COA 447 Spring 2014

Nadia McGowan nmcgowan@ndu.edu.lb

COA 447
Spring 2014

Nadia McGowan
v 0.1
COA 447 Spring 2014

Nadia McGowan nmcgowan@ndu.edu.lb

Functions of light
What is the purpose of lighting?
1. Composition: The creation of a series of inter-related images which assists the director in
presenting his interpretation of the play.
2. Visibility: The responsibility of the designer to provide enough light for the audience to see
the performer.
3. Modeling: The use of high light and shadow to reveal the three dimensional form of the
performer.
4. Focus: The designer's use of contrast to focus the audience's attention.
5. Information: The use of light to establish the time of day, the season, and the location of the
play's action.
6. Mood: The reflection of the ever changing emotional content of the play. It is, in a way, very
close to the style of production.
What are the controllable properties, or qualities, of light?
1) Intensity: The amount of light reflected by the performer and the background. Factors
determining the intensity of the light:
Type of instrument
Wattage of the lamp
Length of throw
Size of the pool of light
Color of the gel
Amount of electricity reaching the lamp (dimmer level)
Reflective quality of the make-up, costume and setting

2) Color: The color of the light reflected by the performer and the background. Factors
determining the color of the light:
Color of the gel
Color temperature of the lamp
Intensity of the lamp (dimmer level)
Color of the costume, make-up and setting

3) Direction: The direction (or angle) of the light determines the length and location of the
shadows cast by the performer and the three dimensional props around him. Factor
determining the direction of the light: Where the instrument is placed.

4) Distribution: The distribution of light determines which part (or parts) of the stage will be lit.
Factors determining the distribution of the light:
Where the light is focused
COA 447 Spring 2014

Nadia McGowan nmcgowan@ndu.edu.lb
The type of light
The focus (spot or flood) of the light
The use of "masking" devices: shutters, barn doors, and top hats
The direction (angle) of the light

5) Texture: Texture is the quality of the light-- its diffusion or clarity. Does it have a soft edge or
is it hard edged? Is the field of the light smooth, diffuse, or is it heavily textured? Factors
determining the texture of the light:
The type of light
The use of diffusion gel
The use of a gobo

6) Movement: Movement is any change in the intensity, color, direction, distribution, or texture
of the light. Such a change is a light cue.
What is the relationship between the functions and the properties of light?
1. Composition is the end product of the lighting design and is influenced more by the other
functions than by the controllable properties of light.
2. Visibility is determined by the intensity, color, and direction of the light.
3. Focus is determined by the intensity and distribution of the light.
4. Modeling is determined by the direction of the light.
5. Information is presented by the intensity (Day is bright and night is dark), color (Day is
pale yellow and night is dark blue) and direction (Sun light rises stage left and sets stage
right) of the light.
6. Mood, or tone or style, is determined by the intensity (Comedies are bright), color
(Tragedies are cool), direction (Comedies have few shadows) and distribution (Tragedies
are played in "pools of light") of the light.


Lighting tools
Tungsten
In tungsten lamps, light is created by running electrical current through a tungsten filament until it
glows; that is, until it is heated to incandescence. The filament is held in an inert gas inside the
sealed glass bulb to prevent the filament from simply being incinerated. Tungsten lamps can be
powered either by AC or DC.
A tungsten halogen lamp is a type of incandescent lamp that contains special regenerative
elements to prevent deposits of tungsten from blackening the sides of the globe. The regenerative
elements carry the evaporated tungsten back to the filament, where it is reused, thereby increasing
the life of the lamp. For the regenerative process, called the halogen cycle, to occur, a high
temperature (at least 250 _C) must be maintained inside the globe; for this reason, tungsten
halogen globes tend to be compact and made of quartz, which can withstand such a high
temperature. In the old days, 10 kW lamps were the size of a melon and contained a cleaning agent
COA 447 Spring 2014

Nadia McGowan nmcgowan@ndu.edu.lb
that had to be manually swished around the inside of the globe between uses to clean off the
tungsten blackening.

Fresnel

One of the most flexible fixtures,
designed to crate a relatively wide,
even field of fiel with adjustable
intensity and field size. The light
from a Fresnel makes clean, hard
shadows. Its clean beam makes it a
good choice for actors faces, either
directly or through diffussion. Very
commonly used in televisin.

The light is named after the Fresnel
lens, which refracts the diverging
rays of light emitted by the bulb
into a controlled beam of light. The
Fresnel lens has the same light-
bending characteristics as a standard plano-convex lens, but the Fresnels design compresses the
convex curve into jagged steps, making it lighter and thinner, so that it retains less heat. The back
of a Fresnel lens is frosted or slightly pebbled. This helps maintain a very even beam, and prevents
the lens from actually projecting an image of the filament of the lamp.

The fixture also uses a spherical reflector. The reflector is really what gives the light its high level
of control and even field characteristics, because the geometry of the reflector is such that light
reflects straight back through the bulb. All light therefore emanates from a single point within the
fixture (the filament), which is what allows the Fresnel lens to control the beam so cleanly. Some
manufacturers utilize a polished reflector to maximize light output.

Inside the housing the globe and spherical reflector are mounted together and can be moved
forward or away from the lens by an exterior adjustment knob. Moving the globe and reflector
towards the lens floods the beam, increasing its spread adn decreasing its intensity. Moving it
away spots it, inverting the process.

COA 447 Spring 2014

Nadia McGowan nmcgowan@ndu.edu.lb
COA 447 Spring 2014

Nadia McGowan nmcgowan@ndu.edu.lb

COA 447 Spring 2014

Nadia McGowan nmcgowan@ndu.edu.lb

Fresnel beam
To anticpate how the light will behave when an actor
walks through it, its helpful to have an idea of the
beams shape and intensity and how the intensity falls off
at the edges and how spot and flood alter these
characteristics.
Full flood: even across 40 sweep. Quick fall off
edges. No central hotspot. Even field. Helps even
out intensity of light in full room by overlapping
light edges at 50% intensity point. Hardes
shadows.
Spot: more parallel rays. Narrower beam.
Full spot: narrow usable part, 10 rea. Greater
throw
1
.

Glossary

Field: usable light, intedsity of at least 10% peak value.

Beam: working light. At least 50% peak value.

Hot spot: brightest spot in the beam.

Soft light
They are designed to produce diffused light with less-defined shadows. Light from a long tubular
globe is directed into a white concave reflector. Because it is indirect, bounced off a diffuse white
surface and exits through a relatively large aperture, the resulting light is soft and has a wide, even,
uncontrolled spread. Soft lights are usually used for fill and general room ambiance.

Because they are indirect they produce far less light per watt than Fresnels. Most soft lights have
multiple globes, each switched individually, making it easy to increase or reduce the lights
intensity.

To maintain maximum intensity and proper color temperature, the white reflector must
periodically be cleaned or repainted.







1
Throw: distance from light to subject
COA 447 Spring 2014

Nadia McGowan nmcgowan@ndu.edu.lb

COA 447 Spring 2014

Nadia McGowan nmcgowan@ndu.edu.lb
Bag light
Soft light is often created by shining a light through a frame of diffusion held by a C-stand;
however, a bag light greatly reduces time and clutter on set because it replaces diffusion frames
and flags with a single, lightweight, self-contained accessory that attaches directly to the front of a
light. A fabric softbox of bag light (commonly known as Chimera) is an accessory designed to
create a pleasing soft light by diffusing the light rays and enlarging the size of the source while
also containing the light between the fixture and the diffusion.
Open-face lights
Open face lights have no lens. They are simpler, less expensive and less refined than Fresnels. The
beam is not as clean either. Light from an open-face light comes from two places, the lamp and the
reflector, creating a double shadow line. Open-face lights make good bounce lights or can be
handy for lighting elements of the background set. For actors, medium to heavy diffusion is
needed to blend the double source.

They can be divided into three categories: prime fixtures, broads and nook lights and portable
kitlights.

Prime fixtures
They use a double-ended lamp. They have a round face and an adjustable reflector for flood-spot
control and come with barn doors and scrim set. They are lightweight, durable lights with
relatively high intensity per watt and more controllable than broads and nook lights.

When the globe is close to the reflector, it sends out a wide beam; when its pulled away, the beam
is narrower. They tend to spill light everywhere.

They tend to burn very hot and can melt foamcore bounce boards or destroy a flag if they are too
close.

Broads and nook lights
A long, double-ended bulb and a curved v-shape reflector. Very cheap, small and light so they can
be hidden easily on set. Raw, hard light, used for backgrounds, backlighting a large translucent
piece. Work lights.
COA 447 Spring 2014

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Par lights
There are two light designs called pars: those that use a
PAR lamp and those that use a single-ended axially
mounted lamp in a fixture having a parabolic reflector.

Both types are designed with the lamp filament placed
at the focal point of a polished aluminum parabolic
reflector so that light is projected from the reflector in
parallel rays. The rays pass through a spreader lens,
which can be very narrow spot, spot, medium flood,
wide floor or extra-wide flood.

COA 447 Spring 2014

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All the optical parts of a PAR light are contained within the PAR lamp itself. The filament
envelope, lens and reflector are one permanently sealed unit.

PAR lamps are available in a variety of sizes, the two most
commonly used in our business are 8-in diameter PAR 64
lamps (500-1000W) and 4 1/2-in diameter PAR 36 lamps
(typically 650 W).

For PAR lamps, the number is the diameter of the lens in
eights of an inch.

Example: a PAR 64 is 8 inches in diameter, 64 / 8 = 8-inch

For any size PAR there is a variety of lamps, lenses, wattages
and color temperatures. The most common size is the 1000
W PAR 64.

Par cans
Par cans are simple, lightweight, inexpensinve, maintenance-free with no moving parts and made
for the heavy-duty life of the concert tour. Their design is simple: a PAR lamp mounted at the
back of a cylinder with an extended snoot and a gel frame slot at the front. The gel frame is
typically 10 inches in diameter.

The 1K PAR 64 is very useful; the smaller PAR 56, 46, 38, 36 and 16 sizes are also used.

They are the workhorse of concert lighting because they can drive light through the most saturated
gel colors. Narrow-beam pars can pount light onto a performer or produce strong shafts of light in
the atmosphere. The wider beam pars fill the stage with a wash of color. They can also throw light
long distances. The light key they produce is hard and unpleasant if directed on faces. Examples of
bounced PAR cans can be found in Natural Born Killers, cinematography by Robert Richardson.

Par arrays
Arrays of PAR lamps are commonly used for strong directional light. They are manufactured with
1, 2, 4, 6, 9, 12, 24 and 36 lamps. The most common is the nine-lamp PAR 64 fixture known as
Maxi-brute. The 24-lights are known as Dinos. 36-lights are Super Dinos. The rest are referred to
by the amount of lights in the cluster.

Large par arrays can put out a lot of light. They are often used to light large spaces at night or
bounced into 12x12 white griffolyn
2
for soft fill. A nine-light works well because intensity can be
quickly adjusted by turning lamps on or off.

2
Durable white reflective plastic tied across a frame.
COA 447 Spring 2014

Nadia McGowan nmcgowan@ndu.edu.lb

Axially mounted fixtures
The highest-wattage PAR lamp is 1200 W. It wasnt until
several years into the new millennium that Mole-
Richardson started using axially mounted tungsten lamps
(specially designed by GE) in a fixture with a parabolic
reflector. Mole calls these lights Tungsten Pars. This design
finally enabled wattages of 2000, 5000, and 12,000 W for
incandescent parabolic reflector lights.

The 12k par is comparable in light output to a 20k Fresnel,
but uses 60% less power, and produces
60% as much heat. With the Tungsten Par, the lenses are
fitted to the front of the fixture and can be changed at will.
The lights have four available lenses, narrow, medium,
wide, and extra-wide. These fixtures also allow for
adjustment of the lamp in the reflector. This is not really
flood-spot control. It is used to fine-tune the evenness and
brightness of the beam. Accessories include scrims and
barn doors.

Ellipsoidal reflector spotlights (Leko)
The ellipsoidal reflector spotlight (ERS) has long been the dominant light fixture used to light
stage productions. It is also known as an ellipsoidal, or profile spotlight, or by trade names such as
Leko or Source Four. Ellipsoidal spotlights were originally designed to give the theater
lighting designer the strong throw, versatility, and control needed to light specific areas of the
stage, blend the beam edges of adjoining areas seamlesssly, and shape the beam to cut light from
spilling where it is not wanted. Naturally, these fixtures are often employed when filming stage
performances, but their special qualities are also very handy in other situations. A Leko can make
a hard cut where there is no room to make a hard cut with a flag. For example, when an actor
A) Molepar
B) Maxi-brute. Three pods with
three lamps each. Outside pods
can be panned individually.
c) Moleeno
d) nine light FAY
e) Two light FAY
COA 447 Spring 2014

Nadia McGowan nmcgowan@ndu.edu.lb
answers her front door, she is basically up against a wall with no space to fit a fixture to light her
face. She can be lit easily with an ellipsoidal spotlight aimed into a piece of white show card taped
to the inside wall beside the door. An ellipsoidal can make the hard cut necessary to prevent direct
light from hitting anything but the card.

An ellipsoidal spotlight is able to project a beam that can be shaped by shutters, an iris, and a
gobo pattern. The shape of the beam is determined by the shape or pattern in the gate aperture.
Light collected from the elliptical reflector passes through the gate; a lens assembly in the barrel
then brings the shape or pattern in the gate into focus. The gate can be brought into sharp or soft
focus by sliding the lens barrel forward or backward.




The four cutting shutters (top, bottom, left, and right) can be pushed into the path of the beam to
shape the beam edges it into a square, rectangle, or whatever shape is needed. Immediately in front
of the shutters is the gobo slot. The gobo pattern holder fits into this slot. Hundreds of gobo
pattern templates are available, including a wide variety of window and Venetian blind patterns,
foliage practically anything you can name.

A second larger slot accommodates an iris, gobo rotator or other accessories. The iris handle
closes the leaves of the iris, shrinking the radius of the field.

The Source Four may be used with any of many interchangeable fixed-focus lenses. Source Fours
are also available with permanently fitted zoom lens, which allows quick adjustment of the beam
COA 447 Spring 2014

Nadia McGowan nmcgowan@ndu.edu.lb
diameter and intensity. The narrower the beam angle of the lens, the greater the throw and
intensity and the smaller the field. If you needed to project a gobo and fill a screen with only
limited space, you could use the 70 or 90 lens to do so. On the other hand, if the light has to
work far away from the performer, or if the beam has to be small and intense a 14, 10, or even a
5 should be used.

Ellipsoidal spotlight accessories

Gel frames, gobo pattern holders, and irises are pretty standard accessories for film work. A wide
variety of other accessories are available for ellipsoidal fixtures, many of them invented for and
used principally in theatrical applications; however, they can offer conveniences, cost savings, and
useful effects for film work, too.

Donuts and hats
A donut is a metal mask that slides into the gel frame slot. It is used to sharpen gobo patterns and
clean up color fringes at the beam edge (at the expense of some light output).

Enhanced definition lens tubes
The pattern used in the gobo slot can be quite detailed and complex. For example, often a
company will have its company logo made into a gobo for projection at presentations or trade
shows. For the purpose of image projection, ETC has developed Enhanced Definition Lens Tubes
(EDLTs) for the Source Four. One can replace the lens tube of any Source Four with an EDLT.
These lenses create an extremely sharp projection beam and increase field lumens and contrast so
that even fine detail in a pattern is resolved clearly. Gaffers sometimes use EDLTs when the beam
edge requires maximum sharpness, or when a detailed gobo has to be really sharp.

Follow spot adaptation
City Theatrical makes a follow spot retrofit for the Source Four. The Source Four is commonly
used as a follow spot in film work, and this retrofit which includes a followspot yoke, operating
handles, and other refinements, makes it operable in a completely professional manner.
These professional upgrades increase the mass of the fixture for smoother pan and tilt and to allow
the light to be balanced at its center of gravity.

Gobo rotator
A gobo makes a fixed pattern of light. A gobo rotator fits in the iris slot in front of the fixed gobo
and employs a small 24 V variable-speed motor to put the pattern into motion. When a static gobo
and moving gobo are used together, the motion of the rotating gobo animates the static gobo,
creating shifting patterns and shimmering and twinkling light effects. For example, a rotating
spiral pattern placed in font of a fixed break-up pattern creates radiating ripples of light from the
center outward (or if the motor turns the other way, the ripples move inward). The GAM Web site
offers online software to preview the effects any combination of their gobo patterns. There is an
iPhone app that also allows you to play with defocus and spin speeds of gobos. Some gobo
rotators allow two counter-rotating gobos (Rosco Vortex 360, GAM Twin-Spin), which provide a
more abstract and less transparent effect. Some rotators can add to the possible effects by doing
more than just spinning the gobo. A rotator such as the Apollo Roto-Q DMX is indexed so that a
particular gobo position can be repeated. It can rock the gobo back and forth, swing, stutter, whip,
COA 447 Spring 2014

Nadia McGowan nmcgowan@ndu.edu.lb
stagger, shake, and clock (rotating and stopping at every five-minute mark around the clock). The
two gobos are not quite on the same plane of focus. Experimentation with rotation speed and lens
focus often helps improve the effect. Adding layers often helps disguise the simple mechanical
nature of the effect, and it becomes more random and compelling. For example, you can cut
different colors of gel and tape them together in the gel frame in conjunction with a moving light
effect. A great deal of craft and finesse goes into successfully creating gobo effects. Often an
effect will start off looking a little theatrical and amateurish, but further tweaking and
experimentation cultivates something really nice. The gobo rotator typically uses a Power/DMX
24 VDC power supply, and controlled via DMX512.

Motorized iris
The iris can be DMX512-controlled using a stepper motor device such as the Apollo EZ Iris
DMX. It is controlled and powered via Power/DMX.

Color scroller (or color changer)
As the name indicates, a color scroller holds colored gel in a long scroll. A scroller such as the
Apollo Smart Color 5.25 holds 16 different colors on the scroll. DMX512 is used to select which
color is brought in front of the light. The color scroller is inserted into the gel frame holder at front
of the light fixture. Power/DMX 24VDC powers the unit.

Color mixing
The SeaChanger is a color engine that uses variable amounts four dichroic filters (cyan, magenta,
amber, and green) to create almost any color; it can do this dynamically (as a color cross-fade),
and the color is not subject to fade as gels are. The SeaChanger is installed in the midsection of the
Source Four between the lamp section and the lens section (the yoke is removed from the lamp
and attached to the SeaChanger). The unit is powered from a 110-250-VAC source (non-dim).
Control is via a standard DMX512 5-pin XLR connector, and uses four DMX channels. The
SeaChanger is RDM-enabled. Almost any color can be created with three of the four colors (cyan,
magenta, and amber). The green filter extends the color gamut; however, this color disk can be
exchanged for either a douser (for fades without dimming) or any dichroic color.

Moving mirror remote
A moving mirror (motor drive mirror) attaches to the rear gel slot of a Source Four and provides
remote control of pan and tilt, much like an automated light, but at a fraction of the price. The
Rosco I-Cue Intelligent Mirror can accomplish 230o of pan and 57o of tilt. It is controlled
via DMX512 protocol through a 4-pin XLR (Power/DMX system). It is assigned parameters
manually using the menu on the unit, and automatically pans and tilts continuously between two
positions.

Moving head
A moving-light base provides DMX512 remote control to pan a Source Four 340o and tilt 270o.
Control is via a standard 5-pin XLR DMX512.

COA 447 Spring 2014

Nadia McGowan nmcgowan@ndu.edu.lb


COA 447 Spring 2014

Nadia McGowan nmcgowan@ndu.edu.lb



DEDOLIGHTS
Dedolights (manufactured by Dedotec) are small, compact fixtures that use two specially designed
lenses in an assembly that is more efficient than a Fresnel and that provides a hard, adjustable
beam with exceptionally even light across the field. In set lighting, the DLH2 kit has become an
important part of the equipment package. This kit includes three 100 or 150 W fixtures, a power
supply, cables, and accessories.

The special lens assembly gives the fixtures punch for the long throw and an unusually wide range
of adjustment (the DLH2 model ranges from 40_ in full flood to 21/2_ in full spot). A 100-W
Dedolight has roughly the same light output as a 300-W Fresnel. The lights are so small,
lightweight, and unobtrusive that they can easily be hidden in the set.

BEAM PROJ ECTORS
The beam projector (BP) has been around since before movies were invented. Though they are
commonly used in theater lighting, until their recent revival, they hadnt seen too much action on
the silver screen. In 2000, Mole-Richardson redesigned the BP in large sizes for use in motion-
picture work, and they have proved to be a valuable tool. The lamp in a BP is set in front of a large
parabolic glass mirror, which fills the back of the unit. Fins or channels in concentric circles
around the bulb cut side spill. The resulting beam is a straight, almost parallel column of light,
similar to that of a xenon unit but not as sharp. Unlike a xenon lamp, however, tungsten BPs can
be put on a dimmer. A flood/spot knob widens or concentrates the beam slightly (5-15o) by sliding
the lamp base relative to the mirror.

BPs are all about showing shafts of light in atmosphere. Diffusion fog, special effects smoke, or
dust in the air gives the shafts shape. The field of a BP is slightly uneven. If you point the light at
the wall, you can almost make out the magnified image of the lamp filament projected on the wall
by the mirror reflector.

COA 447 Spring 2014

Nadia McGowan nmcgowan@ndu.edu.lb


AREA LIGHTS AND BACKING LIGHTS
Chicken coops and space lights
Chicken coops and space lights are commonly hung overhead throughout a very large set to fill
the space with a general soft illumination. The chicken coop hangs on a chain and uses six 1000
W silver bowl globes. The globes are silvered on the bottom to prevent direct hard light from
shining downward.

A spacelight consists essentially of six 1k nook lights configured like spokes of a wagon wheel,
pointing down into a silk cylinder. At the bottom is a round diffusion ring to which a diffusion
material or gel can be clipped. Spacelights are available in 1k, 2k, 6k, and 12k versions. Lights are
individually controlled either on a dimmer or by individual on/off switches at the distribution
point.

COA 447 Spring 2014

Nadia McGowan nmcgowan@ndu.edu.lb

Super or Maxi versions of coop lights and spacelights are redesigned to use PAR lamps in
place of the original lamps. Super Coop (Dadco), Maxi Coop and Maxi Spacelite (Mole-
Richardson), Top Light (Finnlight), and Mac Tech 6 and Mac Tech Spacelight (B&M) are
examples of overhead lights employing PAR optics to increase the downward light output within a
diffused source. These lights are four or five times brighter directly
below the fixture than a normal spacelight of the same wattage. The
lights are brighter because they act less like a lantern and more like a
directional source.

Scoop lights and skypans
Scoops and skypans are very simple lights. They consist of an exposed
bulb mounted in a large white reflector. Scoops are 1 or 2k; skypans
can be 2k, 5k, 10k, or 20k. Skypans are used for lighting scenic
paintings, backdrops, or backings evenly from side to side and top to
bottom. The light can be made softer and more even by employing a
frame of diffusion. The gel frame fits into a metal skirt that one attaches to the face of the light.

Cyc strips, ground rows, and borders
A cyc strip is a row of open-face lights having an asymetrically-shaped reflector that concentrates
the light where the beam has a longer throw in order to illuminate a vertical surface from the top
and/or bottom, evenly. The term cyclorama (or cyc) refers to a seamless wall used as a backdrop.
The term is borrowed from theater where a seamless canvas, muslin, or scrim material is
commonly used behind the sets, often to create a skyline, and lit with cyc strips. In film and
television we commonly use an infinite cyc a permanent hard wall built with a curve at the
bottom that seamlessly transitions into the floor so there is no visible line at the base of the wall. A
white cyc is commonly used to create a limbo set. It may also be painted blue or green for
shooting foreground elements for matte photography.

COA 447 Spring 2014

Nadia McGowan nmcgowan@ndu.edu.lb
Fluorescent Instruments
Of course, incandescent instruments are no longer the only choice for studio lighting. In fact, they
are losing ground to fluorescents all the time, for several good reasons. Yes, lighting designers like
the soft light. Yes, talent likes to stay cool. But these arent the real reasons studios are changing
over. The real reason is the thing that always drives decisions in television: money.
Fluorescents are cheaper to run than incandescents by a huge margin. For one thing, they are more
efficient: they put out more lumens per watt than any incandescent instrument. But thats just the
beginning. The main savings comes because they dont generate much heat. And as we discussed
above, disposing of excess heat in a studio is a major problem, involving lots and lots of air
conditioning.
While this may not seem to be a major factor to the average event videographer or documentarian,
its a huge factor if youre a studio manager. For any television studio that is in daily use, air-
conditioning cost constitutes a major slice of the operating budget. Anything that will cut that bill
is pure profit for the station or studio.
When KGUN-TV Channel 9 in Tucson, Arizona, switched from a fairly traditional incandescent
lighting system (fresnels, soft lights, scoops, and cycs) to Kino Flo Image 80 and Image 40
instruments augmented with Dedolight accents, they estimated an immediate savings of nearly a
quarter million kW hours per year (Figure 9.5). This translated into an annual savings of nearly
$10,000 in operating costs. In addition, station manager Gregg Moss says that they received a
$2500 rebate from the power company!
Many fluorescent instruments are now dimmable and others are now also DMX controllable. That
makes the precise and convenient control of many flo instruments in a studio feasible. Each
Videssence Baselight fluorescent studio instrument, for instance, is available as nondimmable,
with 010 vdc dimming, with DMX control, or with phase-control dimming (a technique more
often used for architectural light installations). Nondimming flos can be controlled from a DMX
panel through use of a DMX relay panel, such as the ETC Sensor Dimmer Relay or the Strand
CD80 Non-Dim module. Oddly, these are still known as a dimmer, even though its only an
electronic on-off switch.
LED Lighting
Of course, in recent years LED instruments have made huge inroads first as on-camera lights and
more recently as studio fixtures. They offer even greater power efficiency than fluorescents and
are fully dimmable. A huge amount of development continues in refining the LED as a general-use
lighting source and that research will inevitably increase the efficiency and usability of LED
sources in film and video production.
Numerous studio settings have begun to include LED instruments. Perhaps the most prominent is
the refurbished White House and Pentagon Briefing Rooms, which now use 1 - 1 LitePanels as
principal light sources (see Figure 9.6). The conversion to LEDs saved the tax payers almost 95%
on the power bill for that one very visible room of the White House when compared to the old
incandescent lighting.
COA 447 Spring 2014

Nadia McGowan nmcgowan@ndu.edu.lb
LEDs have a peculiar advantage over fluorescents in one particular way: they can be designed
with a narrow light pattern, a sort of medium spot that can be anywhere from 30 to 40. This tight
pattern is created by the tiny lens on the front of each LED, and allows a longer effective throw for
a given lumen output. One instrument from LightPanels even mixes broad and narrow LEDs
together so that the user can switch from a broad pattern to a tighter medium spot. This allows the
studio designer to use the punch of concentrated light for key light in specific areas. These
instruments do not throw the kind of hard, concentrated beam that a Fresnel can create, but they
can sometimes have important advantages over the vague swath of light thrown by a flo bank.



COA 447 Spring 2014

Nadia McGowan nmcgowan@ndu.edu.lb
Light measurement
Light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum of radio waves, which over a limited range of
wavelengths is visible. Light is usually referred to in terms of wavelength (not frequency)
expressed in nanometers (nm) where on nanometer is 10
-9
m. Visible light extends from
approximately 400nm (blue) through approximately 700nm (red). The human eye/brain response
is not uniform, falling to either side of peak-sensitivity at 555nm. The average response is shown
in the photopic curve. It is important that any light measurement relates to how we see, lighting
instruments should have photopic response.

Light units
Light units are based on comparison with visual standard.


COA 447 Spring 2014

Nadia McGowan nmcgowan@ndu.edu.lb
Luminous intensity (I) measures a sources ability to radiate light, in candelas (formerly
candle power).
Luminous flux (F) measures the flow of light/second from a light source in lumens.
Illuminance (E) measures the incident light on a surface in Lux (lumens/m
2
) or foot-candles
(lumens/ft
2
).
Luminance (L): reflected light from a surface in Apostlibs or foot lamberts.

Luminous intensity (I)
This is measured by making a visual comparison with a known standard. Originally this was the
standard candle, and the term candlepower evolved as a measurement of Luminous Intensity.
Candlepower has been replaced by the modern standard of candela, similar for practical purposes.
Candela is a sources ability to radiate light.

Luminous flux (F)
Measured in lumens, they are the luminous flux emitted
into a unit solid angle from a point source of one candela.
In a more simplified way, its the total amount of visible
light emitted by a source.

The Lumen (lm) is the photometric equivalent of the watt,
weighed to match the eye of a standard observer. Yellowish
green light receives the greatest weight because it
stimulates the eye more than blue or red light.

Strictly speaking the element of time shouldnt be
introduced, in which case its luminous flux per second,
emitted into a solid angle from a point source of one
candela. It is measured as seen by the human eye.

Illuminance (E) or Illumination
Measure of the total luminous flux per meter incident onto
a surface and is measured in terms of lumens per unit area:
lumens/m2 or lumens/ft2.

Lux is the preferred term in television. It is lumens per
square meter. The equivalent in feet are foot-candles.

To convert foot-candles into lux: 1 foot-candle =
10.76 lux
For practical purposes, its enough to multiply by 10.




COA 447 Spring 2014

Nadia McGowan nmcgowan@ndu.edu.lb
Illuminance (lux)
Sunlight on a bright day without clouds 100.000
Daylight on an overcast day 6500 (2000 10 000)
Daylight on a heavily overcast day 500
Interior lighting levels (day) 400
Interior lighting levels (artificial) 200-300
Office lighting 300-500
Typical supermarket 600-700
Dawn/dusk Less than 200
Street lighting 4-20
Moonlight full moon 0.1

Recommended light levels (lux)
Public areas with dark surroundings 20 - 50
Simple orientation for short visits 50 - 100
Working, visual tasks are only occasionally performed 100 - 150
Warehouses, Homes, Theaters, Archives 150
Easy Office Work, Classes 250
Normal Office Work, PC Work, Study Library, Groceries, 500
Supermarkets, Mechanical Workshops, Office Landscapes 750
Normal Drawing Work, Operation Theatres 1,000
Detailed Drawing Work, Very Detailed Mechanical Works 1500 - 2000
Performance of visual tasks of low contrast for prolonged periods of time 2000 - 5000
Performance of very prolonged and exacting visual tasks 5000 - 10000
Performance of special visual tasks of extremely low contrast and small size 10000 20000

Luminance (L)
Measure of the amount of light reflected from a surface. When a surface reflects a total luminous
flux of 1 lumen/m2 it is said to have a luminance of 1 Apostlib. A surface reflecting a luminous
flux of 1 lumen/ft2 is said to have a luminance of 1 foot-lambert. These terms are not in general
use. The amount of light reflected from a surface depends on its reflectance or reflectivity (p).

Luminance = (p x illuminance) Apostlibs

E.g.: If illumination is 600 lux, what is the luminance of a TV peak white surface p = 0.6 (60%
reflectance)

Luminance = p x illuminance = 0.6 x 600 = 360 Apostlibs

Luminance meters are normally very narrow angel of acceptance, typically 1o, like the Minolta
spotmeter.

Inverse square law
COA 447 Spring 2014

Nadia McGowan nmcgowan@ndu.edu.lb
The inverse square law is a fundamental law of Nature and is met in sound as well as in lighting.
Light from a point source will diverge (spread out), consequently the further away from the light
source, the greater the illuminated area and the illuminance will be reduced.


















At 1m from the light source, 1 lumen is spread over 1m
2
, so illuminance = 1 lux
At 2m from the light source, 1 lumen is spread over 4m
2
, so illuminance = 1/4 lux
At 3m from the light source, 1 lumen is spread over 9m
2
, so illuminance = 1/9 lux

Illuminance (E) = candlepower / distance
2
lux

Examples

1. What illumination would you expect at 5m from a 1.2kW HMI Fresnel spotlight which has an
effective candlepower of 50.000 candelas?

Illuminance (E) = candlepower / distance
2
= 50.000 / 5 x 5 = 2000 lux


2. What illuminance would you expect from a 650 W Fresnel spotlight of 9000 candelas at 3m
throw?

Illuminance (E) = candlepower / distance
2
= 9000 / 3 x 3 = 1000 lux


3. What would be the maximum throw for a 5kW Fresnel spotlight of 100.000 candelas if the
required illuminance is 50 lux?

Illuminance (E) = candlepower / distance
2
so (distance
2
) = candelas / illuminance = 100.000 / 50
= 200
Distance = 200 = 14.14 m
COA 447 Spring 2014

Nadia McGowan nmcgowan@ndu.edu.lb

4. Which luminaire would you use to provide 500 lux at 7 m throw?

Illuminance (E) = candlepower / distance
2
so candlepower = Illuminance x (distance
2
) = 500 x 7 x
7 = 24.500 candelas

From manufacturers data, a 2Kw Fresnel spotlight (36.000 candelas could be used).
Cosine law
In the inverse square law we assume that the incident light was landing normal to the surface, at
a right angle. This is rarely the case. When a light beam lands obliquely the light is spread over a
larger area, consequently, the illuminance (lumens/m2) will be decreased.



The illuminance is reduced
by a factor equal to the
cosine of the angle of
incidence. The cosine of an
angle is the ratio of the
length of the adjacent side to
the length of the hypotenuse.








So the complete square law equation becomes:

Illuminance = (candlepower / distance2 ) x cos angle of incidence

If the angle of incidence is less than 25o, the effect is minimal and can be ignored.
Cos 25o = 0.9 , a 10% reduction.

However:
Cos 45o = 0.7, 30% reduction (-1/2 stop)
Cos 60o = 0.5, 50% reduction (-1 stop)





COA 447 Spring 2014

Nadia McGowan nmcgowan@ndu.edu.lb
Studio lighting
Lighting for digital video and television, pages 139-157
Studios are a more controllable environment than locations and so are essential for situations that
are more permanent, the most common local application being news sets. But just like sound
stages in the film world, studios are handy for any sort of scene that doesnt actually have to be
outdoors. Its easier to light sets in a studio: adequate power is available, the grid provides
mounting options practically anywhere a light is needed, and sophisticated dimmer panels provide
precise and easy control. Of course, other factors are more controllable as well, the major one
being audio.
Studio lighting takes a bad rap sometimes because it is associated with local news, soap operas,
and game shows. But this is unfair, since studio lighting can be pretty ordinary, but can also be
done with style and artistry. Many of the best lit episodic television programs are shot on studio
sets. One of the best examples in recent years has been Sidney Lumets excellent but short-lived
series 100 Centre Street, which was shot with multiple cameras in 24p digital high-def video.
Its not required that local news be flat lit either, though lots of station managers think so. With
todays computer-controlled light control boards, a good lighting designer can set up a studio for
every conceivable combination of anchors, walkarounds, and other variables that afflict news sets.

Figure 9.1
A&Es excellent series 100 Centre Street, starring Alan Arkin, was a fine example of the best of
studio lighting. Sidney Lumet, a veteran of the days of live TV, used the latest digital technology
but resurrected the techniques of multiple cameras and live switching for the program. The
show was proof of successful dramatic lighting design for multiple cameras. DP for the show
was Ron Fortunato, production design by Christopher Nowak. Photo courtesy of A&E Television.
Basic studio design
Lets take a look at designing a basic studio lighting installation and then examine typical
applications. A studio is basically a large empty room that has been soundproofed, usually has a
COA 447 Spring 2014

Nadia McGowan nmcgowan@ndu.edu.lb
sophisticated and very quiet air-handling system, a large smooth floor (either polished concrete,
movable linoleum squares, or poured composite), and a heavy-duty, independent supply of power.
A large studio usually needs to have its own line transformer from the power distribution lines;
this helps to damp surges and dips in power from heavy machinery starting in another building.
We wont get into the many complex details of studio design here; studio acoustic design is a
whole book in itself. If youre actually building a real studio (rather than converting a warehouse
or an office on a shoestring budget), it is recommended that you hire a studio designer. These folks
not only understand all the interrelated complexities and problems that can crop up, but they will
also be up on the latest materials nd techniques. They will know the mistakes that contractors
usually make and how to avoid them. We will touch on the key points that relate to lighting,
however.

The first issue that crops up in studio design is the height of the ceiling. Sometimes this is dictated
by other issues, but when there is a choice, the height probably ought to be several feet higher than
the tallest height anyone has tossed around in discussions! One of the common mistakes made in
designing studios is to economize by using too low a ceiling. While it is typical in smaller studios
to locate a lighting grid anywhere from 12 to 18 feet above the floor, the ceiling ought to allow at
least another 6 to 12 feet of empty space above the grid. This is not wasted space; it is essential for
handling heat. Think of each incandescent instrument on the grid as an electric space heater rather
than as a light. In fact, a 1 K throws off about the same amount of heat as a 1000-watt home space
heater. Disposing of this heat is a major issue in studios. Its not uncommon to be running far
more light wattage than would be specified by a heating contractor for electric space heating of the
same area. And of course the lights are not thermostatically controlled; the space heaters would
turn off when comfortable room temperature is reached, the lights stay on!
Allowing a large space for heat to collect above the lights will keep the area below the lights more
comfortable. It acts as a heat shock absorber, an area where heat can go while the AC tries to
pump it out. Decreasing the space above the grid will require a much higher rating of AC
installation and AC tonnage is a lot more expensive than adding unfinished height!
Studios can be practically any size, depending on the intended use. They can range from tiny (20'
typical camera zoom lenses, a studio depth of less than 25 feet is generally not practical; even that
will seem cramped. While one shouldnt overbuild, my experience has been that studios are almost
always too small. In particular, its often overlooked that there will always be lots of stuff in a
studio that is not being used, but cant be in the shot. Dollies, light stands, flats, boxes, stuff. A
large connected storage area, or just an extra 15 or 20 feet at one end, is essential.
Power System and Grid
The basic ingredient of studio lighting is a sufficient power system. Its always best to be liberal
here, since your needs in the future might grow. A small studio probably requires a minimum of
200 amps, whereas a larger studio may need 500 amps or more. Figure out the maximum number
of instruments that you will be able to hang on the grid and add a bunch on floor-mounted stands.
I know you usually wont have them all on at oncebut just suppose you might need to one day!
The power requirements will be lower if you use primarily fluorescent instruments; more on that
later.
COA 447 Spring 2014

Nadia McGowan nmcgowan@ndu.edu.lb
Do you need any 240-volt instruments5-K fresnels, for instance? How many 240-V outlets do
you need and where should they be located? What sort of lighting control panel will you be using?
Where will it be located?
Today, these are typically remote controls for the actual power control modules, which are located
either at a common distribution area or at remote locations around the grid.
These questions will be essential to designing your studio.
The second component of a studio lighting system is the
grid. While a variety of proprietary grid systems have
become available over the years, the mainstay is simple
black iron pipe suspended from hangers. The pipe is
usually specified as Schedule 40 black finish steel pipe;
the size (specified in internal diameter) must be either 1-
" i.d. or 1-" i.d., since standard pipe hangers for
instruments will not fit properly on any other sizes. The
grid is formed of two layers of pipe, the first suspended at
right angles to the ceiling beams. The second layer is
fastened at right angles below the first with special
hardware, creating a gridwork that provides numerous
points for mounting instruments.
Special hardware is available to hang the pipes from the
steel I-beams, C-channels, or bar joists that support the
ceiling (Figure 9.2). These typically clamp onto the
bottom of the beam and provide a hanger for 38-inch
threaded rod.
Clamps hang the second layer of pipe at right angles to the
first. This approach is much stronger than forming a grid
out of pipe with T-connectors.


Safety note: Its important to get some engineering advice on how many hangers you will need to
effectively support the weight of the grid and the lights. A heavily populated grid can weigh a lot.
Right above the grid, power connectors are hung labeled with position markers. Depending on
how the control system is designed, these can be standard electrical boxes mounted on EMT*
pipe, proprietary load connector strips, or rig-mounted dimmer power packs. Strand has a custom-
made connector strip that is essentially an enclosed channel for wires. Short pigtails are used to
connect to instruments. Roscos Entertainment Technologies division makes a product called the
Intelligent Raceway that incorporates dimmer packs and connector strip into one package.
How you control the lights depends entirely on your intended use. A very small studio might
simply wire the standard outlet boxes to circuit breakers, although this is not an optimal situation.
The next step up is to have a traditional electrician wire the outlet boxes to banks of standard
Figur e 9.2
Special hardware is available to
hang black iron pipe as a
lighting grid.
COA 447 Spring 2014

Nadia McGowan nmcgowan@ndu.edu.lb
household switches. However, basic dimmer packages are now quite affordable, so most studios
will have some sort of remote control dimmer system.
In days of yore, dimmers were huge autotransformers you controlled directly with large handles.
Curious mechanical interlocking systems allowed the operator (or several operators) to manipulate
a group of autotransformers in tandem.
Those days are gone. Today, almost all dimming systems are comprised of separate digital control
systems and solid-state dimmer packs or racks. A dimmer rack is often located outside the studio
in a separate machine room, wired between the breaker box and the power distribution system
above the grid. Each dimming channel (which can typically range in power handling from 1200
watts to 5000 watts) is controlled discretely from a remote control board such as the one shown in
Figure 9.3. Smaller systems may use dimmer packs that are mounted directly on the grid, such as
the EDI SCRimmer Stik or the Dove Dimmermaster shoebox packs. These typically have lower
ratings (four 600-watt channels or two 1200-watts channels) than rack-mounted dimmers. Smaller
dimmer packs can be used in conjunction with a rack system to expand the system or provide
more control.
Each dimmer channel is controlled by
a lowvoltage signal from a separate
control board, which can be mounted
anywhere in the studio.
These control boards are now a digital
ecstasy of flexibility, offering presets
galore, storage of multiple programs,
control outputs in every flavor
including MIDI and GPI**, interface
with PCs and Macs, you name it. Running the big boards is a tech task of its own; the more
flexibility, the more complex the system becomes!
Of course, as time and technology have marched on, more control systems are becoming computer
based. A number of software control systems combine with a hardware card or adapter of some
sort to turn a standard PC into a full lighting control system such as that shown in Figure 9.4.
Dove Systems manufactures an interface called the StarPort that is available in both parallel port
and USB versions; other manufacturers such as VXCO in Switzerland manufacture external boxes
such as the DMXCreator1024+ that interface with the computer via either the printer port or the
USB bus. Enttec makes the DMX USB Pro, which can interface with software like
StageResearchs Light Factory 2.0. Chauvet offers the X-Factor hardware combined with their
ShowXpress software. Each offers proprietary control software. Rosco now offers a hardware
interface and software known as Keystroke that allows your lighting board to trigger playback of
computer programs such as Power- Point or a video player. Of course, like everything in the
computer world, these products will be constantly changing, so youll have to do your own
research to find the state of the market when youre ready to buy!
Several interface systems allow the control panel or software to communicate to the actual
hardware dimmers. The two major systems in use today are DC voltage control and DMX.
Figur e 9.3
The Strand 200
series is
available
in 12/24 channel
or 24/48 channel
models and
features
two-scene preset
operation or
COA 447 Spring 2014

Nadia McGowan nmcgowan@ndu.edu.lb
DC voltage control uses a low-level voltage, usually 010 vdc to precisely control the dimmer
output. Each channel of the board must have a cable directly to the dimmer unit. These are often
simply three-conductor XLR mic cables. On small systems (6 channels) an 8-pin DIN connector
(sometimes known as a Bleecon) is used. Not all systems are the same; Strand consoles can use
either 110 vdc or -10 vdc for full on. There are one or two renegades that formerly used lower
voltages. You must make sure that all the dimmers and instruments in your system match the
specs of the controller! These systems are growing less and less common, though you will still run
into them in older installations.
Far more prevalent now is the DMX 512 system, which is an 8-bit digital protocol that can control
up to 512 channels independently through a multiplexed signal. DMX equipment typically uses 5-
pin XLR connectors, though newer equipment may be able to use CAT 5 networking cable. Each
instrument on the DMX chain is assigned an individual address that allows the control panel to
tell dimmer pack #12 from pack #3. DMX signals can run reliably over 1500 feet of cable, far
more than you would need in the largest studio.
DMX is a standard developed by the United States Institute for Theatre Technology (USITT).
Because of the advantages and flexibility of the digital interface, DMX is really the interface of
choice today and I think youll see the other control interfaces fade away except for the smallest
six-channel systems.

Another interface that you will run into is AMX 192, an earlier multiplex standard that also used
5-pin XLR connectors but an analog signal. Older equipment may still require AMX 192; most
dimmer packs and control panels still support the standard. Because the signal was subject to
ground-loops and all the other vagaries of analog transmission, it is not nearly as reliable as DMX
and has mostly fallen out of use.
With all this discussion of dimmers, you may be wondering about the color shift we discussed
earlier. When incandescent instruments are dimmed, they shift toward orange-yellow. So how do
you handle this in a studio?
DMX Control Tech Stuff
It is important to make sure all equipment is fully compliant with DMX 512 standard. Some
manufacturers have used nonstandard voltages, and these can damage other DMX equipment.
Information about the standard is available online at http://www.usitt.org/DMX/DMX512.htm
Pin assignments as called out in Section 9.02 of the DMX512/1990 standard are as follows:
PIN 1Signal Common (Shield)
PIN 2Dimmer Drive Complement (Data 1 -)
PIN 3Dimmer Drive True (Data 1 +)
PIN 4 Optional Second Data Link Complement (Data 2 -)
PIN 5Optional Second Data Link True (Data 2 +)
Section 4 of the standard requires adherence to EIA-485 with regards to all electrical
characteristics, which means a maximum voltage range of 27 to 112 volts dc. The 118 to 125
volts dc used by some noncompliant instruments is outside this spec and can damage DMX-
compliant gear.
Pins 4 and 5 are used to transmit data to color wheels and motion lights, sometimes known as
intelligent instruments.
COA 447 Spring 2014

Nadia McGowan nmcgowan@ndu.edu.lb
First, in many cases the dimmer panel is used as a very fancy on-off switch and the instruments
are used at full power. The option of dimming is always available, but is not necessarily used. In
addition, a slight yellow shift is not always a problem. In other situations, dimming is an essential
ingredient. On news desks, for instance, where different people with different skin tones are lit
with the same lights, dimming presets can be a blessing. Say the morning news crew has an anchor
of color with very dark skin; and the evening news crew has a blonde blue-eyed anchor with very
pale skin. Carefully designed dimmer presets can be used to vary the light levels of certain
instruments to compensate for the different skin tones. But again, what about the yellow shift?
The usual method to get around this is to target the white balance of the cameras on the yellow
sidesay 2900 K or 3000 Kand run all the lights on half intensity normally. Although this may
seem wasteful, it isnt. The lights run cooler, the globes last longer, and the lighting designer has
headroom to increase the intensity easily. From that middle range, the lighting designer can
generally change the lighting level up a stop or down a stop without significantly changing the
color of the light. A fudge, but it works!
Studio light design
Designing a Lighting Plan with Flos or LEDs
Soft fluorescent or LED lighting does not automatically translate into flat lighting. It can, but it
can also be used to create very effective modeling. The only thing fluorescents cannot do well is
generate hard light; so it is typical to still use fresnels as accents. Narrower-beam LED spot
instruments can be used as accents as well. Sometimes studio lighting designers will use
fluorescents to lay down a base level of illumination, but still use fresnels as harder-edged key
lights. If a combination of instruments must be dimmed without changing color temperature, the
trick mentioned above is used: all the flos will be populated with 3000-K tubes and the
incandescents can be set up to run at about half power.
Designing light for a studio installation is more complex than simply setting up shot-by-shot
lighting. The designer has to get a good idea of every type of shot that is necessary and take into
account all the variables that may crop up. The designer must anticipate problems and plan for
them. When planning a new installation, youll have to ask a lot of questions. Always overdesign,
for needs will grow and you need to plan for future development.
Flat Lighting
Okay, Ive moaned all the way through the book about flat lighting. But no matter what style of
lighting I prefer, you need to know how to do it. And there are situations where you need flat
lighting. If youre trying to emulate a game show or a local news set, youll want to use flat
lighting to get the look everyone associates with those types of shows. If youre staging this game
show inside a broader drama where most lighting is done very carefully with an eye toward
realism, you may want to use the harshest, most artificial look you can come up with for the
fictional game show to make it stand apart from the other scenes.
COA 447 Spring 2014

Nadia McGowan nmcgowan@ndu.edu.lb
True flat lighting is when light comes equally from every direction and is fairly difficult to
accomplish. Its done in certain types of product photography with a white diffusion tent, but is
very hard to achieve in a studio with real people.
The one show that actually came the closest is
Whoopi Goldbergs incarnation of
Hollywood Squares (19982004), where
fluorescent tubes surround the stars in each
square. Typical studio flat lighting
(technically known as high key lighting, since
the key and fill are equal or nearly equal)
isnt actually completely flat and thus isnt
quite that difficult to create. In fact, its fairly
easyit requires lots of instruments but little
expertise.
While there are many variations, lets light
our fictional new talk show, The Conan
Letterperson Show (Figure 9.8). First well
light the host. Two1-K fresnels are hung that
shine on either side of his handsome face.
From the subject, they are about 45 apart and
positioned equidistantly.
As a result, they cast exactly the same amount
of light on both sides of the host. The angle is
kept low enough so that the nose caret is not
too long; in fact it is minimized into a sort of
triangle under his nose, rather than a nose-
shaped shadow. The ubiquitous backlight is
hung directly above and to the rear. This is
pretty much the lighting youll see on the
Tonight Show or The David Letterman Show.
Our show, of course, bears no relationship or
similarity to those programs.
When the 45 key concept is used with
fluorescents, the effect is even flatter, since
the soft nature of the light makes the shadows less distinct.
This particular setup is so easy the weekend intern could set it up; the flos provide awide, even
light over the entire area. But when both instruments are of equal wattage, the look is too flat and
boring for words; it needs something to punch it up.
A slightly improved variation of this setup, and one that is actually more common, is the frontal
key. In this setup, a single key is use mounted above the camera, pointed directly into Mr.
Letterpersons good-looking mug. Two fills are used, one on either side at about a 45 angle
much like the two keys in the setup above. Lets hope they are not the same intensity as the frontal
key, though Im afraid in many studios they are.
Figur e 9.8
Flat lighting on Conan Letterperson on the set
of his talk show. In essence, key and fill are of
equal value, so there is no difference in
illumination on either side of
the face. Nose caret and chin shadow become
COA 447 Spring 2014

Nadia McGowan nmcgowan@ndu.edu.lb
Reducing them to half the value of the key does create some sense of modeling toward the sides of
the face. This has a number of advantages, the major one being a reduction in the harsh triangular
shadows under chin and nose (Figure 9.9).


Fine, that illuminates the host at his
central mark, but what about the rest of
the set? Much like basic stage lighting,
well just clone the frontal key
configuration in overlapping sets until the
entire set is bathed in light (Figure 9.10).
Anywhere the host or the guests walk on
the set will be equally lit from both right
and left. Overlapping coverage is the
hardest part of setting this up with
incandescent instruments. Diffusion helps
significantly in blending the edges.
Fluorescent instruments make this part a
breeze and are really the recommended
method for creating even flat lighting over
a set.
Okay, how do we improve the flat
lighting situation? Its actually quite
simple. Remembering that modeling is
created with highlights and shadows, we
simply need to lower the intensity on one
side and raise it a bit on the opposite side
(Figure 9.11). Although it wont create
stupendous lighting, the simple expedient
is to reduce the level of the fill light (pick
one side!) to half that of the key. This
approach is quite effective when using
fluorescents.
COA 447 Spring 2014

Nadia McGowan nmcgowan@ndu.edu.lb


COA 447 Spring 2014

Nadia McGowan nmcgowan@ndu.edu.lb
Another variation is to use a pair of flos much like this, combined with a small fresnel mounted
in a frontal key position. This key adds the punch that was missing from the overly flat 45
fluorescent situation mentioned above.
Many news sets today use fluorescents like this, combined with smaller fresnels to add punch and
accents. When artfully designed, this combination can be quite pleasant and effective.
However, not every situation is a news set or a game show. Many episodic dramas, ranging from
daily soaps to weekly comedies and cop shows, are shot in studios. These are more complex
because of the changing demands and situations; and also because the action may move around the
set in a much more random fashion than on a news or game show set.
Soaps are generally a compromise between flat lighting with a nod toward realism. They are shot
on a withering schedule and tight budget. They have to crank out a show a day, allowing no
pauses for great lighting or the whims of artistes. Also, since they shoot with multiple cameras and
many different angles, the light must work from every direction. Flat, even lighting becomes a
necessary evil. In recent years, some of the soaps have made an effort to use more accent and
shadows to make the lighting more realistic, but these must always work in the basic tight
parameters of the shooting realities.
Just as with news or game shows, however, it is not really necessary to have completely flat
lighting. Simply picking one side of the set for stronger instruments and using lower power
instruments on the other side will create some of the modeling that increases the sense of depth
and reality. It will also help viewers maintain the unconscious (but very real) sense of placement
in the fictional room. The downside is that a lower key setup like this one makes it harder to pull
off cheat shots where the shot is artificially reversed for some expedient or another.
Comedies are not known for their artistic lighting either, though they are usually better done than
soaps simply because they have more time and budget to do each show. Big bright lighting is
usually the fact of life.
It is in weekly dramatic shows that really fine lighting has come to the fore in recent years. Shows
like Law and Order, West Wing, and ER have truly raised the bar for weekly episodic lighting. Of
course, its worthy of note that these shows have some of the highest budgets on television today!
However, if one compares the lighting on Stephen Bochcos earlier series Hill Street Blues
(veryfine by the standards of the 1980s) with the very realistic lighting of the later episodes of
NYPD Blue (19932005), it will be clear how high the standard has become over the last couple
of decades. These shows are lit better than many Hollywood films, partially because of their huge
budgets and careful lighting design.
A quick look at the first season of Dick Wolf s Law and Order reveals pretty ordinary lighting. Of
course, the show was new and the budget wasnt anything like what it grew to in later seasons.
The show very quickly established an extremely realistic look, with the majority of light coming
from windows during the day and practicals during night shotsin other words, motivated
lighting. The shows are a graduate course in great television lighting; theyre in reruns many times
a week and theyre free. Watch them, deconstruct the lighting, youll learn a lot.
A very notable example of fine television lighting was the A&E series 100 Centre
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Street directed by the great Sidney Lumet (12 Angry Men, Serpico, Dog Day Afternoon),
mentioned at the start of this chapter. The show is an important example for this chapter for
several reasons. First, the show was one of the first episodic shows to be shot digitally in 24p;
second, the show was shot on a set; and third, it was shot with multiple cameras, with a rough cut
done through live switching. Lumet resurrected some of the practices from his early days in live
television. And guess what? They work! But whats more important here is the fact that the
lighting is designed to work with those multiple cameras and with action in all areas of the set. Its
a wonderful example of how well this can be done.
Back cross-keys

With two or more actors facing various directions, the key light for one actor may well server as a
backlight or edge-light for another actor. Primary lights in the example form a triangle.
When two actors facing each other and a camera is shooting them in profile or close to it, a
common lighting strategy is to use a back cross-key. Actor A is keyed from the back right, actor B
from the back left. From the cameras POV, these are far-side keys for each actor. Multicam
sitcoms often use this strategy because the proscenium-style shooting lends itself to blocking
where actors are facing one another in profile to the audience.
Lighting for subject movement
Techniques you can use to avoid noticeable illuminance changes:
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Nadia McGowan nmcgowan@ndu.edu.lb
Dim the keylight as the artist walks towards it: fine if keylight can be focalized on the artist
(not lighting backgrounds or other people in the shot). It must not cause problems for the next
shot, with the light dimmed.
Stopping down the lens as the artist gets
more brightly lit. No change in color
temperature. Artists must be isolated.
Use a spotted luminaire: Artist starts in the
beam center and walks towards the light
moving towards the edge of the beam. An
alternative is to start with a spotted lamp and
progressively flood it as the artist walks
towards it. Needs to be focalized on the artist.
Use a luminaire with a very long throw, to minimize inverse square law (follow spot)
Avoid the artist walking directly to the keylight
Use half-scrims or veils to even out the illuminance: requires significant light angle.
Use two identical luminaires to cover the artists two acting areas and arrange a suitable
cross-over or take-over between the two luminaires
Use the bounce technique to produce a graded walk.

Setting a crossover
Where a large distance separates two acting areas and its not practical to use one keylight, two
keylights with suitable changeover are the solution. Before discussing, we need to examine
barndooring:

1. Barndoors are most effective when the light is fully flooded
2. Barndoor produces the sharpest cut of light when the edge is farthest from the lens

To ensure a good crossover, the following points should be observed:
The artist should walk towards his keylight, not turn away from it
Both keylights should be identical
luminaires accurately set in position
The keylights need to have similar height,
angle and distance to each area
The keylights should be fully flooded
Illuminance of areas A and B should be
adjusted to the same

Ideally, the crossover should be disguised by the
action. It is useful to have a lightmeter to check
the evenness.


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Nadia McGowan nmcgowan@ndu.edu.lb
Lighting for subject movement alternatives
On location there may be a need to cover a long walk without getting light stands in shot. The
problem here is to maintain lighting level and vertical keying angle. This can be solved with a
vertical crossover.


Using bounce techniques to cover the artistes movements provides a quick and easy way to
provide cover. Is uses the cosine law nature of light reflected from a diffuse reflector. The centre
of the reflected light is directed at the furthest area. For this to be effective, there must be
significant angle difference between the start point and the end position. This is to ensure that as
the artist walks from A to B the angle change to the reflector ensures that, due to the cosine law,
he receives less illuminance.


Lighting demonstrations
Demonstration shots include cooking, gardening, DIY, etc. The simples set-up is a single artist to
camera, shooting mid-shots and medium close-ups supplemented with close-ups of items. It
shooting with two cameras it can be done very quickly. With a single camera it requires the
presenter to be shot and then the close-ups as cutaways.

Setup needs:
Provide modeling for the presenter and items
Avoid camera shadows. Close-up camera will need to crane-up and tilt-down to look at the
items, and presenters camera will need to be on the eyeline.
Avoid overlighting the front of the table.
Avoid harsh shadows by using
o Offset backlight
o A kicker (barndoored for the table)
o Two soft backlights

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Nadia McGowan nmcgowan@ndu.edu.lb


This can be extended to two-person demonstrations. An alternative solution is using cross-keys.