FILTER DESJGN

Filters occur so frequently in the instrumentation

and communications industries that no book covering
the field ofrfcircuit dt::sign could be complete without
at least one chapter devoted to the subject. Indeed.
entire books have been written on the art of filter de-
sign alone, so this single chapter cannot possibly cover
nil aspects of all types of filters. But it will bmiliarize
yOU with the characteristics of four of the most com-
used filters and will enable you to design ver)'
quickl)' and easily a filter that will meet, or exceed.
most of the common filter requirements that you will
encounter.
\Ve will cover Butterworth, Chebyshev, and Bes-
sel filters in all of their common configuratior...:: lou;-
pass, high-pass, bandpass, and bandstop. \Ve will
Jearn how to take advantage of the char-
acteristics unique to each type of filter. Finally. we
will Jearn how to design some very powerful filters
in as little as 5 minutes by merely looking through a
catalog to choose a design to suit your needs.
BACKGROUND
In Chapter 2, the concept of resonance was ex-
plored and we determined the effects that component
value chanees had on resonant circuit operation. 'You
should nov.: be somewhat familiar with the methods
that are used in analyzing passive resonant circuits
to nnd quantities, such as loaded Q, insertion loss, and
b:r:d,..idth..'Yau .should alsa be of designing
or two-resonator circuits for any loaded Q desired
I(or, at least, determine why you cannot). Quite a few
Iof the .filter applications that you will encounter, how-
Iever, cannot be satis6ed with the simple bandpass
j given in Chapter There are
when, lOstead of passing a certalO band of frequencIes
while rejecting frequencies above and below (band-
pass). we would like to attenuate a small band of fre
while passing all others. This type of filter
IS called, appropriately enough, a bandstop filter. Still
other requirements call for a low-pass or high-pass
response. The characteristic curves for these responses
are in Fig. 3.1. The low-pass filter will allow
aH .slgnals below a certain cutoH frequency to pass
\\'h1l
e
attenuating all others. A high-pass filter's re-
SPOnse is the mirror-image of the low-pass response
and attenuates all signals below a certain cutoff fre-
quency while allowing those above cutoff to pass.
These types of response simply cannot be handled
very well with the two-resonator bandpass of
Chapter2. -
In this chapter, we will use the low-pass filter as
our as all other responses will be derived
from it. So let's take a quick look at a simple low-pass
filter and examine its characteristics. F: g. 32 is an
example of a very simple two-polc, or second-order
low-pass filter. The order of a Blter is determined by
the slope of the attenuation curve it presents in the
stopband. A second-order filter one whose rolloff is
a function of the squared, or 12 dB per
octave. A third-order filter causes a rolloff thnt is pro.
portional to frequenc)' cubed, or 18 dB per octave.
Thus, the order of n filter can be equated with the
number of significant reactive elements that it pre-
sents to the source as the signal deviates from the
passband.
The circuit ofFig. 32 can be in much the
same manner as was done in Chapter 2. For instance,
an examination of the effects of loaded Qon the reo

sponse would yield the family of curves shown in Fig.
3-3. Surprisingly, even this circuit configuration can
cause a peak in the response. This is due to the fact
thatatsomefrequenc)', the inductor and capacitor will
become resonant and, thus, peak the response if the
loaded Q is high enough. The resonant frequency can
bedeterminedfrom
1
(Eg. 3-1)

Forlowvaluesofloaded Q, however, no response peak
willbenoticed.
The lortded Qof this filter is dependent upon the
individual Q's of the series leg and the shunt leg
where, assuming perfect components,
X
Ql =---.!: (Eg.3-2)
R.
and,
(Eg.3-3)
44
I
I
45
FtLTD\ DE:sICN
:lnd the total Qis:
_ Q1Q2
Q
lOUl - Ql +Q2 (Eq.3-4)
IIthe total Qof the circuit is gre::aler than a.bout 0.5.
thcn for optimum transfer of power from the source
to the load, Ql should equal Q2. In this case, at the
./
Frequency
(1\) Low-pa.u.
Frequency
(B) High-paJJ..
I
I
I
Frcqutncy
(C) Bandstop.
Fig.3-1. Typical filler response curves.
Fig.:)-2. A simplelow-pass filter.
peak'frequency, the response will approach O-d13 in-
sertion loss. II the total Qof the nchyork is less th::m
ab9ut 0.5, there will be no peak in the response Jncl.
for optimum transfer of power, R. should equal Rl..
Thepeakingof the filter's response is commonlycalled
ripple (defined in Chapter 2) and C:ln vary consider.
$O'----:...--.:-...:...--J..........
0.1 0.1 O.S 1.0 z.o S.O 10
(III,'
Fig. J-J.Typical two-pole filter response C\JrYe-s.
fill. Threl!.. low.p::u.. Blter.

Fig.J-5.Typicalresponse of a.
low-pus filter.
0
10
=20

c
)0
::I
E
<oW
SO
O.l 0.5 1.0 2.0

FnquenC'Y(fll.)
. f S VI Q
FIS. Curvesshowmg requency respon e .
for three-element low-pass fiJten.
I
;1b)\, from one filter design to the next depending on
r::e'application. As shown, the two-element filter ex-
.:bits only one response peak at the edge of the pass-
Jndo
It CJn be shown th:Jt the numberof peaks within the
Jssband is directl), related to the number of ele-
in thefilter by:
NumberofPeaks= N - 1
here,
S== thenumberofelements.
,:us. the three-element low-pass filter of Fig. 3-4
auld exhibit two response peaks as shown in Fig.
-0 This is true only if the loaded Qis greater than
eo Typical response curves for various values of
ded Q for the circuit given in Fig. 34 are shown
Fig. 3-6. For all odd-order networks, the response
dc and at the upper edge of the passband ap-
aches 0 dB with dips in the response between the
frequencies. All even-order networks will pro-
e 20 insertion loss at dc equal to the amount of
band ripple in dB. Keep in mind, however, that
er of these twonetworks, ifdesigned for lowvalues
olided Q, can be made to exhibit little or no pass-
d ripple. But, as you can see from Figs. 3-3 and
the elimination of passband ripple can be ':lade
.. at the expense of bandwicith. '::he smaller the
Ie that is allowed, the wider the bandwidth be-
es and, therefore, selectivity suffers. Optimum
ess in the passband occurs when the loaded Q
'ne three-element circuit is equal to one (1). Any
eof loaded Q that is less than one will cause the
onse to roll. off noticeably even at very lew
uencies, within the defined passband. Thus, not
.is the poorer but the passballd inser-
loss is too. In an application where there is not
,b signal to begin with, an even further decrease
ignal strength could be disastrous.
,ow that we have taken a quick look at two repre-
.tive low-passfiltersand theirassociatedrespomes,
,discuss filters in general:'
igh
_
Q
filters tend to exhibit a far greater initial
pe toward the stopband than their low-Q coun-
rparts with the same number of elements. Thus,
. an)' frequency in the stopband, the attenuation
I!I be greater for a high.Q filter than for one witt t
Q. The penalty for this improvement is
e Ulcrease in passband ripple that must occur
a result. .. -. o. "
n
w-Q filters tend to have the flattest passband
. but their initial attenuation siope at the
edge is small. Thus, the penalty for the re-
passband ripple is a decrease in the initial
P .a
nd
attenuation.
the resonant circuits discussed in Chapter
e Source and load resistors loading a filter will
\'e
t profound effect on the Q of the filter and,
re are, On the passband ripple and shape factor
RF CmcuIT DESICl'
of the filter. Ifa is inserted between h\l0 I e-
sistance values for which it was not designed, the
performance will suHer to an extent dependin n
upon the degree of error in the
pedancevalues.
4. The final attenuation slope of the response is de-
pendent upon thc order of the network. The order
of the network is equal to the number of reactive
elements in thc low-pass filtcr. Thus, a second-order
network (2elements) falls off at a final attenuation
slope of 12dB peroctave, a third-order network (3
at the rate of 18 dB per octave, and so
on, wlth the addition of 6 dB per octave per ele-
ment.
FILTER DESIGN
Modern design has evolved through the years
from a subject known only to specialists in the field
(because of the advanced mathematics involved) to
a well-organized of ready-to-use cir-
CUits available to anyone With a knowledge of eighth
grade level math. In fact, an average individual with
absolutely no prior practical filter design experience
be a.ble to sit down, read this chapter, and
WithIn 30 mmutes be able to design a practical high-
pass, low-pass, bandpass, or bandstop Iter to his
speciBcations. It sounds simple and it is-once a few
basicrulesarememorized.
The approach we will take in all of the 0t;;signs in
this chapter will be to make use of the myriad of
normalized low-pass prototypcs that are now avail-
able to 1le designer. The actual design procedure is,
nothing more than determining your re-
qUlrements and, then, finding a filter in a catalog.
which satisfies these requirements. Each normalized
element value is then scaled to the frequency and im-
pedance you desire and, then, transformed to the type
of response (bandpass, high-pass, bandstop) that you
wish. \Vith practice, the procedure becomes very sim-
pleandsoon you will be defining and designing B1ters.
The concept of normalization may at first seem
foreign fo the person who is a newcomer to L'-1e field
ofSlterdesign, and theideaoftransfonning a low-pass
fllter into one that will give one of the other three
ofresponses mightseemabsurd. The best advice
I can give (to anyone not familiar with these prac-
tices and who might feel a bit skeptical at this point)
is to press on. The only way to truly realize the
beauty and simplicity of this approach is to try a
few actual designs. Once you try a few, you wili be
hooked, and any other approach to filter design will
suddenlyseem tedious and unnecessarily complicated.
NORl\1ALlZATION AND TfIE
LO\\'-PASS PROTOTYPE
In order to offer a catalog of useful filter circuits to
the electronic filter designer, it became necessary to
II ;
I
47 fJLTl1\
t clarclize the presentation of the material. Obvi-
san I'n practice, it would be extremely difficult to
1v
ous , d I h
pare the performance an eva uate t e usefulness
filter networks if tbey were operating under
totaJly different sets of circumstances. Similarly,
:h presentation of any comparative design inIorma-
'. c for filters, if not standardized, would be totally
tID
n
f d d' . Z
useless, This concept 0 stan ar or norma lZil-
'ion then: is merely a tool used by filter experts to
. cs'ent all 6lter design and perfon:nance information
pr fl' . d' N l' t'
. 3 manner use u to Circuit eSlgners. orma lza Ion
the designer of the capability of comptlring
pcrformu.nce of any two filter types when given
thesame operatingconditions.
All of the catalogued filters in this chapter are low-
pass filters normalized for a cutoff frequency of one
r:JOi3n persecond (0.159 Hz) and for source and load
resistors of one ohm. A characteristic response of such
filter is shown in Fig. 3-7. The circuit used to gen-
erate this response is c:llled the low-pass prototlJP
e
<
odB
frequftK1' (.."
Fig. J-7. Normalized low-pusresponse.
. Obviously, the design of a filter with a low
cutoff frequency would require component values
much larger than those we are to working
with; capacitor values would be in farads rather than
microfarads and picofarads, and the inductor vnlues
would be in henries rather than in microhenries and
'nanohenries. But we choose a suitable low-pnss
prototype from the c:ltalog, we can cl1ange the im-
pcd:lnce level and cutoff frequency of the filter to any
Ivalue we wish through a simple proces.s called
(The net resultof this process is a practical filter deSIgn
. ;th realizablecomponentvalues.
r
FILTER TYPES
.\t:lnv ofthe filters used todaybearthe names of the
en who developed them. In this section, we will take
look at three such filters and examine their attenua-
iOn characteristics. Their relative merits will be dis-
usscd and their low-pass prototypes presented. The
hrce filter types discussed will include the Butter-
orth. Chebyshev,andBesselresponses.
Ie Duttcrworth Response
The Butterworth BIter is a medium-Q BIter that is
'sed in designs which require the amplitude respqnse
I
i
of the'filter to be as flat 'as possible. The Butterworth
response is the flattest passband response available
and contains no ripple. Tbe typical response of such
a filter might look like that of Fig, 3-8.
Since the Butterworth response is only a medium-Q
filter, its initial attenuation steepness is not as good
as some filters but it ubetter than others. This char-
acteristic often causes the Butterworth response to be
called a middle-of-the-road design.
The attenuation of a Butterworth BIter is given by
(Eq.35)
where,
w =the frequency at which the attenuation is de
sired,
We =thecutofffrequency (W3 d8) ofthefilter,
n =thenumberofelementsin thefilter.
IfEquation 3-5 is evaluated at various frequencies
for various numbers of elements, a familv of curves
is generated which will give a very good graphiC31
representation of the attenuation provided by any
order of BIter any frequency. This information is
illustrated in Fig.3-9.Thus,from Fig.39, a 5-element
(Bfth'order) filter will provide an attenu
ation of approximately30 dB at a freq,uency equal to
odS...----------.
-}dB --------------.---
C


:2 "I

<
..--
I
I
.
:
- 1,
:
I

I
.
frtquen<y ("I'
Fig. J-8.TheButterworth response.
0
1.2
24
36
=48
c

60
;
:t
n
<
84
96
108
1.5 2.0 2.' 3.0 3.5 .&.0
R.arioJ(/'.1 \;
Fig. AttenuationcharacteristiC! tor }::
Butterworth fillen, ,/--U
JJ
'
r(
I
.ethe cutoff frequency of the Blter. Notice here
tV/Ie . l' d d th
til t thefrequency aXIS 15 normalze to w/wr; an e
a hbegins at the cutoff (-3dB) point. This graph
useful as it provides you with a method
fdetermining, ata glance, the orderofa lterneeded
o meet a given attenuation specification. A brief
fO mple should illustrate this point (Example 3-1).
ex3
EXAMPLE J.l
How many elements are required to design a Butter.
worth filter with a cu tolJ frequency of 5.0 hiHz, ifthe filter
must provide at least 50 dB of attenualion at 150 MH%?
SoJulicm
The first step in the solution is to .lind the ratio 01 IIJI w.
::fjf
f 150MHz
SO MHz
.=3
Th\U. at 3 times the cutofffrequency, the rcspomc must be
down by atleast50dB. Referring to Fig. 3-9, it is seen very
Quickl)' that a minimum of 6 elements is required to meet
\his oesign At an IIE, of 3, a 6-e1ement design would
provide approximately 5? dB of attenuation. a
ment design would provJde only about 47 dB, which 1$ not
quite Bood enough.
The element values for a normalized Butterworth
ow.pass filter operating between equal l-ohm tenni-
2tions (source andload) can be found by
I
. (2k-l)1T
(Eq.3-6)
. A.. =2 SID 2n 'k=1,.2, .n
t
, numberofelements,
. A, is the k-th reactance in the ladder and may be,
eitheraninductororcapacitor.
Be (2k - 1)-rr/2n ill i'lioians. can use
.uation 3-6 to generate our first entry into the cata-
gof iow-pass prototypes shown in Table 3-1. The
acement of each component of the filter is shown
mediately above and below the table.
t,
The rules for interpreting Butterworth tables are
pIe. The schematic shown above the table is used
. the ratio Rs/R
L
is calculated as the design
lena. The table is read from the lOp down. Alter-
tely, whenRL/R
a
is calculated, theschematicbelow
table isused. Then,the element designators in the
Ie are read from,:the buttom up. Thus, a four-ele-
nt low-pass prototype coul.d appear as shown in
3-10. Note herethattheelementvalues not given
Table3-1 aresimplyleftoutoftheprototype
ark. TIle I-ohm load resistor is then placed di-
d}" acrosstheoutputofthefilter.
thatthe cutofffrequency ofeach filter is
dian persecond,or0.159 Hz. Each capacitor value
en is in farads, and each inductor value is in ben-
RF Cmevrr DESICN
ries. Thenetworkwill laterbe scaled to the impedance
and frequenC)1 that isdesired through a simple multi,
plication and division process. The component values
will then appear much more realistic.
Occasionall)', wehave theneedto design a filter that
will operate between two unequal terrrunations as
shown in Fig. 3-11. In this case, the circuit unormal.
1.H8 0.16$
'\, 0.165 I
Fig.3-10.A lour-elementButterworthlow-Pius
prototypecircuit.
Table 3-1. Butterworth Equal Termination Low-Pass
Prototype ElementValues (R
a
= R
L
)
tl C
J
L
2

II
L.
l.
11
C, L. C
7
2 1.414
1..(1.(
3 1.000 2.000 1.000
of 0.765 1.848 1.848 0.765
5 -0.618 1.618 2.000 1.618 0.618
6 0.518 1.414 1.932 1.932 1.414 0.518
7 0.445 1.247 1.802 2.000 1.802 1.247 0.445
n L
J
C
2
La C. L
s ell
L
7
Fig. 311. tennin,aUoru.
. Fig.3-12.. NormalIudunequal tcnninations.
I
ized for a load resistance of 1. ohm, while taking what
we get for the source resistance.. Dividing both the
load and source resistor by 10 will yield a load re-
sistance of 1 ohm and a source resistance of 5 ohms
JS shown in Fig. 3-12. \Vc can use the normalized
terminating resistors to help us find a low.pass proto-
typecircuit.
Table 3-2 is a list of Butterworth low-pass proto-
type values for various r:lUos of to load im-
pedance (Rs/Rd. The shown above the
table is used when Rs/RL IS calculated, and the ele-
ment values are read down from the top of the table.
T2ble 32A. Butterworth Low-Pass
Prototype Element Values
I
I
n R
3
/Rc. C
1
L, C
3
2 1.111 1.035 1.835
1.250 0.849 2.121
0.697 2.439
1.661 0.566 2.828
2.000 0.448 3.346
2.500 0.342 4.095
3.333 0.245 5.313
5.000 0.156 1.101
10.000 0.014 14.814
::0 1.114 0.707
J ').900 0.808 1.633 1.599
0.800 0.844 1.384 1.926
0.700 0.915 1.165 2.2.17
0.600 1.023 0.965 2.702
0.500 1.18L 0.179 3.2.6L
0,400 1.425 0.604 4.064
0.300 1.838 0.440 5.363
0.200 2.669 0.284 7.910
0.100 5.161 0.138 15.455
00 1.500 1.333 0.500
4 1.111 0.466 1.502 1.744 1.469
1.250 0.388 . 1.695 1.511 1.811
1.429 0.325 1.862 1.291 2..115
1.661 0.269 2.103 1.082 2.613
",,"2.000 0.218, 2.452 0.88:J
3.187.
2.500 0.169 2.986 0.691 4.009
::3.333 0.124 3.883 0.507 5.338
5.000 0.080 5.684 0.331 1.940
10.000 0.039 11.094 0.162 15.642
co L.S31 1.577 1.082 0.383
n
L,
L)
'{9
Alternately, when RL/Rg is calculated, the schemanc
below the table is used while reading up from the
bottom of the table to get the element values (Ex-
ample3-2).
EXAMPLE 32
Find the low-pus prototype value for an n = Butler.
worth Biter with unequal terminations: R. = 50 ohms. Rio
= 100 ohms.
Solution
Normalizing the two tenninations for Rio = 1 ohm will
yield a value of R. = 0.5. Reading down (rom the: top oC
Table 3-2, for an n =4 low-pus prototype value. we see
that there is no R./RIo =0.5 ratio listed. <AIr secondchoice
then, is to take the vaJue of RJR. = 2, :lnd read up
the bottom of the table while using the schematic below
the table :u the (onn for the low-pus prototype values.
This approach results in the )ow-pau prototype cil"C'lit oC
Fig. 3-13.
\....\ L"\.
0.%18
0.8U
fig.3-13. Low-pusprototypecircuit(,..r Example32,
Obviously, all possible ratios of source to load reo
sistance could not possibly fit on a chart of this size.
This, of course, leaves the potential problem of not
being able to find the ratio that you need for ::I p:H-
ti-:ular design task. The solution to this dilemma is
to simply choose a ratio which most closely matches
the ratio you need to complete the design. FOl ratios
of 100: 1 or so, the best resulu are obtained if you
assume this value to be 30 high for practical purposes
as to be infinite. Since, in these instances, you arc
only approximating the ratio of source to load resis
tance, the filter derived will only approximate the reo
sponse that was originally intended. This i" usually
nottoo muchofa problem.
The Chebyshev Response
The Chebyshev Slter is a high-Q filter that is usecJ
when: (1) a steeper initial descent into the stop,band
is required, and (2) the passband response LS. no
longer required to be flat. \Vith this type of reqUIre-
ment, ripple C:ln be allowed in the pass band. As. m?re
ripple is introduced, the initial slope at the beginnIng
of the stopband is incre:lsed and produces a
rectangular :lttenuation curve when compared.to t .e
rounded Butterworth response. This LS
made in Fig. 3-14. Both curves are [or n:::.3 bterd
The Chebyshev response shown ha..s 3 dB of passb:1nU
ripple and produces a 10 dB in stop
attenuation over the Butterworth Slter. \..,) r
I
RF DESICN
Table 3-2B. Butterworth Low-Pass Protot)'pc Element Values
n
Rs/R
L
C
1 L:! C, L
4 L
II C;
5
0.900 0.442 1.027 1.910 1.756 1.389
0.800 0.470 0.8B6 2.061 1.544 1.738
0.700 0.517 0.731 2.285 1.333 2.108
0.600 0.586 0.609 2.600 1.126 2.552
0.500 0.686 0.496 3.051 0.924 3.133
00400 0.838 0.388 3.736 0.727 3.965
0.300 1.094 0.285 4.884 0.537 5.307
0.200 1.608 0.186 7.185 0.352 7.935
0.100 3.512 0.091 14.095 0.173 15.710
GO 1.545 1.694 1..382 0.894 0.309
6 1.111 0.289 1.040 1.322 2.054 1.744 1.335
1.250 0.245 1.116 1.126 2.239 1.550 1.688
1.429 0.207 1.236 0.957 2.499 1.346 2.062
1.667 0.173 1.407 0.801 2.858 1.143 2.509
2.000 0.141 1.653 0.654 3.'359 0.942 3.094
2.500 0.111
.2.028 0.514 4;141 0.745 3.931
::1.333 0.082 2.656 0.379 5.433 0.552 5.280
5.000 0.054 3.917 0.248 8.020 0.363 7.922
10.00<i 0.026 7.705 0.122 15.786 0.179 15.738
CIQ 1.553 1.759 1.553 1.202 0.758 0.259
1 0.900 0.299 0'.711 1.404 .1..489 2.125 1.727 1.296
0.800 0.322 0.606 1.517 1.278 2.334 1.546 1.652-
0.700 0.357 0.515 1.688 1.091 2.618 1.350 2.028
0.600 0.408 0.432 1.928 0.917 3.005 1.150 2.4;7
0.500 OABO 0.354 2.273 0.751 3.553 0.9S1 3.004
00400 0.590 0.278 2.795 0.592 4.380 0.754 3.904
0.300 0.775 0.206 3.671 0.437 5.761 0.560 5.2.58
0.200 1.145 0.135 5.427 0.287 8.526 0.369 7.908
.---0.100 2.257 0.007 10.700 0.142 16.822 0.182 15.748
GO 'l.sse i,799 1.659 1.397 1.055 0.656 0.223
n Rz/R, L
1
C
2
L
3 C. C. L
l

II l)
4
1",. attenuation of a Chebyshev filter can be found
making afew simplebuttiresome calculations, and
nbe expressedas:
=10log [1+ (2C.
2
(:)'] (Eq.3-7)
ere,
C.
2
(:J' is the' Chebyshevpolynomial to the order
n evaluated at(:J',
Chebyshev for the first seven orders
arc given in Ta.ble 3-3. The parameter f is given by:
where,
Rsa is thepassbandrippleindecibels.
Note that(:c)'is not the same as (:c).Thequan-
'0.
....
tity(:J' canbefoundbydefining anotherparameter:
B=*cosh-I ( Eq.3-9)
I
..0
Butterworth

Fig.J14. Comparison of three-elementChebyshev
and Butterworth responses.
Table J3. Chebyshev Polynomials to the Order n
Chebyshev Polynomial
w
"
2 2C::)2 - 1
3 4(c::)
4 8(:) 4 _ 8(,:)2+1
5 - +5C::)
6 - 48(:.r+ - 1
7 64(:.) T - 112C:)'+ 56(:J
3
- 7(:J
where,
n== theorderofthe filter,
( =theparameterdefinedinEquation3-8,
cosh-I=theinversehyperboliccosineofthequan-
tity inparentheses.
Finally,wehave:
(Eq.310)
where,
(:J=tho ratio of tho frequenc}J of interest to the
cutofffrequency.
cosh =thehyperboliccosine. .,
Ifvour calculator does not have hyperboltc and m-
verse' hyperbolic functions. they can be manually de-
termined from the following relations:
a
coshx= +e- )
and
cosh -IX=
The preceding equations yield families of attenua-
tion curves, each classified according to the amount of
51
.ripple-aHowed in the passband. Several of these fami.
lies ofcurves areshownin Figs. 3-15 through J.1R, and
include O.Ol-dB, O.l-dB, O.S-dB. and 1.0-dB ripple.
Each curve begins at wI We = 1, which is the normal.
ized cutoff, or3dB frequency. The passband rippie is.
therefore, notshown,
If other families of attenuation curves are needed
with differentvalues ofpassband ripple, the preceding
Chebyshev equations can be used to derive them. The
problem in Example 3-3 illustrates this.
Obviously, performing the calculations of E:CJmple
3-3 for various values of wI We. ripple. and BIter order
is a very time-consumingchore unless a programmable
calculator or computer is available to do most of the
workfor you.
The lowpass prototype element values correspond-
ing to the Chebyshev responses of Figs. 3-15 through
.. 318are given in Tables3-4 through 3-7. Note that the
Chebyshev prototype values could not be separated
into two distinct sets of tables covering the equal and
0
11
14
J6
iii

43
i
c

::t
n

3<4
96
108
1.0 2..5 J.D J.5 ,(.0 S 7 3 9 10
lUtio((/reI
Fig.3-15. Attenuation characteristics for a Chebyshe-;
6lterwithO.Ol-dD ripple.
0
12
24
36
iii
43
c:
60
::II
E72
:c
&4
96
108
1.S
1.0 1.5 J.O J ..5 4.0
"t'qu ...". 'ht'o('lfe'
. . r Chebyshev
Fig. :J-16. Attenuationcharactenstics ora .
filter withO.ldB ripple.
-'
52
1.S 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 (.0 5 6 7 8 9 10
frequfncyRatlo(lIf,1
Fia.3-17.Attenuation charactcrUticsfor a Chebyshev
ii1ter with O.S-dB ripple.
nequal terminat;ion cases, as was done Eor the But-
prototypes. This is because the even order
2, 4,6, ...) Chebyshev BIters.cannot have equal
The source al1d load must always be
ilferent for proper operation as shown in the tables.
n=
[."\AMPLE 3-3
Find the attenuation of 4-element, Z.5-dB ripple, low-
pus Chebyshev BIter at CAI/"', = 2.::;.
/,0 "
Soliltion 1., -:;. ij)
First evaluate the parameter:
( = " - 1
== 0.882
hnd B.
1 'l/Cv'
B= V. [ cosh-
J
(0.882J.::r"
i = 0.1279 L.-
Ith...(..I ..,)' is: /'/"
t =2.5cosh .1279
f.
= 2.5204
fina11
Y
we evaluate the fourth order (n == ") Chebyshev
POlynomial .t (w/ w.)' = 2.52.
I
c.(:J=8 (:.r -8 (:.)2 + 1
= 8( 2.5204) - 8( 2.5204)2 + 1
=273.05 -' .
We can now ev&1uate the nnal equation. )
I
2
A.. c 10 loglo [ 1+ (2c. (:.)'] /
=10log"{l + (0.882)2(273.05)2)
=47.63dB
'Thus, at an CfI/W. of 2.5. you can expect 47.63 dB of arten-
Ilition for this filter.
RF Cmcurr DESIGN
0
12
2(
36
=
:!. 48
c
.i
1
60
c
.! 72
<
&4
90
108
1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 6 B 9 10
Fii.3-18.Attenuation chuacterbticsfor a Chebyshev
li.IterwJth l-dD ripple.
The rules used for interpreting the Butterworth ta-
bles apply here also. The schematic sho\1,nibove the
table is used, and the element designators are read
down from thetop, when the ratio Rs/R
L
is calculated
as a design criteria. Alternatel)', with RL/R
s
calcula-
tions, usetheschematicgivenbel:"lw L1e tableand .cad
the element.designatcrs upwards from the bottom of
the table. Example 34 is a practice problem for use
inunderstandingtheprocedure.
EXAl\fPLE 3-4
Find the low-pus prototype f,,( an n = 5. O.I-d.B
ripple, Chebyshev Siter II thesource resistance you are de-
for is 50 ohms and the load resist;l.ncc Is 250 ohms.
Solution
Nonnaliution 01 the source and load resiston yields an
R./RL = 0.2. A look at Table 3-5. for a O.I-dB ripple
Biter with an n = 5 tUld an RalRI. = 0.2, yield.s the' circuit
values shown in Fig. 3-19.
R..tio(11f
t
)
Fig.3-19.Low-pass dre:uit for Example 3-4..
It should be mentioned here that equations could
have been presented in this section for deriving the
elementvalues for theChebyshevlow-pass prototypes.
The equations are extremely long and tediOUS, how-
ever, and there would belittle to be gained from their
presentation.
53
FILTER DESIGN
T:lble 3-4A. Chebyshev Low-P:l.sS Element Values
foc I-dD Ripple.
n R!f/Rc. C,
L"!
1.101 1.347 1.483
1.111 1.247 1.595
1.250 0.943 1.997
1.-129 0.i59 2.344
1.667 0.609 2.750
:!.OOO 0,479
3.277
2.500 0.303 -1.033
3.333 0.259 5.255
5.000 0.164 7.6:50
to.OOO 0.078 11.749
:c 1.412 0.742
J 1.000 1.181 1.8:21 1.181
0.900 1.092 1.660 1.480
0.800 1.097 1.443 1.806
0.700 1.160 1.228 2.165
0.600 1.27.j 1.024 2.598
0.500 1.452 0.829 3.164
0.400 1.734 0.645 3.974
0.300 2.216 0.470 5.280
0.200 3.193 0.305 7.834
0.100 6.141 0.148 15.390
:JO 1.501 1.433 0.591
1.100 0.950 1.938 1.761 1.016
1.111 0.854 1.946 1.744 1.165
1.250 0.618 2.075 1.542 1.617
1.429 0.49S 2.279 1.331 2.008
1.667 0.398 2.571 1.128 2.461
2.000 0.316 2.994 0.926 3.045
2.500 0.242 3.61'1 0.129 3.875
3.333 0.174 4.727 0.538 5.209
5.000 0.112- 6.910 0.352 1.813
10.000 0.054 13.469 0.173 15.510
00 1.529 1.691 1.312 0.523
n Rc.lR, L, C
2
L, L]
The Bessel Filter
The initial stopband attenuation of the Bessel filter
is very poor and can be approximated by:
AdD =3(:.J
2
(Eq.3-11)
ihis B'Cpreuion, however, is not very o.ccuro.te o.bove
al\ wI W
f
that is cqual to about 2. For valuc! of wI We
g:eater than 2, a straight-line approximation of 6 dB
per octave per element can be made. This yields the
family of curves shown in_Fig. 3-20.
Rut why would anyone deliberately design a filter
with very poor initial stopband attenuation charJcter.
istics? The Bessel filter was originally to
obtain a maximally flat group delay or linear phase
characteristic in the filter's passband. Thus, selectivity
orstopbandattenuation is not a primaryconcern when
dealing with the Bessel filter. In high- and medium.Q
filters, such as the Chebyshev and Butterworth filters,
the phase response is extremely nonlinear over the
filter's passband. This phase nonlinearity results in
distortion of wideband signals due to the Widely
varying time delays associated with the different
spectral components of the signal. Bessel filters, on
the other hand, with their maximally Aat (constant)
group delay are able to pass wideband signals with a
minimum of distortion, while still providing some
selecti vi ty.
The low-pass prototype element values for the Bes-
sel filter are given in Table 3-8. Table 3-8 tabulates
the prototi'pe element values for various rntios of
sourceto loadresistance,
FREQUENCY AND IlvlPEDANCE SCALING
Once you specify the BIter, choose the appropriate
.attenuation response, and down the low-pass
prototype values, the ne:ct step is to transform the
prototype circuit into a usable filter. Remember, the
cutoff frequency of the prototype circuit is 0.159 Hz
(w =1radl sec),andit operates bet-.... een a source and
load resistancethatare normalizedso that Rr.. = 1 ohm.
20
eol------4----+--t--t----f--\



2-
c
o
:2
II:
.!
<
100
1201L
(Ilrc'
Fig. J-20.Attenuationcharacteristic,o( Bessel filten.
"-:
RF Cmcurr DESIC
Table 34.B. Chebyshev LowPass Element Values for O.Ol.dB Ripple
n
5
6
7
n
Rl'/R
L
1.000
0.900
0.800
0.700
0.600
0.500
0.400
0.300
0.200
0.100
00
1.101
1.111
1.250

1.667
2.000
2.500
3.333
5.000
10.000

1.000.
0.900
0.800
0.700
0.600
0.500
00400
0.300
0.200
0.100
00
C
1
0.977
0.880
0.877
0.926
1.019
1.166
1.398
1.797
2.604
5.041
1.5-47
0.851
0.760
0.545
..
0.351
0.279
0.21-4
0.155
0.100
0.0:8
1.551
0.913
0.816
0.811
0.857
0.943
1.080
1.297
1.669
2.242
4.701
1.559
L)

1.685
1,456
1.235
1.040
0.863
0.699
0.544
0.398
0.259
0.127
1.795
1.796
1.782
1.884
2.038
2.298
2.678
3.261
4.245
6.22.3
12.171
1.847
1.595
1.362,
1.150
0.967
0.803
0.650
0.507
0.372
0.242
0.119
1.B67
C:!
II
II
C
3
2.037
2.174
2.379
2.658
3.041 .
3.584
4.403


16.741
1.645
1.841
1.775
1,489
1.288
i.061
0.86;
0.682
0.S03
0.330
0.162
1.790
2.002
2.089
2.262
2.516
2.872
3.382
4.1SS
5AS4
8.05;
15.B72
1.B66
L
3
l)
t.
L.
1.685
1.641
1,499
1.32.3
1.135
0.942
0.749
0.557
0.368
0.182
1.2.37
2.021
2.09<4
2.403
2.735
3.167
3.768
4.687
6.163
9.151
18.1OS
1.598
1.870
1.722
1.525
1.323
1.124
0.928
0.73:
0.546
0.360
0.178
1.765
C,

R
l

0.977
1.27<4
1.607
1.977
2.4z..c
3.009
3.845
5.193
7.828
15.613
0.488
1.631
1.638
1.507
1.332
1.145
0.S.:i4
0.761
0.568
0.376
0."187
1.190
2.002

2.465
2.802
3.250
3.875
4.812
6.370
9.484
18.818
1.563
L,
l,
I.,.,
0.937
1.053
1.504
1.899

2.948
3.790
5.143
;.785
15.595
0.469
1.595
'.581
1.464
1.307
1.131
0.947
0.758
0.568
0.378
0.188
1.161
. C.
C
r
0.913
1.206 ,-
1.538
1.910
2.359
2.948
3.790
5.148
7.802
15.652
0..456
L
T

RLI
The transformation is affected through the following
formulas: .
(Eq.3-12)
and
(Eq. 3-13)
Where,
C= thefinal capacitorvalue,
L = thefinal inductorvalue,
C.=alow-passprototypeelementvalue,
L. = alow-passprototypeelement
R= thefinal loadresistorvalue,
f
t
= theinalcutofffrequency_
The nonnalized low-pass prototype source resistor
must also be transformed to its value by multi-
plying it by the ina] value of the load resistor (Ex
ample3-5).Thus,the ratio of the two always remains
thesame.
55
fILTER DESIGN
Table 3-SA. Chebyshev Low-Pass Element
Values for O.IdB Ripple
n R.,/Rc. C
t L'l
J
2
4
1.355
1.429
1.667
2.000
2.500
J.JJJ
5.000
10.000

1.000
0.900
0.800
O.iOO
0.600
0.500
0.400
0.300
0.200
0.100
CIO
1.355
1.429
1.667
2.000
2.500
3.333
5.000
10.000
CIO
1.209
0.977
0.733
0.560
0.417
0.293
0.184
0.087
1.391
1..j33
1.426
1.451
1.521
1.648
1.853
2.18d
2.763
3.942
7.512
1.513
0.992
0.779
0.5i6
0,440
0.329
0.233
0.148
0.070
1.511
I
1.638
1.982
2.489
3.054
3.827
5.050
7.426
14.433
,0.BI9
1.594
1.494
1.356
1.193
1.017
0.838
0.660
0,486
0.317
0.155
1.510
2.148
2.348
2.730
3.227
3.961
5.178
7.607
14.887-
1.768
1.433
1.622
1.871
2.190
2.603
3.159
3.968
5.279
7.850
15.':166
0.716
1.585
1.429
1.185
0.967
0.760
0.560
0.367
0.180
1.455
1.341
l.iOO
2.243
2.856
3.698
5.030
7.614
15.230
0.6":3
n
RdR
s
L
t
L
s

l
L, L)
The process for designing a filter is n very
simple one which involves the following procedure:
1. the response you need by specifying the re-
quired attenuation characteristics at selected fre-
quencies.
2. Normalize the frequencies of interest by dividing
them bythe cutoff frequency of the filter. This step
forces your data to be in the same form as that of
the 3.ttenuation curves of this chapter, where the
.3dBpointon thecurveis:
f
-=1

EXAMPLE 35
the low-pass prototype of Fi't. 3-19 (F.r:lm.
pIe J-t) tu :l cutoff frequency of 50 MHz .:lnd a load resis-
t:lnce of 250 ohms.
Solution
Use Equacions 312 wd 3-13 to scale each componenc
as follows:

C _ 3.546 (1/ .
\,..
r.:-,
=45 e!-, e.
r _ 9.127 I
..... - 27T(50 X 10
11
)( 2SO)
=116pF
7.889
C.=2"( 50 X 10
11
)( 250)
=100pF
L._ (250)(0.295)
- 27T(50 X 10
8
)
=235nH
L _ (250)(0.366)
1- 27T(5O X 10")
=291 nf!
. source resistance Is scaled by multiplyinl its normal
ized value by the I1nal of the load resistor.
--- -
RI," " =O.2(250) -' ,
=50ohms
The fin31 circuit appears in Fig. 321.
Fig. 321. Low-pusSltercircuitfor Example3-5.
3. Determine the maximum amount of ripple that you
can allow in the passband. Remember, the greater
theamountofripple allowed, the mor.c selective the
filter is: Higher of ripple may a110w you to
a fewcomponents.
4, Match the normalized attenuation characteristics
(Steps 1 and 2) with the attenuation curves piG-
vided in this chapter.Allow yourselfa small"fudge-
factor" forgoodmeasure.This step reveals the mini
mum number of circuit elements that you can get
awaywith-givena certainfilter type.
5. Find the prototype values in the tables.
O. Scale all clements to the frequency arid impedance
oftheBnaldesign.
E:<ample 3-6 diagrams the process of designing a low-
passfilter usingtheprecedingsteps.
I
55 RF Cmcurr DSICN
" Table J.SB. Prototype Eltment Values for O.IdB' Ripple
L
1
l. 4
R
L
n Rs/R
L C
1 L
2
C
3 L. C$
La C,
5 1.000 1.301
1.556 2.241 1.556 1.301
0.900
1.285 1,433 2.380 10488 1.'188
0.800 1.300 1.282 2.582 1:382 '
1.738
0.700
1.358 1.117 2.888 1.24-4 2.062
0.600 1.470 0.947 3.269 1.085 2,48-(
0.500 1.654 0.778 3.845 0.913 3.055
0..400 1.954 0.612 4.720 0.733 3.886
0.300 2.477 0.451 6.196 0.550 5.237
0.200 ----3-.546 0.295 9.127 0.386 7.889
0.100 6.787 0.115 17.957 0.182 15.745
CIO 1.561 1.807 1.766 1.417 0.651'
6 1.355 0.942 2.080 1.659 2.2-47 1.53-4 1.277
1.429 0.735 2.z.49 1.454 2.54. 1.405 1.629
1.667 0.542 2.600 1.183 3.06-4 1.185"
2.17t
2.000 0.414 3.068 0.958 3.712 0.979

2.S(j()
0.310 3.765 0.749 4.651 0.778 3.645
3.a33 0.220 4.927 0.551 6.195 0.580 4.996
..5.000 0.139 7.250 0.3ft 9.261 0.384. 7.618
10.000 0.067 H.2ZC 0.178 18.427 0.190 15.350
CIO . 1.53-4 1.884 1.831 1.749 1.39. 0.638
7 1.000 1.262 1.520 2.239 1.680
1.520
1.2.62
0.900 1.242 1.395 2.361 1.578 2.397 1.459 1.447
0.800 1.255 1.2-45 2.54R 1.443 2.624 1.362 1.697
0.700 1.310 1.083 2.819 1.283 2.942 1.233 2.021
0.600 1.417 0.917 3.205 1.200 3.38. 1.081 2.H4
0.500 1.595 0.753 3.764 u.928 4.015 0.914 3.018
00400 1.885 0.593 4.618 0.742 4.970 0.738 3.855
0.300 2.392 0.431 6.054 0.556 6.569 0.557 5.211
0.200 3..428 '0.286 8.937 0.369 9.770 0.372 7.890
0.100 6.570 0.141 17.603 0.1a.. 19.376 0.186 15.813
co 1.575 1.858 1.921 1.827 1.734 1.379 0.631
n L] C
2
L
3
C
4
L$ C
e
L,
L, l)
ls
4 fLL,/,t1 ,
that at an of 1/3 (or. fe/f =3) a 5element, 0.1-_
dB-ripple Chebyshevhigh-pass filter will also produce
HIGH-PASS FILTER DESIGN
an attenuation of GO dB..This is obviously more con
nee you have learned the mechanics of low-pass venient than baving to refer to more than one set of
rdesign. high-pass designbecomesa snap.You can
curves. .
,',
all of the attenuation response curves presented. After finding the response which satisfies all of the
far. for the low-pass filters by simply inverting re'quirements. the next step.is to simply refer to the
(lfe axis. For instance, a 5element, O.l-dB-ripple tables of low-pass prototype values and COP)' do".'n
ebyshev low--pass filter will produce an attenuation theprototypevaluesthatarecalledfor. High.pass val.
dB at an [He of 3 (Fig. 316). IfyOll were ues for the elements are then obtained directly from
king instead with ahigh.pass filter of the same the prototype values as follows (refer to
and type, you could still,use Fig. 3-16 to tell you
Fig. 3-24): .

q:
'., (
fa:n:I\
57
EXAMPLE :J-6 /'
Design a filter to meet the follQwing spedfica-
tions:
f. = 35 MHz.
greater than 60 dB d.own at 105 z,
Ma.:JtImaJly Bat p3..5sband-no ripple,
R. = 50 ohms. ;
Rio = 500 ohms.
Solution
The need for a maximally Rat passband automatically in-
dicates that the design must be a Butterworth response.
The nrst step in the design process is to normalize every-
thing. Thus.
"....
Rt. 500 q
=0.1
normalize the frequencies ofInterest so thst they may
be found in the graph of Fig. 3-9. Thus. we have:
f..... _ 105MHz _l. _. _
f, - J5 MHz -- J__
= J 5e
We look at Fig.3-9 and find a response thatis down
at least 60 dB ata frequencyrallo of fIf. =3. Fig. :3-9 Sn-
dicates that it will take a minimum of7 eISriients--to-provide
the attenuation specified. Rete:ingto the catalogof Butter-
worth low-pa.ss p,-ototype vaJues given in Table 32 yields
the prototype circuit of 3-22.
0.067 0.142
L!
\.000
Fig. Low-pass prototypecircuitlorExample3-6.
We then scale these value3 using Equation, 3-12 and
3-13. The first two value3 are worked out lor you.
e 2.257
, = 211'(35 X )500
= 21 pF
J _ (500)(0.067)
.A -2"(35X 10
e
)
= 152nH
SimiJarly,
Co = 97pF,
e. = 1SJpF.
e =143 pr,
t, = 323 nH.
1... =414 nH.
R. =50ohms,
Ih. = 500ohms.
The 6nal circuit is shown Fig. 3-23.
''''-..
Table':J6A. Chebyshev- Low-PaH Prototype Element
Values for O.S-dB Ripple
'
n R.,/R[, C, C
3
L
i
2 1.984 0.9&3 1.950
2.000 0.909 2.103
2.500 0.554 3.165
:3.333 0.375 4.411
5.000 0.228 6.700
10.000 0.105 13.322
00 1.307 0.975
:3 1.000 1.864 1.280 1.83-1
0.900 1.918 1.209 2.026
0.800 l.GG7 '2,237
0.700 2.114 1.015 2.511
0.500 2.557 0.759 3.436
0.400 2.985 0.615 4.242
0.300 3.729 0.463 5.575
0.200 5.254 0.309 8.225
0.100 9.890 0.153 16.118
00 1.572 1.518 0.932
/.f'"1
0.920 2.586 1.304 1.828
l/
2.000 0.845 2.720 1.238 1.985
_- 2.500 0.516 3.766 0.869 3.121
3.333 0.:344 5.120 0.621 4.480
5.000 0.210 7.708 OAOO 6.987
10.000 0.098 15.352 0.194 14.2.6'2
00 1.436 1.889 1.521 0.913
n Rc./ R.,
C
4
L
t
L,
R
l
Simply replace each filter element with an
element of the opposite type and with a re-
ciprocalvalue.Thus,L
t
ofFig.3-24B is equal
to lIe
l
of Fig. 3-2dA. Likewise, C'1 =l/I.::,
andLa = lIes.
Stated another way. if the low-pass prototype indi-
cates a capacitorof1.181 farads, then, use an inductor
with a value of .1/1.181 =0.847 henry, in.>tc::d, for 3-
high-pass design. However, the source and load re-
sistorsshouldnotbealtered.
The tTansfonnation process results in an attenuation
characteristic for the high-pass 5lter that is an eX:l.c,
mirror image of the low-pass a.ttenuAtion charact-::ns-
tic. The ripple, if there is any, remains the same and
the magnitude of the slope of the ,topbnnd (or pass-
58 nF CIRCUIT DESICr-:
Table 3-6B. Chebyshev Low-Pass Prototype Element Values for O.S-dB Ripple
L
z
L. 4
R
L
n Rs/Rz, C
1
C
3 C:. L
6
5 1.000 1.807 1.303 2.691 1.3Q3 l.807
0.900 1.222 2.849 1.238 1.970
0.800 1.926 1.126 3.060 1.157 2.185
0.700 2.035 1.015 3.353 1.058 2..470
0.600 2.200 0.890 3.765 0.942 2.861
0.500 2.-{57 0.754 4.367 0.810 3.-{1-4
0..400 2.870 0.609 5.296 0.66-4 4.245
0.300 3.588 0..459 6.871 0.508 5.625
0.200 5.064 0.306 10.054 0.343 8.367
o.roo 9.556 0.153 19.647 0.173 16.57-{
00 1.630 1.7-40 1.922 1.51-4 0.903
. 1.984 0.905 6 2.577 1.368 2.713 1.299 1.796
2.000 0.830 2.704 1.291 2.872 1.237 1.956
2.500 0.506 3.722 0.890
0.881 ".J09 3.103
3.333 0.337 5.055 0.632 5.699 0.635 -4.481
5.000 0.206 7.615 0..406 8.732 0.412 7.031
10.000 0.096 15.186 0.197 17.681 0.202 1-4..433
7 1.000 1.790 1.296 2.718 1.385
1.296 2.718 1.790
1.['.35
., 2.869 1.308 2.883 1.234 1.953
0.800 1.905 1.118 3.076 1.215 3.l07 1.155 2.168
0.700 2.011 1.007 3.364 1.105 3.416 1.058 2.455
0.600 2.174 0.882 3.i72 0.979 3.852 0.944 2.848
0.500 2.428 0.747 4.370 0.838 0.814 3.405
0.400 2.835 5.295 0.685 5.470 0.609 4.243
0.300 3.546 0.455 6.86i 0.522 7.13-4 0.513 5.635
0.200 5.007 0.303 10.049 0.352 10.496 0.348 8.404
0.100 9.456 0.151 19.649 0.178 20.631 0.176 16.665
co 1.646 1.777 2.03l 1.789 1.924 1.503 0.895
n R,k/R$ L
1
C
2
L
3
C.. La C
e Lj
L) l) l7
2nd) skirts remains the same. Example 3-7 illustrates
edesign of high-pass filters.
A closer look at the filter designed in Example 3-7
.t-eals that it is symmetric. Indeed, all filters given
Or the equal tennination class are symmetric. The
qual tennination class of filter thus vields a circuit
!hat is easier to design (fewer and, in
most cases,cheapertobuildfora high-volumeproduct,
due to the number of equal valued components.
THE DUAL NET\VORK
Thus far, we have been referring to the grDup of
Iowp.ass prototype element value tables presented
then, we choose the schematic that is located
either above or below the tables for the form of the
filter that we are designing. depending on the value
of RLlR
s
. Eitherfonn of the filter will produce exactly
the same nttenuation, phase. and group-delay charac-
teristics, and each form is called the dual of the other.
An)' filter network in a ladder arrangement. such as
the ones presented in this chapter, can be changed
intoits dualform byapplication of the following rules:
1. Change all inductors to capacitors, and vice-versa,
without changing element values. Thus, 3 henries
becomes3farads. .
2. Change all resistances into conductances, and vice-
versa, with the value unchanged. Thus. 3 ohms be-
comes3mhos,or1h ohm.

59
l.a21
Table; 3-7A. Cheby"hev Low-P2.3s Prototype Element
II
. Values for l.O-dB Ripple
( A) Low-pou prototype circuit.
( B) Equiual6nC high-pa.u prototype circuit.
Fig.3-24. Low-pa!s to high-pass filter trans(onni.tfon.
3. all shuot branches to series branches, and
vice-versa.
4. Change all elements in series with each other into
_ elements that are in parallel with each other.
\). all voltagesources into currentsources, and

fig. 3-26 shows a ladder network and its dual repre-
sentation.
Dual networks are convenient, in the case of equal
.tcrmin?tions: jf you desire to change the topology of
the filter Wlthout changing the response. It is most
often used, as shown in Example 3-7, to eliminate an
unnecessary inductor which might have crept into the
design through some other transformation'process.
Inductors are typically' more lower-Q devices than
C:1p:1citors and, therefore, exhibit losses. These
losses tcnd to cause insertion loss, in addition tb gen-
er:111y degrading the overall performance of the filter.
The n1;Jmber of inductors in any network should,
therefore, bereducedwheneverpossible.
A e:cperimentation with dual networks having
unequal tenninations will reveal that you can quickly
yourself into trouble if you are not careful. This
IS. especially true if the toad and source resistance
a.re a design criteria and cannot be changed to suit
tIle needs ofyourStter. Remember, when the dual ofa
network with unequal terminations is taken, then, the
terminations must, by'deSnition, change value as
shown in Fig. 3-26.
DANDPASS FILTER DESIGN
The low-pass prototype circuits and response curves
gIven In this chapter cnn also be used In the design
or bandpass 6Iters. This is done through 3 simple
n
R!/Rc. C\ L
2
2 3.000 0.572 3.132
".000 0.36.5 4.600
8.000 0.157 9.658
0:)
1.213 1.109
J 1.000 2.216 1.088 2.216
___0.500
- - 4."3i- 0.817
0.333 8.647 0.726 2.216
0.250 8.862 0.680 2.216
.0.12.5 17.725 0.612 2.216
eo 1.652 1.460 1.108
.. 0.653 4.411 0.814
4.000 0.452 7.083 0.812 2.8-t8
8.000 0.209 ' 17.164 0.428 3.2.91
co 1.:}50 2.0]0 1.488 1.1or,
n R
L
/R
3
L,
Co: L
3
C.
transfonnation process similar to what was done in the
high-passcase.
The most difficult task awaiting the designer of a
bandpassSlter, if the design is to be derived from the
low-pass prototype, is in specifying the bandpass at-
tenuation characteristics in tenns of the low-pass re-
sponse curves. A method for doing this is shown by
the curves in Fig. 3-27, As you can see, when :L low-
pass design is transformed into a bandpass design,
the attenuation bandwidth ratios remain the same.
This means that'a low-pass BIter with a 3-dB cutoff
frequency, ora balldwidth of2 kHz, would transform
into a bandpass filter with a 3-dB bandwidth of 2
kHz. If the response of the low-pass network were
down'30 dB at a frequency or bandwidth of 4 kHz
(fHf: = 2), then the response of the network
wouldbe down 30dB at a bandwidth of 4 kHz. Thus.
the normalized flIe :lXis of the low-pass attenuation
curves becomes a ratio of bandwidths rather than fre
quencies,suchthat:
where,
BW:= the bnndwidth nt the required vtUue oE at-
tenuation, .
B\V = the3-dBbandwidthofthe bandpass6lter.
e
60 RF Cmcurr DESICN
Table 37B. Chebyshev Low-Pass Prototype Element Values for l.O-dB Ripple
1.
1
1.. t.
R
L
n R[l/R
L
C
J
C
3 L. e
s
Lfj C,
5 1.000 2.207 1.128 3.103 1.128 2.207
0.500 4.4104 0.565 4.653 1.128 2.207
0.333 6.622 0.376 '6.205 1.128 2.207
0.250 8.829 0.282 7.756 1.128 2.207
. 0.125 17.657 O.Hl 13.961 1.128 2.207
co 1.721 1.645 2.061 1.493 1.103
6 3.000 0.579 3.873 0.771 4.711 0.969 2.406
.(.000 0.-'&81 5.&H 0,476 7.351 0.8.(9 2.582
8.000 0..2.27 12.310 0.198 16.740 0.726 2.800
co 1.378 . 2.097 1.690 2.074 1.494 .1.102
7 1.000 2.204 1.131 3.1.(7 3.147 1.131 2.20.(
0.500 4.408 0.566 6.293 0.895 3.147 1.131 2.20-1
0.333 6.812 0.377 9..4'(} 0.796 3.1.(7
1.131 2.204
0.250 8.815 0.283 12.588 0.747 3.147 1.131 2.204
0.125 17.631 0.141 25.175 0.671 3.147 1.131 2.20-1
co
1.7""
1.677 2.155 1.703 2.079 1.494 1.]02
.
n R
L
/R
3
L,
C:z L
3 C. Ull C. L,
1.) 1.)
It
Often a bandpass response is not specified, as in
Example 3-8. Instead, the requirements are often
given as attenuation values at specified frequencies
as by the curve in Fig.. 3-28. In this case, you
must transform tbe stated requirements into informa-
lion that takes the form of Equation 3-14. As an ex-
ample, consider Fig. 3-28. How do we convert the
data thatis given into the bandwidth ratios we need?
. Before we can answer that, we have to nnd I3 Use
efollowingmethod. .
The frequency response ofa bandpass filter exhibits
symmetry.Thatis,itis onlysymmetIicwhen
lotted on a logarithmic scale. The center frequency
f a geometricall}' symmetric filter is given by the
ormula:
Eo =Vf.t (Eq.3-15)
here f. and f
b
are an)' frequencies (one above
.nd One below the passband) having equal attenua
IOn. Therefore, the center frequency of the response
rve shown in Fig.3-28mustbe
0=V(45)(75) MHT.
=58.1 MHz '\
t' \-U:C \ \ ']-v
WecanuseEquation315againtonndE,. ....

58.1 = 125) 7/ "\ V

or, "
fa =27MHz
Now that f., is known, the data of Fig. 3-28 can be
put into the form of Equation
BW..
OdB
_ 125MHz- 21MHz
'BW
UB
- 15J'1Hz- 45 MHz
=3.2rl !-"2-
To find a low-pass prototype curve that will satisfy
theserequirements.simpl)'refertoanyofthepertinent
graphs presented"in this chapter and Snd a response
which will provide 40 dB of attenuation at an flfr of
3.27. (A fourth-ord'er or better filter will
doquitenicely.) .
The actual transformation from low-pass to the
b:mdpass connguration is accomplished b)' resonating
each elementwithan elementoftheopposite
type and of the same value. All shunt elements of
low-pass 'prototype circuit become para)}el-resonapt

...----

y
./, ,'F
r ;,.; I
fo..TR DESIGN _, I
((>1 '
"
EXAMPLE 3-7 _--_______.
Desilpl an LC high-pass filter wIth an(c-. of and
J minimum attenuation of 40 dB at 30 source
1l1d load resistance are equal at Assume that a
a.s-dB passband ripple is
I')
\}.. .
Solution
First, nonnalize the attenuation reqUirem{na so that the
low-pass attenuationcurves may be used. "'
f _ 30MHz
r: - 60MHz
J"
we get:
=0.5
f. "
l' =-
Now, select a normalized low-pass filter that olIers at leut
attenuation at a ratio of f./f =2. Reference to Fig.
3.17 (attenuation response of O.5-<fB-ripple Chebyshev fil-
lers) indicates thata will pro-
vide the needed attenuation. Table 3-1> contains the ele-
ment values for the corresponding network; The normalized
low-pass prototype circuit is shown in Fig. 3-25A. Note that
the schematic belowTable 3-68 was chosen as the low-pass
prototype circuit rather than the schematic above the table.
The reason for doing this will become obviousafter the next
Slept Keep in mind. however, that the ratio of R,/Rt. is the
same as the ratio of Rt.lR., and is unity. Therefore, it do.-s
not matlt:r which [onn is used for the protot;'pe circuit. .
Next. transfonn low-pass circuit to a high-pas3 net-
work by replacing each inductor with a cap:lcitor, and vice-
versa. using reciprocl1l element values :1$ shown in Fig.
3-25B. Note here thathad we begun with the low-pass pro-
totype circuit shown above Table 3o$B. this tTansfonnation
would have yielded a filter containing three inductors rather
lha.n the two shown in Fig. 3-25D. The object in any of
these filter desigN is to reduce the number of inducton in
the 6nal de5ign. More on this later.
The final step in the design is to scale the net-
worle in both impedance and frequency using Equations
3[2 and 3-13. The first two calculations are done for you.
1
1.807
C, = 217'( 00 X 101S )(300)
=4.9 pF
EXAMPLE J8
finJ the Dutterworth low-pass prototype circuit which.
when trans(onned. would satisfy the following bandpass
filter requirements:
BW.. == 2 MHz
B\V... = 6 MHz
Solution
Note that -euenot concemed ",.jlh the center frequency
of the bandpass just yet. We are only concerned
with the relationship belween the :Ibove requirements :lOd
r-"; :J)I.: (A) lew-pc." filter circuit.
l.J'
J
! i
\ I
\ .!

:JOO(-dro)
L. = 2."(60 X 10&)
== 611 nH,
The remaining values are:
c.=3.3 pr
. c.=4.9 pF
L.=BllnH
The Bnal filter circuit Is given in Fig. 3-25C.
(B) High-po.s.s transformation.
(C) FrcquencV and filler circuit.
Fig.:J-25. High-pass filter dC.1ign for ExampleJ-1.
the low-p:lss response curves. Using Equation 314. we
have:
B\V f
BW. = r: =
BW .
B\V ..
B MHz
= 2MHz
== 3-
Therefore, tum to the Buttcnorth response curves
in 39 :Ind find a prototype value that p.ro
V1de

dn of 3ttenulltion at an flf. ::z :l. 11,,, C'\1f"'VU JnQ'5:ate

"'11 d
L
needed Jete
element Buucl'Vorth filter WI provl e
ahon.
I
.. _---
- ----'- ----------------
RF Crncurr
6
Table 3BA. Bessel LowPass Prototype Element Values
2
5
(A) A representotioe ladder network.
( B) Its dUlll form.
Fig. 326. Duality.
(A). Low-p(Jsr prototype responte.
,I
I

\
i
I
l
I
L
(B) Bond"o.ss response.
Fig. 3-27. Lowpass\0 bandpass
transformation bandwidths.
I
I
I
I
--_..
Fig 3-28.Typical bandpas1 speciucations.
n
1.000 0.576
1.111 0.508
1.250 0,443
1,429 0.380
1.667 0.319
2.000 0.260
2.500 0.203
3.333
5.000 0.097
10.000
00. 1.362
1.000 0.337 2.203
0.900 0.371 2.375
0.800 0,412 2.587
0.700 0,466
2.858
0.600 0.537 3.216
0.500 0.635 3.714
0.4.00 0.783 "lAS7
0.300 1.028 5.689
0.200 1'.518 8.HO
0.100 2.983 15.'170
00 1.463 0.293
1.000 0.233 1.082 2.240
1.111 0.209 .0.967 2.414
1.250 0.184 0.653 2.630
1,429 0.160 0.741 2.907
1.667 0.136 0.630 3.2i3
2.000 0.112 0.520 3.782
2.500 0.089 0.412 -4.5-!3
3.333 0.066 0.30G 5.805
-5.000 0.0-43 0.201 8.319
10.000 0.021 0.099 15.837
1.501 0.613 0.211
n L
J
Fig. 3-29. Lowpass \0bandpasscircuit \ramformalion.
circuits, and all series elements become series-reson:l
nt
circuits. This process is illustrated in Fig. 330.
To complete the design, the transformed Blter is

OJ
Table j8D. Bessel Low-Pass Prototype Element Value,
n
5
6
7
n
RsiRr.
1.000
0.900
0.800
0.700
0.600
0.500
00400
0.300
0.200
0.100
CIO
1.000
1.111
1.250.
1.429
1.667
2.000
2.500
3.J33
5.000
10.000
co
1.000
0.900
0.800
0.700
0.600
0.500
0.400
0.300
0.200
0.100
00
R"IRc,
C
t
0.174
0.193
0.215
0.245
0.284
0.338
0,419
0.555
0.825
1.635
1.513
0.137
0.122
0.108
0.094
0.080
0.067
0.053
0.040
0.026
0.013
1.512
0.111
0.122
0.137
0.156
0.182
0.211
0.9.70
0.358
0.534
1.061
1.503
L
t
L'J
0.507
0.454
0.402
0.349
0.298
0.247
0.196
0.146
0.096
0.048
1.023
9-.400
0.443
0.496
0.564
0.655
0.782
0.973
1.289
1.289
3.815
1.0JJ
0.326
0.29'2
0.259
0.226
0.193
0.160
0.127
0.095
0.063
0.031
1.029
C
1
l,
C.
t
0.804
0.889
0.996
1.132
1.314
1.567
1.946
2.577
3.835
7.604
0.753
0.639
0.573
0.508
0.442
0.378
0.31:l
0.249
0.186
0.123
0.061
0.813
0.525
0.582
6.552-
0.743
0.863
1.032
1.285
1.705
2.545
5.002
0.835
L,
lJ
1.111
0.995
0.879
0.764
0.651
0.538
0.427
0.311
0.210
0.104
0.473
0.854
0.946
1.060
1.207
1.402
1.675
2.084
2.763
4.120
8.186
0.607
0.702
0.630
0.5':>9
0.487
0.416
0.346
0.276
0.206
0.137
0.068
0.675

2.258
2.433
2.650
2.927
3.295
3.808
4.573
5.843
8.375
15.949
0.162
1.113
0.995
0.881
0.767
0.653
0.541

0.319
0.211
0.105
0.379
0.869
0.963
1.080

1.431
1.711
2.130
2.828
4.221
8.397
0.503
L'l
2.265
2.439
2.65.5

3.300
3.812
4.577
S.847
8.378
15.951
0.129
1.105
0.990
0.875
0.762
0.649
0.537
0.427
0.318
0.210
0.104
0.Jl1
Gil
2.268
2.440
2.656
2.932
3.298
3.809
4.572
5.838
'8.362
15.917
0.105
then frequency- and impedance-scaled using the fol-
I
I lowing formul:u. For the .parallel-resonant branches,
0r----_.
(
-] dB - - - - - - - - - - - - . - - - - - - - - - - - --
I
I
(Eq.3-16)
I
I
I
1
I
(Eq.3-17)

I I
I I
I I
and, for the series-re.sonant branches,
I I
B
(Eq.J.18)
C=2m
o
zC,R
Fig. J..1O. Typicalband-rejection curve".
1
\
---------- ._------
(Eq.3-19)
re, in allcases,
R:: the Bnalload impedance,
B::the 3-dBbandwidthof thefinal design
L:: the geometric.centerfrequency of final de-
sign, . '
1.. =the normalized inductor bandpass clement
values, .....----::---
C. =the normalized capacitor bandpass element
\-alues.
Example 3-9 furnishes one final example of the pro-
ure for designing a bandpass Slter. .
OF THE BANDPASS
FILTER DESIGN PROCEDURE
Transform the bandpass requirements into an
equivalent low-pass requirement using
3-14.
Refer tothelow-passattenuationcurves provided in
order to find a response that meets the requirements
i Step l.
md the corresponding low-pass prototype and
'rite it down.

lransfonn the low-pass network into a bandpass
nfiguration.
Ie the bandpass configuration in both impedance
nd frequency using Equations 3-16 through 3-19.
BAND-REJECTION FILTER DESIGN
nd-rejectio'rJ filters are very similar in design ap-
ch to the bandpass filter of the last section. ani}',
,is case, we want to reject a certain group of fre-
cies a:; ::hcwn by the curves,in Fig. 3-30. .
eband-reject ilter lends itself well to the low-
prototype design approach using the same pToce-
as were used for the bandpass design. First,
the bandstop requirements in terms of the low.
attenuation curves. This is done by using the
Ie of Equation 3-14. Thus, referring to Fig. 3-30,
ve.
B\\'r f.-ft
B\V = 3 - h
lets the attenuation characteristic that is needed
you to read directly off the low-pass at-
lion curves by substituting B\\'c/B\\' {or felf on
,onna1ized frequency axis. Once the number of
ts that are required in the low-pass prototype
:\ is determined. the low-pass network is trans-
dinto a band-reject configuration as follows:
tach shuntelementin the prototype
: cuit is replaced a shunt serics-rcsof1(Int
IrCuit. andeachseries-elementis replaced by
leries parallel-resonant circuit.
RF Crncurr DL:Slc1\
EXAMPLE 3-9
Design a bandpassfilter with the folJo\dng requirements:
f.=75 MHz
B\\'...=7 MHz
=35MHz
Solution
Using Equation 3-1(:
B\\'..... 35
BW.... =,
=5"
Substitute this value for f/f. In the low-pass allenuation
curves for the l-dB-ripple Chebyshe\' respome in
Fig. 3-18. This reveals that a 3-element filter will.pr{)vtoe
about5O'CIB of .Attenuation at an flI. :;:5 which is
than adequat'e(Tne COfTcspondins values for this
Riter can be found in Table 3-1 loran =0.5. and an
n = 3. This yields the low-pass prototype circuit oC fig.
3-32A which is transformed into the bandpass prototype
circuit of Fig. 3-32B. using Equation5 3-16 throu
3-19, weobtain the nnal circuitthatis shown in Fig. 332C.
The calculation.. follow. Using E.Quatio05 3-16 and 3-1i:
4..43r -
Similui
r
.
C. =504 pr
L.. =8.93nH
f- J:
C. =217"(100)(7 X lOG)
'. 1"-1
= 1007 fir -
(1 x 10e)-
L., = 2".(75 x 10d).2( L.
=4.47 nH
Using Equations 3-18 and 3-19:
Th:<; is showrl in Fig. 3-31. Note th3t both elem<.:ots in
eachofthe resonantcircuits have the same normaliz.ed
value.
Oncetheprototypecircuithasbeen transforml:d into
its band-reject configuration, it is then scaled in im-
pedance and frequency using the following formulas.
Forall series-resonant circuits:
Fig.3-3}. L.ow-pass to band-reject transformation.
Passband Ripple = 1 dB L/
R. =SO
RI. =100 ohms
1000
-pass prototypeC rCllit.
0."17
0.500
0.817
n
1""'r

:1
.000
f
(B) Band"a..ss trnnsforTT1nt!on.
150!!
1:007 pF
r"" pF
nH
p'." nH 1000
l' 1 f
(C)FillaL circuit rd/Itfrequenclj and illlTJedance scaled.
fig,3-.12. BMdp:lsS filterdesisn (orExampleJ-9..
I
I
-,"
I
Lon!
:...-...------
I
3-33.Theeffect of Bnite-Qelements ..\>.. oX
For all paral
on filter
(
C
=-S-
21TRB
nn
L::: 21Tf"zL
n
el-resonnnt circuits:
\.}J'N'
\
(Eq "-(0)
..J - 7
. "
(Eq.3-21)
(Eg.3-22)
Eq.3-23)
where. in all
D=the3-dnbandwidth.
.!' =thefillalload resistance,
I.. :=: the 0
e" = th;; nnrml1lizcd cnpncitor hnnJ-rcject elcm":llt
'nltle.
L" =the normalized inductor element
value.
6.:;
THE EFFECTS OF FINITE Q
Thus for in thi3 chC1pter. we lJave :lssumed the in-
ductors and cJ.pacitors lIsed in the designs to be
Indeed. all of the response curves presented
In this chapter :lre bnsed on that assumptioll. B\lt we
know from our previous study of Chapters 1 and 1
that even though capacitors C:ln be approximated as
having infinite Q. inductors cannot. :lnd the efTects
of the finite-Q inductor be taken into accollnt
in Clny filter design.
Thc use f)f finite element Qin " desisn intencied cor
loss less elementscauses the following unwanted effects
(refer to Fig. 3-33):
1. Insertion loss of the Biter is incrc:lsed whcrc:'lS the
nn;-ll stopband llttenu:ltioll does not ch."\l1ge. The
relativc :lttenuCltion between the two is decrc:\scd.
2. At frcq\lencies ill the vicinity of cutoff (f.o). the

response becomes more rOllnded and lIstl:dl\" results
in nn attenuation gre:lter th:lll the .3 dB t'hat \\'<1S
intended.
\1
,1 .1. Ripple th:lt was designed into the passb;\lld \\'ill be
I
\,
f
reduced: Ifthe element Qis sufficiently low, ripple
will betotallveliminated.
4. For band-reject filters. the in the stop-
band becomes finite. This. couplcd with an incrc:lSc
u
in passlmnd insertion loss. decre:1Ses the icbth'e
"
Clttenuaciollsisnificantly.
oRegardless of the gloomy rredictions outlined
, t
above. however, it is possible to design filters. usill:;
the nppronch outlined in this chJpter. vcry closeiy
resemble the response of CJch network. The
is to lise the highest-Q inductors available for thL'
!
given task. Tnble 3-9 outlines the
tii
'il
mum element-Q requirements for the Rlters presented
,I
. in this chapter. in mind, however. that anytime
!'
a low-Q component is lIsed. the nctuai attenuation )
responsc of thc strays from the idenl
to n .degree dependms;..... ut?011 the elerncnt Q. 1 IS.
therefore. highly recommended thnt yOll make ;t :\
Lhabit to use only the highest-Q components 3vailnbleo
. Table 39. Filter Elemcnt.Q ReQuirements
.\l;l1imllm Element ()
Filter Type
Required .

nu tlcr\\'ort h
0,0lad0
o.i-dO
0 Cia:
todD
J
IS
2-l
J9
.;;
75
The insertion loss of the filters presented in this
chapter call be calculated in same m::lIlncr.:15 was
\Ised in Ch:lptr:r 2. Simply r(!p!;\ce e:lch
mcnt wHh re.'iistor to tne Q
of the elclllcnt :Ind. then. the di\isiol.
'rule (romSO\lrce to 1011d.