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1751 Denis Diderot begins publishing the first encyclopedia
1778 La Scala opens in Milan with Salieris LEuropa riconosciuta
1789 George Washington becomes president
French Revolution begins
1791 U.S. Bill of Rights ratified
1792 France declared a republic and heads roll
United States Capitol begun
1793 First powered textile mill in Pawtucket, RI
1796 Asher Benjamin writes first U.S. pattern book,
The Country Builders Assistant
1797 Hannah Foster writes first American best-seller, The Coquette.
1800 Thomas Jefferson elected president of United States
1803 Louisiana Purchase dramatically increases
size of United States
1804 Napoleon becomes emperor in France
1807 Industrial employment overtakes agriculture in England
1808 Beethoven composes the Fifth Symphony
1812 Greece loses the Elgin Marbles to England
War of 1812 begins between United States and Britain
First gas company starts in London
1813 The waltz is performed in ballrooms
around the world
1815 Napoleon defeated at Waterloo
East Indies Mount Tambora casts a pall everywhere
Congress accepts Thomas Jefferson library to begin the Library of Congress
1817 Baltimore adopts gas street lighting
1819 L cole des Beaux-Arts opens in France
1822 First steam railways serve Britain
1824 British stone mason Joseph Aspdin
patents Portland cement
1830 First U.S. locomotive goes into service in South Carolina
1832 Mrs. Trollope notes the Domestic Manners of Americans
Luman Reed builds the first gallery for art
in the United States
1837 The Commission for Historic Monuments begins in France
Victoria becomes queen of the United Kingdom
1840 Thomas Cole, The Architects Dream
1842 First Christmas cards are printed in England
1845 Robert Besley designs Caslon typeface
Frederick Douglass, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass
1846 U.S. Congress declares war on Mexico
Richard Morris Hunt, first American to enroll in L cole des Beaux-Arts
A. Gesner distills kerosene for lamps
1848 Karl Marx, Communist Manifesto
First major operation under anesthesia
1850 Issac Singer patents his sewing machine
1853 S. Nicholas, first million-dollar hotel, opens in NYC
1854 Duncan Phyfe dies at 86
Henry David Thoreau, Walden
1856 State of Tennessee purchases President Jacksons Hermitage
1857 First mass-produced portable sewing machine made in United States
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Architecture and Interior Design from the 19th Century: An Integrated History, Volume 2, by Buie Harwood, Bridget May, Ph.D., and Curt Sherman.
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N
eoclassicism is an international movement, begin-
ning in Rome and France in the 1740s, that strives to
imitate or evoke images of classical antiquity in art, archi-
tecture, interiors, furniture, decorative arts, landscapes, lit-
erature, dress, and behavior. Although continuing the
classical traditions of the Renaissance (15th and 16th cen-
turies) and Baroque (17th century), Neoclassicism draws
from a wider range of prototypes and cultures, including
Egypt, Greece, Rome, and the Etruscans. Archaeology and
studies and publications of ancient structures by scholars,
architects, designers, and artists provide images and infor-
mation about these ancient cultures. Early Neoclassical
manifestations can be plain and monumental or express
lightness, grace, and refinement. Classical forms and
motifs are always evident.
Late Neoclassical begins about 1790 when the style
sheds its Roman complexity and ornament for an image
that is simpler, often more political, and more inspired by
ancient Greece than ancient Rome. By this time, scholar-
ship indicates that Greece influenced Roman art to a far
greater extent than was previously thought. Increased ad-
miration and appreciation for ancient Greece leads to a
preference for the simplicity of its art and architecture.
Drawing from scholarship and archaeology, architects and
designers emphasize archaeological correctness and often
copy or adapt antique examples for architecture, interiors,
furniture, and decorative arts. Following the French and
American Revolutions, Neoclassicism aligns with the new,
more democratic forms of government and becomes a fa-
vored style for government buildings and artistic propa-
ganda. By the 1820s (earlier in England), designers begin
to tire of the limitations of classicism and seek inspiration
in other periods, such as the Middle Ages, and different
cultures, such as that of China.
Late Neoclassical France, under Napoleon I, resumes
her leadership in art and design. Like previous monarchs,
Napoleon recognizes the importance of art to the state.
His principal architects, Charles Percier and Pierre-
Franois-Lonard Fontaine, create the Empire style to glo-
rify the emperor and help legitimize his reign. The Empire
style in France largely manifests in interiors and furniture
because little noteworthy building takes place. In imita-
tion of Napoleon I, other European sovereigns and nobles
adopt Empire for their surroundings. The middle classes in
Germany and Austria follow a simplified Empire style
known as Biedermeier. Lacking an emperor to glorify,
neither England nor America develops a strong Empire
interior style, but French Empire furniture is fashionable
in both countries.
Greek Revival originates in England as the first of
the great architectural revival styles of the 19th century.
It is more popular and lasts longer in Scotland, Germany,
and America. The style in all countries is associated with
new building types, such as museums that are regarded
as temples of art. In Germany and America, Greek Revival
acquires political overtones. In the United States, it
becomes a visual metaphor for the democratic government
(temples of democracy), whereas Greek Revival represents
the German spirit in Germany. In contrast, the Picturesque
or Romantic Movement in England promotes a greater
taste for other cultures and modes. Empire or classical is
but one aspect of Englands Regency period, which shows,
as well, influences from Greece, Rome, Egypt, China,
India, and Gothic.
During the early 19th century, the changes brought on
by the Industrial Revolution increase, making its influence
felt more than ever before. New technology and inven-
tions facilitate mass production, which makes an increas-
ing array of goods available to more people. Periodicals
join books as the means of spreading the newest styles and
fashions. Revivalism begins to take hold in all countries.
B. LATE
NEOCLASSICAL
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Architecture and Interior Design from the 19th Century: An Integrated History, Volume 2, by Buie Harwood, Bridget May, Ph.D., and Curt Sherman.
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Neoclassicism dominates the period, although it changes
in response to political and social developments. Little
important building takes place, so interiors and furniture
manifest stylistic developments. In interiors and furniture,
the simple, plainer Directoire defines the beginning of the
post-Revolutionary period and evolves into the heavier,
more majestic Empire. Architectdesigners Charles
Percier and Pierre-Franois-Lonard Fontaine create the
style, as dictated by Napoleon Bonaparte as Emperor of
France. The image glorifies the Emperor and creates a
heroic vision through grandeur, military images, and Roman
Imperial motifs, which reinforces the historic references of
Napoleons Empire.
HISTORICAL AND SOCIAL
The French Revolution, which begins with great hopes of
changing injustices in the political and social systems,
deteriorates into terror, violence, and random destruction.
Ultimately, for real and trumped-up crimes against the
people, members of all classes are executed, including King
Louis XVI and his queen. Between 1789 and 1795,
new regimes rise and fall quickly, leaving the country in
shamblesits political, economic, and social systems all
but destroyed.
A five-person Directory, as stipulated by the new consti-
tution, governs France during the period of 1795 to 1799.
C H A P T E R 2
Directoire,
French
Empire
17891815
I sealed the yawning abyss of anarchy, and thwarted
chaos. I cleansed the Revolution, raised up peoples
and strengthened monarchy. I inspired all forms of
ambition, rewarded merit on every occasion, and
stretched the bounds of fame. All that surely amounts
to something! On what grounds could I be accused
that would make it impossible for any historian to
defend me?
Napoleon Bonaparte, Mmorial de Sainte-Hlne, 1823.
Conversation with General Las Cases, Saint Helena, May 1, 1816
Persuaded as we are that this sickness, which is that
of modern taste . . . , must find its treatment and
cure in the examples and models of antiquity
followed not blindly but with the discernment suitable
to modern manners, customs, and materialswe
have striven to imitate the antique in its spirit,
principles, and maxims, which are timeless.
Percier and Fontaine,
Discours prliminaire, Recueil de dcorations intrieures, 1801
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Architecture and Interior Design from the 19th Century: An Integrated History, Volume 2, by Buie Harwood, Bridget May, Ph.D., and Curt Sherman.
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DI RECTOI RE, F RENCH EMPI RE 35
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Although it makes some progress in restoring the country
economically and socially, its incompetence and dishon-
esty limit its effectiveness. Additionally, conflicts between
the Royalists, determined to restore the monarchy, and
the Jacobins, who want a democratic republic, threaten the
fragile peace. Hoping to increase financial stability, the
Directory authorizes military aggression abroad and appoints
Napoleon Bonaparte as commander-in-chief. Military vic-
tories reap some success while earning Napoleon recogni-
tion and helping to restore French confidence.
During the years of the Directory, a different social life
and structure evolve in France. A nouveau riche class of
businessmen, financiers, and speculators begins to display
its wealth in newly purchased and refurbished townhouses
that once belonged to the aristocracy. Times that are more
settled foster tastes for luxury and pleasure, and fashionable
society once again attends concerts, plays, games, and fire-
works. Dress becomes more colorful and increasingly emu-
lates the Classic Greek and Rome of antiquity (Fig. 2-1).
The middle class assumes a new and greater importance.
By 1799, the power and influence of the Directory are so
deteriorated that Napoleon, along with others, easily seizes
power in a coup detat. Napoleon sets up the Consulate, with
himself as Premier Consul, and strives to unify France, heal
the wounds of the Revolution, and create a stable govern-
ment. Gradually, he increases the powers of the Consulate,
while decreasing those of the various legislative bodies. In
1802, he revises the constitution to declare himself Consul
for life. In 1804, Napoleon declares himself Emperor, and
thereby dissolves the Consulate and establishes a hereditary
monarchical regime in France (Fig. 2-2).
Although he presents himself as a man of peace and
defender of the Republic, Napoleon believes that the way
to peace is through military might. In 1805, he renews
aggression against the nations of Europe. To ensure his
continued influence in the lands that he conquers, he
installs members of his family as rulers. However, his efforts
to enforce a blockade against Britain and to invade Spain
and Russia lead to the Empires downfall. Napoleon abdicates
in 1814, and Louis XVIII, younger brother of Louis XVI,
becomes king.
Despite his tyranny and dictatorship, Napoleons enlight-
ened policies are good for France. He sets up the Code
Napoleon to preserve political and social advances made dur-
ing the Revolution and reestablishes the Catholic Church as
state church. He promotes the arts and industries of France,
strives for greater opportunities in education, and supports
universal suffrage for men.
French society during the time of the Empire is as glit-
tering and magnificent as when the Bourbons reigned.
Realizing the advantages to the Empire and society as a
whole, Napoleon requires brilliant entertainments,
although he rarely participates himself. Court etiquette
and dress again become as rigid and codified as in
the days of the French monarchy. Following the lead
of Empress Josephine, Empress Marie Louis, Madame
Rcamier, and other noble women who are aware of the
latest innovations in design commission the finest of fur-
nishings for their homes. They host salons, which are
once again fashionable. As the period progresses, womens
freedoms, acquired during the Directoire period, dimin-
ish. Napoleon opens more schools for women, but their
learning is restricted to such things as painting, dance,
and sewing. The Code Napoleon reestablishes the husband
as head of the house, so women again take a secondary
role and are expected to remain at home.
CONCEPTS
Neoclassicism characterizes French architecture through-
out the period. In contrast three stylesDirectoire, Con-
sulate, and Empiredefine interiors and furniture. Like
architecture, they stemfromNeoclassicism, but each has a
different focus and appearance that reflects the political
and social climate of its day. Nevertheless, architecture,
interiors, and furniture reveal symmetry, horizontality, pro-
portions evolving from slender to heavier, classical details,
and an emphasis upon archaeological correctness or accu-
racy in design.
2-1. Womens costumes, Directoire and French Empire,
c. early 19th century.
2-2. The Coronation of Napoleon at Milan on May 23, 1805.
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Directoire, or Le Style Rpublicain, is named for the
Directory that rules France from 1789 to 1799. A transi-
tion style, it links Louis XVI and Empire and reflects a
more spare and Grecian classicism. Directoire heightens
the simpler forms, smaller scale, greater severity, and
reduced ornament evident in the last years of Louis XVIs
reign. These changes result from the Revolutions destruc-
tive and disruptive effects on French society and economy
and a reaction to aristocratic rule and taste.
During the time of the Consulate (17991804), the early
years of Napoleons rule, designers interpret classicism by
emphasizing Imperial Roman and Egyptian influences over
Grecian ones. During this period, increased formality, mon-
umentality, and ornamentation reflect Frances increasing
stability, wealth, and confidence. Roman, Egyptian, and
military forms and motifs appear in response to the military
victories and exploits of Napoleon and his armies.
The fully developed Empire style, coinciding with the
reign of Napoleon Bonaparte as Napoleon I (18041815),
glorifies him and his empire. Recognizing the value of art
to educate people of his greatness and legitimize his rule,
very early in his reign Napoleon calls for writers and artists
to create an image of him as a man of destiny, a modern
Caesar, a hero who has earned the right to rule France.
Paintings and images of the Emperor present a heroic
character to reinforce the military origins of the empire.
He demands an appropriate style to promote this image
and establish a suitable setting for his empire. His
architectdesigners Charles Percier and Pierre-Franois-
Lonard Fontaine turn to the grandeur of Imperial Rome,
surrounding him with forms and motifs from the ancient
world power and those reminiscent of his military victo-
ries. Their design ideas are documented in their book
Recueil de dcorations intrieures, published in 1801, 1812,
and 1827.
DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS
Classical forms and motifs dominate architecture, interiors,
furniture, and decorative arts during the early 19th century
in France. Common to the entire period is a desire to
emulate ancient forms. Scale evolves from small and light
to larger, bolder, and more monumental.
Compigne, France:
Chateau de Compigne (Palais Royale during
reign of Napoleon I; interiors in French Empire
style), 17381751, and later; Ange-Jacques
Gabriel, completed by le Dreux de la Chatre, with
dcor by Dubois and Redout.
Franois-Honor-Georges Jacob-Desmalter
(17701841), son of Georges Jacob, is a
cabinetmaker in his own right. As the firm Jacob
Frres, he and his brother Georges become
leading cabinetmakers during the Directoire
period. Following the death of his brother, he
forms a partnership with his father in 1802 under
the name Jacob-Desmalter et Cie. The firm
provides Empire-style furniture in designs by
Percier and Fontaine for Napoleon and others.