criticality approach to identify the most appropriate
diagnostics for a particular design group. As with
many items of power equipment, the critical modes fall
into the initiation categories of thermal, electrical,
ambient and mechanical stress. Consequently, these
stresses indicate the type of diagnostics most
appropriate. In this paper the focus is upon electrical
stress and the production of partial discharges (PD).
But these do not only occur within the context of
dielectric damage from electric stresses. PD can also
occur within the final stages of failure from both
overheating involving insulated conductor, and after
mechanical deformation. PD techniques for detection
and location are important diagnostics, therefore, not
only to identify the onset of damage caused by electric
stress, but also to monitor a changed and worsening
condition initiated by the broader range of stress
factors.


PARTIAL DISCHARGE TECHNIQUES

There are four main PD techniques that are available.
1. Oil sampling to detect dissolved gases.
2. Surveys using UHF interference detection
3. Electrical measurement of individual
discharges using sensors on the bushing tap,
neutral or inserted into the tank.
4. The use of probes to locate the PD site

Oil sampling to detect dissolved gases

Of these the first two in the above list have the longest
history. Engineers in the 1920s were testing Buchholz
gases for flammability. But it has been the availability
of gas chromatography over the last 50-60 years that


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has advanced the application. Routine analysis of
dissolved gases in the oil has now become the
diagnostic of choice throughout the world. Oil samples
have been taken once or twice a year from the main
tank and tap changer selectors for off-site laboratory
analysis. More recently cost effective on-line detectors
have become available and this is likely to lead to
changes in the technology. From such analyses it is
possible to detect damage caused by both overheating
and PD. Gas from PD source can be separated from
thermally driven processes using the key gas method in
C57-104, 1991.

However, a rapidly increasing rate of PD will be better
indicated from a direct measurement of PD rather than
from the integrating process of evolution of gas. Over-
reliance upon analysis methods to examine gases from
already faulted transformers and gas levels
incorporated in CIGRE and IEEE advice documents
(such as CIGRE J WG 15/12 01-11 and C57-104) has
masked the early detection of developing faults [4].
For that reason the Doble UK group, DPT, rely upon
an algorithm developed some 5 years ago. It is based
upon the IEEE key gas method of C57- 104 and
trained on UK faults [5]. An elevated result from this
is the trigger for further investigation, including
interrogating the oil test data file for trends in
particular gases, or transient excursions. This may then
lead to condition assessment using off- line electrical
testing.


Surveys using UHF interference detection

Another traditional technique is one based on
measuring the interference levels caused by PD.
Originally this was intended to verify freedom from
PD sources that would interfere with analogue radio
reception. Sensors such as rod aerials or high
frequency split core current transformers were used,
either placed near to the equipment or fitted around
earth or bonding leads. Following two catastrophic
transformer failures twenty five years ago, both
initiated by PD within bushings, research in CEGB led
to what is now a routine survey patrol of substations
but now using UHF interference scanning [6]. Corona
from fittings and discharge along the polluted insulator
surfaces will emit electromagnetic radiation only up to
250 MHz. However, PD from defects will extend to
much higher frequencies, and in some cases up to 1
GHz. Defects detected include-
Loose frame clamps core bolts and internal
connections such as- stress shields, and rocket
assembles
Selector problems
Broken barrier board for LTC connections
Winding discharges
External floating components- even
nameplates
Faulty (gap type) surge arresters
Faulty bushing taps
The important advantage of this method is that it can
be included in the routine patrols and will survey all
substation equipment. It will indicate bushing
problems and this is one area where dissolved gas
analysis is limited by the difficulties in extracting a gas
sample. An example is shown in Figure 1.



Figure 1 UHF scanning during a routine patrol.

Partial discharge detection

The method used for PD testing in factory acceptance
testing is described in IEC 60076-3, which is based on
the generic standard for PD testing, IEC 60270. This
describes the means to measure apparent discharge
magnitude. This approach was developed in the 1950s
as an aid to materials research and was soon adopted
for testing the dielectric integrity in most items of
power equipment. However, even with the most simple
of dielectric systems, the measurement only reflects the
magnitude of the charge relating to the voltage drop
and current flow within the sample consequent to a
discharge. Whilst this is related to events within the
defect and the real amount of charge flowing in the
discharge, the relationship between these and the
apparent magnitude remains hidden as long as the
relative proportions of void and series dielectric
remain hidden. The real discharge magnitude is always
the larger and a source of error even at the simplest of
systems.

For a power transformer the measurement is made
using the bushing tap as a capacitance divider, and
measuring PD transients travelling to that point using a
detector in the 50-400 kHz range. But IEC 60270 also
identifies another problem- within windings a single
PD event will propagate in a variety of modes, each
with their own propagation speed, attenuation factors
and frequency content. Winding geometry produces a
range of resonances for any electromagnetic signal and
it was the recognition of the influence on propagation
on measurement errors led to the demise of fixed
frequency narrow band detectors in international


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standards. Thus whilst factory acceptance testing
continues to apply IEC 60270 approaches to measure
apparent charge, the reality is that this method contains
inherent flaws and more useful information may be
gained from alternative methods.

Alternative methods also become more relevant when
attempting to measure PD transients in the presence of
high levels of interference. These may come from
communications and broadcast transmissions, corona
and surface discharge elsewhere on site. Solutions lie
in detection considerably in excess of those used in
factory testing and IEC 60076-3.

It is possible to detect propagated signals from the
bushing taps, but this is controlled by the levels of
attenuation in the winding, resonances in the winding
and is affected by external corona and discharge sites.
For example the authors have used this approach but
found sensitivity of detection has increased from
100 pC to 1000 pC with rain present. Clearly this is
not acceptable for an alarm based surveillance
diagnostic wanting to achieve sensitivity.

An alternative is to use a UHF probe inserted in an oil
valve or access port allowing the transformer tank to
screen interference. This will detect the
electromagnetic radiation from the PD and not be
affected by winding resonances- and so achieving a
more uniform performance over a population of
transformers having a wide range of designs. The use
of UHF probes to detect PD in GIS is well established:
it has been used in GIS in the UK since 1985. The
basic research underlying the UK installations was
undertaken at Strathclyde University. It has been
shown that frequency content extends to 1 GHz [7].
Their continuing research and that at Stuttgart
University [8] has also shown a variety of typical PD
sources involving oil and paper in an oil tank have
significant components up to 1 GHz.



Figure 2 Oil valve sensors for power transformers/
reactors for usage on DN 50 / DN 80 gate valve


The UHF method offers a technique that can be used
on site, installed even when the transformer remains
energized, and can derive results in a high interference
environment. Figure 2 shows a typical probe inserted
through an oil valve. It is the intention that orders for
future transformers should include provision for a
number of appropriate valves for sensors see CIGRE
A2-27 reports.
Signal levels can be monitored and processed using
modern signal processing techniques, enhancing signal
to noise and providing phase resolved patterns. The
latter should provide an effective means of identifying
the type of problem causing discharge. Bubbles,
floating metal, and voids each have their own
characteristic.

The topic of calibration is relevant to this application.
Within IEC 60270 and also used in factory testing
measurements are made at bushing taps and calibrated
against a known charge input across the winding. The
UHF method cannot be calibrated in this way. CIGRE
contributions [9] and the draft standard IEC 62478
refer to steps such as a sensitivity and/or performance
check.



Figure 3 Performance check of UHF probe with an
UHF injector

As shown in Figure 3, here the purpose is to confirm
the detection sensitivity of the probe itself to a UHF
pulse. It is a functional check of the whole measuring
path including sensors and partial discharge (PD)
acquisition system (Note: this is also of interest for
finding optimum frequency bands for the location).
Detector devices can be connected to an onsite server,
and from there to an external control using LAN/
WAN or internet. It is usual to have trained the
software to recognise normal levels and set an alarm
level based on pulse magnitudes and repetition rates.


Partial discharge location

If an active PD source is identified- from PD
monitoring or from oil testing the next step is to
attempt to locate the site. This should allow assessment
of the severity or consequence of the discharging. In
some cases it may indicate the opportunity for a simple
repair. One involves the use of an array of acoustic
emission (AE) probes to localise the site. It is based on
arrival times of surface waves generated in the tank
walls. One method used in UK is to use an array and
move the locations to minimise the arrival times. An
alternative is to place an array at a fixed position and
calculate the location from arrival times and the


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velocity of the longitudinal waves in the tank walls.
Later case studies show results from both types of
technique. The future is, however, to use an array of
UHF probes to calculate the site. AE probes work well
when the site is external to the winding and core, but
not so for sites is internal to these areas. Attenuation
and reflection will limit success. The UHF probes will
not have this limitation.

EXPERIENCE WITH UHF PROBES AND
ACOUSTIC LOCATION

Over recent years UHF probes have been used to
measure PD in transformers in various networks. Case
studies show how this has allowed an instantaneous
indication of PD activity, allowing relationships with
operating conditions to be identified more readily than
with integrated methods such as gas analyses.

Case Study 1- Interference issues
Figure 4 shows broad-band frequency views of
amplified on-site UHF-noise. At this site a
communications tower was very close to the 110 kV
transformer. The narrow-band UHF spectrum all are
modulated carriers are visible despite the screening
to the UHF sensor by the transformer tank. Measuring
below 1 GHz and signal processing it is necessary to
eliminate these signals. Since these signals are not
affected by winding resonances it is possible to select
narrow band detection to eliminate this type of
interference.
Figure 4 amplified UHF noise on UHF probe in a
110 kV transformer

Case Study 2- Comparative measurements
Four 3-phase 110/225kV transformers with similiar
design and operating use but in different locations
were evaluated for PD. Two units had two drain valves
accessible and this allowed an extra comparison, the
effect of valve location. Figure 5 and 6 show the
results. In this study three transformers found with
minor PD activity, one transformer with clear and
significant PD, Figure 5, and in Figure 6 the effect of
probe location.

a)
b)

Figure 5 UHF phase-resolved PD pattern from
Right drain valves
a) One unit with significant PD
b) One example from 3 other units



Figure 6 Corresponding UHF pattern from left
valves

Case Study 3- Mobile AE sensors to locate PD sites
One approach to location is to use an array of AE
sensors and determine the arrival times. Three sensors
are then re-located to nearer the one with the earliest
arrival. This is repeated until a cluster is reached.
Figure 7 shows an end result of such a scan with the
cluster corresponding to the position of the top of the
winding. The history of this 30 year old 275/33 kV
100 MVA transformer was that a close up lightning


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strike had destroyed a transformer. When the
equipment at the remote end of this 6 km line was
examined it was found that Buchholz gases existed in
one transformer. Power actor measurements confirmed
damage but to a different phase to the one receiving
the strike. PD location confirmed that it was a second
phase that was damaged. The oil was dropped and
damage was on one the top of one phase at an inter-
connector between two parts of a split HV winding- as
Figure 8.


Figure 7 Location using 4 AE probes.


Figure 8 Damage to interconnector

Case study 4 -PD location using fixed AE probes
Over a period of several months on- and off-line all-
acoustic PD measurements were performed on-site on
a 200 MVA single-phase transformer where gas-in-oil
diagnosis indicated PD. During an off-line applied
voltage test an electrical PD measurement revealed PD
with apparent charges up to 600 pC. With an acoustic
PD measurement (referred to as 'measurement 1')
acoustic pulses were recorded on four sensors and the
time of arrival determined. Location was computed
from the results at each sensor and based on time of
arrival at each sensor, and the transit velocity for AE
waves in the tank material. Fig. 9 pictures the top view
of the housing of the transformer with the sensor
positions and the calculated PD location.

Figure 9 Determining the location of PD source

In Table 1 the location results are summarized.
Through the fact that in 'measurement 2' and
'measurement 3' the estimated PD site of independent
measurements remained almost the same (spatial
deviation of 5.4 cm) a certain reliability of the results
was achieved. As well the spatial deviation between
the results of the off-line 'measurement 1' and the on-
line 'measurements 2/3' using different sensor
positions, different number of sensors and also
different average sound velocities (based on the
different oil temperatures) is in a rather reasonable
range. The spatial deviation between 'measurement 1'
and 'measurement 2' is 17.0 cm, while it is 18.2 cm
between 'measurement 1' and 'measurement 3'.

TABLE 1. Location from AE PD measurements over several
months and changes in sensor position- ag in Figure 9


CONCLUSIONS

In recent years a significant progress in so-called non-
conventional PD measuring techniques has been made
(e.g. standard IEC 62478 in draft stage will apply for
UHF and acoustic PD measurements). This was
motivated clearly by the need for innovative
applications on-site and on-line applications in both
measurement and monitoring of different types of high
voltage devices.

Compared to the apparent charge method for
measurement one great advantage of using the UHF
frequency range for the measuring PD signals is the
consequential increased immunity against external
electromagnetic disturbances.

The combination of appropriate and adapted sensors
and modern instruments with innovative signal
processing features results into an overall technology
which is suitable to measure and asses the condition

Calculated PD-origin x [m] y [m] z [m]
measurement 1
(off-line a, b, c, d)
1.40 3.12 2.27
measurement 2
(on-line c, d, e, f, g)
1.25 3.19 2.23
measurement 3
(on-line a, c, d, e, f, g)
1.27 3.22 2.19


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changes of insulation systems even under the noisiest
field-conditions.

Acknowledgements
For the fruitful cooperation in the UHF testing applied
on transformers the authors are grateful to Prof. Dr.-
Ing. S. Tenbohlen, Dipl.-Ing. S. Coenen, University of
Stuttgart, Germany, Institute of Power Transmission
and High Voltage Technology (IEH).

References
[1] A. Wilson, R. J . Heywood and Z. Richardson, The
lifetime of power transformers Insucon Conf,
Birmingham, UK, 2006.
[2] R.J . Heywood, Forensic investigations during
tear-downs. Proc. 2007 International Conf. of
Doble Clients, Boston, USA.
[3] J .A. Lapworth and A.Wilson, The Asset Health
Review for Managing Reliability Risks Associated
with Ongoing Use of Ageing System Power
Transformers. Proc. CMD conference, Beijing
2008.
[4] J.A. Lapworth, R.J. Heywood and P.N. Jarman
Difficult transformer problems solved by effective
testing. Proc. 2008 International Conf. of Doble
Clients, Boston, USA.
[5] J .A Lapworth, A scoring system for integrating
dissolved gas analysis results into a life
management process for power transformers Proc.
2002 International Conf. of Doble Clients, Boston,
USA.
[6] A Wilson and L. D Hall, Partial discharge
methods for site testing HV equipment, Proc.
1996 International Conf. of Doble Clients, Boston,
USA.
[7] M.D. J udd, O. Farrish and B.F. Hampton.
Broadband couplers for UHF detection of PD in
gas insulated substations. IEE Proc. Sci Meas.
Technology, 142, (3), May 1995 pp 237-243.
[8] S.M. Markalous, Detection and Location of Partial
Discharges in Power Transformers using acoustic
and electromagnetic signal, PHD Thesis,
University of Stuttgart, 2006
[9] CIGRE TF 15/33.03.05, PD Detection System for
GIS: Sensitivity Verification for the UHF Method
and the Acoustic Method, Electra No.183, April
1999.