1728 IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 11, No.

4, October 1996
ALGORITHMS FOR LOCATING FAULTS ON SERIES COMPENSATED LINES USING NEURAL NETWORK
AND DETERMINISTIC METHODS
Damir Novosel Bernhard Bachmann David Hart
ABB - TTI. USA
Abstract - This paper investigates a scheme to improve the
reach measurement of distance relays and fault locators for
series compensated lines. A deterministic method and a
feedforward neural network method have been implemented
for on-line calculation of the voltage across a non-linear
capacitor installation. These techniques are compared and
incorporated into a new relaying scheme which is independent
of the series capacitor installation, operation of the capacitor
protection, and the surrounding power system elements. The
proposed scheme is simple and accurate and requires only
local voltage and current at the bus. Detailed testing using
EMTP has been done to show the benefits of the new adaptive
scheme. The results demonstrate the suitability of the
techniques for real world applications.
1. Introduction
Benefits of installing series capacitors in the power system
include increased power transfer capability, improved
power system stability, reduced system losses, improved
voltage regulation, and regulation of power flows.
Protection of systems with series compensated lines
[1,2,3] is considered one of the most difficult tasks for
relay manufacturers and utility engineers. Protection and
control of surrounding circuit elements, particularly
transmission line protection, needs to be adapted to the
variations introduced by these devices.
Problems caused by voltage inversion and current
inversion can be solved by existing protection schemes
[1,2,3,4]. The reach measurement problem for the fault
detection and fault location applications are difficult to
solve with the conventional approaches. The distance relay
or a fault locator reach measurement depends on the status
of the capacitor and the transient response of the capacitor
protection circuit. If the capacitor is protected by a non-
linear MOV (Metal-Oxide Varistor) element, the Capacitor
compensation is a function of the fault location. Thus, due
to the varying amount of capacitance in the circuit, distance
relays may misoperate and fault locators may not be able to
accurately determine the fault location.
96 WM 021-6 PWRD A paper recommended and approved by the IEEE
Power System Relaying Committee of the IEEE Power Engineering Society
for presentation at the 1996 IEEEiPES Winter Meeting, J anuary 21-25, 1996,
Baltimore, MD. Manuscript submitted J uly 25, 1995; made available for
printing December 8, 1995.
Yi Hu Murari Mohan Saha
ABB Relays AB, Sweden
Application of digital technology allows for modifications
to be made on-line to improve the network protection and
control in the presence of the controllable and non-
controllable devices. For the fault detection applications it
is not required to detect the exact fault location and these
problems can be overcome as shown in [4]. However,
accurate modeling of the capacitor installation is required
for the fault location application. The appropriate on-line
modeling of the non-linear electrical behavior of such
devices can be achieved either by the simulation of the
devices' behavior directly using a deterministic approach
or by using artificial intelligence technology.
The linearized model described in [SI can be used to
accommodate the relay setting based on the MOV
conduction [2]. This model represents the MOV and the
capacitor as a non-linear resistor in series with a reactance
and is less accurate than the proposed techniques. Artificial
intelligence tools have also been used to improve fault
detection and fault location for the series compensated
lines [6,7]1. In both references, the ANN has been trained
with a number of EMTP cases that simulate different fault
conditions in a selected network. The AI" models a
response of the capacitor installation and the selected
network to these conditions. The designed ANNs have
been trained and tested with the same power network. This
approach is sensitive to a specific installation and
surrounding power network conditions. The real-world
application on the ANN technique will depend on it's
ability to generalize and provide a robust response to the
various network conditions and networks. A new ANN
method is considered in this paper to investigate possible
benefits over existing and new deterministic methods.
The main objective of the work presented in this paper is to
develop a method for estimating the voltage across the
non-linear series capacitor (capacitor and MOV) using the
locally available line current. This allows for a transfer of
the voltage across the capacitor. The new calculated
voltage can be used with any of the existing impedance
measurement and fault location techniques. Compensation
for the non-linear behavior of the series capacitor
installation has been accomplished with the voltage
transfer and this approach is not sensitive to the network
where the capacitor is installed. A linearized model (LM)
[ 5 ] , a Deterministic Differential Approach (DDA), and an
Artificial Neural Network (ANN) will be investigated and
compared in this paper. The selected simulation systems
feature the detailed modeling of transmission systems, the
0885-8977/96/$05.00 0 1996 IEEE
1729
t
V(t) =-OX, j I ,(t) dt (2)
4
where V(t) is the voltage across the capacitor and I,(t) is
the current through the capacitor. The current I,(t) is the
difference between the line current I(t) and the current
IHOV(t) through the MOV. Therefore, (2) can be
reformulated
capacitor, and the capacitor protection circuit, which is
essential to properly test the protection algorithms and
strategies.
2. Series Capacitor Model
The simplified capacitor protection scheme [8] is shown in
Figure 2-1. The MOV starts conducting immediately after
the instantaneous voltage across the capacitor exceeds a
certain voltage level V,f. The VI-characteristic of an MOV
can be approximated by the familiar single exponential
model:
I,, and V,l are defined in Figure 2-1. The value of a is
typically chosen from 30 to 50. The MOV is a resistive
device which absorbs energy and is protected from
overheating by an overload protection. The overload
protection calculates the energy developed through the
MOV and initiates the gap to flash (by-passing the MOV).
The protection settings used are defined in Figure 2- 1. In
addition, a high-current function is provided to speed-up
by-passing for severe internal faults if the current is larger
than I,,,=.
Series capacitor
By-pass switch
*d Sparkgap
Protection (Imax)
X, -
I,, -
I, - maximum load current
IMOV - MOV current
Ipl - protective current level of MOV:
V , - protective (peak) voltage level of MOV:
Figure 2-1 Capacitor Protection Scheme
The capacitor protection must be modeled in the protection
scheme to accurately transfer the voltage across the
capacitor. The voltage and current relationship for the
capacitor is defined by
reactance of the capacitor
current that causes the gap to flash
I,I =
I,*k , k =2-3
V,, = 1.414*&*Ipl
t
V(t>=-wx, j(ICS- I,o,(t))dt ( 3)
By using the modeled VI-Characteristic (1) and
normalizing (3), it follows
-
From (4), the voltage and current relationship at the
capacitor can also be given by the ordinary differential
equation
( 5)
The variables are defined in Figure 2- 1. Equations (4) and
( 5) show that the voltage across the capacitor is a nonlinear
function of the local line current only.
3. Description of Algorithms
Deterministic methods (Linear Model (LM) and
Deterministic Differential Approach (DDA)) and an
Artificial Neural Network (ANN) method have been
investigated in the paper. The linear model calculates an
equivalent impedance of the capacitor installation by using
a phasor approach. The DDA and the ANN techniques
estimate the voltage across the capacitor in the time
domain. This voltage i s used to calculate the line side
voltage of the capacitor by summing the measured bus
voltage and the voltage across the capacitor. The calculated
line side voltage can be used with any of the conventional
relays or fault locators.
A new impedance measurement algorithm (DIF) has been
developed for use with the new voltage transfer techniques
to reduce the impact of the subsynchronous frequency and
other transients. This algorithm is based on the least-
squares method solution of the line differential equation
using sampled data.
3.1. Deterministic approaches
Linear Model (LM) - The linearized model [ 5] represents
the MOV as a non-linear resistor in parallel with the
1730
capacitor. The equivalent series connection ZCM0v =
kMov+i o XcMOV is given by:
XcMOV =X,(.101-.005749 I,, +2.088e-.85h61p" 1
I
for I,, =-> .98.
I PI
I,, is the per unit current, and I, IpI, and X, are defined in
Figure 2-1. Equations in (6) only apply when the capacitor
current exceeds 98% of the protective level current.
Otherwise, RcMOV=0 and XcMOV=&. In addition when the
overload protection operates, the capacitor is by-passed
and kMOV=XcMOV=O" A recursive DFT method has been
used for the phasor calculation of the line current. Because
of the appropriate normalization, the linearized model is
independent of a specific capacitor installation.
Deterministic Differential Approach (DDA) - Implicit as
well as explicit numerical schemes for integrating the
ordinary differential equation (5) have been investigated.
Implicit algorithms require considerable computational
work for each time step due to the nonlinear VI-
characteristic of the MOV, and may have convergence
problems. However, it allows for larger time steps.
Numerical experiments show that explicit schemes are
preferred, because the required smaller time steps are not
as time consuming as the solution process of the nonlinear
equations. In order to discretize (5) an explicit Euler
scheme has been used.
The exponential VI-characteristic of the MOV causes the
integration of (5) to be very sensitive and unstable for large
time steps. If the sampling rate is smaller than 64 samples
per cycle, the explicit schemes are not able to integrate (5).
An appropriate interpolation technique has been chosen to
accommodate the required integration step to the practical
sampling rate of the relay. To accelerate the computation
of the algorithm, a piece-wise linear approximation
technique is used to represent the non-linear MOV
characteristic.
Equation ( 5) only holds until the MOV overload protection
operates the bypass breaker. However, the voltage at the
MOV and the current through the MOV are calculated at
each time step using the linearized VI-characteristic. These
calculations allow for the estimate of the energy calculation
and prediction of the capacitor by-pass time. This approach
has been implemented in combination with the DDA
method.
3.2. Artificial Neural Network (ANN) approach
The feedforward neural network with a quasi-Newton
method for minimization of the error function [9] has been
implemented to achieve an appropriate model of the
capacitor and its protection scheme. The normalized
voltage-current dependency in (4) can be considered as
independent of the specific parameters of the capacitor
installation. This provides the capability to construct a
neural network model that can be used for various
applications: different compensation levels, different
capacitor protection installations, and power network
configurations.
The feedforward neural network consists of three layers (an
input layer, a hidden layer, and an output layer). The input
layer has 10 inputs (the normalized line current samples
and the differences of the line current to approximate the
derivative). The number of inputs and the considered time
interval were chosen independent of the sampling rate
implemented in the protection device. Let n be the number
of samples per cycle (e.g. 16, 32, 64, etc.), m =nJ8, and I k
=I(tk) (normalized by Ipl). The ten inputs sj used to predict
the output 0 1 =Vk=V(tk) (normalized by V,,) are:
SI =Ik 3 s2=Ik - Ik.m, s3=Ik.m, s4=1k.m - Ik.2m, s5=Ik.2m,
s6 =Ik-2m- Ik-3m, s7=I k-3 m, s8=Ik-3m - Ik-4m, s9=Ik-4my
SI0 =Ik-4m - Ik-5m.
By this definition the information used for prediction
corresponds to the time interval of half a cycle, and the
minimum sampling rate is 8. The number of hidden units
has been varied from 4 to 10 and the best performance is
achieved with 9 hidden units. Direct connections between
the input layer and the output layer have also been defined
for a better learning of the linear dependency of the
inpugoutput relationship. For the activation functions of
the hidden units the sigmoid function seems to be
appropriate. The thresholds were modeled as additional
weights. The above inputs and the output were normalized
to mean value 0 and standard deviation 1. The ANN has
been trained on a power system 1 (Figure 4-1) [IO]. The
training cases were generated for different fault inception
angles (O', 90, 180, 270), locations (10, 30, 50, 70 and
90%) and types (a-G, bc, bc-G and abc). The load flow
direction was from S to R.
As with the deterministic technique, an estimation of the
energy calculation and prediction of the by-pass time is
calculated at each time step using the linearized VI-
characteristic.
3.3, Impedance measurement algorithm (DIF)
Based on the differential equation representation of the
transmission line in conjunction with a least-square
estimate method the following- impedance measurement
technique (DIF) has been used with the DDA or ANN
techniques. Since any other impedance technique can be
used, the DIF technique was not investigated separately.
The faulted line i s modeled as a series R-E circuit where
(7)
dt
For this approach the dc-offset and the subsynchronous
frequencies are not an error signal, since they also satisfy
the differential equation. Because measurements are made
of V(t) and I(t), an approximation of (7) can obtained by
integrating over 2 successive time periods using the
trapezoidal rule to calculate R and L to the fault. However,
this algorithm is very sensitive on signal disturbances, e.g.,
measurement errors and transients. In this paper, a least
squares method has been used for stabilizing the algorithm.
Assuming that R and L are constant in time and by using
several time intervals, the following relationship holds:
Ax =b, with
r 1
L _I
v, +v,,
b=[ 1, whereV,=V(t,)andI ,=I (tn)
The least square estimate described by (8) with a half cycle
data window is used to calculate R and L to the fault. A
sampling rate of 16 sampleskycle and a low-pass anti-
aliasing filter are used in the study.
4. Comparison and Simulations
This section presents the simulation results for two
different series compensated systems: a single-line network
(Figure 4-1) and a parallel-line network (Figure 4-2). In
addition, for the single line network, three different
network configurations have been modeled and simulated.
System 1 (Figure 4-1) has a single capacitor (60%
compensation) on a single line. The line with the capacitor
is an untransposed line with a flat line configuration
(unbalanced network). System 2 has the same
configuration as in 1, but with the reverse load flow.
System 3 also has the same configuration as in 1, but with
the capacitor out of service (shorted). System 4 (Figure 4-
2) has parallel lines with capacitors (60% compensation) at
one end of each line. The lines with the capacitors are in a
delta configuration (network is balanced).
The detailed modeling of the series capacitor's protection
and the MOV overload protection has been implemented
with the same criterion as existing real-world installations.
The EMTP Electromagnetic Transient Program was used
to simulate the power system voltages and currents. The
generated waveforms are loaded into MATLAB for testing
of the relaying algorithms [I O].
Loadf l ow direction
bur H
X,= 120.62ohm
generators - busG
I I Y - Y .<"SA I
1731
, gsneraIorR
I h
LOAD LOAD
25 MILES
I I -
25 MILES
,* 200 MILES-
Figure 4-1 Single line system (simulation system 1)
X,= 109.32 ohm
Loadf l ow direction X.y X,'60%
I generator R
=65 59 ohm bus
, bus G
generat ors
ii
LOA0
25 MILES
I I -
25 MILES
,+ZOOMILES -
LOAD
Figure 4-2 Parallel line system (simulation system 4)
Comprehensive simulations have been performed to
evaluate the linear model (LM). Figure 4-3 (a-G fault at
10% of the line, simulation system 1 - Figure 4-1)
demonstrate the error of the linear model and comparison
with the DDA and ANN methods. The calculations with
the LM are dependent on the phasor calculation of the
normalized current Ipu~ One cycle after the fault inception
the error was app. 10%. In addition, the graph shows that
the fault location estimation is incorrect after by-pass.
half cycle after fault inception
Figure 4-3 Comparison of the LM, DDA, and ANN
methods for an a-G fault at 10% of the line
The linearized model is simple and may be accurate
enough for the fault detection applications. The
disadvantages of the linearized model are: (i) less accurate
than the other tested methods, (ii) poor performance during
transition periods (pre-fault to fault, pre-bypass to bypass),
and (iii) difficult to estimate bypass time which is based on
energy accumulation of MOV. Thus, the following section
describes detailed results with the DDA and ANN
techniques only.
1732
The following cases were selected for each system: a-G
fault (0 and 10 ohm fault resistance) and b-c fault; fault
locations at lo%, 50%, 80% and 100% of the G-H line;
fault inception angles of O' , 45' and 90'. Tables below
indicate: the exact fault location; fault inception angle; first
estimate (half cycle after the fault inception), last estimate
(two cycles after the first value), and average and standard
deviation for the values between. The DIF measurement
algorithm has been used with both DDA and ANN
techniques. A half cycle after fault inception, the proposed
protection scheme already provides accurate results.
As in conventional relays, there is no compensation in the
scheme for errors caused by the unbalanced line model,
charging currents, mutual coupling, and reactance effect.
Thus, errors increase as the faults are further from the
protection installation. These errors should be compensated
for the fault location application [l l ]. The capacitor
installation has no considerable effect on the compensation
methods because the calculated line side voltage is used. In
addition, the DDA and ANN methods for the modeling of
the capacitor installation are not affected by the error
sources above.
Different fault locations, inception angles, and fault
resistance for simulation system 1 - Simulation results for
system 1 are summarized in Table 4-1 (no fault resistance)
and Table 4-2 (10 ohm fault resistance). The simulation
cases are different than the cases used for the ANN training
to test a generalization capability of the ANN. The results
for the DDA and the ANN technique are listed for
comparison. The impedance trajectories are shown in
Figure 4-4 for the DDA. The protection is set at 80% of the
line. The results agree very well for both techniques and
the voltage transfer has not been influenced by the different
fault locations, inception angles, and fault resistance. The
initial data window after the fault contains pre-fault data
causing the travel of the impedance. However, in practice,
a transient fault detector would start the data window after
fault inception with the trajectories not crossing the
operating zone for the faults outside the zone.
Table 4-1 Estimated fault location for different fault
locations and inception angles (R=O a)
When the overload protection has operated, the last value
may be in error if the energy calculation has not been
accurate. An error in the timing of the overload protection
operation will cause a considerable error in the estimate
of the voltage across the capacitor installation. The
average and the standard deviation values shown in every
table are a quantitative indicator of these problems. The
calculation of the voltage across the capacitor installation
and, consequently, the energy estimation are more
accurate when using the DDA technique.
Table 4-2 Estimated fault location for different fault
locations and inception angles (
fault at IO%, 50%, 80% & 100% of system1 (DDI
X(ohms)
R(ohms)
Figure 4-4 Impedance measurement at different fault
Reverse load flow (system 2) - The ANN was trained for
one load flow direction (from S to R) only. Theoretically, a
neural network should be trained for all possible conditions
to be able to generalize properly. Thus, training cases with
different load direction are needed if the load flow
direction impacts results. The reverse load case tests the
robustness and the generalization capability of the ANN
approach. The results summarized in Table 4-3 reveal that
there i s a certain impact of the prefault load flow direction
on the ANN technique. It is also shown by comparing
actual and estimated voltages across the capacitor (V,.,)
and on the line side of the capacitor VI,,,^.^) (Figure 4-5).
The impact is mostly in the transition period from the
prefault to the fault condition. However, as soon as the
locations (DDA technique)
1733
L
_.. .._ ...,. ...,. ~ , . . . . . . ~ ~
50 0 48.3 47.8 55 1 55.1 48.7+/- 3.5 51 5 t /-4.0
45 46.8 45.4 54.6 103 49.4+/- 3.5 75.0+/-21.7
90 46.6 45.3 54.3 102 48. 742. 9 68.1t f -27.5
80 0 x2 763 x1. s x9.s 7Y 3 +/- I x x 2. 0+/ - 6.6
data window moves into the fault condition, the prefault
load flow direction will have very little impact on the
network performance. The DDA technique does not
experience this problem.
100
Table 4-3 Estimated fault location for different fault
locations and inception angles (R =0 SZ,
reverse load flow)
YO 74.6 74 4) X4 XX.3 7Y.5 TI- 2. 0 XI . ? T/- 1 I)
0 118.8 111.91 1M.R 132.4 1303d-6.8 131 4+/. 14.6
45 97.1 92.91 1289 122.8. f26.3 +/- 9.7 l 2Y. Y +/- 16.0
90 7 9 4 81.31 126.4 123.2 121.0+/-14.1 125.7+/.17.1
5 reverse load flow case (ANN)
x 10
Vline.
0 0.02 0.04 006 0.08 0.1 0 I2
-6 I
14
actual: - eshmated: - - time (sec.)
Figure 4-5 Voltage transfer under reverse load flow
directions for the ANN technique (fault at
50% of the line)
Parallel line system - The techniques have also been
simulated on a parallel line system (system 4 in Figure 4-
2). The ANN trained for the single line system is used in
the simulations. These simulations further investigate the
generalization capability of the ANN. The capacitor value
and the MOV characteristic have about 10% difference
compared with the single line system (system 1). The
results have shown that the error of the ANN technique is
relatively small for the simulations on the parallel line
system. The normalized approach used in the ANN training
has resulted in a robust network, having a good
generalization of the non-linearities of the capacitor-MOV
installation. The results for the DDA and ANN techniques
are listed in Table 4-4. Large errors for the faults at the end
of the line are not result of the errors in the voltage transfer
but are caused by the other errors sources (charging
currents, mutual coupling, etc.). These errors, as previously
described, could be overcome for the fault location
applications by the existing methods [ 111.
I 101 01 91 12.31 10.21 10.21 9.3 +/-0.71 10.4+/-2.51
Table 4-4 Estimated fault location for different fault
locations and inception angles (R= 0 SZ,
forward load flow, parallel line system)
Capacitor not in service or in the fault loop - When the
capacitor is not in the fault loop, there is no need to
transfer the voltage. This occurs when the capacitor is not
in service or a fault is between the relay and the capacitor
(capacitor located in the middle or at the end of the line). If
the voltage transfer from bus side to line side is still used
under this condition, an erroneous impedance measurement
will result. The above problem will not affect the fault
location estimation since there is enough time to detect the
capacitor status or the capacitor status may be available.
On the other hand, if information on the capacitor status is
not provided to the relay in a timely manner, the relay will
underreach. The relay reach of the proposed scheme is still
higher than if the conventional scheme is used and will not
cause misoperation of the relay.
If the capacitor is located at the end of the line and the line
voltage is available to the relay, the voltage transfer is not
needed. Unfortunately, in practice, the line side PT may
not be installed. Also, the directional element with the line
side voltage may fail if appropriate measures are not used.
Capacitor in the middle of the line - If the fault is on the
far side of the capacitor installation, the proposed methods,
with modification, can be applied. The modification
consists of calculating the voltage drop between the relay
and the capacitor to accurately transfer the voltage across
the capacitor. If the fault is on the near side of the
installation, the capacitor is not in the fault loop and the
discussion in the previous paragraph applies.
5. Conclusions
This paper describes a new scheme to improve the reach
measurement of distance relays and fault locators applied
in series compensated lines. This scheme consists of the
following:
0 A method for estimating the voltage across the series
capacitor using only the measured line current. This
1734
part can be accomplished by a deterministic method or
an Artificial Neural Network (ANN) method.
A new impedance algorithm (DIF), based on the least-
square method solution of the line differential equation
to reduce subsynchronous resonance oscillations and
other transient phenomena.
A method for calculation of the energy accumulation
to predict the overload protection operation.
0
0
The results of this paper can be summarized as follows:
The deterministic and ANN methods provide an
accurate modeling of the non-linearity of any series
capacitor installation. This allows for on-line
adjustment to be made in order to improve the reach
measurement of a fault locator or a distance relay.
Simulations on different networks have shown that
both methods are very accurate and have a robust
response to the changes in the system conditions and
parameters of the capacitor installation. However, the
first technique provides more accurate results.
0 A prediction of the voltage across the capacitor
installation is in error if the capacitor status is not
available. This problem should not affect the fault
location estimation since there is enough time to detect
the capacitor status. Also, this is not a major problem
for the relay application since the relay will
underreach. However, relay reach is still higher than if
the conventional scheme is used.
The proposed scheme i s simple, fast, accurate and
reliable. It requires only local voltage and current at
the bus. It is well suited for implementation in a digital
fault locator or a digital distance relay to improve their
performance. For the fault location application, the
scheme needs to be combined with the existing fault
location techniques using data either from one or from
both ends to overcome other error sources (reactance
effect, mutual coupling, charging currents, etc.) [I I ].
6. References
1. CIGRE, Group 34, Application Guide on
Protection of Complex Transmission Networks,
May 1991.
2. F. Andersson and W. Elmore, Overview of
Series-Compensated Line Protection
Philosophies, Western Relay Protective
Conference, Washington State University,
Spokane, Washington, October 1990.
W. J . Cheetham, A Newbould, and G. Stranne,
Series-Compensated Line Protection: System
Modeling and Test Results, I f h Annual Western
Relay Protective Conference, Washington State
University, Spokane, Washington, October 1988.
C. Ohlen, et. al., EMTP used in testing of a
protection scheme for series compensated
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
7.
network, CIGRE 1995 SC 34 colloquium,
Stockholm, J une 1995.
D. L. Goldsworthy, A Linearized Model for
MOV-Protected Series Capacitors, IEEE
Transactions on Power Systems, Vol. 2, No. 4,
pp. 953-958, November 1987.
Q.Y.Xuan, et. al., Adaptive Protection for Series
Compensated EHV Transmission Systems Using
Neural Networks, IEE Control Conference 94,
21-24 March 1994.
Y.H. Song, Accurate Fault Location Scheme
Based on Neural Networks Applied to EHV
Transmission Systems, ICPST 94 Beijing,
China, 1994.
IEEE PSRC, WG K13, Series Capacitor Bank
Protection, March 1994.
J .A. Hertz, R.G. Palmer, and AS. Krogh,
Introduction to the Theory of Neural
Computation, Addision Weseley, 350 Bridge
Parkway, Redwood City, CA 94065, USA, 1991.
D. Hart, et. al., Digital Techniques for Testing
Numerical Relays, Proceedings of the Stockholm
Power Tech Conference, Stockholm, J une 1995.
D. Novosel, et. al., Fault Location Using Digital
Relay Data, Computer Applications in Power,
Volume 8, Number 3, J uly 1995.
Biographies
Damir Novosel i s presently employed as an Advisory
Engineer at the ABB Transmission Technology Institute in
Raleigh, Ne. He received his Ph.D. from Mississippi State
University in 1991. His research area is computer based
protection and control and application of AI. He is a Senior
Member of IEEE.
Bernhard Bachmann is employed as a Research Engineer
at the ABB Corporate Research Center in Baden-Daettwil,
Switzerland. He received his Ph.D. from the University of
Zurich, Switzerland in 1994. His research areas are
numerical analysis, scientific computation, and AI tools.
David Hart is presently employed as a Fellow Engineer at
the ABB Transmission Technology Institute in Raleigh, NC.
He received his Ph.D. from Clemson University in 1991. His
research area is digital protection and control.
Yi Hu is presently employed as a Senior Engineer at the
ABB Transmission Technology Institute in Raleigh, NC. He
received his Ph.D. from University of Manitoba, Canada in
1994. His research area is digital protection and control.
Murari Saha is presently employed as a Senior R&D
Engineer at ABB Relays, Sweden. He received his Ph.D
from the Technical University of Warsaw, Poland in 1975.
He is a Senior Member of IEEE, a Member of IEE,
registered Euro Engineer and a Chartered Engineer. His
areas of interest are measuring transformers? power system
analysis and simulation, and digital protective relays.
Discussion
Adly A. Girgis and Srinivas Varadan, Clemson University :
The authors are to bc commended for their efforts in dealing
with the protection of series compensated lines. The paper is
well written and marks clarity in both meaning and
understanding of the subject. The comparison of the two
methods, DDA and ANN, investigated in this paper
demonstrates that the DDA approach provides better results.
This is due to fact that any ANN scheme is most effective when
the functional mapping between the input and output is not
clearly defined or known apriori. Typically, during the training
process, a neural network extracts the inherent relationship
between the input and output. It is this ability of a neural
network that makes its use so attractive. In this case however,
the terminal relationship between the current and voltage across
the series capacitor is well established, eq. (5). It therefore
seems intuitive that the DDA approach would be more effective
in this problem of locating the fault distance on a series
compensated line. Needless to say the ANN approach requires
significant training time and fine tuning as far as network
topology is concerned. The authors indicated that the
computation of the voltage across the capacitor is used to
calculate the line side voltage. It appears that the authors
assumed that the fault is on the far side of the capacitor. Also
they assumed that this is known apriori. The authors' response
to the above comments will behighly appreciated.
Manuscript received February 12, 1996.
R.J . MARTTILA, (Ontario Hydro
Technologies, Toronto, Ontario, Canada):
The authors have presented an interesting
paper on measurement techniques for
determining the location of faults on series-
compensated transmission lines.
The presentation concentrates on
transmission lines with compensation at line
ends, in which case the approaches apply
only when the potential source is on the bus
side of the capacitor. In many installations,
the potential source is on the line side for
various reasons. Also, distance relays
appear to be more secure with the potential
source on the line side [A]. It would be of
interest to demonstrate the performance of
the methods on lines with the capacitor at
the midpoint of the line. In this application,
what criteria would be used to decide the
requirement to include or exclude the
voltage drop across the capacitor/MOV
combination?
[A] R.J. Marttila, "Performance of
Distance Relay MHO Elements on
1735
MOV- Pro t ec t ed S erie s- Compensated
Transmission Lines," IEEE Tran. on Power
Delivery, Vol. 7, No. 3, J ul 1992,
pp 1167-1 178.
Manuscript received February 20, 1996.
A. Apostolov (Tasnet, Inc., 5271 102nd Ave. N, Pinellas
Park, FL 34666, USA):
The authors are to be commended for a very interesting paper on Locating Faults on
Series Compensated Lines. The answers to the following questions will clarify some
aspects of the practical application of the proposed method:
The authors state that both single-phase-to-ground and phase-to-phase faults were
considered in the EMTP simulation and results. However, it is not clear if the results
given in Tables 4-1 through 4-4 are from one of these two types of faults or the
average fromboth. Was the Neural Network trained separately with data for each type
of fault, or a combined set was used ?
If the line has aseries capacitor in the middle, there is no way to determine fromthe
relay location if the fault is in front or behind the capacitor. What is the proposed
solution to this problem?
The algorithmhas bcen tested on amodel of a100 miles long line. Both the DDA and
ANN estimate the fault location at 100 % with an error of up to 15 - 17 % for
different inception angles, no mutual coupling and zero fault resistance. It will be
beneficial if the authors can provide some comments on these results.
Manuscript received February 21, 1996.
D. Novosel, B. Bachmann, D.G. Hart, Y. Hu, and M.M.
Saha: The authors wish to thank discussers for their interest
in the new scheme for locating faults on series compensated
lines.
All discussers are interested in application of the
proposed scheme for the capacitor located in the middle of the
line. For the case of a fault on the near side of the capacitor
(the capacitor is not in the fault loop), voltage transfer is not
required. If the capacitor is not in the fault loop and the new
scheme is used, the relay will underreach. However, this will
not cause any misoperations of the relay and the reach is
higher than if the conventional scheme is used. For the fault
location application, it is necessary to detect if the capacitor is
in the fault loop (or that the fault is behind the capacitor) to
transfer the voltage. Since fault location does not have to be
determined in real time, enough time is available to detect if
the voltage drop should be included or excluded. Two possible
methods of determining if the capacitor is in the fault loop are:
I . Use of the largest low frequency transient together with
the fundamental frequency.
2. Use of differences in the impedance trajectory for the
cases when the capacitor is in or out of the fault loop.
Mr. Marttila points out some benefits of installing the
potential source on the bus side of the capacitor located at the
line end. Certainly, in this case, voltage transfer is not needed.
However, in a number of field installations, only bus side
1736
potential is available. Furthermore, the discusser points out
that distance relays will be more secure with the potential
source on the line side [A]. This is true for the measurement
units of the distance relay, however, directional units (e.g.
positive, negative, or zero sequence directional units) of the
distance relay are more secure with the potential on the bus
side.
Answers to other questions presented by Dr.
Apostolov are as follows:
1. The results in the Tables 4-1 to 4-4 are for the single-
phase-to-ground faults only. Errors in fault location
estimation are usually largest for this fault type (zero
sequence effects, highest value of the fault resistance, etc.)
Tests on a model of a 100 mile long single line with no
fault resistance have shown that the error of both
algorithms (DDA and ANN) increases if the faults are
further from the protection installation. The line is
modeled in EMTP as an untransposed line with a flat-line
configuration. Effects of coupling between the lines and
charging currents are not modeled in the relay or fault
locator. Thus, a reason for the error (up to 1517% for the
2.
line more accurately for the fault location applications,
these errors can be reduced [ 1 11.
Dr. Girgis and Mr. Varadan correctly stated that it
seems intuitive that the DDA approach would be more
effective than the ANN approach. The authors have started
the parallel development using these two approaches. Initially,
it was not clear that the non-linearities (MOV) and overload
protection in the capacitor installation could be modeled
accurately in a relay using the deterministic approach. In
addition, even when the accurate deterministic models have
been developed, it seemed useful to compare the accuracy of
two solutions and select the better one.
Again, the authors wish to thank the discusser for
their comments.
REFERENCE
C1. D. Novosel, D.G. Hart, E. Udren, and M.M. Saha, Fault
Location Using Digital Relay Data, IEEE ComDuter
Aplications in Power, Volume 8, Number 3, June 1995.
fault at the remote bus) is that the line model in a relay is
a simple positive sequence impedance. By modeling the Manuscript received April 2, 1996.