Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Types of printers
Printers are made by using different technologies and are therefore classified into two
main categories, which are as follows:
An HP Laser Jet
Inkjet Printe
Qn. What is Computer virus
A computer virus is a computer program that can copy itself and infect a computer. The
term "virus" is also commonly but erroneously used to refer to other types of malware,
adware, and spyware programs that do not have the reproductive ability. A true virus can
only spread from one computer to another (in some form of executable code) when its
host is taken to the target computer; for instance because a user sent it over a network
or the Internet, or carried it on a removable medium such as a floppy disk, CD, DVD, or
USB drive. Viruses can increase their chances of spreading to other computers by
infecting files on a network file system or a file system that is accessed by another
computer.
The term "computer virus" is sometimes used as a catch-all phrase to include all types of
malware. Malware includes computer viruses, worms, trojans, most rootkits, spyware,
dishonest adware, crimeware, and other malicious and unwanted software, including
true viruses. Viruses are sometimes confused with computer worms and Trojan horses,
which are technically different. A worm can exploit security vulnerabilities to spread itself
to other computers without needing to be transferred as part of a host, and a Trojan
horse is a program that appears harmless but has a hidden agenda. Worms and
Trojans, like viruses, may cause harm to either a computer system's hosted data,
functional performance, or networking throughput, when they are executed. Some
viruses and other malware have symptoms noticeable to the computer user, but many
are surreptitious.
These take account the different ways in which the viruses can infect different part of
system.
How Do Computer Viruses Spread?
Computer viruses usually spread in one of three ways: from removable media; from
downloads off the Internet; and from e-mail attachments.
Although the Internet gets a bad rap as a source of viruses, you're no more likely to
contract a virus from the Web than you are from packaged software.
Still, scan everything you download, and update your antivirus software regularly.
E-mail is not the virus breeding ground it's made out to be, either. In fact, it's nearly
impossible for a virus to be transmitted by plain-text e-mail. Most viruses can only spread
via attachments — either rich-text e-mail or attached applications. Using antivirus
software, scan attachments from people you know, and never open attachments from
people you don't. If you're a Microsoft Outlook user, you can also select security
preferences that keep e-mail-borne viruses from exploiting the close relationship between
Outlook and the Windows operating system.
causing varying degrees of damage. You may not even notice some viruses, but
malicious ones can erase your data files, corrupt your applications, cause your computer
to crash, and, in certain cases, render your hard drive completely useless. For more on
computer viruses,
Avoiding Viruses
Viruses can be transmitted via e-mail attachments, so monitor your in-box for suspicious
messages. If you don't know the person who sent you a message, don't open any
attachment that came with it.
You can't get a virus from simply opening an e-mail message, but your e-mail client may
be configured to automatically open attachments, in which case you should disable that
feature. Be especially aware of attachments with the suffixes .exe or .com. If you activate
this type of virus, it can attack executable files, overwrite code, and cause irrevocable
damage.
Beyond keeping a watchful eye on your incoming e-mail, you should also be careful
about using removable media, especially from unknown sources. Floppy disks, Zip disks,
and CD-ROMs can also transmit viruses.
Preventive Measures
Without a doubt, the best way to protect yourself against viruses is to install antivirus
software. These utilities will scan for many types of viruses and keep watch over your
system files, boot files, and data files.
What is computer Worms
Worms are small pieces of software that exploit security holes to spread via computer
networks. The worm scans the computers on a network to see if there are other
computers with the same security flaws.
To get into a network, a worm author releases the worm "into the wild" -- onto a
networked machine that can then lead to a server and other networks. Machines
infected by the worm swiftly spam the Internet with randomly addressed traffic -- often a
request for information similar to a database inquiry -- hitting other vulnerable servers.
The worm often uses randomly selected IP addresses to insert itself into other
computers by exploiting a flawed buffer overflow function. A buffer overflow is when the
string of data entering a program is written into memory without regard to its length. If
the string is too long, the tail end of the data overwrites the program's own code.
In the case of the Slammer worm, for example, the data string spilled over into the
computer's stack. According to the Wired article "Slammed!" by Paul Boutin, the "stack"
is "an orderly list of information the computer shuffles to remind itself what to do next,
like tidy paperwork on a desk." The infected computer then overwrote its own stack with
the rogue Slammer code, disguised as routine code, thus reprogramming itself without
realizing it.
A well-designed worm replicates so quickly it creates huge packets of requests that can
overwhelm entire Internet server farms and disrupt Internet access for millions of
computers in a matter of hours.
Spyware is Internet jargon for Advertising Supported software (Adware). It is a way for
shareware authors to make money from a product, other than by selling it to the users.
There are several large media companies that offer them to place banner ads in their
products in exchange for a portion of the revenue from banner sales. This way, you
don't have to pay for the software and the developers are still getting paid. If you find the
banners annoying, there is usually an option to remove them, by paying the regular
licensing fee.
What is free software
Free software is a matter of liberty, not price. To understand the concept, you should
think of free as in free speech, not as in free beer.
Free software is a matter of the users' freedom to run, copy, distribute, study, change and
improve the software. More precisely, it means that the program's users have the four
essential freedoms:
• The freedom to run the program, for any purpose (freedom 0).
• The freedom to study how the program works, and change it to make it do what
you wish (freedom 1). Access to the source code is a precondition for this.
• The freedom to redistribute copies so you can help your neighbor (freedom 2).
• The freedom to improve the program, and release your improvements (and
modified versions in general) to the public, so that the whole community benefits
(freedom 3). Access to the source code is a precondition for this.
A program is free software if users have all of these freedoms. Thus, you should be free
to redistribute copies, either with or without modifications, either gratis or charging a fee
for distribution, to anyone anywhere. Being free to do these things means (among other
things) that you do not have to ask or pay for permission.
You should also have the freedom to make modifications and use them privately in your
own work or play, without even mentioning that they exist. If you do publish your
changes, you should not be required to notify anyone in particular, or in any particular
way.
The freedom to run the program means the freedom for any kind of person or
organization to use it on any kind of computer system, for any kind of overall job and
purpose, without being required to communicate about it with the developer or any other
specific entity. In this freedom, it is the user's purpose that matters, not the developer's
purpose; you as a user are free to run a program for your purposes, and if you distribute it
to someone else, she is then free to run it for her purposes, but you are not entitled to
impose your purposes on her.
The freedom to redistribute copies must include binary or executable forms of the
program, as well as source code, for both modified and unmodified versions.
(Distributing programs in runnable form is necessary for conveniently installable free
operating systems.) It is ok if there is no way to produce a binary or executable form for a
certain program (since some languages don't support that feature), but you must have the
freedom to redistribute such forms should you find or develop a way to make them.
In order for the freedoms to make changes, and to publish improved versions, to be
meaningful, you must have access to the source code of the program. Therefore,
accessibility of source code is a necessary condition for free software.
Qn.what do you understand about compuetr ethics
Computers are special technology and they raise some special ethical issues. In this
essay I will discuss what makes computers different from other technology and how this
difference makes a difference in ethical considerations. In particular, I want to
characterize computer ethics and show why this emerging field is both intellectually
interesting and enormously important.
On my view, computer ethics is the analysis of the nature and social impact of computer
technology and the corresponding formulation and justification of policies for the ethical
use of such technology. I use the phrase “computer technology” because I take the
subject matter of the field broadly to include computers and associated technology. For
instance, I include concerns about software as well as hardware and concerns about
networks connecting computers as well as computers themselves.
A typical problem in computer ethics arises because there is a policy vacuum about how
computer technology should be used. Computers provide us with new capabilities and
these in turn give us new choices for action. Often, either no policies for conduct in these
situations exist or existing policies seem inadequate. A central task of computer ethics is
to determine what we should do in such cases, i.e., to formulate policies to guide our
actions. Of course, some ethical situations confront us as individuals and some as a
society. Computer ethics includes consideration of both personal and social policies for
the ethical use of computer technology.
Now it may seem that all that needs to be done is the mechanical application of an
ethical theory to generate the appropriate policy. But this is usually not possible. A
difficulty is that along with a policy vacuum there is often a conceptual vacuum. Although
a problem in computer ethics may seem clear initially, a little reflection reveals a
conceptual muddle. What is needed in such cases is an analysis which provides a
coherent conceptual framework within which to formulate a policy for action. Indeed,
much of the important work in computer ethics is devoted to proposing conceptual
frameworks for understanding ethical problems involving computer technology.
An example may help to clarify the kind of conceptual work that is required. Let’s
suppose we are trying to formulate a policy for protecting computer programs. Initially,
the idea may seem clear enough. We are looking for a policy for protecting a kind of
intellectual property. But then a number of questions which do not have obvious answers
emerge. What is a computer program? Is it really intellectual property which can be
owned or is it more like an idea, an algorithm, which is not owned by anybody? If a
computer program is intellectual property, is it an expression of an idea that is owned
(traditionally protectable by copyright) or is it a process that is owned (traditionally
protectable by patent)? Is a machine-readable program a copy of a human-readable
program? Clearly, we need a conceptualization of the nature of a computer program in
order to answer these kinds of questions. Moreover, these questions must be answered
in order to formulate a useful policy for protecting computer programs. Notice that the
conceptualization we pick will not only affect how a policy will be applied but to a certain
extent what the facts are. For instance, in this case the conceptualization will determine
when programs count as instances of the same program.
Qn.what is open source software
Open source is a development method for software that harnesses the power of
distributed peer review and transparency of process. The promise of open source is
better quality, higher reliability, more flexibility, lower cost, and an end to predatory
vendor lock-in.
The Open Source Initiative (OSI) is a non-profit corporation formed to educate about and
advocate for the benefits of open source and to build bridges among different
constituencies in the open-source community.
One of our most important activities is as a standards body, maintaining the Open
Source Definition for the good of the community. The Open Source Initiative Approved
License trademark and program creates a nexus of trust around which developers,
users, corporations and governments can organize open-source cooperation.
Qn.What is this Cyber crime? We read about it in newspapers very often. Let's look at
the dictionary definition of Cybercrime: "It is a criminal activity committed on the internet.
This is a broad term that describes everything from electronic cracking to denial of
service attacks that cause electronic commerce sites to lose money".
Mr. Pavan Duggal, who is the President of cyberlaws.net and consultant, in a report has
clearly defined the various categories and types of cybercrimes.
A minor girl in Ahmedabad was lured to a private place through cyberchat by a man,
who, along with his friends, attempted to gangrape her. As some passersby heard her
cry, she was rescued.
Another example wherein the damage was not done to a person but to the masses is the
case of the Melissa virus. The Melissa virus first appeared on the internet in March of
1999. It spread rapidly throughout computer systems in the United States and Europe. It
is estimated that the virus caused 80 million dollars in damages to computers worldwide.
In the United States alone, the virus made its way through 1.2 million computers in one-
fifth of the country's largest businesses. David Smith pleaded guilty on Dec. 9, 1999 to
state and federal charges associated with his creation of the Melissa virus. There are
numerous examples of such computer viruses few of them being "Melissa" and "love
bug".
A Mumbai-based upstart engineering company lost a say and much money in the
business when the rival company, an industry major, stole the technical database from
their computers with the help of a corporate cyberspy.
In a report of expressindia. com, it was said that internet was becoming a boon for the
terrorist organisations. According to Mr. A.K. Gupta, Deputy Director (Co-ordination),
CBI, terrorist outfits are increasingly using internet to communicate and move funds.
"Lashker-e-Toiba is collecting contributions online from its sympathisers all over the
world. During the investigation of the Red Fort shootout in Dec. 2000, the accused
Ashfaq Ahmed of this terrorist group revealed that the militants are making extensive
use of the internet to communicate with the operatives and the sympathisers and also
using the medium for intra-bank transfer of funds".
Cracking is amongst the gravest Cyber-crimes known till date. It is a dreadful feeling to
know that a stranger has broken into your computer systems without your knowledge
and consent and has tampered with precious confidential data and information.
Coupled with this the actuality is that no computer system in the world is cracking proof.
It is unanimously agreed that any and every system in the world can be cracked. The
recent denial of service attacks seen over the popular commercial sites like E-bay,
Yahoo, Amazon and others are a new category of Cyber-crimes which are slowly
emerging as being extremely dangerous
Internet piracy
While Borland offers authorized versions of its software for sale online, either directly
through Borland or via authorized distributors and/or resellers, there are numerous
unauthorized operations on the Internet as well:
• Pirate websites that make software available for free download or in exchange for
uploaded programs;
• Internet auction sites that offer counterfeit, out-of-channel, infringing copyright
software; and
• Peer-to-Peer networks that enable unauthorized transfer of copyrighted
programs.
Internet piracy represents perhaps the single greatest threat to e-commerce.
If you see Borland software for sale on popular auction sites, and the price seems too
good to be true, it probably is. Bidding on such software could open you up to major
software piracy liability.
Software Counterfeiting
This is the illegal duplication and sale of copyrighted material with the intent of directly
imitating the copyrighted product. In the case of packaged software, it is common to find
counterfeit copies of CD's or diskettes, incorporating the software program, as well as
related packaging, manuals, license agreements, labels, registration cards, and security
features.
Cracking.This occurs when illegal access is gained to protected software