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M.P.A.-18
Disaster Management
ASSIGNMENT SOLUTIONS GUIDE (2013-2014)
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given in the Assignments. These Sample Answers/Solutions are prepared by Tutor for the help of the student
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you prepare a Particular Answer.
SECTION - I
Q. 1. Disaster Cycle contains different phases of disaster management. Discuss.
Ans. The disaster cycle includes:
(i) The disaster event,
(ii) Disaster response,
(iii) Recovery,
(iv) Development.
(i) The Disaster Event: This is the time and duration of a distaster. An earthquake can
change the entire physical landscape in a few seconds. Floods can take longer time to affect
an area. If ii is a flash flood it can change the landscape in hours. Disasters also affect the
weak structures the most. Disasters also affect the weaker sections more such children,
women, aged and disabled people. Disasters also affect the poor more than the rich because
poor people live generally in hazardous physical areas.
(ii) Disaster Response: Disaster Response involves rehabilitation of victims of disasters
and restoration of the damaged infrastructure. It is significant because it reduces losses and
damage to property. Coordination among various stakeholders in disaster response is very
important. People's participation is the most desirable virtue in good governance. Participation
of people succeeds only when it is invoked by the state. It would not be effective if the state
has not taken any interest in it.
(iii) Recovery: It includes activities implemented for reconstruction after a disaster strikes.
It has three phases: emergency relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction.
Emergency Relief includes providing shelter, water, food and medicines to the victims of
the disasters. Rehabilitation aims at providing alternative shelter, livelihood psycho-social
support to the people affected by the disaster. Reconstruction involves rebuilding of residential
buildings and infrastructure such as roads, bridges and other communication links.
(iv) Development: It includes activities undertaken for development and overall progress
of the community. Development plans considers hazard and vulnerability. The plan focuses
on preventing disasters and minimising its impacts. Emphasis is given on sustainable
development which means meeting the present needs without compromising with the ability
of future generations.
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Q. 2. Discuss major issued involved in disaster preparedness.
Ans. Disaster preparedness refers to measures implemented to minimize the impacts of
the disaster. Community action to mitigate the effects of impending disasters is a major
aspect of preparedness.
Preparedness measures include assessing risk, early warning, equipment to save life,
resources and emergency kits, evacuation plans, effective communication, adequate
emergency response, maintenance of preparedness levels and public education and
awareness campaigns.
Disaster preparedness begins with vulnerability assessment. The probable loss of life
and damage to property in the event of a disaster in an area can be assessed. Migration
patterns, activities of the inhabitants and vulnerability of the houses are the related information.
Planning is a major aspect in disaster preparedness. In case of planning, resources are
generally committed and relatively assured. People or agencies will also be ready to provide
services in an emergency situation.
A workable disaster plan will have objectives, certain activities, specific tasks and
responsibilities for agencies concerned and integration of various activities, tasks and
responsibilities to enable overall objectives to be achieved.
All the aspects of disaster management such as recovery, rehabilitation and preparedness
do not come under Disaster Contingency Plans. All these are explored by the Disaster
Contingency Plans to tackle particular hazards. There may be several contingency plans to
deal with disasters.
There short-term as well as long-term contingency plans. In long-term plans, consistent
resource commitment is required. The nature of hazards also determines the preparedness
plan. Drought and floods would demand different preparedness. Thus, nature of hazard, risk
perception, political priorities and interest are the different factors that determine the
preparedness for disasters. The question raised is on the participation in the planning who
all should take part in it. How can the local people be involved and whether it should be
centralized or decentralized?
On institutional framework, coordination and rationalization of the administrative are
required. There should not be unnecessary proliferation of agencies. States have to act on
the basis of facilities they have. A central agency coordinates with the state.
Roles and responsibilities should be specific and adequate as per the competence of the
person/agency. An agency without technical know-how would not able to do justice to the task
it is assigned. Similarly, a local leader would be better than a central government official for
assigning a certain task.
With regard to the information systems, a central coordinating agency should be involved
for quick response and timely action. Information comes from many sources. Early warning
signs or any other information from local communities should not be ignored. Information
about available logistics and inventory such as transport facilities in the area are also important
and should be included in the assessment.
About resources, there should be facilities for emergency funding strategies. A special
emergency contingency fund would be help in an emergency situation. Coordination of aid
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from domestic and international sources should be there so that they could be used on time
without any wastage.
For early warning, police wireless, amateur radio or any other effective system can be
used as normal communication may be disrupted during a disaster. Indigenous knowledge
such as animal behaviour or any information from the local community should not be under-
estimated. Message should be clear as technical jargon will not make any sense. Forewarning
should be ensured because it is important part of preparedness.
Response include activities such as search and rescue, evacuation procedures,
assessment teams, emergency medical facilities, preparing emergency reception shelters
and activating emergency programmes for land transport, airports and harbours.
Preparedness includes a wide range of services starting from basic services such as
food and shelter to logistics like storage facilities.
Local governments have to be active. Media plays an important role for spreading
awareness about disasters. Rehearsal is also required for effective preparedness.
Some Problems
Inadequate policy direction, outdated plans, lack of resources, unclear allocation of funds,
inadequate coordination and lack of cooperation are some problems in preparedness.
Towards Preparedness
Maintaining adequate preparedness is very difficult, especially where the disaster threat
is low.
The some aspects of preparedness are:
(i) National Disaster Policy ensures preparedness gets proper consideration and priority.
(ii) National Legislation may ensure that preparedness is covered and implemented
effectively.
(iii) National Disaster Management Centre/Section can monitor the preparedness
activities.
(iv) Assessment of Preparedness Action are also necessary for effective disaster
response.
(v) Planning Framework is required for effective preparedness. Planning should be
systematic and stage wise.
(vi) Utilization of Resources requires suitable preparedness arrangements on who is
assigned to supply resources and how it is being done.
(vii) Operational Facilities and Systems are very important as they are needed for response
operation. Adequate preparedness of all these are thus required.
(viii) Equipment and Supplies should be prepared and readily available during a disaster.
(ix) Training is important for preparedness. Training is required for people involved in the
Disaster Management Programme.
(x) Public Awareness and Education is required for effective preparedness for a disaster.
For identification and analysis of disaster threats, resources required are technical
authorities, academic and research institutions, agencies having public responsibility, private
companies dealing with production and international agencies.
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Need and possibilities for implementation require national planning authorities, disaster
management authorities, government organizations and specialized agencies.
Implementation requires government and non-government organizations, military,
international agencies and disaster management authorities.
Sustainability of the programme requires participation of NGOs, public and educational
authorities.
Q. 3. Highlight the role of Information Technology in disaster prevention.
Ans. Disaster is difficult to avoid natural phenomena such as rain and volcanoes, but their
behaviour can be studied. In that way their impacts can be reduced and our ability to deal with
their effects can be strengthened. Measures can be taken for disaster prevention. Disaster
prevention is necessary to protect human lives, properties and social infrastructure against
disaster phenomena. One of the basic solutions to reduce the loss of life and damages is to
remove the disaster phenomenon or the point of contact with the social activities. It is very
difficult, but it is possible to moderate a phenomenon by taking measures such as reducing
the likelihood of a phenomena, that is, by removing the causes. By constructing dams floods
can be prevented. Foundation of houses can be elevated to prevent the flood disaster.
Five types of information necessary for disaster prevention:
What: What kind of phenomenon happens? Heavy rains cause floods and landslides.
Where: Where does the event occur?
How: How is the range and scale of phenomenon?
When: When does a phenomenon happen?
Who: Who is affected by the disaster?
SECTION - II
Q. 7. Bring to light the guiding principles of Rehabilitation and Reconstruction.
Ans. Rehabilitation and reconstruction should have some guiding principles to achieve
the objectives. The following should be the priorities in rehabilitation:
(i) Human and material resources have to be mobilized on a war footing for emergency
relief operation.
(ii) All the displaced people should be rehabilitated and basic and alternative means of
livelihood and community-based infrastructure need to be restored.
(iii) Long-term plans should be made for sustainable development.
The guiding principles given below prioritize all these aspects:
Treating Communities as Heterogeneous
Rehabilitation plan should regard the affected people as a heterogeneous group. The
requirements of the people vary. Farmers will have different requirements from small traders.
Children will have different requirements from women and elderly. The different requirements
have to be prioritized in the recovery plan.
Striking a Balance between Economic, Social and Psychological Needs
All requirements including economic, social and psychological have to be considered.
Fulfilling one need does not mean ignoring other needs of the affected people. Compensation
for loss crops cannot fulfil the psychological loss of the farmer.
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For all social relations, social status, tradition and established livelihood are sources of
satisfaction. If there is any disturbance, they lead to different types of tensions and stress.
This aspect should be taken care of in the recovery plan. Recovery actions would help victims
rebuild their lives and livelihoods if they are contextual and based on local tradition. Likewise,
different types of requirements of victims should be considered with a balance approach.
Focusing on Key Issues
The key issues such as reducing the adverse impacts of disaster should be focused in
rehabilitation projects. How a disaster management is executed and how the affected people
feel about the rehabilitation schemes matter most in recovery plan. All these aspects should
be taken into account in planning, designing and implementation of rehabilitation programmes.
Damage assessment of damage, responsibility fixation, prioritization of need, execution
of plans, monitoring the process of development, evaluation and project reviews all have to
taken care of the key areas. All the groups should be included in rehabilitation operations.
Political, economic and social context matter in rehabilitation programmes.
All recovery efforts should be institutionalized to make all rehabilitation measures
sustainable. The local institutions involved in disaster recovery such as grain banks, pani
panchayats, day-care centres, bal mandals and mahila mandals should be set up with a
long-term plan.
Encouraging Flexibility and Adaptiveness
There may be different types of demands and situations and to meet these challenges the
recovery plan should be adaptive and flexible in structure, processes and finances. A strong
political commitment and effective coordination at the governmental and societal levels are
required for effective disaster recovery. The authority should be clearly defined and an
appropriate budget has to be maintained for making the plan successful.
Comprehensive and operational style disaster recovery plan is required since planning
for disaster management is a sequential and continuous process. Systematic diagnosis,
evaluation of resource and regular feedback are also needed for effective planning. A legal
and formal framework for coordination should also be there since the scope of disaster
management is quite wide and the actors involved are large in number.
Like all other phases in disaster management, the recovery also needs proper
management. Disaster management plan which is flexible and adaptive can be successful.
Promoting Systematic Damage Assessment
Understanding about the nature, extent and intensity of damage is required for effective
disaster management. The recovery plan can be ill-conceived without proper assessment of
damage. Strategies of livelihood generation and infrastructure development are included in
the plan for disaster recovery.
Sample surveys, traditional means and new technology can be used for damage
assessment. Knowledge management has gained its importance. India has launched its
own Earth Observation Programme and developed expertise in various Remote Sensing
applications. New technologies in Remote Sensing and Geographical Information Systems
extends scope for efficient damage assessment.
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An important tool for damage assessment is Aerial Photography. In this satellite imaging
is used to produce computer generated images. Aerial Photography can be used in risk
analysis, hazard mapping, disaster assessment and planning for reconstruction. This
technology can cover a large area over a very short period of time which is not feasible by any
other means.
Feasibility study is another major step in the damage assessment and reconstruction. It
aims to generate the data required for reconstruction and its economic feasibility. It is required
to complete the application of formalities for construction grant for rehabilitation.
Another aspect of damage assessment if managing risk which has three different stages:
perception, assessment and mitigation. Risk perception at the levels of the local people, the
NGOs and the donors are important. Risk assessment aids in mapping vulnerability of the
area. Risk mitigation focuses on policy level decision-making.
Supporting Transparency, Efficiency and Effectiveness
Clear, structured and accessible recovery plan. Transparency can be maintained through
continuous Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E). M&E also ensures whether the scheme is
proceeding as per the plan.
M&E seeks to check whether the needs of the affected victims are met. The SMART
(Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant and Time-bound) tool of indicators can be followed
by it. There are challenges such as the reluctance of project teams, inability in understanding
the process and difficulties in collecting data which have to be addressed. Responsible
monitoring and review is required for making the recovery policy viable.
Ensuring Financial Recovery
Financial support is crucial for infrastructural development in disaster recovery.
Governments have certain schemes and strategies for providing funds for disaster
management activities. One such arrangement is the Calamity Relief Fund (CRF). A part of
CRF is provided for all phases of disaster management even as the fund is meant to add to
relief funds.
Q. 8. Write a note on Disasters and Development.
Ans. As the saying goes an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure, incorporating
mitigation measures in the development policy can prevent disasters. Natural disasters affect
development in various ways by causing damage to lifeline, critical facilities and infrastructures.
Natural disaster risk and development are closely connected.
Some success stories of disasters prevention are given below:
(i) China averted losses of US$12 billion by investing US$3.15 billion in flood control
measures in four decades.
(ii) Mangroves plantation on 12,000 hectares of land in Vietnam to protect 110 km of sea
dykes brought down the dyke maintenance by US $ 7.3 million per year and it protects
7,750 families. Planting and protection of mangroves cost just US$ 1.1 million.
(iii) In Bangladesh, $8.650 was spent on construction of a flood shelter of 4 acres for cattle
which saved $150,000 in value of cattle.
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The Evolution of Natural Disaster as a
Development Concern
Natural disasters are not only the acts of God, but there are some thing more to it. The
dominant view until the 1970s was that natural disasters caused only by natural events.
Since the 1970s, professionals have found out that the same disaster has different types of
impact. Interest thus grew to reduce losses through various measures. In many countries
efforts to reduce risk is minimal because if the cost of physical mitigation.
In the 1980s and 1990s, studies found that it is not only the physical resistance of a
structure, but also the capacity of the people to cope with impact and recover from the loss
determine the impact of a natural hazard. Thus, the social and economic vulnerability became
the focus of attention. Development process was thus pointed out as a factor that generated
different levels of vulnerability. Vulnerability reduction became a key strategy for reducing
disaster impact.
It became clear by the end of the 1990s that processes of development were not only
gathering different patterns of vulnerability, but were also changing and increasing patterns
of hazard. Risk management and reduction became an integral paradigm.
Source: A Global Report: Reducing Disaster RiskA Challenge for Development.
Disaster-Development
Disaster obstructs development
Development causes risk
Development minimizes risk
Economic Development
Destroy fixed assets; Damage
infrastructure, transport and
communication; affect livelihood
Unstable development practices lead
to unsafe working or living
conditions and cause environmental
degradation
Facilitate access to adequate food,
drinking water and a secure dwelling;
improve resilience; reduce poverty;
investments provide cushion
against vulnerability
Social Development
Damage health and education
infrastructure. Cause death,
migration of key social actors
Development path generating
cultural norms that promote social
isolation or political exclusion
Develop cohesion among the
communities; recognize excluded
individuals and social groups;
facilitate opportunities for greater
involvement in policy-making,
improved educational and health
capacity enhances resilience
The relation between social and economical development with disasters is given the table below:
The following are the four dimensions found in the relation between disasters and
development:
1. Disasters can adversely affect development.
2. Disasters can offer scope for development.
3. Development can increase risk, and
4. Development can minimise risk.
It is the development choice that determines the relation between disaster and development.
1. Disasters can adversely affect development: Disasters can devastate year of
development. In the Togan archipelago, Hurricane Isaac in 1982 destroyed 22 per cent of its
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houses. Reconstruction of basic infrastructure, destroyed by the 2000 flooding, in Mozambique
cost US$165.3 million. The earthquakes in El Salvador and in Seattle in the US in 2000
caused losses of about US$ 2 billion each.
Disasters thus limits development potential of countries and people. About 300,000 tonnes
of food get destroyed by flooding in normal years in Vietnam. Unplanned budgetary allocation
to disaster recovery also impede development.
Disasters reduce human capital affecting the routine development work. Disasters also
limit new investment by limiting the growth and development of the affected area.
Spending on relief and rehabilitation work further put pressure on the finance of the country.
Disaster risk is determined not only by the size of the economy but also the proportion of the
land area exposed to the hazard. After the volcanic eruption in 2001, about three quarter of
Montserrat island was uninhabitable.
Social development is also affected by disaster. A disaster-affected community is coincides
with losses from HIV/AIDS and other diseases, they lose organisational capacity to carry out
irrigation works and water harvesting. The community becomes more vulnerable. If women
get exposed to these stresses, the social development level is minimized. Participation of
women in social development becomes beneficial later on. In Bangladesh the exclusion of
women in decision- making make them unwilling to shelters built for cyclone victims. Disasters
have also affected the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) target. The head count of
poverty in Ecuador rose from 34 per cent in 1995 to 46 per cent in 1998 after it suffered the
Climate effects of El Nino and an oil shock in 1997-98. The poverty rate rose from 43 per cent
to 46 per cent in Honduras after it was hit by Hurricane Mitch in 1998. The headcount poverty
rose from 36 to 40 per cent in the Dominican Republic after it suffered a drought and trade
shocks in 1990.
In the aftermath of disaster, short-term losses such as loss of assets and inflation further
increases the rate of poverty. For example, inflation in Zimbabwe increased to 46 per cent
and food price inflation to 72 per cent the 1991/92 after it suffered droughts.
Reallocation of funds in relief and rehabilitation affects the poor. If the disaster repeats, it
erodes the coping capacity of the community. They resort to sale of their assets to survive
and finally migrate to earn the livelihood. It creates miseries and more sufferings.
2. Disasters can offer scope for development: After a disaster, reconstruction and
social development programmes are carried out for rehabilitation and reconstruction.
Programmes like improvement in housing, restructuring of the economic base, land reform,
social forestry and employment generation are undertaken. All these activities spur growth
and development in the region.
Improved investments to enhance administrative capability and education training of
personnel lead to development. In post-disaster, pockets of under development get highlighted
and gets fund for development. In the Recovery phase, development planning decision and
various programmes such as soil conservation and water harvesting lead to development.
A Joint Assessment Mission (JAM), jointly set up by the Asian Development Bank (ADB),
the United Nations and the World Bank, assessed the damage caused by the Tsunami in
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Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Kerela and Pondicherry. It recommended that the governments
should take tsunami as a wake up call to better assess risk and improve risk management.
The reconstruction in the affected area should be flexible, participatory, decentralized, equitable
and transparent. It should go beyond livelihood restoration to effective coastal and risk
management. The tsunami also offered an opportunity for the government to implement a
coastal regulation zone notification of 1991. The plan was made in 1991, but could not be
executed because lack of an integrated approach. According to the notification, the coastal
zone (500 mts. off the High Tide Line) will be categorized into one of four categories and then
regulate the type of activities and land uses permitted in each as per the vulnerability quotient.