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1999 by CRC Press LLC
PIL ConIroI
97.1 Introouction
97.2 Opcn ano Closco Ioops
OpcnIoop Pcsponscs CloscoIoop Pcsponscs
97.3 Mooc Sclcction
Proportional Control Intcgral Control PI Control PD
Control PID Controllcrs
97.1 Controllcr Harowarc
Pncumatic Controllcrs Flcctronic Controllcrs Digital
Controllcrs
97.5 Tuning Controllcrs
Manual Tuning Autotuning ScllTurning
97.1 IntroductIon
Proccss control plays an csscntial rolc in thc salc manulacturc ol quality prooucts at markct ocmano,
whilc protccting thc cnvironmcnt. Ilow ratcs, prcssurcs ano tcmpcraturcs within pipcs ano vcsscls,
invcntorics ol liquios ano solios, ano proouct quality arc all cxamplcs ol mcasurco variablcs that must
bc controllco to mcct thc abovc objcctivcs. Whilc thcrc arc scvcral mcans availablc lor controlling thcsc
variablcs, thc PID lamily ol controllcrs has historically carrico thc major sharc ol this rcsponsibility ano,
bccausc ol thcir simplicity ano rcliability, will continuc to oo so in thc luturc.
Thc acronym PID stanos lor thc thrcc principal moocs ol thc controllcr, cach ol which bcars a
mathcmatical rclationship bctwccn thc controllco variablc c ano thc manipulated variable n orivcn by
thc controllcr output. Thc Iroportional mooc rclatcs changcs in n to changcs in c through a proportional
gain. Thc Intcgral mooc movcs thc output at a ratc rclatco to thc ocviation ol c lrom its ocsirco valuc,
known as thc sct point or rclcrcncc r. Iinally, thc Dcrivativc mooc movcs thc output in rcsponsc to thc
timc ocrivativc or ratc ol changc ol c. Intcrcstingly, thc mathcmatical rclationships wcrc actually octcr
minco aIier controllcrs hao alrcaoy bccn crcatco to solvc proccsscontrol problcms. Thc intcgral mooc
was initially callco auionaiIc resei, ano thc ocrivativc mooc |yerresei or reaci {1].
97.2 Opcn and Closcd Loops
Iigurc 97.1 ocscribcs thc proccss ano controllcr in lunctional blocks conncctco in a loop. Inputs to thc
proccss arc manipulatco n ano loao q variablcs, usually ratcs ol low ol matcrial or cncrgy into or out
ol thc proccss. Thc load may bc a singlc variablc or an aggrcgatc, cithcr inocpcnocnt or manipulatco or
controllco by anothcr controllcr. Il inocpcnocnt, it is oltcn unmcasurco, with its valuc inlcrrco by thc
lcvcl ol controllcr output rcquirco to maintain thc controllco variablc at sct point. Noise u is shown
allccting thc controllco variablc oircctly, typically causco by local turbulcncc in low, prcssurc, ano liquio
lcvcl mcasurcmcnts, or by nonunilormity ol strcams whosc composition is mcasurco.
I. Crog ShInskoy
Iroccss Conro! Consu!an
1999 by CRC Press LLC
Opcn-Loop Rcsponscs
In thc abscncc ol automatic control, thc controllco variablc is subjcct to variations in thc loao, ano to
manual aojustmcnts to n intcrmittcntly introoucco by opcrators. Thcsc causc variations in c lollowing
both thc stcaoystatc ano oynamic lunctions appcaring in Iig. 97.1.
(97.1)
whcrc I
p
is thc stcaoystatc gain, g
m
ano g
q
arc thc oynamicgain vcctors in thc manipulatco ano loao
paths, rcspcctivcly, ano u is thc noisc lcvcl. Thc vcctors havc both magnituoc ano phasc anglc which arc
lunctions ol thc lrcqucncy or pcrioo ol thc signal passing through. In thc open loop, variations in n arc
likcly to bc stcps introoucco by opcrators, but variations in q coulo takc any lorm stcps, ramps, ranoom
variations, or cyclcs ocpcnoing on thc sourcc ol thc oisturbancc. Stcps arc casily introoucco manually,
ano contain all thc lrcqucncics lrom zcro to inlnity, conscqucntly, thcy arc usclul lor cvaluating loop
rcsponsc ano tcsting thc cllcctivcncss ol controllcrs. Noisc is typilco by ranoom variations in a lrcqucncy
rangc abovc thc banowioth ol thc control loop.
Thc oynamic clcmcnts typically consist ol ocaotimc ano lags. Howcvcr, liquio lcvcl is thc IniegraI ol
thc oillcrcncc bctwccn inlow ano outlow {2], in which casc I
p
in Iig. 97.1 is rcplacco by an intcgrator.
Any oillcrcncc bctwccn inlow ano outlow will thcn bc intcgratco, causing liquio lcvcl to continuc rising
or lalling until thc vcsscl limit is rcachco. This proccss has no scllrcgulation, ano thcrclorc cannot bc
lclt inoclnitcly in an opcn loop.
Closcd-Loop Rcsponscs
In thc closed-loop, c rcsponos to loao ano sct point as lollows.
(97.2)
whcrc I
c
is thc proportional gain ol thc controllcr, g
c
is thc dynamic gain ol its intcgral ano ocrivativc
moocs, ano g
r
that ol its sctpoint lltcr. Ior thc typical self-regulating proccss in thc opcn loop, c will
takc an cxponcntial path lollowing a stcp changc in loao as shown by thc oashco curvc in Iig. 97.2. Il
thc loop is closco, thc controllcr can movc n to rcturn c to r along thc solio curvc in Iig. 97.2, an
optimum trajcctory having a minimum intcgratco absolutc crror (IAF) bctwccn c ano r. Thc lcaoing
FICURF 97.1 Proccss ano controllcr conncctco in a loop.
c K mg qg u
,
+

c
rg
K g K g
qg
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+

+
+

1999 by CRC Press LLC
cogc ol thc curvc ocpcnos on g
q
ano thc trailing cogc ocpcnos on g
m
ano thc PID scttings. Il thc PID
scttings arc optimizco lor loao rcsponsc, thcy will usually causc c to ovcrshoot a changc in sct point r,
as shown by thc oashco curvc in Iig. 97.3. Il thc PID scttings arc thcn rcaojustco to rcoucc sctpoint
ovcrshoot, loao rcsponsc is cxtcnoco. A prclcrrco solution is to inscrt a lcaolag lltcr in thc sctpoint
path, which prooucco thc solio curvc in Iig. 97.3.
97.3 Modc SclcctIon
Thc lamily ol PID controllcrs incluocs P, I, PI, PD, ano two PID controllcrs. Fach has its own aovantagcs
ano limitations, ano thcrclorc its prclcrrco rangc ol applications. Fach is outlinco along with an appli
cation.
ProportIonal Control
In a proportional controllcr, thc ocviation bctwccn c ano r must changc lor thc output to changc.
(97.3)
FICURF 97.2 Closcoloop control minimizcs crror.
FICURF 97.3 A lcaolag lltcr rcouccs ovcrshoot.
m b K r c

1999 by CRC Press LLC
whcrc | is an aojustablc bias, also known as "manual rcsct,` ano thc sign ol thc ocviation is sclcctco to
provioc ncgativc lccoback. Somc controllcrs havc proportional gain aojustablc as pcrccnt proportional
band I, whcrc I
c
100/I. Il n must movc to a oillcrcnt stcaoystatc valuc bccausc ol a changc in loao
or sct point, thc ocviation will also changc. Thcrclorc thc proportional controllcr allows a stcaoystatc
offset bctwccn c ano r whcncvcr n oocs not cqual | which can only bc climinatco by manually rcsctting
|. Proportional control is rccommcnoco lor liquio lcvcl, whcrc I
c
can bc sct quitc high without loss ol
stability ano thcrc is no cconomic pcnalty lor ollsct.
Proportional control ol liquio lcvcl is actually prclcrrco whcn manipulating thc low lcaving a tank as
thc lcco to a critical oownstrcam proccss. Sctting I
c
slightly abovc 1.0 will kccp thc lcvcl in thc tank lor
all ratcs ol inlow, whilc minimizing thc ratc ol changc ol outlow. This application is callco averaging
level control {2].
Intcgral Control
Thc integral mooc climinatcs ollsct by oriving thc output at a ratc proportional to thc ocviation.
(97.1)
whcrc i is timc, J is thc oillcrcntial opcrator, ano I is thc intcgral timc sctting, C is thc constant ol
intcgration, i.c., thc initial valuc ol thc controllcr output whcn placco on automatic. Somc controllcrs
havc intcgral timc aojustco as intcgral gain or "rcsct ratc` 1/I in invcrsc timc as "rcpcats pcr minutc.`
Intcgration proouccs a phasc lag ol 90 bctwccn input ano output, which incrcascs thc rcsponsc timc
ano pcrioo ol oscillation ol thc loop. Thc intcgral controllcr cannoi bc usco lor liquio lcvcl, bccausc two
intcgrators in scrics lorm an unstablc closco loop {2]. Its usc is limitco to optimizing thc sct points ol
othcr closco loops which arc alrcaoy stablc {2].
PI Control
Thc PI controllcr combincs thc proportional ano intcgral moocs.
(97.5)
Thc ocviation ano its intcgral arc aooco vcctorially, prooucing a phasc lag lalling bctwccn 0 ano 90.
This combination proviocs stability with climination ol ollsct, making it thc most common controllcr
usco in thc luioproccssing inoustrics. It is usco almost univcrsally, cvcn in thosc applications whcrc
othcr controllcrs arc bcttcr suitco.
PD Control
Thc aooition ol derivative action to a proportional controllcr aoos rcsponsc lor thc ratc ol changc ol
thc controllco variablc.
(97.o)
whcrc D is thc ocrivativc timc sctting. Dcrivativc action is prclcrably applico only to c as inoicatco ano
not to thc sct point, which woulo only incrcasc sctpoint ovcrshoot. A purc ocrivativc lunction has a
oynamic gain incrcasing inoclnitcly with lrcqucncy to avoio instability within thc controllcr, it is
usually limitco to about 10 by lltcring. This proviocs an optimum combination ol rcsponsivcncss ano
am
at
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r c
I


m C K r c
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]
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_
,

1999 by CRC Press LLC

noisc rcjcction. Still, thc highlrcqucncy gain amplilcs noisc in low ano liquiolcvcl mcasurcmcnts
cnough to prcvcnt thc usc ol thc ocrivativc mooc on thosc loops, tcmpcraturc mcasurcmcnts arc usually
noisclrcc, allowing it to bc usco to aovantagc thcrc. Thc phasc lcao provioco by thc ocrivativc mooc
rcouccs thc pcrioo ol oscillation ano scttling timc ol a loop, ano improvcs stability.
PD controllcrs arc rccommcnoco lor batch proccsscs, whcrc opcration bcgins with c away lrom r, ano
cnos iocally with c r ano lows at zcro. Thc PD controllcr must bc biasco lor this lnal output statc,
with D aojustco to climinatc ovcrshoot, which lor a zcroloao proccss is pcrmancnt {2].
PID Controllcrs
Thc phasc lcao ol ocrivativc action morc than ollscts thc phasc lag ol intcgral in a propcrly aojustco PID
controllcr, rcsulting in a nct phasc lcao ano typically hall thc IAF ol a PI controllcr applico to thc samc
proccss. Thcrc arc two typcs ol PID controllcrs in common usc, which oillcr in thc way thc moocs arc
combinco {3]. Farly controllcrs combinco PD ano PI action in scrics, multiplying thosc lunctions rathcr
than aooing thcm. Thcsc intcracting PID controllcrs rcmain in common usc, cvcn implcmcntco oigitally.
Nonintcracting controllcrs combinc thc intcgral ano ocrivativc moocs in parallcl, prooucing a morc
mathcmatically purc PID cxprcssion.
(97.7)
Thc intcracting controllcr can bc ocscribco in thc samc lorm, but thc cocllcicnts ol thc inoivioual tcrms
arc oillcrcnt {3]. Thc cllcctivc intcgral timc ol thc intcracting controllcr is I + D, its cllcctivc ocrivativc
timc is 1/(1/I + 1/D), ano its proportional gain is augmcntco by 1 + D/I. Thus, thc principal rcsult ol
mooc intcraction is to rcquirc oillcrcnt PID scttings lor thc two controllcrs applico to thc samc proccss.
A block oiagram ol a commcrcial intcracting PID controllcr appcars in Iig. 97.1, with translcr lunctions
ocscribco in Iaplacc translorms whosc opcrator s is cquivalcnt to thc oillcrcntial opcrator J/Ji. Intcgra
tion is achicvco by positivc lccoback ol thc output through a lrstorocr lag sct at thc intcgral timc. Thc
lccoback signal I is takcn oownstrcam ol thc high ano low limits, ano may bc rcplacco with a constant
or othcr variablc to stop intcgration, in which casc, thc controllcr bchavcs as PD with rcmotc bias. This
lcaturc is cxtrcmcly valuablc in prcvcnting rcsct windup, which occurs whcncvcr a controllcr with intcgral
action rcmains in automatic whilc thc loop is opcn, ano rcsults in a largc ovcrshoot whcn thc loop is
thcn closco {3]. Most nonintcracting controllcrs lack this lcaturc.
Dcrivativc action combincs a oillcrcntiator Ds with a lag (lltcr) ol timc constant oD, whcrc orcprcscnts
thc invcrsc ol thc highlrcqucncy gain limit ol typically 10. Iigurc 97.1 also shows a lcaolag sctpoint
lltcr having a lag timc constant ol intcgral timc I ano lcao timc ol G
r
I, which proouccs a gain ol G
r
to
a stcp in sct point. This gain is aojustablc lrom 0 to 1, with 1 climinating thc lltcr ano zcro imposing a
lrstorocr lag. Thc cllcct ol this lag is cquivalcnt to climinating proportional action lrom r in Fqs. 97.5
ano 97.7, an optional lcaturc in somc PID controllcrs. Thc gain aojustmcnt ollcrs morc lcxibility in
FICURF 97.4 Commcrcial intcracting PID controllcr.
m C K r c
I
r c at D
ac
at

1
]
1
[

1999 by CRC Press LLC
optimizing sctpoint rcsponsc as in Iig. 97.3, G
r
is sct arouno 0.3 lor lagoominant proccsscs such as
that ocscribco in Iigs. 97.2 ano 97.3, ano closcr to 1 lor ocaotimcoominant proccsscs {3].
97.4 Controllcr Hardvarc
Pncumatic proportional controllcrs wcrc lrst usco carly in this ccntury, with intcgral ano thcn ocrivativc
lunctions aooco arouno 1930. Pncumatic controllcrs arc still in usc in hazaroous arcas, in rcmotc gas
lclos whcrc thcy arc opcratco by gas, ano lor simplc tasks such as rcgulating tcmpcraturcs in builoings.
Flcctronic analog controllcrs bcgan to rcplacc pncumatic controllcrs in thc latc 1950s, but thcir lunctions
wcrc implcmcntco using oigital microproccssors bcginning arouno 1980. Digital control bcgan in main
lramcs in thc 19o0s, but now is availablc is programmablc logic controllcrs (PIC), pcrsonal computcrs
(PC), ano in oistributco control systcms (DCS).
PncumatIc Controllcrs
Thc simplcst pncumatic controllcrs arc proportional units usco to control hcating, vcntilating, ano air
conoitioning (HVAC) in builoings. Howcvcr, complctc PID controllcrs with lunctionality similar to that
shown in Iig. 97.1 arc also availablc, usco lor such ocmanoing tasks as tcmpcraturc control ol batch
cxothcrmic rcactors ano rcgulation ol lows ano prcssurcs on ollshorc oil platlorms. Thcrc arc pancl
mountco units availablc as wcll as wcathcrprool moocls usco lor lclo installation. Most havc automanual
translcr stations with bumplcss translcr bctwccn thc two moocs ol opcration. Thcir principal limitations
arc a spcco ol rcsponsc limitco by transmission lincs (lcngths bcyono 30 m arc unsuitablc lor low ano
prcssurc control) ano lack ol computing capability (rcquirco lor nonlincar charactcrization ano automatic
tuning).
ElcctronIc Controllcrs
Thc lrst clcctronic controllcrs mimickco thcir pncumatic countcrparts whilc climinating transmission
lags. Fvcntually rcmotc automanual translcr ano rcmotc tuning wcrc aooco, ano microproccssors
brought thcsc controllcrs calculation ano logic lunctions, signal conoitioning ano charactcrization, ano
auto ano sclltuning lcaturcs as wcll. Multiplc controllcrs arc cvcn availablc in a singlc station lor
implcmcnting cascaoc ano lccolorwaro systcms. Thc banowioth ol clcctronic anaIog controllcrs cxtcnos
to 10 Hz, ano in somc units cvcn lurthcr. DIgIiaI controllcrs cxccutc thcir calculations intcrmittcntly
rathcr than continuously, most arc limitco to 10 Hz opcration, which with oigital lltcring rcsults in an
cllcctivc ocaotimc ol 0.1 s, rcoucing banowioth to about 1.3 Hz.
Flcctronic controllcrs arc usco cxtcnsivcly in lclo locations ano ocoicatco to control ol inoivioual
units such as pumps, orycrs, wastcwatcrtrcatmcnt lacilitics whcrcvcr only a lcw loops arc rcquirco.
Pccrtopccr communication is availablc in somc controllcrs lor incorporation into nctworks, ano most
can communicatc with pcrsonal computcrs whcrc oata can bc oisplayco on a graphic intcrlacc. Conlg
uration (sclcction ol scalcs, control moocs, alarms, ano othcr lunctions) can bc oonc cithcr via kcys on
thc controllcr laccplatc or through a PC.
DIgItal Controllcrs
Whilc thc stanoalonc oigital controllcr cvolvco lrom clcctronic analog moocls, ccntralizco oigital con
trollcrs originatco with oigital computcrs. Mainlramc computcrs wcrc lrst usco lor oircct oigital control
(DDC) whcrc valvcs wcrc manipulatco by thc computcr, ano lor supcrvisory control, whcrc thc computcr
positionco sct points ol analog controllcrs. Craoually minicomputcrs ano microproccssors rcplacco thc
mainlramc, with lunctions bccoming JIsirI|uieJ among lclo inputoutput mooulcs, workstations, con
trol mooulcs, ctc., in clustcrs ano othcr conlgurations as DCS. PCs arc usco lor somc workstations, ano
cvcn lor oircct control in somc plants.
1999 by CRC Press LLC
Whcrc many loops arc controllco by a singlc proccssor, thc intcrval bctwccn samplcs is likcly to bc
0.5 s or cvcn longcr. Uscrs tcno to kccp cxpanoing thc lunctions ocmanoco ol thc proccssor, thcrcby
cxtcnoing thc intcrval bctwccn samplcs. This rcouccs thc banowioth ol DCS controllcrs to valucs too
low lor combustion ano comprcssor controls. Somc oigital PID algorithms prooucc an IncreneniaI output
An, rcquiring an intcgrator oownstrcam to prooucc n. Thcsc arc not availablc in proportional or PD
action bccausc thcy havc no lxco bias |, only a constant ol intcgration C which is subjcct to changc
whcncvcr thc controllcr is opcratco manually.
Thc PIC was originally a rcplaccmcnt lor rclay logic. Fvcntually PID loops wcrc aooco, which gcncrally
opcratc much lastcr (c.g., 100 Hz) than othcr oigital controllcrs. Howcvcr, many havc nonstanoaro
algorithms ano lack thc lunctionality ol othcr PID controllcrs, such as proportional ano PD control,
winoup protcction, ocrivativc lltcring, sctpoint lltcring, nonlincar charactcrization, ano autotuning.
97.5 TunIng Controllcrs
A controllcr is only as cllcctivc as its tuning: thc aojustmcnt ol thc PID scttings rclativc to thc proccss
paramctcrs to optimizc loao ano sctpoint rcsponsc as ocscribco in Iigs. 97.2 ano 97.3. Tuning is rcquirco
whcn thc controllcr is lrst commissionco on a loop, ano may havc to bc rcpcatco il proccss paramctcrs
changc apprcciably with timc, loao, sct point, ctc. Tuning rcquircs thc introouction ol a oisturbancc in
cithcr thc opcn or closco loop, ano intcrprctation ol thc rcsulting rcsponsc. AuioiunIng csscntially
automatcs manual proccourcs, whcrcas seIIiunIng can rccognizc ano corrcct an unsatislactory rcsponsc
without tcsting.
Manual TunIng
Zicglcr ano Nichols {1] ocvclopco thc lrst cllcctivc tuning mcthoos, ano thcsc arc still usco tooay. Thcir
opcnloop mcthoo stcps thc controllcr output to prooucc a rcsponsc likc thc brokcn curvc in Iig. 97.2.
Thc apparcnt ocaotimc (oclay) in thc rcsponsc ano thc stccpcst slopc ol thc curvc arc thcn convcrtco
into appropriatc scttings lor PI ano PID controllcrs using simplc lormulas. Thc opcnloop mcthoo is
most accuratc lor lagoominant proccsscs, but thc closcoloop mcthoo is morc broaoly applicablc. It is
basco on inoucing a unilorm cyclc by aojusting thc gain ol a controllcr with only its proportional mooc
cllcctivc (D is sct to 0 ano I at maximum). Thc pcrioo ol thc cyclc ano thc controllcr gain arc thcn usco
to calculatc appropriatc PID scttings.
Thc opcnloop mcthoo has bccn cxtcnoco to othcr proccsscs {3], but rcmains limitco to thc accuracy
ol stcptcst rcsults. Iinc tuning must bc oonc with thc loop closco. with thc ocviation zcro, placc thc
controllcr in manual, stcp thc output, ano immcoiatcly translcr to automatic this simulatcs a closco
loop loao changc. Thc rcsulting rcsponsc shoulo appcar likc thc solio curvc in Iig. 97.2, having a lrst
pcak which is symmctrical, lollowco by a slight ovcrshoot ano wclloampco cyclc. Il thc ovcrshoot is
cxccssivc, I ano/or D timc shoulo bc incrcasco, in thc casc ol unocrshoot, thcy shoulo bc occrcasco. (To
simplily tuning ol PID controllcrs, I ano D can bc movco togcthcr, kccping thc I/D ratio at about 1 lor
nonintcracting controllcrs ano 3 lor intcracting controllcrs.) Il oamping is light, lowcr thc proportional
gain, il rccovcry is slow (prooucing an unsymmctrical lrst pcak), raisc thc proportional gain. Thc sct
point shoulo noi bc stcppco lor tcst purposcs unlcss sctpoint rcsponsc is important, as lor low con
trollcrs.
AutotunIng
Somc autotuning controllcrs usc a stcp tcst in thc opcn loop, implcmcnting ZicglcrNichols rulcs. A
singlc pulsc proouccs morc accuratc iocntilcation, ano a ooublct pulsc is bcttcr still {3]. A closcoloop
mcthoo rcplaccs proportional cycling with rclay cycling, whcrc thc output switchcs bctwccn high ano
low limits as c crosscs r {3]. Thc pcrioo ol thc rcsulting cyclc is usco to sct I ano D, ano its amplituoc
rclativc to thc oistancc bctwccn output limits to sct I
c
. Thc principal limitation ol thc stcp ano rclay
1999 by CRC Press LLC
autotuning mcthoos is that only two rcsponsc lcaturcs arc usco to iocntily a complcx proccss. Thc
cstimatco PID scttings may not lt thc spccilc proccss particularly wcll, rcsulting in instability in somc
loops ano sluggishncss in othcrs. Thc autotuning lunction cannot monitor thc cllcctivcncss ol its work,
as sclltuning oocs.
Sclf-TunIng
A sclltuning controllcr ncco not tcst thc proccss, but simply obscrvc its closcoloop rcsponsc to sct
point ano loao changcs with its currcnt PID scttings. It thcn pcrlorms lnctuning as ocscribco abovc to
bring thc ovcrshoot or oamping or symmctry ol thc rcsponsc curvc closcr to optimum. This may rcquirc
scvcral itcrations il thc PID scttings arc lar lrom optimum, but can cvcntually convcrgc on optimum
rcsponsc, ano rcaojust as ncccssary whcncvcr proccss paramctcrs changc. Without a tcst oisturbancc,
mischaractcrization is possiblc, cspccially lor a sinusoioal oisturbancc, whcrc octuning may rcsult whcn
tightcning woulo givc bcttcr control.
DchnIng Tcrms
Averaging level control: Allowing thc liquio lcvcl in a tank to vary in an cllort to minimizc changcs
in its outlow.
Closed-loop response: Thc rcsponsc ol a controllco variablc to changcs in sct point or loao with thc
controllcr in thc automatic mooc.
Derivative action: Thc changc in controllcr output rcsponoing to a ratc ol changc in thc controllco
variablc.
Dynamic gain: Thc ratio ol thc changc in output lrom a lunction to a changc in its input which varics
with timc or with thc lrcqucncy ol thc input.
!ntegral action: Thc ratc ol changc ol controllcr output rcsponoing to a ocviation bctwccn thc
controllco variablc ano sct point.
Ioad: A variablc or aggrcgatc ol variablcs which allccts thc controllco variablc.
Manipulated variable: A variablc changco by thc controllcr to movc thc controllco variablc.
Noise: A oisturbancc having a lrcqucncy rangc too high lor thc controllcr to allcct.
Offset: Stcaoystatc ocviation bctwccn thc controllco variablc ano sct point.
Open-loop response: Thc rcsponsc ol a controllco variablc to proccss inputs in thc abscncc ol control
action.
Proportional action: Thc changc in controllcr output rcsponoing oircctly to a changc in thc controllco
variablc.
Proportional band: Thc pcrccntagc changc in thc controllco variablc rcquirco to orivc thc controllcr
output lull scalc.
Self-regulation: Thc propcrty ol a proccss through which a changc in thc controllco variablc allccts
cithcr thc low into or out ol a proccss in such a way as to rcoucc lurthcr changcs in thc controllco
variablc.
Tuning: Aojusting thc scttings ol a controllcr to allcct its pcrlormancc.
Windup: Saturation ol thc intcgral moocl ol a controllcr which rcsults in thc controllco variablc
subscqucntly ovcrshooting thc sct point.
Rcfcrcnccs
1. ]. C. Zicglcr ano N. . Nichols, Optimum scttings lor automatic controllcrs, Trans. ASMI, Novcm
bcr 1912, 7597o8.
2. I. C. Shinskcy, Irocess ConiroI Sysiens, 1th co., Ncw York. McCrawHill, 199o, 2225, 2528,
192191, 388390.
3. I. C. Shinskcy, IeeJ|ac| ConiroIIers Ior i|e Irocess InJusirIes, Ncw York. McCrawHill, 1991, o870,
17o178, 1571o1, 118151, 15515o.