SOLAR INVERTER

Internal view of a solar inverter. Note the many large capacitors (blue cylinders),
used to store power briefly and improve the output waveform.
A solar inverter, or PV inverter, converts the variable direct current (DC) output
of a photovoltaic (PV) solar panel into a utility frequency alternating current (AC)
that can be fed into a commercial electrical grid or used by a local, off-
grid electrical network. It is a critical component in a photovoltaic system,
allowing the use of ordinary commercial appliances. Solar inverters have special
functions adapted for use with photovoltaic arrays, includingmaximum power
point tracking and anti-islanding protection.
Classification

Simplified schematics of a grid-connected residential photovoltaicpower system
Solar inverters may be classified into three broad types:
Stand-alone inverters, used in isolated systems where the inverter draws its
DC energy from batteries charged by photovoltaic arrays. Many stand-alone
inverters also incorporate integral battery chargers to replenish the battery from
an AC source, when available. Normally these do not interface in any way with
the utility grid, and as such, are not required to have anti-islanding protection.
Grid-tie inverters, which match phase with a utility-supplied sine wave. Grid-
tie inverters are designed to shut down automatically upon loss of utility
supply, for safety reasons. They do not provide backup power during utility
outages.
Battery backup inverters, are special inverters which are designed to draw
energy from a battery, manage the battery charge via an onboard charger, and
export excess energy to the utility grid. These inverters are capable of
supplying AC energy to selected loads during a utility outage, and are required
to have anti-islanding protection.
Maximum power point tracking
Solar inverters use maximum power point tracking (MPPT) to get the maximum
possible power from the PV array.
[2]
Solar cells have a complex relationship
between solar irradiation, temperature and total resistance that produces a non-
linear output efficiency known as the I-V curve. It is the purpose of the MPPT
system to sample the output of the cells and determine a resistance (load) to obtain
maximum power for any given environmental conditions.
The fill factor, more commonly known by its abbreviation FF, is a parameter
which, in conjunction with the open circuit voltage and short circuit current of the
panel, determines the maximum power from a solar cell. Fill factor is defined as
the ratio of the maximum power from the solar cell to the product of Voc and Isc.
There are three main types of MPPT algorithms: perturb-and-observe, incremental
conductance and constant voltage. The first two methods are often referred to
as hill climbing methods; they rely on the curve of power plotted against voltage
rising to the left of the maximum power point, and falling on the right.
Anti-islanding protection

In the event of a power failure on the grid, it is generally required that any grid-tie
inverters attached to the grid turn off in a short period of time. This prevents the
inverters from continuing to feed power into small sections of the grid, known as
"islands". Powered islands present a risk to workers who may expect the area to be
unpowered, but equally important is the issue that without a grid signal to
synchronize to, the power output of the inverters may drift from the tolerances
required by customer equipment connected within the island.
Detecting the presence or lack of a grid source would appear to be simple, and in
the case of a single inverter in any given possible physical island (between
disconnects on the distribution lines for instance) the chance that an inverter would
fail to notice the loss of the grid is effectively zero. However, if there are two
inverters in a given island, things become considerably more complex. It is
possible that the signal from one can be interpreted as a grid feed from the other,
and vice versa, so both units continue operation. As they track each other's output,
the two can drift away from the limits imposed by the grid connections, say in
voltage or frequency.
There are a wide variety of methodologies used to detect an islanding condition.
None of these are considered fool-proof, and utility companies continue to impose
limits on the number and total power of solar power systems connected in any
given area. However, many in-field tests have failed to uncover any real-world
islanding issues, and the issue remains contentious within the industry.
Since 1999, the standard for anti-islanding protection in the United States has been
UL 1741, harmonized with IEEE 1547. Any inverter which is listed to the UL
1741 standard may be connected to a utility grid without the need for additional
anti-islanding equipment, anywhere in the United States or other countries
where ULstandards are accepted.
Similar acceptance of the IEEE 1547 in Europe is also taking place, as most
electrical utilities will be providing or requiring units with this capability.
Solar micro-inverters

A solar micro-inverter in the process of being installed. The ground wire is
attached to the lug and the panel's DC connections are attached to the cables on the
lower right. The AC parallel trunk cable runs at the top (just visible).
Main article: Solar micro-inverter
Solar micro-inverter is an inverter integrated to each solar panel module. The
inverter converts the output from each panel toalternating current They're designed
to allow parallel connection of multiple units connected in parallel.
Each integrated module provides AC output and are connected together in parallel.
This arrangement provides easier installation, redundancy and more effective
capture of energy when they're partially shaded. As of 2010, they're mainly used
for single phase applications and most units in production relied exclusively on
electrolytic capacitors for buffering and there is a concern of long term reliability
of these capacitors in each module.
[11]
A 2011 study at Appalachian State
University reports that individual integrated inverter setup yielded about 20% more
power in unshaded conditions and 27% more power in shaded conditions
compared to string connected setup using one inverter. Both setups used identical
solar panels.
Grid tied solar inverters

An industrial grid-tied solar inverter


A PV inverter installed in a porch
Solar grid-tie inverters are designed to quickly disconnect from the grid if
the utility grid goes down. This is an NECrequirement that ensures that in the event
of a blackout, the grid tie inverter will shut down to prevent the energy it produces
from harming any line workers who are sent to fix the power grid.
Grid-tie inverters that are available on the market today use a number of different
technologies. The inverters may use the newer high-frequency transformers,
conventional low-frequency transformers, or no transformer. Instead of converting
direct current directly to 120 or 240 volts AC, high-frequency transformers employ
a computerized multi-step process that involves converting the power to high-
frequency AC and then back to DC and then to the final AC output voltage.
[13]

Historically, there has been concerns about having transformerless electrical
systems feed into the public utility grid. The concerns stem from the fact that there
is a lack of galvanic isolation between the DC and AC circuits, which could allow
the passage of dangerous DC faults to be transmitted to the AC side.
[14]
Since 2005,
the NFPA's NEC allows transformerless (or non-galvanically) inverters. The VDE
0126-1-1 and IEC 6210 also have been amended to allow and define the safety
mechanisms needed for such systems. Primarily, residual or ground current
detection is used to detect possible fault conditions. Also isolation tests are
performed to insure DC to AC separation.
Many solar inverters are designed to be connected to a utility grid, and will not
operate when they do not detect the presence of the grid. They contain special
circuitry to precisely match the voltage and frequency of the grid. See the Anti-
Islanding section for more details.
Solar charge controller

A typical solar charge controller kit
A charge controller may be used to power DC equipment with solar panels. The
charge controller provides a regulated DC output and stores excess energy in a
battery as well as monitoring the battery voltage to prevent under/over charging.
More expensive units will also perform maximum power point tracking. An
inverter can be connected to the output of a charge controller to drive AC loads.
Solar pumping inverters
Advanced solar pumping inverters convert DC voltage from the solar array into
AC voltage to drive submersible pumps directly without the need for batteries or
other energy storage devices. By utilizing MPPT (maximum power point tracking),
solar pumping inverters regulate output frequency to control speed of the pumps in
order to save pump motor from damage.
Inverter failure
Solar inverters may fail due to transients from the grid or the PV panel, component
aging and operation beyond the designed limits. Following are some common
reasons specific components of inverters age quickly or fail:
Capacitor failure
Electrolytic materials age faster than polycarbonate and other
dry dielectric materials
Voltage stress
Continuous operation under maximum voltage conditions
Frequent short-term voltage transients
Current stress
High current increases the internal temperature
Thermal stress on component terminals
Improper Charge and discharge rates
Not operating in ambient temperatures
Mechanical stress
Vibrations
Inverter bridge failure
Usage beyond its rated operating limit
Overcurrent and overvoltage
Other malfunctioning components
Thermal shock
Thermal overload
Extremely cold operating temperature
Electro-mechanical wear
Component stress
Contamination at contacts
Extreme temperature conditions
Ultrasonic vibration originating in (magnetic cores of) inductive components
Solar panel


A solar array composed of a solar panel with 24 solar modules in rural Mongolia

A solar photovoltaic module is composed of individual PV cells. This crystalline-
silicon module comprises 4 solar cells and has an aluminiumframe and glass on the
front.

Solar modules on the International Space Station

A half-built homemade solar module, made from individual cells soldered together
A solar panel is a set of solar photovoltaic modules electrically connected and
mounted on a supporting structure. A photovoltaic module is a packaged,
connected assembly of solar cells. The solar panel can be used as a component of a
larger photovoltaic system to generate and supply electricity in commercial and
residential applications. Each module is rated by its DC output power under
standard test conditions (STC), and typically ranges from 100 to 320 watts.
The efficiency of a module determines the area of a module given the same rated
output - an 8% efficient 230 watt module will have twice the area of a 16%
efficient 230 watt module. A single solar module can produce only a limited
amount of power; most installations contain multiple modules. A photovoltaic
system typically includes a panel or an array of solar modules, an inverter, and
sometimes a battery and/or solar tracker and interconnection wiring.
Theory and construction

Polycrystalline PV cellsconnected in a solar module.
Solar modules use light energy (photons) from the sun to generate electricity
through the photovoltaic effect. The majority of modules use wafer-
based crystalline silicon cells or thin-film cells based on cadmium
telluride or silicon. The structural (load carrying) member of a module can either
be the top layer or the back layer. Cells must also be protected from mechanical
damage and moisture. Most solar modules are rigid, but semi-flexible ones are
available, based on thin-film cells. These early solar modules were first used in
space in 1958.
Electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output voltage
and/or in parallel to provide a desired current capability. The conducting wires that
take the current off the modules may contain silver, copper or other non-magnetic
conductivetransition metals. The cells must be connected electrically to one
another and to the rest of the system. Externally, popular terrestrial usage
photovoltaic modules use MC3 (older) or MC4 connectors to facilitate easy
weatherproof connections to the rest of the system.
Bypass diodes may be incorporated or used externally, in case of partial module
shading, to maximize the output of module sections still illuminated.
Some recent solar module designs include concentrators in which light is focused
by lenses or mirrors onto an array of smaller cells. This enables the use of cells
with a high cost per unit area (such as gallium arsenide) in a cost-effective way.
Efficiencies
Depending on construction, photovoltaic modules can produce electricity from a
range of frequencies of light, but usually cannot cover the entire solar range
(specifically, ultraviolet, infrared and low or diffused light). Hence much of the
incident sunlight energy is wasted by solar modules, and they can give far higher
efficiencies if illuminated with monochromatic light. Therefore, another design
concept is to split the light into different wavelength ranges and direct the beams
onto different cells tuned to those ranges.
[citation needed]
This has been projected to be
capable of raising efficiency by 50%.
Currently the best achieved sunlight conversion rate (solar module efficiency) is
around 21.5% in new commercial products. typically lower than the efficiencies of
their cells in isolation. The most efficient mass-produced solar modules

have
energy density values of up to 175 W/m
2
(16.22 W/ft
2
). A research by Imperial
College, London has shown that the efficiency of a solar panel can be improved by
studding the light-receiving semiconductor surface with aluminum nanocylinders
similar to the ridges on Lego blocks. The scattered light then travels along a longer
path in the semiconductor which meant that more photons could be absorbed and
converted into current. Although these nanocylinders were used previously in
which aluminum was preceded by gold and silver, the light scattering occurred in
the near infrared region and visible light was absorbed strongly. Aluminum was
found to have absorbed ultraviolet part of the spectrum and the visible and near
infrared parts of the spectrum were found to be scattered by the aluminum surface.
This, the research argued, could bring down the cost significantly and improve the
efficiency as aluminum is more abundant and less costly than gold and silver. The
research also noted that the increase in current makes thinner film solar panels
technically feasible without "compromising power conversion efficiencies, thus
reducing material consumption".
[3]

Micro-inverted solar panels are wired in parallel which produces more output than
normal panels which are wired in series with the output of the series determined by
the lowest performing panel (this is known as the "Christmas light effect"). Micro-
inverters work independently so each panel contributes its maximum possible
output given the available sunlight.
[citation needed]

Crystalline silicon modules

Most solar modules are currently produced from silicon photovoltaic cells. These
are typically categorized as monocrystalline or polycrystalline modules.
Thin-film modules
Third generation solar cells are advanced thin-film cells. They produce a relatively
high-efficiency conversion for the low cost compared to other solar technologies.
Rigid thin-film modules[edit]
In rigid thin film modules, the cell and the module are manufactured in the same
production line.
The cell is created on a glass substrate or superstrate, and the electrical connections
are created in situ, a so-called "monolithic integration". The substrate or superstrate
is laminated with an encapsulant to a front or back sheet, usually another sheet of
glass.
The main cell technologies in this category are CdTe, or a-Si, or a-Si+uc-Si
tandem, or CIGS (or variant). Amorphous silicon has a sunlight conversion rate of
6-12%.
Flexible thin-film modules
Flexible thin film cells and modules are created on the same production line by
depositing the photoactive layer and other necessary layers on a flexible substrate.
If the substrate is an insulator (e.g. polyester or polyimide film)
then monolithic integration can be used.
If it is a conductor then another technique for electrical connection must be used.
The cells are assembled into modules by laminating them to a transparent
colourless fluoropolymer on the front side (typically ETFE or FEP) and a polymer
suitable for bonding to the final substrate on the other side. The only commercially
available (in MW quantities) flexible module uses amorphous silicon triple
junction (fromUnisolar).
So-called inverted metamorphic (IMM) multijunction solar cells made
on compound-semiconductor technology are just becoming commercialized in July
2008. TheUniversity of Michigan's solar car that won the North American Solar
Challenge in July 2008 used IMM thin-film flexible solar cells.
The requirements for residential and commercial are different in that the residential
needs are simple and can be packaged so that as solar cell technology progresses,
the other base line equipment such as the battery, inverter and voltage sensing
transfer switch still need to be compacted and unitized for residential use.
Commercial use, depending on the size of the service will be limited in the
photovoltaic cell arena, and more complex parabolic reflectors and solar
concentrators are becoming the dominant technology.
Flexible thin-film panels are optimal for portable applications as they are much
more resistant to breakage than regular crystalline cells, but can be broken by
bending them into a sharp angle. They are also much lighter per square foot than
standard rigid solar panels.
The global flexible and thin-film photovoltaic (PV) market, despite caution in the
overall PV industry, is expected to experience a CAGR of over 35% to 2019,
surpassing 32 GW according to a major new study by IntertechPira.
Smart solar modules
Several companies have begun embedding electronics into PV modules. This
enables performing maximum power point tracking (MPPT) for each module
individually, and the measurement of performance data for monitoring and fault
detection at module level. Some of these solutions make use of power optimizers, a
DC-to-DC converter technology developed to maximize the power harvest from
solar photovoltaic systems. As of about 2010, such electronics can also compensate
for shading effects, wherein a shadow falling across a section of a module causes
the electrical output of one or more strings of cells in the module to fall to zero, but
not having the output of the entire module fall to zero.
Module performance and aging
Module performance is generally rated under standard test conditions
(STC): irradiance of 1,000 W/m, solar spectrum of AM 1.5 and module
temperature at 25C.
Electrical characteristics include nominal power (P
MAX
, measured in W), open
circuit voltage (V
OC
), short circuit current (I
SC
, measured in amperes), maximum
power voltage (V
MPP
), maximum power current (I
MPP
), peak power, W
p
, and
module efficiency (%).
Nominal voltage refers to the voltage of the battery that the module is best suited to
charge; this is a leftover term from the days when solar modules were only used to
charge batteries. The actual voltage output of the module changes as lighting,
temperature and load conditions change, so there is never one specific voltage at
which the module operates. Nominal voltage allows users, at a glance, to make
sure the module is compatible with a given system.
Open circuit voltage or V
OC
is the maximum voltage that the module can produce
when not connected to an electrical circuit or system. V
OC
can be measured with a
meter directly on an illuminated module's terminals or on its disconnected cable.
The peak power rating, W
p
, is the maximum output under standard test conditions
(not the maximum possible output). Typical modules, which could measure
approximately 1x2 meters or 2x4 feet, will be rated from as low as 75 watts to as
high as 350 watts, depending on their efficiency. At the time of testing, the test
modules are binned according to their test results, and a typical manufacturer might
rate their modules in 5 watt increments, and either rate them at +/- 3%, +/-5%, +3/-
0% or +5/-0%.
Solar modules must withstand rain, hail, and cycles of heat and cold for many
years. Many crystalline silicon module manufacturers offer a warranty that
guarantees electrical production for 10 years at 90% of rated power output and 25
years at 80%.
Recycling
Most parts of a solar module can be recycled including up to 97% of certain
semiconductor materials or the glass as well as large amounts of ferrous and non-
ferrous metals.
[10]
Some private companies and non-profit organizations are
currently engaged in take-back and recycling operations for end-of-life modules.
[11]

Recycling possibilities depend on the kind of technology used in the modules:
Silicon based modules: aluminium frames and junction boxes are dismantled
manually at the beginning of the process. The module is then crushed in a mill
and the different fractions are separated - glass, plastics and metals. It is
possible to recover more than 80% of the incoming weight. This process can be
performed by flat glass recyclers since morphology and composition of a PV
module is similar to those flat glasses used in the building and automotive
industry. The recovered glass for example is readily accepted by the glass foam
and glass insulation industry.
Non-silicon based modules: they require specific recycling technologies such as
the use of chemical baths in order to separate the different semiconductor
materials. For cadmium telluride modules, the recycling process begins by
crushing the module and subsequently separating the different fractions. This
recycling process is designed to recover up to 90% of the glass and 95% of the
semiconductor materials contained. Some commercial-scale recycling facilities
have been created in recent years by private companies
Since 2010, there is an annual European conference bringing together
manufacturers, recyclers and researchers to look at the future of PV module
recycling.
Production

The "solar tree", a symbol ofGleisdorf, Austria
In 2010, 15.9 GW of solar PV system installations were completed, with solar PV
pricing survey and market research company PVinsights reporting growth of
117.8% in solar PV installation on a year-on-year basis. With over 100% year-on-
year growth in PV system installation, PV module makers dramatically increased
their shipments of solar modules in 2010. They actively expanded their capacity
and turned themselves into gigawatt GW players. According to PVinsights, five of
the top ten PV module companies in 2010 are GW players. Suntech, First Solar,
Sharp, Yingli and Trina Solar are GW producers now, and most of them doubled
their shipments in 2010.
[19]

Top ten producers
The top ten solar module producers (by MW shipments) in 2010 were:
[19]

1. Suntech
2. First Solar
3. Sharp Solar
4. Yingli
5. Trina Solar
6. Canadian Solar
7. Hanwha Solarone
8. SunPower
9. Renewable Energy Corporation
10. SolarWorld
Price
Average pricing information divides in three pricing categories: those buying small
quantities (modules of all sizes in the kilowatt range annually), mid-range buyers
(typically up to 10 MWp annually), and large quantity buyers (self-explanatory
and with access to the lowest prices). Over the long term there is clearly a
systematic reduction in the price of cells and modules. For example in 2012 it was
estimated that the quantity cost per watt was about $0.60, which was 250 times
lower than the cost in 1970 of $150.
[20][21]

Real world prices depend a great deal on local weather conditions. In a cloudy
country such as the United Kingdom, price per installed kW is higher than in
sunnier countries like Spain.
Following to RMI, Balance-of-System (BoS) elements, this is, non-module cost of
non-microinverter solar modules (as wiring, converters, racking systems and
various components) make up about half of the total costs of installations.
For merchant solar power stations, where the electricity is being sold into the
electricity transmission network, the cost of solar energy will need to match the
wholesale electricity price. This point is sometimes called 'wholesale grid parity' or
'busbar parity'.
[22]

Some photovoltaic systems, such as rooftop installations, can supply power
directly to an electricity user. In these cases, the installation can be competitive
when the output cost matches the price at which the user pays for his electricity
consumption. This situation is sometimes called 'retail grid parity', 'socket parity' or
'dynamic grid parity'. Research carried out by UN-Energy in 2012 suggests areas
of sunny countries with high electricity prices, such as Italy, Spain and Australia,
and areas using diesel generators, have reached retail grid parity.


Mounting systems
Trackers

Solar modules mounted on solar trackers
Solar trackers increase the amount of energy produced per module at a cost of
mechanical complexity and need for maintenance. They sense the direction of the
Sun and tilt the modules as needed for maximum exposure to the light.
Fixed racks
Fixed racks hold modules stationary as the sun moves across the sky. The fixed
rack sets the angle at which the module is held. Tilt angles equivalent to an
installation's latitude are common. Most of these fixed racks are set on poles above
ground.
Ground mounted
Ground mounted solar power systems consist of solar modules held in place by
racks or frames that are attached to ground based mounting supports.
Ground based mounting supports include:
Pole mounts, which are driven directly into the ground or embedded in
concrete.
Foundation mounts, such as concrete slabs or poured footings
Ballasted footing mounts, such as concrete or steel bases that use weight to
secure the solar module system in position and do not require ground
penetration. This type of mounting system is well suited for sites where
excavation is not possible such as capped landfills and simplifies
decommissioning or relocation of solar module systems.
Roof mounting
Roof-mounted solar power systems consist of solar modules held in place by racks
or frames attached to roof-based mounting supports.
Roof-based mounting supports include:
Pole mounts, which are attached directly to the roof structure and may use
additional rails for attaching the module racking or frames.
Ballasted footing mounts, such as concrete or steel bases that use weight to
secure the panel system in position and do not require through penetration. This
mounting method allows for decommissioning or relocation of solar panel
systems with no adverse effect on the roof structure.
All wiring connecting adjacent solar modules to the energy harvesting
equipment must be installed according to local electrical codes and should be
run in a conduit appropriate for the climate conditions.