OECD 2000 Trends in International Migration

ISBN 92-64-18612-3
81 2001 01 1 P
Trends in International Migration
INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION
T
r
e
n
d
s

i
n

I
n
t
e
r
n
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

M
i
g
r
a
t
i
o
n
-:HSTCQE=V][VWZ:
Trends in
International
Migration
This book presents an analysis of recent trends in migration movements and policies in OECD
countries as well as in certain non-Member countries. It includes a detailed description of the flows,
the different channels of immigration and the nationalities of the migrants concerned. It highlights
the contribution of immigration to increases in the total population and the labour force and describes
the changes that have taken place in the sectoral distribution of foreign workers. It shows that
immigration cannot by itself modify the demographic profile and resolve the problem of population
ageing though it may moderate its effects (notably through alleviating sectoral labour shortages by
bringing in more skilled and highly-skilled foreign workers).
In addition to this overall analysis, the reader will also find in this publication:
- Two sections on the recent developments in migration flows and policies in Asia and in Central
and Eastern Europe.
- A special chapter devoted to family-linked immigration, the criteria to be fulfilled in order to take
advantage of it and the legal systems which regulate family members' access to social welfare and
the labour market.
- A statistical annex containing the most recent available data on foreign and immigrant
populations, foreign workers, migration flows and naturalisations.
INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION
www. oecd. org
SOPEMI 2000 SOPEMI 2000
All OECD books and periodicals are now online
www.sourceoecd.org
TRENDS
IN INTERNATIONAL
MIGRATION
Continuous Reporting System on Migration
ANNUAL REPORT
2000 EDITION
O R G AN I S AT I O N F O R E C O N O M I C C O -O P E R AT I O N AN D D E VE L O P M E N T
SOPEMI
ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION
AND DEVELOPMENT
P u rsu an t to Arti cle 1 o f th e C o n ve n ti o n si gn e d i n P ari s o n 1 4th D e ce m b e r 1 960, an d wh i ch cam e i n to fo rce
o n 30th S e p te m b e r 1 961 , th e O rgan i sati o n fo r E co n o m i c C o -o p e rati o n an d D e ve lo p m e n t O E C D ) sh all p ro m o te
p o li ci e s d e si gn e d :
to ach i e v e th e h i g h e st su stai n a b le e co n o m i c g ro wth an d e m p lo ym e n t a n d a ri si n g stan d a rd o f li vi n g i n
M e m b e r co u n tri e s, wh i le m ai n tai n i n g fi n an ci al stab i li ty, an d th u s to co n tri b u te to th e d e ve lo p m e n t o f th e
wo rld e co n o m y;
to co n tri b u te to so u n d e co n o m i c e xp an si o n i n M e m b e r a s we ll as n o n -m e m b e r co u n tri e s i n th e p ro ce ss
o f e co n o m i c d e ve lo p m e n t; an d
to co n tri b u te to th e e xp an si o n o f wo rld trad e o n a m u ltilate ral, n o n -d i scri m i n ato ry b asi s i n acco rd an ce wi th
i n te rn ati o n al o b li g ati o n s.
T h e o ri gi n al M e m b e r co u n tri e s o f th e O E C D are Au stri a, B e lgi u m , C an ad a, D e n m ark, F ran ce , G e rm an y,
G re e ce , I ce la n d , I re la n d , I ta ly, L u xe m b o u rg , th e N e th e rla n d s, N o rwa y, P o rtu g al, S p a i n , S we d e n ,
S wi tze rla n d , T u rk e y, th e U n i te d K i n gd o m a n d th e U n i te d S tate s. T h e fo llo wi n g co u n tri e s b e cam e M e m b e rs
su b se q u e n tly th ro u gh acce ssi o n a t th e d a te s i n d i cate d h e re afte r: Jap an 28th Ap ri l 1 964) , F i n lan d 28th Jan u -
ary 1 969) , Au strali a 7th Ju n e 1 971 ) , N e w Z e alan d 29th M ay 1 973) , M e xi co 1 8th M ay 1 994) , th e C ze ch R e p u b li c
21 st D e ce m b e r 1 995) , H u n gary 7th M ay 1 996) , P o lan d 22n d N o ve m b e r 1 996) , K o re a 1 2th D e ce m b e r 1 996) an d
th e S lo vak R e p u b li c 1 4th D e ce m b e r 2000) . T h e C o m m i ssi o n o f th e E u ro p e an C o m m u n i ti e s take s p art i n th e
wo rk o f th e O E C D Arti cle 1 3 o f th e O E C D C o n ve n ti o n ) .
OECD CENTRE FOR CO-OPERATION WITH NON-MEMBERS
T h e O E C D C e n tre fo r C o -o p e rati o n wi th N o n -M e m b e rs C C N M ) p ro m o te s an d co -o rd i n ate s O E C D s p o li cy
d i alo gu e an d co -o p e rati o n wi th e co n o m i e s o u tsi d e th e O E C D are a. T h e O E C D cu rre n tly m ai n tai n s p o li cy
co -o p e rati o n wi th ap p ro xi m ate ly 70 n o n -M e m b e r e co n o m i e s.
T h e e sse n ce o f C C N M co -o p e rati ve p ro gram m e s wi th n o n -M e m b e rs i s to m ake th e ri ch an d vari e d asse ts
o f th e O E C D avai lab le b e yo n d i ts cu rre n t M e m b e rsh i p to i n te re ste d n o n -M e m b e rs. F o r e xam p le , th e O E C D s
u n i q u e co -o p e rati ve wo rki n g m e th o d s th at h ave b e e n d e ve lo p e d o ve r m an y ye ars; a sto ck o f b e st p racti ce s
acro ss all are as o f p u b li c p o li cy e xp e ri e n ce s am o n g M e m b e rs; o n -go i n g p o li cy d i alo gu e am o n g se n i o r re p re se n -
tati ve s fro m cap i tals, re i n fo rce d b y re ci p ro cal p e e r p re ssu re ; an d th e cap aci ty to ad d re ss i n te rd i sci p li n ary
i ssu e s. All o f th i s i s su p p o rte d b y a ri ch h i sto ri cal d atab ase an d stro n g an alyti cal cap aci ty wi th i n th e S e cre tari at.
L i ke wi se , M e m b e r co u n tri e s b e n e fi t fro m th e e xch an ge o f e xp e ri e n ce wi th e xp e rts an d o ffi ci als fro m
n o n -M e m b e r e co n o m i e s.
T h e C C N M s p ro gram m e s co ve r th e m ajo r p o li cy are as o f O E C D e xp e rti se th at are o f m u tu al i n te re st to n o n -
M e m b e rs. T h e se i n clu d e : e co n o m i c m o n i to ri n g, stru ctu ral ad ju stm e n t th ro u gh se cto ral p o li ci e s, trad e p o li cy,
i n te rn ati o n al i n v e stm e n t, fi n an ci al se cto r re fo rm , i n te rn ati o n al taxati o n , e n vi ro n m e n t, a gri cu ltu re , lab o u r
m arke t, e d u cati o n an d so ci al p o li cy, as we ll as i n n o vati o n an d te ch n o lo gi cal p o li cy d e ve lo p m e n t.
Publien franais sous letitre:
TENDANCES DES MIGRATIONS INTERNATIONALES
RAPPORT ANNUEL
O E C D 2001
P e rm i ssi o n to re p ro d u ce a p o rti o n o f th i s wo rk fo r n o n -co m m e rci a l p u rp o se s o r cla ssro o m u se sh o u ld b e o b tai n e d
th ro u gh th e C e n tre fran ai s d e xp lo i tati o n d u d ro i t d e co p i e C F C ) , 20, ru e d e s G ran d s-Au gu sti n s, 75006 P ari s, F ran ce ,
Te l. 33 -1 ) 44 07 47 70, F ax 33-1 ) 46 34 67 1 9, fo r e ve ry co u n try e xce p t th e U n i te d S tate s. I n th e U n i te d S ta te s p e rm i ssi o n
sh o u ld b e o b tai n e d th ro u gh th e C o p yri gh t C le aran ce C e n te r, C u sto m e r S e rvi ce , 508) 750-8400, 222 R o se wo o d D ri ve ,
D an ve rs, M A 01 923 U S A, o r C C C O n li n e : www.copyright.com. All o th e r ap p li ca ti o n s fo r p e rm i ssi o n to re p ro d u ce o r tran slate
all o r p art o f th is b o o k sh o u ld b e m ad e to O E C D P u b li cati o n s, 2, ru e An d r -P ascal, 75775 P ari s C e d e x 1 6, F ran ce .
3
O E C D 2000
FOREWORD
T h i s twe n ty-fi fth an n u al re p o rt o f th e O E C D C o n ti n u o u s R e p o rti n g S yste m o n M i grati o n kn o wn u n d e r i ts
F re n ch acro n ym S O P E M I ) , p u b li sh e d as Trends in International Migration, d raws i n large p art o n th i rty o n e wri tte n
co n tri b u ti o n s fro m n ati o n al co rre sp o n d e n ts se e th e li st p . 375 ) , an d o n th e su m m ary o f th e i r d i scu ssi o n s at
th e i r la st a n n u a l m e e ti n g D e ce m b e r 1 9 9 9 ) . F o llo wi n g D e n m a rk , I re la n d a n d M e xi co i n 1 9 9 4 , th e S lo v a k
R e p u b li c jo i n e d th e S O P E M I n e two rk i n 1 995, K o re a i n 1 998 an d N e w Z e alan d i n 1 999.
T h e 2000 E d i ti o n i s d i vi d e d i n to th re e p arts co m p le m e n te d b y a S tati sti cal An n e x.
P art I d e scri b e s th e o ve rall tre n d s i n i n te rn ati o n al m i grati o n . I t fo cu se s o n th e m agn i tu d e , th e n atu re
an d th e d i re cti o n o f flo ws, as we ll a s th e p re se n ce o f fo re i gn wo rke rs i n th e lab o u r m ark e t an d i n th e
vari o u s se cto rs o f e co n o m i c acti vi ty. S p e ci al atte n ti o n i s also gi ve n to th e ro le th at i m m i grati o n co u ld
p lay to m o d e rati n g th e e ffe cts o f age i n g p o p u lati o n . Two ad d i ti o n al se cti o n s d e scri b e i n d e tai l th e n e w
d e ve lo p m e n ts i n Asi a an d C e n tral an d E aste rn E u ro p e . P art I i s co m p le te d b y an o ve rvi e w o f m i grati o n
p o li ci e s, i n p a rti cu la r th o se re la ti n g to th e co n t ro l o f flo ws, th e i n te g ra ti o n o f i m m i g ra n ts i n h o st
co u n tri e s an d i n te rn ati o n al co -o p e rati o n .
P art I I i s d e vo te d to fam i ly-li n ke d i m m i grati o n . T h i s p art sh o ws th at th e cri te ri a go ve rn i n g th e
e n ti tle m e n t to fa m i ly re u n i o n va ry acco rd i n g to th e co u n try e xam i n e d an d a cco rd i n g to m o re o r le ss
re stri cti ve co n ce p ti o n o f th e fam i ly. T h e stu d y allo ws to i d e n ti fy th o se wh o are li ke ly to b e n e fi t fro m
re u n i o n a n d th e co n d i ti o n s g o v e rn i n g fa m i ly re u n i o n a n d th e e n try o f th e a cco m p a n y i n g fa m i ly.
P arti cu lar atte n ti o n i s also gi ve n to fam i ly m e m b e rs acce ss to th e lab o u r m arke t an d so ci al we lfare .
P art I I I i s co m p o se d o f co u n try n o te s d e scri b i n g re ce n t d e ve lo p m e n ts i n m i grati o n flo ws an d p o li ci e s i n
twe n ty-n i n e O E C D co u n tri e s an d n o n -m e m b e r co u n tri e s T h e B alti c S tate s, B u lg ari a an d R o m an i a) . A
d e tai le d n o te o n N e w Z e alan d i s p re se n te d fo r th e fi rst ti m e .
T h i s vo lu m e i s p u b li sh e d o n th e re sp o n si b i li ty o f th e S e cre tary-G e n e ral o f th e O E C D .
5
O E C D 2000
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Tab l e of C on ten ts
GENERAL INTRODUCTION.. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. .. . ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 3
Part 1
MAIN TRENDS IN INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION
A. M I G R AT I O N , P O P U L AT I O N AN D T H E L AB O U R M AR K E T ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 9
1 . T re n d s i n m i grati o n m o ve m e n ts an d ch an ge s i n th e fo re i gn p o p u lati o n ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 9
2. I m m i grati o n an d p o p u lati o n gro wth i n O E C D co u n tri e s . ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 29
3. I m m i gran ts an d th e lab o u r m arke t ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 46
B . R E C E N T D E VE L O P M E N T S I N AS I A AN D C E N T R AL AN D E AS T E R N E U R O P E .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 52
1 . R e ce n t d e ve lo p m e n ts i n m i grati o n p o li ci e s an d flo ws i n E ast an d S o u th -e ast Asi a . ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 54
2. T re n d s i n m i grati o n flo ws i n C e n tral an d E aste rn E u ro p e . ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 61
C . AN O VE R VI E W O F M I G R AT I O N P O L I C I E S .. .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 72
1 . P o li ci e s fo r re gu lati n g an d co n tro lli n g flo ws .. ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 73
2. C o m b ati n g i lle gal i m m i grati o n an d th e i lle gal e m p lo ym e n t o f fo re i gn e rs .. .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ...... ... .. 81
3. P o li ci e s ai m e d at i n te grati n g i m m i gran ts ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 90
4. M i grati o n , i n te rn ati o n al co -o p e rati o n an d th e e n large m e n t o f th e E u ro p e an U n i o n ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 97
Part II
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE LEGISLATION AND THE PROCEDURES
GOVERNING THE IMMIGRATION OF FAMILY MEMBERS IN CERTAIN OECD COUNTRIES
A. I N T R O D U C T I O N . ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ..... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 05
B . T H E L E G AL F O U N D AT I O N O F F AM I L Y R E U N I O N . ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 07
1 . I n te rn ati o n al co n ve n ti o n s .. .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 07
2. N ati o n al laws ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 07
C . B E N E F I C I AR I E S O F F AM I L Y R E U N I O N . ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 08
1 . T h e wo rke r s fam i ly . ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ..... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 09
2. T h e fam i li e s o f stu d e n ts .. ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... .. . ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 1 4
3. T h e fam i li e s o f re fu ge e s an d asylu m se e ke rs .. .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 1 4
D . T H E C O N D I T I O N S F O R F AM I L Y R E U N I O N .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 1 5
1 . T h e b asi c co n d i ti o n s .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. .. . ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 1 5
2. T h e p ro ce d u re . ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ...... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 1 9
E . T H E E F F E C T S O F F AM I L Y R E U N I O N . ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 21
1 . T h e gran ti n g o f a p e rm i t to stay ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... . .. .. 1 21
2. T h e ri gh t to wo rk ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 23
3. E n ti tle m e n t to so ci al p ro te cti o n .. .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 24
4. P ro te cti o n agai n st b e i n g re m o ve d fro m th e co u n try .. .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 24
F . C O N C L U S I O N S . .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ..... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 25
6
O E C D 2000

Part III
RECENT CHANGES IN MIGRATION MOVEMENTS AND POLICIES
C O U N T R Y N O T E S )
Au strali a .. ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 1 29
Au stri a .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 1 36
T h e B alti c S tate s .. ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 1 41
B e lgi u m ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 1 47
B u lgari a ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 1 53
C an ad a . ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 1 57
C ze ch R e p u b li c . ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 1 64
D e n m ark .. ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 1 68
F i n lan d . ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 1 73
F ran ce . .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 1 77
G e rm an y .. ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 1 85
G re e ce .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 1 91
H u n gary ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 1 97
I re lan d .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 201
I taly .. ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 206
Jap an ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 21 1
K o re a .. ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 21 7
L u xe m b o u rg . ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 220
M e xi co ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 223
N e th e rlan d s . ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 225
N o rway .. .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 232
P o lan d ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 236
P o rtu gal . .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 239
R o m an i a .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 244
S lo vak R e p u b li c ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 249
S p ai n .. ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 252
S we d e n . .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 255
S wi tze rlan d ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 258
T u rke y ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 262
U n i te d K i n gd o m .. ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 264
U n i te d S tate s .. .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 271
N e w Z e alan d ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 276
STATISTICAL ANNEX
A. S o u rce s an d co m p arab i li ty o f m i grati o n stati sti cs .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 295
1 . S o u rce s o f m i grati o n stati sti cs ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 295
2. M e asu re m e n t o f m i grati o n flo ws .. .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... .. . .. 297
3. S to cks o f m i gran ts an d ch aracte ri sti cs o f th e i m m i gran t p o p u lati o n .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 299
B . S T AT I S T I C AL S E R I E S . .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ..... ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 299
LIST OF SOPEMI CORRESPONDENTS... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 375
7
O E C D 2000
List of Charts and Tables

Part 1
Maps
I . 1 . N o n -E u ro p e an O E C D co u n tri e s: fo re i gn -b o rn p o p u lati o n , late st avai lab le ye ar... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 40
I . 2. E u ro p e an O E C D co u n tri e s: fo re i gn p o p u lati o n i n 1 998 ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 42
I . 3. Asi a: m ai n co u n tri e s o f o ri gi n o f i m m i gran ts re si d i n g i n O E C D co u n tri e s i n 1 998 . .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 53
I . 4. N e t m i grati o n rate N M R ) i n C e n tral E u ro p e an d b o rd e ri n g co u n tri e s, 1 990 an d 1 998 ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 63
Charts
I . 1 . I n flo ws o f fo re i gn e rs i n so m e O E C D co u n tri e s, 1 980-1 998 . ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 20
I . 2. I m m i grati o n flo ws i n to se le cte d O E C D co u n tri e s b y m ai n cate go ri e s i n 1 998 . ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 23
I . 3. I n flo ws o f asylu m se e ke rs, 1 990-1 999 .. ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 24
I . 4. P ro p o rti o n o f wo m e n i n to tal i m m i grati o n flo ws, 1 985-1 997 . ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 26
I . 5. C h an ge i n i n flo ws o f m i gran ts b y co u n try o f o ri gi n to se le cte d O E C D co u n tri e s, 1 990-1 997 an d 1 998 .. .. ... ... ... .. 27
I . 6. C o m p o n e n ts o f to tal p o p u lati o n gro wth i n th e E u ro p e an U n i o n
an d i n se le cte d O E C D co u n tri e s, 1 960-1 998 .. ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 33
I . 7. N atu ral i n cre ase rate i n to tal p o p u lati o n an d n e t m i grati o n rate i n O E C D co u n tri e s, 1 998 . ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 35
I . 8. S h are o f fo re i gn b i rth s i n to tal b i rth s re lati ve to th e sh are o f fo re i gn e rs
i n th e to tal p o p u lati o n i n se le cte d O E C D co u n tri e s, 1 980 an d 1 998 .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 37
I . 9. I n flo ws o f M agh re b i an s an d T u rks to We ste rn E u ro p e , 1 984-1 998 . ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 45
I . 1 0. C h an ge s i n e m p lo ym e n t o f fo re i gn e rs an d i n to tal e m p lo ym e n t d u ri n g e co n o m i c re co ve ri e s .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 50
I . 1 1 . F o re i gn an d to tal e m p lo ym e n t b y m ajo r i n d u stry d i vi si o n , 1 995-1 998 . ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 51
I . 1 2. S h are o f fo re i gn e rs o r th e fo re i gn -b o rn i n to tal u n e m p lo ym e n t
re lati ve to th e i r sh are i n th e lab o u r fo rce ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 52
Tables
I . 1 . P ro p o rti o n o f wo m e n i n i m m i grati o n flo ws i n so m e O E C D co u n tri e s, 1 997 .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 25
I . 2. R e lati ve i m p o rtan ce o f th e to p 5 co u n tri e s i n th e to tal i m m i grati o n flo ws
an d sto cks o f fo re i gn e rs i n so m e O E C D co u n tri e s ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 30
I . 3. I n tra-E u ro p e an m o b i li ty o f E U ci ti ze n s, 1 997 ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 31
I . 4. E u ro p e an U n i o n ci ti ze n s i n th e fo re i gn p o p u lati o n o f th e 1 5 m e m b e r co u n tri e s, 1 998 .. .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 32
I . 5. F o re i gn o r fo re i gn -b o rn p o p u lati o n an d lab o u r fo rce i n se le cte d O E C D co u n tri e s ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 41
I . 6. M agh re b i an , T u rki sh an d fo rm e r Yu go slavi an re si d e n ts i n se le cte d E u ro p e an
O E C D co u n tri e s, to tal p o p u lati o n an d lab o u r fo rce , 1 998 . ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 44
I . 7. E n tri e s o f te m p o rary wo rke rs i n ce rtai n O E C D co u n tri e s b y p ri n ci p al cate go ri e s, 1 992, 1 996-1 998 ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 48
I . 8. P arti ci p ati o n rate an d u n e m p lo ym e n t rate o f n ati o n als an d fo re i gn e rs b y se x
i n so m e O E C D co u n tri e s, 1 998 . ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ...... .. 49
I . 9. I n flo ws o f e th n i c G e rm an s b y co u n try o f o ri gi n to G e rm an y, 1 950-1 998 ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 63
I . 1 0. C o n tract wo rke rs e m p lo ye d i n G e rm an y b y n ati o n ali ty, 1 993-1 998 . .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 64
I . 1 1 . S e aso n al wo rke rs e m p lo ye d i n G e rm an y b y n ati o n ali ty, 1 992-1 998 .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 65
I . 1 2A. N ati o n als o f C e n tral an d E aste rn E u ro p e an co u n tri e s re si d i n g i n so m e
E u ro p e an O E C D co u n tri e s, late st avai lab le ye ar . ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 66
I . 1 2B . I m m i gran ts b o rn i n C e n tral an d E aste rn E u ro p e an co u n tri e s re si d i n g i n se le cte d
O E C D co u n tri e s, late st avai lab le ye ar . ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 66
I . 1 3. F o re i gn e rs re si d i n g i n so m e C e n tral an d E aste rn E u ro p e an co u n tri e s, b y m ajo r n ati o n ali ty,
late st avai lab le ye ar .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. .. . ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 71
I . 1 4. M ai n re gu lari sati o n p ro gram m e s o f i m m i gran ts i n an i rre gu lar si tu ati o n
i n se le cte d O E C D co u n tri e s, b y n ati o n ali ty . ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 82
I . 1 5. R e cap i tu lati ve tab le p re se n ti n g th e m e asu re s u n d e rtake n at th e n ati o n al le ve l
to co m b at th e e m p lo ym e n t o f fo re i gn e rs i n an i rre gu lar si tu ati o n i n so m e O E C D co u n tri e s . ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 85
8
O E C D 2000

Part II
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE LEGISLATION AND THE PROCEDURES
GOVERNING THE IMMIGRATION OF FAMILY MEMBERS IN CERTAIN OECD COUNTRIES
Tables
I I .1 . I n flo ws o f p e rm an e n t se ttle rs b y e n try class i n Au strali a, C an ad a an d th e U n i te d S tate s, 1 990-1 999 ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 06
I I .2. F am i ly re u n i fi cati o n , b y typ e o f re lati o n sh i p wi th th e sp o n so r 1 992-1 998, U n i te d S tate s ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 08
I I .3. F am i ly m e m b e rs e li gi b le to b e n e fi t fro m th e fam i ly re u n i fi cati o n p ro ce d u re ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 1 0
I I .4. F am i ly re u n i fi cati o n b y typ e o f re lati o n sh i p wi th th e ap p li can t, F ran ce , 1 992-1 998 .. ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 1 3
I I .5. C o n d i ti o n s re q u i re d o f ap p li can ts fo r fam i ly i m m i grati o n i n so m e O E C D co u n tri e s . ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 1 6
I I .6. C o n d i ti o n s to b e fu lfi lle d b y fam i ly m e m b e rs se e ki n g to b e acce p te d u n d e r
fam i ly re u n i fi cati o n p ro ce d u re .. ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... .. . ... .. 1 1 8
I I .7. T h e ri gh ts acco rd e d to th o se e n te ri n g u n d e r fam i ly re u n i fi cati o n p ro ce d u re s .. ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 22
Part III
C O U N T R Y N O T E S )
Maps
I I I .1 . P e rm an e n t i m m i grati o n to C an ad a b y p ro vi n ce s i n 1 998 .. ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 60
I I I .2. I m m i gran ts ad m i tte d to th e U n i te d S tate s b y S tate o f i n te n d e d re si d e n ce , fi scal ye ar 1 997 . ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 272
Charts
I I I .1 . F lo ws o f p e rm an e n t an d lo n g-te rm re si d e n ts, Au strali a . ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 30
I I I .2. C o m p o n e n ts o f p o p u lati o n ch an ge , 1 983-1 998, Au stri a .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 38
I I I .3. S to cks o f fo re i gn e rs h o ld i n g a wo rk p e rm i t i n Au stri a, 1 980-1 998 .. ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 40
I I I .4. M i grati o n flo ws to th e B alti c S tate s, 1 989-1 998 .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 42
I I I .5. N ati o n al co m p o si ti o n o n th e p o p u lati o n b ase d o n d e clare d e th n i c o ri gi n ,
B alti c S tate s, 1 959, 1 989, 1 997 ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 45
I I I .6. C h an ge s i n th e p o p u lati o n s b y co m p o n e n t, 1 983-1 998, B e lgi u m ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 48
I I I .7. I m m i grati o n lan d i n gs b y typ e , C an ad a, 1 998 ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 57
I I I .8. I n flo ws o f p e rm an e n t se ttle rs b y e n try class an d re gi o n o f o ri gi n , C an ad a, 1 980-1 998 ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 58
I I I .9. C o m p o n e n ts o f G e rm an p o p u lati o n ch an ge , 1 970-1 998 n ati o n als an d fo re i gn e rs .. ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 88
I I I .1 0. T re n d s an d ch aracte ri sti cs o f m i grati o n , I re lan d ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 201
I I I .1 1 . M i grati o n flo ws an d co m p o n e n ts o f fo re i gn p o p u lati o n ch an ge , 1 980-1 998, N e th e rlan d s .. ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 226
I I I .1 2. F e rti li ty rate s acco rd i n g to th e n ati o n ali ty o f th e m o th e r, 1 990-1 998, N e th e rlan d s ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 228
I I I .1 3. P e rm an e n t m i grati o n flo ws i n P o lan d , 1 960-1 998 . ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 238
I I I .1 4. D e m o grap h i c ch aracte ri sti cs o f p e rm an e n t e m i gran ts, 1 990-1 998, R o m an i a ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 245
I I I .1 5. F lo ws o f p e rm an e n t an d lo n g-te rm re si d e n ts, 1 991 /92-1 998/99, N e w Z e alan d .. ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 279
I I I .1 6. P e rso n s acce p te d fo r re si d e n ce i n co m p ari so n
wi th th e an n u al targe t, 1 992/93-2000/01 , N e w Z e alan d ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 283
I I I .1 7. P e rso n s acce p te d fo r re si d e n ce , b y cate go ry o f i m m i grati o n , 1 998/99, N e w Z e alan d .. ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 283
Tables
I I I .1 . P e rm an e n t an d te m p o rary m i grati o n p ro gram m e o u tco m e s, 1 996-1 999
an d p lan n i n g le ve ls fo r p e rm an e n t se ttle rs fo r 2000 an d 2001 , b y cate go ry, Au strali a ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 31
I I I .2. S o ci o -d e m o grap h i c ch aracte ri sti cs o f th e n ati ve an d fo re i gn -b o rn p o p u lati o n ,
Au strali a, 1 996 C e n su s .. ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 33
I I I .3. C u rre n t fi gu re s o n th e co m p o n e n ts o f to tal p o p u lati o n ch an ge , o n flo ws
an d sto cks o f fo re i gn p o p u lati o n an d lab o u r fo rce i n Au stri a . .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 37
I I I .4. C o m p o n e n ts o f to tal p o p u lati o n ch an ge i n th e B alti c S tate s, 1 995-1 998 ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 44
I I I .5. C u rre n t fi gu re s o n th e co m p o n e n ts o f to tal p o p u lati o n ch an ge ,
o n flo ws an d sto cks o f fo re i gn p o p u lati o n an d lab o u r fo rce i n B e lgi u m ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 49
I I I .6. L ab o u r fo rce i n B e lgi u m , b y n ati o n ali ty, 1 990, 1 995 an d 1 998 .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 51
I I I .7. C u rre n t fi gu re s o n th e sto cks o f fo re i gn p o p u lati o n i n B u lgari a . ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 55
I I I .8. I m m i gran t lan d i n gs b y typ e an d b y co u n try o f b i rth , 1 993 an d 1 998, C an ad a ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 59
9
O E C D 2000

I I I .9. I m m i gran t lan d i n gs b y typ e , 1 995-1 998, C an ad a . ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 61
I I I .1 0. C u rre n t fi gu re s o n flo ws an d sto cks o f m i gran ts i n C ze ch R e p u b li c . .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 65
I I I .1 1 . C u rre n t fi gu re s o n flo ws an d sto cks o f fo re i gn p o p u lati o n an d lab o u r fo rce i n D e n m ark ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 70
I I I .1 2. E m p lo ye d i m m i gran ts, b y m ai n o ccu p ati o n an d co u n try o f o ri gi n , 1 Jan u ary 1 999, D e n m ark .. .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 73
I I I .1 3. C u rre n t fi gu re s o n flo ws an d sto cks o f th e fo re i gn p o p u lati o n i n F i n lan d .. .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 75
I I I .1 4. C u rre n t fi gu re s o n flo ws an d sto cks o f fo re i gn p o p u lati o n an d lab o u r fo rce , F ran ce ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 78
I I I .1 5. F o re i gn p u p i ls atte n d i n g p u b li c an d p ri vate sch o o ls, F ran ce . ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 82
I I I .1 6. C u rre n t fi gu re s o n th e co m p o n e n ts o f to tal p o p u lati o n ch an ge , o n m i grati o n flo ws
an d sto cks o f fo re i gn p o p u lati o n an d lab o u r fo rce i n G e rm an y .. ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 86
I I I .1 7. R e si d e n ce p e rm i ts i ssu e d to fo re i gn e rs, b y co u n try o f o ri gi n , 1 995-1 998, G re e ce ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 93
I I I .1 8. S o ci o -e co n o m i c ch aracte ri sti cs o f re gu lari se d m i gran ts, 1 998-1 999, G re e ce ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 94
I I I .1 9. C u rre n t fi gu re s o n m i grati o n flo ws an d sto cks o f fo re i gn p o p u lati o n , H u n gary . ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 1 98
I I I .20. C u rre n t fi gu re s o n m i grati o n flo ws an d sto cks o f to tal p o p u lati o n an d lab o u r fo rce i n I re lan d . ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 204
I I I .21 . R e gu lari sati o n re q u e sts o f i m m i gran ts i n an i lle gal si tu ati o n , th re e last
re gu lari sati o n p ro gram m e s, b y re gi o n o f re si d e n ce , I taly ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 207
I I I .22. C u rre n t fi gu re s o n fo re i gn p o p u lati o n i n I taly . .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 209
I I I .23. I n flo ws o f fo re i gn e rs b y statu s o f re si d e n ce , 1 995-1 998, Jap an . ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 21 3
I I I .24. C u rre n t fi gu re s o n m i grati o n flo ws an d sto cks o f fo re i gn p o p u lati o n an d lab o u r fo rce i n Jap an ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 21 5
I I I .25. F o re i gn wo rke rs i n K o re a b y cate go ry, 1 996-1 999 ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 21 8
I I I .26. C u rre n t fi gu re s o n th e co m p o n e n ts o f to tal p o p u lati o n ch an ge , o n flo ws
an d sto cks o f fo re i gn p o p u lati o n an d lab o u r fo rce i n L u xe m b o u rg . .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 221
I I I .27. M e xi can e m i grati o n to th e U n i te d S tate s, 1 91 1 -1 998 . .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 224
I I I .28. S o ci o -e co n o m i c ch aracte ri sti cs o f u n d o cu m e n te d M e xi can i m m i gran ts
to th e U n i te d S tate s, 1 990, 1 996-1 999 ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 224
I I I .29. C u rre n t fi gu re s o n flo ws an d sto cks o f to tal p o p u lati o n an d lab o u r fo rce i n th e N e th e rlan d s . .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 227
I I I .30. N e t p arti ci p ati o n rate , N e th e rlan d s, 1 994 an d 1 998 .. .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 230
I I I .31 . C u rre n t fi gu re s o n flo ws an d sto cks o f fo re i gn p o p u lati o n , N o rway . .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 233
I I I .32. P e rm an e n t i m m i grati o n an d e m i grati o n , 1 995-1 999, P o lan d .. .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 237
I I I .33. C u rre n t fi gu re s o n flo ws an d sto cks o f to tal p o p u lati o n an d lab o u r fo rce i n P o rtu gal . ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 241
I I I .34. C u rre n t m i grati o n fi gu re s i n R o m an i a . ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 247
I I I .35. C u rre n t m i grati o n fi gu re s, S lo vak R e p u b li c .. ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 250
I I I .36. C u rre n t fi gu re s o n flo ws an d sto cks o f to tal p o p u lati o n an d lab o u r fo rce i n S p ai n .. ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 253
I I I .37. C u rre n t fi gu re s o n flo ws an d sto cks o f fo re i gn p o p u lati o n an d lab o u r fo rce i n S we d e n .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 256
I I I .38. C u rre n t fi gu re s o n th e co m p o n e n ts o f to tal p o p u lati o n ch an ge , o n m i grati o n flo ws
an d sto cks o f fo re i gn p o p u lati o n an d lab o u r fo rce i n S wi tze rlan d . ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 259
I I I .39. N u m b e r o f T u rki sh wo rke rs se n t ab ro ad b y th e N ati o n al E m p lo ym e n t
an d P lace m e n t O ffi ce , b y co u n try o r re gi o n o f d e sti n ati o n , 1 996-1 999, T u rke y . ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 263
I I I .40. C u rre n t fi gu re s o n m i grati o n flo ws an d sto cks o f to tal p o p u lati o n
an d lab o u r fo rce i n th e U n i te d K i n gd o m ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 266
I I I .41 . E m p lo ym e n t-b ase d i m m i grati o n , b y p re fe re n ce , fi scal ye ars 1 995-1 998, U n i te d S tate s . ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 275
I I I .42. P e rm an e n t an d lo n g-te rm flo ws, 1 998/1 999, N e w Z e alan d .. ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 280
I I I .43. N e t m i grati o n , 1 992/93-1 998/99, N e w Z e alan d .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 280
I I I .44. R e si d e n ce p e rm i ts gran te d , b y cate go ry an d b y n ati o n ali ty, 1 998/99, N e w Z e alan d .. ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 284
I I I .45. R e fu ge e q u o ta p ro gram m e , 1 998/99, N e w Z e alan d ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 288
I I I .46. Wo rki n g H o li d ay sch e m e s, b y n ati o n ali ty, 1 999, N e w Z e alan d .. ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 289
STATISTICAL ANNEX
A. Cross national tables
A.1. Foreign and/or foreign-born population: stocks and flows
A.1 .1 . I n flo ws o f fo re i gn p o p u lati o n i n to se le cte d O E C D co u n tri e s .. .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 304
A.1 .2. O u tflo ws o f fo re i gn p o p u lati o n fro m se le cte d O E C D co u n tri e s ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 304
A.1 .3. N e t m i grati o n o f fo re i gn p o p u lati o n i n se le cte d O E C D co u n tri e s .. ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 304
A.1 .4. I n flo ws o f asylu m se e ke rs i n to se le cte d O E C D co u n tri e s . ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 305
1 0
O E C D 2000

A.1 .5. S to cks o f fo re i gn -b o rn p o p u lati o n i n se le cte d O E C D co u n tri e s .. ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 305
A.1 .6. S to cks o f fo re i gn p o p u lati o n i n se le cte d O E C D co u n tri e s ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 306
A.1 .7. Acq u i si ti o n o f n ati o n ali ty i n se le cte d O E C D co u n tri e s ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 307
A.2. Foreign or foreign-born labour force: stocks and flows
A.2.1 . I n flo ws o f fo re i gn wo rke rs i n to se le cte d O E C D co u n tri e s .. ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 308
A.2.2. I n flo ws o f se aso n al wo rke rs i n se le cte d O E C D co u n tri e s .. ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 308
A.2.3. S to cks o f fo re i gn an d fo re i gn -b o rn lab o u r fo rce i n se le cte d O E C D co u n tri e s . ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 309
B. Tables by country of origin and by category of migrant
B.1. Foreign and/or foreign-born population: stocks and flows
B.1.1. Inflows of foreign population by nationality
B .1 .1 . Au strali a . ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 31 0
B .1 .1 . B e lgi u m . ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 31 1
B .1 .1 . C an ad a ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 31 1
B .1 .1 . D e n m ark ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 31 2
B .1 .1 . F i n lan d ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 31 2
B .1 .1 . F ran ce . ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 31 3
B .1 .1 . G e rm an y ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 31 3
B .1 .1 . G re e ce ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 31 4
B .1 .1 . H u n gary . ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 31 4
B .1 .1 . I re lan d ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 31 5
B .1 .1 . I taly ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 31 5
B .1 .1 . Jap an . ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 31 5
B .1 .1 . L u xe m b o u rg .. .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 31 6
B .1 .1 . N e th e rlan d s ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 31 6
B .1 .1 . N e w Z e alan d . .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 31 6
B .1 .1 . N o rway .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 31 7
B .1 .1 . S we d e n . ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 31 7
B .1 .1 . S wi tze rlan d . ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 31 8
B .1 .1 . U n i te d K i n gd o m ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 31 8
B .1 .1 . U n i te d S tate s .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 31 9
B.1.2. Outflows of foreign population by nationality
B .1 .2. B e lgi u m . ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 31 9
B .1 .2. D e n m ark ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 320
B .1 .2. F i n lan d ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 320
B .1 .2. G e rm an y ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 321
B .1 .2. Jap an . .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 321
B .1 .2. L u xe m b o u rg .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 322
B .1 .2. N e th e rlan d s ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 322
B .1 .2. N e w Z e alan d . .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 322
B .1 .2. N o rway .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 323
B .1 .2. S we d e n . ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 323
B .1 .2. S wi tze rlan d . ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 324
B.1.3. Net migration of population by nationality
B .1 .3. B e lgi u m . ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 324
B .1 .3. D e n m ark ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 325
B .1 .3. F i n lan d ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 325
B .1 .3. G e rm an y ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 326
B .1 .3. Jap an . .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 326
B .1 .3. L u xe m b o u rg .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 327
B .1 .3. N e th e rlan d s ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 327
B .1 .3. N e w Z e alan d . .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 327
B .1 .3. N o rway .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 328
B .1 .3. S we d e n . ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 328
B .1 .3. S wi tze rlan d . ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 329
B.1.4. Inflows of asylumseekers by nationality
B .1 .4. B e lgi u m . ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 329
B .1 .4. C an ad a ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 329
B .1 .4. F ran ce . ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 330
B .1 .4. G e rm an y ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 330
B .1 .4. N e th e rlan d s .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 331
B .1 .4. S we d e n . ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 331
B .1 .4. S wi tze rlan d . ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 331
B .1 .4. U n i te d K i n gd o m . ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 332
B .1 .4. U n i te d S tate s . .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 332
B.1.5. Stock of foreign-born population by country of birth
B .1 .5. Au strali a . ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 333
B .1 .5. C an ad a ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 333
B .1 .5. D e n m ark ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 334
B .1 .5. F i n lan d ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 334
B .1 .5. N e th e rlan d s ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 335
B .1 .5. N o rway .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 335
B .1 .5. S we d e n . ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 336
B .1 .5. U n i te d S tate s .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 336
1 1
O E C D 2000

B.1.6. Stock of foreign population by nationality
B .1 .6. B e lgi u m . ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 337
B .1 .6. C ze ch R e p u b li c ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 337
B .1 .6. D e n m ark ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 338
B .1 .6. F i n lan d ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 338
B .1 .6. F ran ce . ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 339
B .1 .6. G e rm an y ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 339
B .1 .6. H u n gary . ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 340
B .1 .6. I taly ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 340
B .1 .6. Jap an . .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 341
B .1 .6. K o re a .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 341
B .1 .6. L u xe m b o u rg .. .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 342
B .1 .6. N e th e rlan d s ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 342
B .1 .6. N o rway .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 343
B .1 .6. P o rtu gal . ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 343
B .1 .6. S p ai n ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 344
B .1 .6. S we d e n . ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 344
B .1 .6. S wi tze rlan d . ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 345
B .1 .6. U n i te d K i n gd o m ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 345
B .1 .6. U n i te d S tate s .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 346
B.1.7. Acquisition of nationality by country of former nationality
B .1 .7. Au strali a . ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 346
B .1 .7. Au stri a . ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 347
B .1 .7. B e lgi u m . ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 347
B .1 .7. C an ad a ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 347
B .1 .7. D e n m ark ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 348
B .1 .7. F i n lan d ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 348
B .1 .7. F ran ce . ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 349
B .1 .7. G e rm an y ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 349
B .1 .7. H u n gary . ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 349
B .1 .7. I taly ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 350
B .1 .7. Jap an . ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 350
B .1 .7. L u xe m b o u rg .. .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 350
B .1 .7. N e th e rlan d s ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 351
B .1 .7. N o rway .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 351
B .1 .7. S p ai n ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 352
B .1 .7. S we d e n . ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 352
B .1 .7. S wi tze rlan d . ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 352
B .1 .7. U n i te d K i n gd o m ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 353
B .1 .7. U n i te d S tate s .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 353
B.2. Foreign or foreign-born labour force: stocks and flows
B.2.1. Foreign-born labour forceby place of birth
B .2.1 . Au strali a . ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 354
B .2.1 . C an ad a ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 354
B .2.1 . U n i te d S tate s .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 355
B.2.2. Stock of foreign labour by nationality
B .2.2. Au stri a . ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 355
B . 2. 2. B e lgi u m . ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 356
B . 2. 2. D e n m ark ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 356
B . 2. 2. F i n lan d ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 357
B . 2. 2. F ran ce . ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 357
B . 2. 2. G e rm an y ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 358
B . 2. 2. H u n gary . ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 358
B . 2. 2. Jap an . .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... 358
B . 2. 2. L u xe m b o u rg .. .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 359
B . 2. 2. N e th e rlan d s ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 359
B . 2. 2. N o rway .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 359
B . 2. 2. P o rtu gal . ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 360
B . 2. 2. S p ai n ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 360
B . 2. 2. S we d e n . ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 361
B . 2. 2. S wi tze rlan d . ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 361
B . 2. 2. U n i te d K i n gd o m . ... ... .. ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .. 362
1 2
O E C D 2000
Overview of migration trends and foreign or foreign-born population
1 . Au stri a, I re lan d , I taly, P o rtu gal an d S p ai n are n o t i n clu d e d .
2. D ata re fe r to th e p e ri o d 1 993-1 995 an d o n th e ye ar 1 996.
3. D ata re fe r to th e p e ri o d 1 993-94.
Source: O E C D D atab ase o n I n te rn ati o n al M i grati o n .
M i grati o n flo ws i n th o u san d s) S to ck o f fo re i gn an d fo re i gn -b o rn p o p u lati o n i n th o u san d s)
An n u al
ave rage
1 993-97
1 998
L ate st
avai lab le
ye ar
S h are o f
th e to tal
p o p u lati o n
% )
I n flo ws o f fo re i gn m i gran ts S to ck o f fo re i gn p o p u lati o n
E u ro p e an e co n o m i c are a E E A)
1
1 1 96 1 223 E u ro p e an e co n o m i c are a 1 998) 20 043 5.3
U n i te d S tate s 1 735 1 684 Jap an 1 998) 1 51 2 1 .2
P e rm an e n t i m m i grati o n 829 660
Te m p o rary i m m i grati o n
2
907 1 023 S to ck o f fo re i gn -b o rn p o p u lati o n
Au strali a 222 271 U n i te d S tate s 1 998) 26 300 9.8
P e rm an e n t i m m i grati o n 84 77 C an ad a 1 996) 4 971 1 6.8
Te m p o rary i m m i grati o n 1 38 1 94 Au strali a 1 996) 3 908 21 .5
C an ad a 288 239
P e rm an e n t i m m i grati o n 227 1 74
Te m p o rary i m m i grati o n 61 65
Jap an 236 265
N e t m i grati o n p e r 1 000 i n h ab i tan ts)
E u ro p e an e co n o m i c are a 2.3 1 .3
U n i te d S tate s 3.4 3.6
Au strali a 4.1 6.0
C an ad a
3
5. 5
3
4.3
Jap an 0.2 0.3
Asylu m se e ke rs
E u ro p e an e co n o m i c are a 342 356
U n i te d S tate s 1 32 55
Au strali a 6 8
C an ad a 24 25
1989-94 1995-96 1997-98
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Acquisition of nationality
Annual average in thousands
EEA United
States
Canada Japan Australia
1989-94 1995-96 1997-98
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
EEA United
States
1989-94 1995-96 1997-98
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
EEA United
States
1 3
O E C D 2000
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
The debate on immigration
has widened to include the issues
of population ageing and skilled
labour shortages
At th e d awn o f th e n e w m i lle n n i u m , th e u p tu rn i n i m m i grati o n flo ws i s
b e i n g co n fi rm e d i n m an y O E C D M e m b e r co u n tri e s. At th e sa m e ti m e th e
d e b ate co n ce rn i n g i m m i grati o n , wh i le sti ll large ly fo cu sse d o n th e co n tro l
o f flo ws an d th e co m b ati n g o f u n d o cu m e n te d i m m i grati o n , h as wi d e n e d to
i n clu d e two o th e r i ssu e s : th e ro le th at i m m i grati o n m i gh t p lay i n m o d e rat-
i n g th e e ffe cts o f p o p u la ti o n a g e i n g a n d wh e th e r o r n o t g re a t e r re so rt
sh o u ld b e m ad e to i m m i g rati o n i n o rd e r to a lle vi ate sh o rta ge s o f ski lle d
an d h i gh ly ski lle d wo rke rs.
The upturn in immigration flows
is being confirmed, notably
in Europe and Japan
T h e u p tu rn i n i m m i grati o n flo ws, alre ad y n o ti ce ab le i n 1 997 fo r so m e
co u n tri e s F ran ce , Ja p an , th e N e th e rlan d s, N o rwa y a n d S we d e n ) , i s n o w
p e rce p ti b le i n Au stri a , B e lg i u m , D e n m a rk , H u n g a ry, I ta ly, L u xe m b o u rg
an d S p ai n . O n th e o th e r h a n d , i m m i grati o n flo ws h ave te n d e d to d e cli n e
i n A u st ra l i a , C a n a d a , G e rm a n y, S wi t ze rl a n d a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s.
G e rm an y a n d th e U n i te d S tate s n e v e rth e le ss re m ai n , i n ab so lu te te rm s,
t h e p ri n ci p a l re ce i v i n g co u n t ri e s. H o we v e r, i f l e g a l e n t ry fl o ws a re
co m p a re d to th e to tal fo re i gn o r fo re i gn -b o rn p o p u lati o n at th e b e gi n n i n g
o f th e y e a r, Jap a n , N o rwa y an d th e U n i te d K i n gd o m re ce i v e , i n re lati v e
te rm s, th e m o st i m m i gra n ts.
The persistence of traditional
immigration flows is being
accompanied by a diversification
in the range of significant source
countries, notably from Asia and
sub-Saharan Africa. An important
part of recent emergent flows
includes undocumented
immigrants
T h e a n aly si s o f i n flo ws b y co u n tri e s o f o ri gi n re ve a ls th re e d i sti n cti v e
ch aracte ri sti cs. T h e fi rst i s th e p re d o m i n an ce i n m an y case s o f o n e o r two
o ri g i n co u n t ri e s, i n g e n e ra l g e o g ra p h i ca l l y cl o se N e w Z e a l a n d fo r
A u st ra li a , M e xi co fo r th e U n i te d S ta t e s, R u ssi a fo r F i n la n d , A lb a n i a fo r
I ta ly, C h i n a a n d th e P h i li p p i n e s fo r Jap an , fo r e xa m p le ) . T h e re m a y a lso
b e co u n tri e s fro m wh i ch h av e co m e large n u m b e rs o f re fu ge e s S o m ali a i n
th e ca se o f D e n m ark, I ra q i n th at o f S we d e n an d th e fo rm e r Yu go slavi a i n
th a t o f S wi tze rla n d ) . T h e se co n d d i sti n cti v e ch ara cte ri sti c co n ce rn s th e
p e rsi ste n ce o f tra d i t i o n a l flo ws. T h e P o rtu g u e se d o m i n a te i n fl o ws to
L u xe m b o u rg , a s d o M a g h re b i a n s i n th o se to F ra n ce a n d n a ti o n a ls o f
I re la n d , I n d i a an d th e U n i te d S tate s i n th o se to th e U n i te d K i n g d o m . T h e
th i rd d i sti n cti ve ch a racte ri sti c co n ce rn s th e co n ti n u i n g gro wth o f re ce n tly
e m e rge n t flo ws, o f wh i ch u n d o cu m e n te d i m m i gran ts co n sti tu te an i m p o r-
ta n t p a rt. C o u n tri e s su ch a s Au strali a, C a n a d a , F ra n ce , th e N e th e rla n d s
a n d S we d e n h a v e fo r t h i s re a so n re co rd e d si g n i fi ca n t ch a n g e s i n t h e
co m p o si ti o n o f t h e i r i n flo ws. I n F ra n ce , fo r e xa m p l e , C h i n a , Z a i re a n d
H a ti h a v e re ce n t ly a n d cl e a rl y e m e rg e d a s n e w o ri g i n co u n tri e s. I n
A u stra li a , C a n a d a a n d th e U n i t e d S ta t e s th e i m m i g ra t i o n o f C h i n e se
n a ti o n a l s, wh i ch i s fa r fro m b e i n g a n e w p h e n o m e n o n , i s o n ce a g a i n
u n d e rgo i n g co n si d e ra b le gro wth .
1 4
O E C D 2000
Despite the marked increase
in asylum applications and
in labour migration, family-linked
immigration predominates
T h o u gh th e e xte n t va ri e s co n si d e rab ly fro m o n e co u n try to a n o th e r,
fa m i ly -li n k e d i m m i g ra t i o n a cco m p a n y i n g fa m i ly m e m b e rs a n d fa m i ly
re u n i o n ) p re d o m i n ate d i n to tal i n flo ws i n alm o st all O E C D M e m b e r co u n -
tri e s i n 1 998 an d 1 999, n o tab ly i n C an ad a, th e U n i te d S tate s an d i n F ran ce .
H o we ve r, th e e n d o f th e 1 990s was m arke d b y a p ro n o u n ce d i n cre ase i n th e
n u m b e r o f re q u e st s fo r a sy l u m fi l e d i n O E C D M e m b e r co u n t ri e s. I n
d e sce n d i n g o rd e r, G e rm an y, th e U n i te d K i n g d o m , th e N e th e rlan d s a n d
S wi tze rlan d re ce i ve d th e large st n u m b e r o f asy lu m re q u e sts. I f, h o we ve r,
i n flo ws o f asylu m se e ke rs are e xp re sse d as a p ro p o rti o n o f th e to tal fo re i gn
p o p u lati o n , I re lan d an d N o rway re ce i ve d th e m o st. T h e re are also si gn s o f
an u p tu rn i n e m p lo ym e n t-re late d m i grati o n . T h i s tre n d sti ll o n ly co n ce rn s
h o we v e r a sm a ll n u m b e r o f co u n tri e s n o ta b ly Au strali a, B e lgi u m an d th e
U n i te d K i n gd o m ) an d n o t n e ce ssari ly all cate go ri e s o f wo rke r.
The employment of immigrants
increases sharply during economic
upturns
O ve r th e last d e cad e , th e p ro p o rti o n o f fo re i gn e rs o r th e fo re i gn -b o rn
i n th e to tal p o p u la ti o n an d th e lab o u r fo rce h a s i n cre ase d si gn i fi can tly i n
s e v e ra l O E C D c o u n t ri e s , n o t a b l y i n A u s t ri a , B e l g i u m , G e rm a n y ,
L u xe m b o u rg a n d th e U n i te d S tate s. O ve r th i s p e ri o d , fo re i gn e rs e m p lo y-
m e n t h as flu ctu ate d to a gre a te r e xte n t th an to ta l e m p lo ym e n t. T h e e co -
n o m i c u p t u rn s i n A u st ri a , I re l a n d , I t a l y a n d i n P o rt u g a l a re b e i n g
acco m p an i e d b y co m p arati ve ly stro n ge r gro wth i n fo re i gn e rs e m p lo ym e n t
wh e re as i n F ran ce , G e rm an y an d th e N e th e rlan d s, th e sam e e co n o m i c cli -
m a te a p p e a rs to h a v e b e e n le ss fa v o u ra b le to fo re i g n e rs. I n A u stra li a ,
tre n d s i n e m p lo y m e n t o f fo re i gn e rs h a ve fo llo we d th o se o f th e e co n o m i c
cycle . T h i s h as also b e e n th e case i n N o rway an d th e U n i te d K i n gd o m .
and the feminisation of labour
migration flows is being confirmed
T h e fe m i n i sati o n o f lab o u r m i grati o n flo ws i s p arti cu larly vi si b le i n E ast
a n d S o u th -e a st A si a , wh e re t h e re a re la rg e flo ws o f t e m p o ra ry wo rk e rs
m ai n ly fro m I n d o n e si a, th e P h i li p p i n e s, S ri L a n k a a n d T h ai la n d . I t i s a lso
p e rce p ti b le i n S o u th e rn E u ro p e , th e N o rd i c co u n tri e s an d i n S wi tze rlan d .
D u e , inter alia, to th e gro wi n g i m p o rta n ce o f th e fam i ly co m p o n e n t i n to tal
flo ws, th e p ro p o rti o n o f wo m e n i n th e e n tri e s re co rd e d i n N o rth Am e ri ca
h as also b e e n gro wi n g.
In Europe, unemployment
among foreigners remains
disproportionately high
I n th e m ajo ri ty o f E u ro p e an O E C D M e m b e r co u n tri e s e xce p t I taly an d
S p ai n ) , th e e xte n t o f u n e m p lo ym e n t am o n gst th e fo re i gn -b o rn p o p u lati o n
i s g re ate r th a n th e p ro p o rti o n o f th e lab o u r fo rce fo r wh i ch th e y a cco u n t.
T h i s d i scre p an cy i s la rge st i n D e n m ark an d th e N e th e rlan d s, o n ave rag e ,
th re e ti m e s h i gh e r.
Controlling flows retains
its priority at the heart
of migration policies
T h e p o li cy o f O E C D M e m b e r co u n tri e s re g a rd i n g th e re g u la ti o n o f
flo ws, i s m an i fe ste d i n fre q u e n t ch an ge s to i m m i grati o n le gi slati o n an d th e
e n actm e n t o f n e w laws. I t also co n ce rn s i n te rn ati o n al co -o p e rati o n b e twe e n
M e m b e r co u n tri e s th e m se lve s a n d b e twe e n M e m b e r a n d n o n -M e m b e r
co u n tri e s. T h e stre n g th e n i n g o f b o rd e r co n tro ls a n d o f e n try cri t e ri a ,
i n cre asi n g se ve ri ty o f p e n alti e s agai n st th e e m p lo ym e n t o f u n d o cu m e n te d
i m m i gran ts, th e h arm o n i sati o n o f ad m i ssi o n p ro ce d u re s fo r asylu m se e ke rs
a n d re fu g e e s, a s we ll a s th e re v i si o n o f l e g i sla t i o n co n ce rn i n g fa m i ly
re u n i o n , b e ar wi tn e ss to th e d e si re o f th e m a jo ri ty o f th e O E C D M e m b e r
co u n tri e s to i m p ro ve th e i r co n tro l o ve r m i g rati o n flo ws. At th e sam e ti m e
th e p ri n ci p le o f lo n g-stay le gal i m m i grati o n an d th e gran ti n g o f m o re ri gh ts
to fo re i gn re si d e n ts alre ad y se ttle d i n th e co u n try fo r se ve ral ye ars i s m o re
wi d e ly acce p te d .
1 5
O E C D 2000
General Introduction
as does the integration
of immigrants into the labour
market and wider society
O E C D M e m b e r co u n tri e s are i n cre asi n gly p re o ccu p i e d b y th e i ssu e o f
th e i n te grati o n o f fo re i gn e rs alre ad y se ttle d i n th e h o st co u n try o r wh o wi sh
to re si d e th e re p e rm an e n tly. N e w p ro v i si o n s h av e b e e n ad o p te d i n th i s
re gard , n o tab ly i n Au strali a, C an ad a, I taly, N e w Z e alan d an d S p ai n . I n o rd e r
b o th to e n h an ce th e e ffe cti ve n e ss o f i n te grati o n p o li ci e s at th e lo cal le ve l
an d to re d u ce th e i r fi n an ci al co n tri b u ti o n to th e i r i m p le m e n tati o n , th e ce n -
t ra l g o v e rn m e n t s o f ce rt a i n co u n t ri e s a re d e l e g a t i n g m o re o f t h e i r
co m p e te n ci e s to lo cal au th o ri ti e s. I n so m e M e m b e r co u n tri e s, e ffo rts h ave
e xte n d e d to th e m o d i fi cati o n o f n atu rali sati o n p o li ci e s, n o tab ly i n G e rm an y
wh e re th e n e w C i ti ze n sh i p C o d e cam e i n to fo rce o n 1 Jan u ary 2000. I t rad i -
ca lly a m e n d s th e p ri n ci p le o f k i n sh i p a n d i n tro d u ce s, su b je ct to ce rta i n
co n d i ti o n s, th e p ri n ci p le o f jussoli. P o li ci e s wh i ch ai m to i n te grate fo re i gn -
e rs i n to th e lab o u r m arke t an d wi d e r so ci e ty also i n clu d e m e asu re s to faci l-
i ta te th e i n te g ra ti o n o f n e w a rri v a ls, sp e ci fi c m e a su re s fo r re fu ge e s a n d
asylu m se e ke rs, vo cati o n al trai n i n g p ro gram m e s an d m e asu re s to faci li tate
th e acce ss o f yo u n g p e o p le an d th e u n e m p lo y e d to th e lab o u r m arke t a s
we ll as th e fi gh t agai n st raci al d i scri m i n ati o n .
and co-operation
with origin countries
T h e fi n al se cti o n o f th e o ve rvi e w o f m i grati o n p o li ci e s fo cu se s o n p art-
n e rsh i p arran ge m e n ts wi th o ri gi n co u n tri e s d e si gn e d to i n vo lve th e m i n th e
fi gh t agai n st i lle gal i m m i grati o n , jo i n t d e ve lo p m e n t p ro je cts an d i n p ro vi d -
i n g a ssi stan ce to re tu rn i n g i m m i g ra n ts as we ll a s i n e n co u ra gi n g th e m to
si gn b i late ral re ad m i ssi o n agre e m e n ts. T h i s p artn e rsh i p also co n ce rn s th e
i m p le m e n tati o n o f Asso ci a ti o n an d co -o p e ra ti o n Ag re e m e n ts co n clu d e d
b e twe e n th e E u ro p e an C o m m u n i ty, o n th e o n e h an d an d , re sp e cti ve ly, th e
C E E C s, Tu rke y an d th e co u n tri e s o f th e M agh re b . T h e se agre e m e n ts ai m to
st re n g th e n re g i o n a l e co n o m i c i n te g ra ti o n a n d g u a ra n te e th e ri g h ts o f
i m m i gran ts le gally re si d e n t i n th e h o st co u n tri e s.
The contribution of migration
flows to the total population
growth of host countries
is increasing, but
Ag a i n st th e b a ck g ro u n d o f th e d e ce le ra ti o n i n d e m o gra p h i c g ro wth
th at i s taki n g p la ce i n th e m a jo ri ty o f O E C D co u n tri e s, th e co n tri b u ti o n o f
m i gra ti o n co n ti n u e s to b e h i g h e r th a n th a t o f th e n a tu ral i n cre a se . T h e
C ze ch R e p u b li c, G e rm a n y, G re e ce , H u n g a ry, I ta ly a n d S we d e n h a v e i n
co m m o n a n e g ati ve rate o f n atu ral i n cre ase an d p o si ti ve n e t m i grati o n . I n
G re e ce , I taly an d S we d e n , i t was d u e to n e t m i grati o n th at th e p o p u lati o n
i n cre a se d i n 1 9 9 8 a n d i n 1 9 9 9 . B y co n t ra st , i n F ra n ce , Ja p a n a n d t h e
U n i te d S ta te s, th e n a tu ra l i n cre a se re m a i n s th e p ri n ci p al co m p o n e n t o f
p o p u la ti o n gro wth as i s a lso th e ca se , a n d to a m u ch g re a te r d e gre e , i n
M e xi co an d Tu rke y. I n se ttle m e n t co u n tri e s su ch as Au strali a, C an ad a an d
th e U n i te d S tate s, wh i ch co n ti n u e to re ce i ve su b sta n ti al n u m b e rs o f n e w
i m m i g ra n ts e a ch y e a r, i t m a y we ll b e th a t th e p re d o m i n a n ce o f fa m i ly -
li n ke d i m m i grati o n i n to tal i n flo ws an d th e yo u n ge r age p ro fi le o f th e n e w
a rri v a ls e xe rt o v e r th e sh o rt a n d m e d i u m te rm a m a rk e d e ffe ct o n th e
n atu ral rate o f i n cre ase i n th e p o p u lati o n .
will not by itself modify
their demographic profiles
A m o re d e ta i le d e xam i n ati o n o f th e cu rre n t d e m o grap h i c si tu a ti o n i n
O E C D co u n tri e s sh o ws th a t th e a g e i n g o f th e p o p u la ti o n i s m u ch le ss
m a rk e d i n N o rth Am e ri ca . O v e r th e n e xt twe n ty-fi v e y e ars, glo b a l la b o u r
sh o rtage s wi ll b e th e m o st se ve re i n E u ro p e an d Jap an , e ve n i f allo wan ce i s
m ad e fo r a tran si ti o n p e ri o d i n wh i ch i m p ro ve d p ro d u cti vi ty an d th e u se o f
cu rre n tly su rp lu s la b o u r te m p o ra ri ly e a se th e m . R e so rti n g to i n cre a se d
i m m i gra ti o n p o sse sse s th e ad va n tag e o f h a vi n g a n i m m e d i ate an d re la -
ti v e ly stro n g i m p a ct o n th e e co n o m i ca lly a cti v e p o p u la ti o n a s th e n e w
i m m i gran ts te n d to b e yo u n ge r an d m o re m o b i le . D u e , h o we ve r, to th e fact
1 6
O E C D 2000
th at th e d e m o grap h i c an d e co n o m i c b e h avi o u rs o f i m m i gran ts te n d to ali gn
th e m se lve s wi th th o se o f n ati o n als, th i s e ffe ct d i m i n i sh e s o ve r ti m e . T h e re
e xi st m o re o ve r p racti cal an d p o li ti cal co n strai n ts th at re n d e r i t d i ffi cu lt to
d e ve lo p an d i m p le m e n t m i gra ti o n p o li ci e s ai m e d a t ch an gi n g th e d e m o -
g ra p h i c p ro fi le . A s a re su lt , i m m i g ra ti o n ca n n o t b y i t se lf re so lv e t h e
p ro b le m o f d e m o grap h i c age i n g.
Resorting to immigration could
however contribute to moderating
the effects of demographic
ageing
N e ve rth e le ss, th e i d e a o f u si n g i m m i grati o n sh o u ld n o t b e re je cte d
alto ge th e r as i t can h e lp to p re ve n t a d e cre ase i n p o p u lati o n fo r a li m i te d
p e ri o d o f ti m e . T h e re e xi sts i n fact a d e gre e o f fle xi b i li ty wi th i n e xi sti n g le g-
i sla t i o n th a t p ro v i d e s fo r v a ri a ti o n s i n t h e v o lu m e a n d co m p o si ti o n o f
i m m i grati o n flo ws. H o we v e r, th e e a se wi th wh i ch co u n tri e s m ay sh i ft th e
fo cu s o f i m m i grati o n p o li cy to ward s d e m o grap h i c o b je cti ve s vari e s wi d e ly.
S o m e a lre ad y h ave a co m p re h e n si ve an d co -o rd i n ate d ap p ro a ch to ward s
i m m i gra ti o n n o ta b ly Au strali a, C an a d a an d N e w Z e ala n d ) wh i ch i n clu d e
age -re late d se le cti o n cri te ri a fo r so m e cate go ri e s o f i m m i gran t. O th e r co u n -
tri e s d o n o t u se age -li n ke d cri te ri a e xp li ci tly, b u t th e i r m i gra ti o n syste m s
a n d th e wa y th a t th e y a re i m p le m e n te d a ffe ct th e a g e d i st ri b u ti o n o f
i n flo ws i n a si m i lar m an n e r. T h i s i s th e case fo r th e p re fe re n ce syste m i n th e
U n i te d S tate s. I t i s also th e case i n E u ro p e , i n p arti cu lar, as th e re gu lari sa-
ti o n p ro gram m e s i m p le m e n te d th e re are p ri m ari ly d i re cte d to ward s e co -
n o m i cally acti ve i m m i gran ts.
through alleviating sectoral
labour shortages and facilitating
the recruitment of highly skilled
foreign workers
At p re se n t, th e re a p p e a rs to b e a p re fe re n ce fo r m e ch an i sm s wh i ch
cate r fo r te m p o rary lab o u r m i grati o n to i n cre ase lab o u r su p p ly rath e r th an
p o li ci e s wh i ch se e k to i n cre ase p e rm an e n t i m m i gra ti o n . I n o rd e r to m e e t
th e n e e d s o f th e la b o u r m a rk e t, e sp e ci a lly i n h i g h te ch n o lo g y se cto rs,
m a n y O E C D M e m b e r co u n tri e s h a ve ad o p te d p o li ci e s th a t p ro m o te th e
e n try o f sk i lle d a n d h i gh ly ski lle d wo rk e rs. T h e se ran ge fro m sp e ci fi c p ro -
g ra m m e s, su ch a s th o se i m p le m e n t e d fo r sp e ci a li sts i n co m p u ti n g i n
G e rm an y an d fo r n u rse s i n th e U n i te d S tate s, to m o re ge n e ral re laxati o n s o f
th e e li gi b i li ty cri te ri a fo r ce rtai n ca te g o ri e s o f wo rke r F ra n ce , Ja p a n , th e
U n i te d K i n gd o m an d th e U n i te d S tate s) . O ve rall, th e ad m i ssi o n o f te m p o rary
wo rke rs i s su rgi n g, p arti cu larly i n C an ad a an d th e U n i te d S tate s.
* * *
The special chapter of this report
is devoted to family-linked
immigration
P a rt I I o f th i s re p o rt p re se n ts a stu d y o f fa m i ly -li n k e d i m m i g ra ti o n
i n a n u m b e r o f O E C D co u n tri e s. I n th e m a jo ri ty o f E u ro p e a n co u n tri e s,
th e re stri ct i o n s p la ce d o n i m m i g ra ti o n o v e r th e co u rse o f th e la st t wo
d e ca d e s h a v e h a d th e e ffe ct o f re n d e ri n g fa m i ly re u n i o n t h e p ri n ci p a l
l e g a l m e a n s fo r n e w i m m i g ra n t s t o e n t e r t h e s e c o u n t ri e s. I n t h e
U n i te d S ta te s, fa m i ly i m m i g ra ti o n a cco u n ts fo r two -th i rd s o f a ll p e rm a -
n e n t i m m i g ra ti o n a n d i n A u stra li a a n d i n C a n a d a i t a cco u n ts fo r o v e r a
q u a rte r. I n all th re e co u n tri e s, th e m o st co m m o n fo rm o f fa m i ly i m m i g ra -
ti o n i s fo r p e rm a n e n t m i g ra n ts to e n te r th e co u n try a cco m p a n i e d b y
th e i r fa m i l i e s. I n th e o th e r O E C D M e m b e r co u n tri e s, fa m i l y re u n i o n ,
wh i ch i s u n d e rta k e n a fte r th e a rri v a l o f th e p e rm a n e n t i m m i g ra n t, p re -
d o m i n a te s. F a m i ly -li n k e d i m m i g ra ti o n h a s th e re fo re b e e n a n i m p o rta n t
to p i c i n th e re ce n t d e b a te s o n th e co n tri b u ti o n o f i m m i g ran ts. N o t o n ly
d o e s i t h av e a n i m p a ct o n th e d e m o g ra p h i c stru ctu re o f th e co u n try b u t
i t affe cts th e p o ssi b i li ti e s o f fa m i ly m e m b e rs to e n te r th e la b o u r m a rk e t
o f th e h o st co u n try, e i th e r o v e r th e sh o rt o r lo n g te rm .
1 7
O E C D 2000
General Introduction
and examines the criteria,
the beneficiaries and the effects
of family reunion
T h e cri te ri a go ve rn i n g th e e n ti tle m e n t to fam i ly re u n i o n vary acco rd i n g
to th e co u n try e xam i n e d an d i t i s n o t u su ally an au to m ati c ri gh t i n th e case
o f te m p o rary m i grati o n . I t also vari e s acco rd i n g to th e p o ssi b i li ty th at fam -
i ly m e m b e rs h ave to b e sp o n so re d b y a ci ti ze n o r p e rm an e n t re si d e n t o f
th e h o st co u n try wh o u n d e rtake s to p ro vi d e fo r a ll th e i r n e e d s fo r a vari -
ab le p e ri o d o f ti m e . I t fo llo ws th at fam i ly re u n i o n i s a p ro te an co n ce p t th at
vari e s acco rd i n g to m o re o r le ss re stri cti ve co n ce p ti o n s o f th e fam i ly. T h e
stu d y i d e n ti fi e s th o se wh o are li ke ly to b e n e fi t fro m re u n i o n an d e xam i n e s
th e co n d i ti o n s go ve rn i n g fam i ly re u n i o n an d th e e n try o f th e acco m p an yi n g
fa m i l y. T h e fi n a l se ct i o n fo cu se s o n th e l e g a l sy st e m s a n d h o w th e y
re gu late fam i ly m e m b e rs acce ss to so ci al we lfare an d th e lab o u r m arke t.
* * *
P art I I I p re se n ts co u n try-sp e ci fi c n o te s o n th e re ce n t d e ve lo p m e n ts i n
m i grati o n m o ve m e n ts an d p o li ci e s. N e w Z e alan d , wh i ch h as ju st jo i n e d th e
C o n ti n u o u s R e p o rti n g S y st e m o n M i g ra t i o n , i s th e su b j e ct o f a m o re
d e tai le d n o te .
1 9
O E C D 2000
Part 1
T h e fo llo wi n g a n a ly si s o f th e m a i n tre n d s i n
i n te rn ati o n al m i grati o n h as b e e n d i vi d e d i n to th re e
se cti o n s. T h e fi rst lo o k s a t ch a n g e s i n m i g ra ti o n
m o ve m e n ts, i n th e to tal a n d fo re i g n p o p u lati o n s o f
O E C D M e m b e r co u n tri e s an d i n th e si tu ati o n o f fo r-
e i g n e rs i n th e la b o u r m a rk e t. T h e se co n d se cti o n
fo cu se s o n two re gi o n s, Asi a an d C e n tral an d E aste rn
E u ro p e . A n o v e rv i e w o f m i g ra ti o n p o li ci e s i s p re -
se n te d i n th e th i rd se cti o n i n th e co u rse o f wh i ch
m e asu re s to b e tte r co n tro l an d re gu late flo ws an d to
p ro m o te th e i m p ro ve d i n te g rati o n o f i m m i gran ts i n
h o st co u n tri e s are e xam i n e d .
A. MIGRATION, POPULATION
AND THE LABOUR MARKET
S i n ce th e m i d -1 990 s, th e re h a s b e e n a grad u a l
u p t u rn i n m i g ra ti o n flo ws i n m o st O E C D M e m b e r
co u n tri e s. O wi n g to re gi o n al co n fli cts, b u t also to th e
re stri cti o n s p lace d o n o th e r i m m i g ra ti o n ch an n e ls,
th e n u m b e r o f a sy l u m se e k e rs a n d re fu g e e s h a s
ri se n su b stan ti ally, p arti cu larly i n a n u m b e r o f E u ro -
p e an co u n tri e s. N e ve rth e le ss, i m m i grati o n fo r fam i ly
re aso n s co n ti n u e s to p re d o m i n ate alth o u gh te m p o -
rary m i g rati o n g ai n s i n i m p o rtan ce . I n th i s co n te xt,
m a n y co u n tri e s a re i n cre a si n g ly o p e n ly a d o p ti n g
p o li ci e s th at p ro m o te th e e n try o f ski lle d an d h i gh ly
ski lle d wo rke rs, e sp e ci a lly i n th e fi e ld o f n e w te ch -
n o lo gi e s, i n o rd e r to m e e t lab o u r m arke t n e e d s an d
su sta i n gro wth . T h e p e rsi ste n ce o f i rre g u la r m i gra -
ti o n , th e vo lu m e o f wh i ch i s b y d e fi n i ti o n i m p o ssi b le
to d e te rm i n e , i n d i ca te s cle a rly th e d i ffi cu lti e s th a t
h o st an d o ri gi n co u n tri e s a re e n co u n te ri n g i n th e i r
atte m p ts to co n tro l m i grati o n flo ws.
I m m i gra ti o n sti ll p la ys a si gn i fi ca n t ro le i n th e
an n u al p o p u lati o n gro wth o f ce rtai n O E C D co u n tri e s.
T h e p ro p o rti o n o f fo re i g n b i rth s i n to ta l b i rth s i s
h i gh a n d th e fo re i g n o r fo re i gn -b o rn p o p u la ti o n i s
gro wi n g an d d i v e rsi fyi n g. T h e i m p o rtan ce o f m i g ra-
ti o n i n flo ws i s so m e ti m e s e m p h asi se d i n co n n e cti o n
wi th th e age i n g o f th e p o p u lati o n . Wi th o u t d e n y i n g
th e i r p o te n t i a l co n tri b u t i o n to re d u ci n g d e m o -
g ra p h i c i m b a l a n ce s, t h e i r i m p a ct i n t h i s re g a rd
sh o u ld n o t b e o ve re sti m ate d .
F o re i gn o r i m m i gran t lab o u r m ai n tai n s a vi si b le
p re se n ce i n th e lab o u r m arke t; in d e e d th is p re se n ce is
sp re a d i n g a cro ss a n i n cre asi n g n u m b e r o f se cto rs.
O v e ra ll , th e re co n ti n u e s to e xi st h o we v e r a g a p
b e twe e n th e u n e m p lo ym e n t rate s o f fo re i gn e rs an d o f
n ati o n als. Wi th th e stro n g an d wi d e sp re ad e co n o m i c
u p tu rn , u n e m p lo ym e n t am o n g fo re i gn e rs h as re ce n tly
b e e n d e cre asi n g, alth o u gh th i s re d u cti o n h as b e e n
le ss m arke d th an th at e xp e rie n ce d b y n ati o n als.
1. Trends in migration movements
and changes in the foreign population
A lth o u g h th e 1 9 8 0 s we re ch a ra cte ri se d b y a n
i n cre a se i n i m m i g rati o n flo ws i n m o st O E C D co u n -
tri e s, a su b stan ti al d e cli n e i n th e n u m b e r o f e n tri e s
was p e rce p ti b le b y 1 9 92 -9 3. T h i s d o wn tu rn co n ti n -
u e d u n ti l 1 997-98, afte r wh i ch i m m i grati o n starte d to
ri se agai n , p arti cu larly i n E u ro p e an d Jap an .
O ve r th e e n ti re 1 980-99 p e ri o d , th e re was also a
d i v e rsi fi ca t i o n o f m i g ra t i o n m o v e m e n t s a n d a n
i n cre ase i n th e n u m b e r o f n ati o n ali ti e s o f m i g ran ts,
a l t h o u g h t h e t ra d i t i o n a l fl o ws a n d m i g ra t i o n s
p e rsi ste d at re gi o n al le ve l.
a) Increasingly contrasting migration trends
D u rin g th e 1 980s an d ab o ve all at th e b e gi n n in g o f
th e 1 990s, i n flo ws i n cre ase d i n alm o st all O E C D co u n -
tri e s se e C h a rt I . 1 ) . T h i s tre n d p e a ke d i n 1 9 9 2-9 3
fo r th e m ai n i m m i grati o n co u n tri e s su ch as C an ad a,
Jap an , G e rm an y, an d th e U n i te d S tate s, wh i le i n o th -
e rs, n o tab ly Au strali a an d th e U n i te d K i n gd o m , th i s
h a d o ccu rre d e arli e r. S i n ce th e n , d u e to re stri cti v e
m e a su re s, le g a l i n flo ws h a v e g ra d u a lly d wi n d le d .
F o r e xam p le , i n N o rth Am e ri ca th e fi gu re i n 1 998 was
b a re l y t h re e -q u a rt e rs o f t h a t o f 1 9 9 3 a n d fl o ws
we re d o wn b y 3 0 % c o m p a re d wi t h 1 9 9 2 fo r a l l
20
O E C D 2000
27.5
22.5
20.0
17.5
15.0
12.5
10.0
7.5
5.0
2.5
0
20.0
17.5
15.0
12.5
10.0
7.5
5.0
2.5
0
1980 1985 1990 1995
1980 1985 1990 1995
1980 1985 1990 1995
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
25.0
200
50
0
150
100
350
150
100
50
0
200
250
300
1 750
1 000
750
1 500
500
250
1 250
J
P
N
N
O
R
G
B
R
N
L
D
F
IN
H
U
N
D
N
K
D
E
U
L
U
X
S
W
E
B
E
L
C
H
E
F
R
A
C
A
N
U
S
A
A
U
S
L
U
X
C
H
E
D
E
U
N
O
R
C
A
N
N
L
D
B
E
L
G
B
R
A
U
S
S
W
E
D
N
K
U
S
A
J
P
N
F
R
A
F
IN
H
U
N
U
S
A
D
E
U
G
B
R
J
P
N
C
A
N
F
R
A
N
L
D
A
U
S
C
H
E
B
E
L
S
W
E
N
O
R
D
N
K
(
9
7
)
H
U
N
L
U
X
F
IN
Chart I.1. Inflows of foreigners in some OECD countries, 1980-1998
Thousands, per 1 000 inhabitants and per 100 foreigners
Inflows of foreigners, 1980-1998
1
Thousands
Inflows of foreigners in 1998
Note: Data for the United Kingdom are from the International Passenger
Survey, for Australia, Canada, France and the United States, from
permits of residence. For all other countries, data are based on Population
Registers.
1. The host countries have been split into 3 groups according to the volume
of inflows in 1998.
2. Excluding immigrants legalised under IRCA regularisation programme.
3. Excluding Finland and Iceland.
4. For Australia, Canada and the United States, the inflows in 1998 are
related to the stocks of foreign-born residents (last census data).
Sources: National Statistical Offices (for more details on sources, refer to
the notes at the end of the Statistical Annex).
Per 1 000 inhabitants
Per 100 foreigners
4
Thousands
EU USA
2
DEU North America
GBR JPN CAN
AUS CHE BEL HUN LUX
AUS Australia BEL Belgium
CAN Canada CHE Switzerland
DEU Germany DNK Denmark
FIN Finland FRA France
GBR United Kingdom HUN Hungary
JPN Japan LUX Luxembourg
NLD Netherlands NOR Norway
SWE Sweden USA United States
FRA North countries
3
NLD
27.5
22.5
20.0
17.5
15.0
12.5
10.0
7.5
5.0
2.5
0
20.0
17.5
15.0
12.5
10.0
7.5
5.0
2.5
0
1980 1985 1990 1995
1980 1985 1990 1995
1980 1985 1990 1995
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
25.0
200
50
0
150
100
350
150
100
50
0
200
250
300
1 750
1 000
750
1 500
500
250
1 250
J
P
N
N
O
R
G
B
R
N
L
D
F
IN
H
U
N
D
N
K
D
E
U
L
U
X
S
W
E
B
E
L
C
H
E
F
R
A
C
A
N
U
S
A
A
U
S
L
U
X
C
H
E
D
E
U
N
O
R
C
A
N
N
L
D
B
E
L
G
B
R
A
U
S
S
W
E
D
N
K
U
S
A
J
P
N
F
R
A
F
IN
H
U
N
U
S
A
D
E
U
G
B
R
J
P
N
C
A
N
F
R
A
N
L
D
A
U
S
C
H
E
B
E
L
S
W
E
N
O
R
D
N
K
(
9
7
)
H
U
N
L
U
X
F
IN
1
Thousands
Registers.
of inflows in 1998.
Per 100 foreigners
4
Thousands
EU USA
2
DEU North America
GBR JPN CAN
AUS CHE BEL HUN LUX
FRA North countries
3
NLD
27.5
22.5
20.0
17.5
15.0
12.5
10.0
7.5
5.0
2.5
0
20.0
17.5
15.0
12.5
10.0
7.5
5.0
2.5
0
1980 1985 1990 1995
1980 1985 1990 1995
1980 1985 1990 1995
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
25.0
200
50
0
150
100
350
150
100
50
0
200
250
300
1 750
1 000
750
1 500
500
250
1 250
J
P
N
N
O
R
G
B
R
N
L
D
F
IN
H
U
N
D
N
K
D
E
U
L
U
X
S
W
E
B
E
L
C
H
E
F
R
A
C
A
N
U
S
A
A
U
S
L
U
X
C
H
E
D
E
U
N
O
R
C
A
N
N
L
D
B
E
L
G
B
R
A
U
S
S
W
E
D
N
K
U
S
A
J
P
N
F
R
A
F
IN
H
U
N
U
S
A
D
E
U
G
B
R
J
P
N
C
A
N
F
R
A
N
L
D
A
U
S
C
H
E
B
E
L
S
W
E
N
O
R
D
N
K
(
9
7
)
H
U
N
L
U
X
F
IN
1
Thousands
Registers.
of inflows in 1998.
Per 100 foreigners
4
Thousands
EU USA
2
DEU North America
GBR JPN CAN
AUS CHE BEL HUN LUX
FRA North countries
3
NLD
Main Trends in International Migration
21
O E C D 2000
E U co u n tri e s, alth o u gh th e se aggre gate tre n d s m ask
th e d i ve rsi ty o f si tu ati o n s wi th i n th e se zo n e s.
T h e le ft-h a n d si d e o f C h a rt I . 1 p re se n ts p o st-
1 9 8 0 t i m e -se ri e s fo r fo re i g n m i g ra n t i n flo ws. T h e
h o st co u n tri e s a re d i v i d e d i n to th re e g ro u p s i n
d e cre asi n g o rd e r o f th e vo lu m e o f th e i r 1 998 i n flo ws.
T h e ri gh t-h an d si d e o f th i s ch art sh o ws th e vo lu m e
o f 1 99 8 i n flo ws i n ab so lu te te rm s, a n d as a p ro p o r-
ti o n o f th e to tal p o p u lati o n an d th e sto ck o f fo re i gn -
e rs i n e ach co u n try.
T h e 1 999 e d i ti o n o f Trends in International Migration
h igh li gh te d th e tre n d re ve rsal th at h ad starte d in 1 997
fo r so m e co u n tri e s F ran ce , Jap an , th e N e th e rlan d s,
N o rway an d S we d e n ) , wh i le e m p h asi si n g th e cycli cal
ch a racte r o f th e se d e ve lo p m e n ts a n d th e fa ct th a t
th e re we re so m e m ajo r e xce p ti o n s Au strali a, C an ad a,
G e rm an y an d th e U n i te d S tate s) . O n th e wh o le , th e se
tre n d s we re co n fi rm e d i n 1 998. T h is m e an s th at th e d i f-
fe re n ce s h ave b e co m e m o re m arke d , wh i ch m ake s i t
p o ssi b le to p ro p o se a gro u p i n g o f O E C D co u n tri e s o n
th e b asis o f th e i r re ce n t m i grati o n tre n d s.
F i rstly, i t i s p o ssi b le to i so late a se ri e s o f co u n -
tri e s fo r wh i ch i m m i grati o n flo ws h ave b e e n d ro p p i n g
co n sta n tly si n ce 1 99 2 -9 3. T h e m a i n h o st co u n tri e s,
su ch as Au strali a, C an ad a, G e rm an y, S wi tze rlan d an d
th e U n i te d S tate s can b e classi fi e d i n th i s cate go ry.
H o we ve r, th e re aso n s fo r th i s d o wn ward tre n d d i ffe r
a cro ss th e se co u n tri e s. Au strali a a n d C a n ad a h av e
so u g h t to l i m i t fa m i l y -li n k e d i m m i g ra t i o n , wh i l e
e n co u ra g i n g th a t o f sk i lle d wo rk e rs, wi t h v a ry i n g
d e gre e s o f su cce ss. I n G e rm an y an d S wi tze rlan d , th e
sh i ft i n flo ws i s e ve n m o re d i re ctly d u e to co n ti n u i n g
re stri cti v e m i gra ti o n p o li ci e s. I n th e U n i te d S tate s,
t h e d e cl i n e ca n p ri m a ri l y b e a t t ri b u t e d t o t h e
i n cre ase i n th e b acklo g o f p e rso n s wai ti n g to ch an ge
th e i r sta tu s fro m te m p o ra ry n o n -i m m i g ra n t o r
i lle gal) to p e rm an e n t 1 997: 435 000; 1 998: 809 000) .
I n th e se co n d g ro u p o f co u n tri e s, i m m i g ra ti o n
flo ws h ave re ce n tly b e gu n to rise ste ad i ly, alth o u gh to
a varyi n g e xte n t. T h i s tre n d i s cle arly o b se rvab le i n
F ran ce , I taly, th e N o rd i c co u n tri e s an d i n S p ai n . I n th e
U n ite d K i n gd o m , th e i n cre ase i n i m m i grati o n i s p artic-
u la rly stro n g si n ce i t h as go n e fro m 1 8 0 00 0 e n tri e s
i n 1 993 to 290 000 i n 1 998. T h i s tre n d i s p artly attri b u t-
ab le to m o re fle xi b le i m m i grati o n co n d i ti o n s fo r ce r-
tai n cate go ri e s o f wo rk e rs, b u t i s m a i n ly d u e to th e
co n tin u i n g in flu x o f re fu ge e s an d asylu m se e ke rs.
L astly, th e re i s a th i rd gro u p o f co u n tri e s i n wh i ch
i m m i grati o n tre n d s h e ld re lati ve ly ste ad y th ro u gh o u t
th e 1 990s. B e lgi u m , H u n gary, L u xe m b o u rg a n d , to a
B o x 1 . Migration statistics: definitions and comparability*
I n te rn ati o n al m i grati o n stati sti cs are scatte re d , o f varyi n g d e g re e s o f re li ab i li ty an d su b je ct to p ro b le m s o f
co m p arab i li ty. T h e se d i ffi cu lti e s large ly ste m fro m th e d i ve rsi ty o f m i grati o n syste m s an d le gi slati o n o n n ati o n al-
i ty an d n atu rali sati o n , wh i ch re fle ct th e i n d i vi d u al h i sto ry an d ci rcu m stan ce s o f e ach co u n try. F o r e xam p le , i n se t-
tle m e n t co u n tri e s Au strali a, C a n ad a, N e w Z e ala n d an d th e U n i te d S ta te s) , i m m i gran ts are cla ssi fi e d b y th e i r
p lace o f b i rth fo re i gn b o rn ) , wh i le i n th e o th e r O E C D M e m b e r co u n tri e s th e cri te ri o n o f n ati o n ali ty i s ap p li e d
fo re i gn e rs ) . S o m e i n te rn ati o n al o rgan i sati o n s, i n p arti cu lar th e U N , h ave re co m m e n d e d ad o p ti n g a co m m o n
d e fi n i ti o n o f th e co n ce p t o f i n te rn ati o n al m i gran t, b u t i m p le m e n ti n g th e se re co m m e n d a ti o n s i s frau gh t wi th
n u m e ro u s d i ffi cu lti e s.
T h e m ai n so u rce s o f i n fo rm ati o n o n m i grati o n vary acro ss co u n tri e s, wh i ch p o se s d i ffi cu lti e s fo r th e co m p ara-
b i li ty o f avai lab le d ata. S o m e co u n tri e s h ave p o p u lati o n re gi ste rs n o tab ly N o rth e rn E u ro p e an co u n tri e s) , wh i le
o th e rs b ase th e i r stati sti cs o n re co rd s o n re si d e n ce an d wo rk p e rm i ts i ssu e d to fo re i gn n ati o n als. T h e re are also
d ata fro m ce n su se s an d su rve ys o n th e vari o u s ch aracte ri sti cs o f th e p o p u lati o n . I n so m e case s, o th e r so u rce s
m ay b e u se d , fo r e xam p le sp e ci fi c su rve ys o n m i gran ts, b o rd e r-cro ssi n g re co rd s, d e b arkati o n card s, stu d i e s o n
staff m o b i li ty i n m u lti n ati o n al e n te rp ri se s, e tc.
D e sp i te th e se d i ffi cu lti e s, th i s re p o rt a n d m o re g e n e ra lly all O E C D a cti v i ti e s i n th e fi e ld o f i n te rn ati o n a l
m i grati o n are ai m e d p re ci se ly at i m p ro vi n g th e avai lab i li ty, co m p arab i li ty an d re li ab i li ty o f d ata. T h e se acti vi ti e s
are b ase d large ly o n a n e two rk o f n ati o n al co rre sp o n d e n ts i n th i rty co u n tri e s se e th e li st o f co rre sp o n d e n ts i n
an n e x) a n d se e k to e n h an ce an alysi s an d u n d e rstan d i n g o f m i grati o n i ssu e s i n th e li gh t o f th e so ci o -e co n o m i c
ch alle n ge s faci n g O E C D M e m b e r co u n tri e s.
* F o r fu rth e r d e tai ls o n m i grati o n stati sti cs, se e th e S tati sti cal An n e x.
22
O E C D 2000
le sse r e xte n t, th e N e th e rlan d s, b e lo n g to th i s gro u p
o f co u n tri e s.
Ja p a n a n d K o re a a re c l a ssi fi e d se p a ra t e l y
b e ca u se th e y m o re o r le ss d i re ctl y su ffe re d th e
e ffe cts o f th e A si a n fi n an ci a l cri si s sta rti n g i n m i d -
1 997. I n K o re a , th e n u m b e r o f fo re i gn e rs re gi ste re d
fe ll b y 30 % i n 1 9 98 , b u t th e v o lu m e o f i m m i gra ti o n
re t u rn e d t o p re -cri si s l e v e l s i n 1 9 9 9 . I n Ja p a n ,
alth o u g h e n tri e s o f stu d e n ts, tra i n e e s a n d te m p o -
rary wo rke rs co n ti n u e d to ri se i n 1 998, th i s was o ffse t
b y a n e a rl y 3 0 % d ro p i n e n tri e s o f i m m i g ra n ts o f
Jap an e se d e sce n t, m ai n ly fro m S o u th Am e ri ca.
R e ce n t m i grati o n tre n d s h ave ch an ge d th e ran k-
i n g o f th e m ai n i m m i grati o n co u n tri e s. F o r e xam p le ,
i n 1 9 9 8 , t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m re c e i v e d s o m e
25 0 00 p e rso n s m o re th a n Ja p a n , a n d 1 1 5 00 0 m o re
th a n C an a d a. H o we ve r, G e rm a n y 60 5 00 0) a n d th e
U n i te d S tate s 660 000) sti ll re m ai n e d th e two m a i n
i m m i grati o n co u n tri e s. F o r F ran ce , th e N e th e rlan d s,
A u stra li a a n d S wi tze rla n d , th e n u m b e r o f e n tri e s
ran ge d b e twe e n 1 20 000 an d 75 000.
I f th e se le g al e n try flo ws a re co m p a re d to th e
to tal fo re i gn o r fo re i gn -b o rn p o p u lati o n at th e b e gi n -
n i n g o f th e ye ar se e th e ri gh t-h an d p art o f C h art I .1 ) ,
th e ran k i n g ch an ge s so m e wh a t. Jap a n , N o rway a n d
th e U n i te d K i n gd o m ran k fi rst, wi th rati o s o f 1 7. 7% ,
1 6. 8% an d 1 4 % , re sp e cti ve ly. T h e ch a n ge i s p arti cu -
larly m arke d i n th e U n i te d K i n gd o m , si n ce th i s fi gu re
was o n ly 1 1 .8% i n 1 997. Am o n g th e E u ro p e an co u n tri e s
wi th m o re lo n gstan d i n g i m m i gra ti o n , o n ly G e rm an y
h as a h i gh rati o , ab o u t 8% .
I f th e u p tu rn i n e co n o m i c acti vi ty o b se rv e d i n
m o st E u ro p e an co u n tri e s co n ti n u e s, i t i s li ke ly th a t
m i grati o n s wi ll ri se i n th e ye ars to co m e . I n Asi a, th e
fact th at K o re a rap i d ly re tu rn e d to th e si tu ati o n p re -
v ai li n g p ri o r to th e 1 9 9 7 cri si s, co m b i n e d wi th th e
fact th a t th e Jap an e se e co n o m y i s sh o wi n g si gn s o f
re co ve ry, also su gge st th at i m m igratio n wi ll acce le rate .
T h e m a i n i m m i gra ti o n co u n tri e s, su ch as Au stra li a ,
C a n a d a a n d G e rm a n y , a re i n cre a s i n g l y o p e n l y
ad o p ti n g p o li ci e s a i m e d at attracti n g n e w m i gran ts
i n o rd e r to m e e t la b o u r m arke t n e e d s an d /o r o ffse t
th e e ffe cts o f th e age i n g o f th e i r p o p u lati o n s. N e ve r-
th e le ss, co n tro lli n g m i grati o n flo ws re m ai n s a p ri o r-
i ty co m m o n to all O E C D co u n tri e s. S p e ci al e m p h asi s
i s p la ce d o n cu rb i n g i lle g a l i m m i g ra ti o n a n d t h e
gro wi n g n u m b e r o f asylu m se e ke rs. O n th e wh o le ,
th e tre n d s o f m i grati o n flo ws, classi fi e d b y th e m ai n
cate go ri e s, h ave b e e n m arke d o ve r th e last two ye ars
b y th e co n ti n u i n g p re p o n d e ran ce o f fa m i ly -li n ke d
i m m i grati o n , gre ate r n u m b e rs o f asylu m se e ke rs an d
an i n cre ase i n e m p lo ym e n t-re late d m i grati o n .
b) The continuing predominance of family-linked
migration
P re vi o u s e d i ti o n s o f Trends in International Migration
p o i n te d o u t th at si n ce th e b e gi n n i n g o f th e 1 990s, th e
ch a n g e s i n th e v o lu m e s o f i m m i gra ti o n h av e b e e n
a cco m p a n i e d b y ch a n g e s i n th e i r b re a k d o wn b y
cate go ri e s. I n p arti cu la r, fa m i ly-li n k e d i m m i grati o n
a cco m p a n y i n g fa m i l i e s a n d fa m i l y re u n i o n ) h a s
i n cre a se d i n A u stra l i a , F ra n ce , S we d e n a n d th e
U n i te d S ta te s, wh i le e m p lo ym e n t-re late d i m m i g ra-
ti o n h a s ri se n i n C a n ad a an d th e U n i te d K i n gd o m .
R e ce n tly, th e re h a s also b e e n an u p tu rn i n a sylu m
re q u e sts an d th e te m p o rary m i grati o n o f wo rke rs.
Alt h o u g h i t v a ri e d co n si d e ra b ly a cro ss co u n -
tri e s, th e fam i ly co m p o n e n t p re d o m i n ate d i n n e arly
a ll O E C D co u n tri e s i n 1 9 9 8 , e sp e ci a lly i n C a n a d a ,
F ra n ce a n d th e U n i te d S tate s se e C h a rt I . 2) . H o w-
e v e r, i t m u st b e sa i d t h a t fa m i l y m e m b e rs wh o
o b tai n p e rm an e n t re si d e n t statu s are o fte n gran te d
th e ri g h t to wo rk. T h e sh a re attri b u te d to th i s cate -
g o ry co n ti n u e s to g ro w i n so m e co u n tri e s, p a rti cu -
la rly i n F ran ce wh e re th e o th e r o ffi ci al ch an n e ls o f
i m m i grati o n sti ll re m ai n li m i te d .
D u ri n g th e sa m e y e a r, a m o n g st th e se le cte d
co u n tri e s, wo rk-re late d m i grati o n acco u n te d fo r th e
h i g h e st p e rce n ta g e o f to ta l e n tri e s i n th e S lo v a k
R e p u b li c, S wi t ze rla n d , A u st ra li a a n d t h e U n i te d
K i n g d o m . G i v e n th e o u tlo o k fo r stro n g a n d wi d e -
sp re ad e co n o m i c gro wth , th i s co m p o n e n t o f m i grati o n
i s ce rtai n ly d e sti n e d to gro w e ve n fu rth e r.
I t i s i n S we d e n th at re fu ge e flo ws acco u n t fo r th e
gre ate st p ro p o rti o n o f th e to tal i n flo ws. N e ve rth e le ss,
i t m u s t b e p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e d a t a sh o wn i n
C h a rt I . 2 o n ly co n ce rn asylu m se e ke rs wh o o b tai n e d
re fu ge e statu s i n th e gi ve n ye ar an d d o n o t i n clu d e
asylu m se e ke rs wh o se ap p li cati o n i s p e n d i n g.
c) despite the greater inflow of asylum seekers
I n m an y O E C D co u n tri e s th e arri val o f re fu ge e s,
o n th e o n e h an d , an d th at o f asylu m se e ke rs, o n th e
o t h e r, d o n o t o ccu r i n q u i t e th e sa m e wa y. T h e
arri v al o f re fu ge e s i s ge n e rally o rgan i se d wi th i n th e
fra m e wo rk o f g o v e rn m e n t p ro g ra m m e s n e g o ti a te d
e i th e r wi th sp e ci ali se d i n te rn ati o n al o rgan i sati o n s o r
wi th co u n tri e s th at are sh e lte ri n g th e re fu ge e s. Asy-
lu m se e ke rs, o n th e o th e r h an d , m o st o fte n ap p ly fo r
re fu g e e st a t u s wh i c h t h e y d o n o t n e ce ss a ri l y
o b ta i n ) e i th e r o n a rri v a l a t th e b o rd e r o r wh e n
23
O E C D 2000
a lre a d y p re se n t wi th i n th e co u n try. I n a d d i ti o n ,
O E C D co u n t ri e s a u t h o ri se ce rt a i n p e rs o n s, fo r
h u m a n i ta ri a n re a so n s, to re m a i n i n th e co u n try
e i th e r te m p o rari ly o r o n a m o re p e rm an e n t b asi s.
F ro m t h e m i d d le o f t h e 1 9 8 0 s th ro u g h t o t h e
b e g i n n i n g o f t h e 1 9 9 0 s se e S t a t i st i c a l A n n e x,
Tab le A.1 .4) , ap p li cati o n s fo r asylu m ro se n o ti ce ab ly,
so m e ti m e s sp e ctacu larly th i s was th e case i n Au stri a,
C an ad a, G e rm an y, th e N e th e rlan d s, N o rway, S we d e n ,
th e U n i te d K i n gd o m an d th e U n i te d S tate s) . F ace d
wi th an i n cre asi n g n u m b e r o f asylu m se e ke rs, O E C D
co u n tri e s h ave re acte d b y sp e e d i n g u p th e p ro ce ss-
i n g o f a p p l i c a t i o n s a n d b y i n t ro d u ci n g ce rt a i n
re stri cti ve m e asu re s, am o n g th e m th e e xte n si o n o f
v i sa re q u i re m e n ts to a la rg e r n u m b e r o f co u n tri e s
se e S e cti o n C b e lo w o n m i g ra ti o n p o li cy fo r m o re
d e tai ls) . M o st O E C D co u n tri e s h ave also d e ci d e d to
re st ri ct a sy l u m a p p li ca t i o n s, e xce p t fo r sp e ci a l
ca se s, t o p e rso n s fro m co u n t ri e s t h a t h a v e n o t
si gn e d th e U n i te d N ati o n s C o n ve n ti o n o n R e fu ge e s
an d th at o n H u m an R i gh ts, p ro vi d e d th e y h a ve n o t
p re vi o u sly p asse d th ro u gh a co u n try th at h as si gn e d
t h e m . B e ca u se o f t h e se m e a su re s , si n ce 1 9 9 4 ,
fl o ws o f n e w a s y l u m se e k e rs h a v e fa l l e n q u i t e
sh a rp ly. M o re re ce n tly, h o we v e r, th e re h a s b e e n
an u p swi n g i n th e n u m b e r o f asylu m se e ke rs arri vi n g
i n ce rtai n co u n tri e s.
B e twe e n 1 9 9 7 a n d 1 9 9 8 , th e to ta l n u m b e r o f
a sy lu m re q u e sts fi le d i n O E C D M e m b e r co u n tri e s
ro s e b y s l i g h t l y m o re t h a n 1 0 % . I n 1 9 9 8 , i n
d e sce n d i n g o rd e r, G e rm a n y, th e U n i te d K i n gd o m ,
th e N e th e rlan d s an d S wi tze rlan d re ce i ve d th e larg -
e st n u m b e r o f a sy l u m re q u e st s. B e t we e n 1 9 9 8
an d 1 999, B e lgi u m , I re lan d an d th e U n i te d K i n gd o m
e xp e ri e n ce d th e m o st sp e cta cu lar i n cre ase i n su ch
re q u e sts, o f 6 2 , 6 8 a n d 5 7 % , re sp e cti v e ly. I n 1 9 9 9 ,
t h e U n i te d K i n g d o m re ce i v e d fo r th e fi rst t i m e a
n u m b e r o f a sy lu m se e k e rs co m p a ra b le to th a t o f
G e rm an y. S wi tze rla n d p re ce d e d th e U n i te d S tate s,
wi th 44 60 0 an d 4 2 500 re q u e sts re sp e cti ve ly late st
d ata av ai lab le ) . T h i s sh i ft i n th e wo rld -wi d e ran ki n g
o f th e h o st co u n tri e s o f a sy lu m se e k e rs i s d u e to
i n te rn a ti o n a l ge o p o li ti ca l d e v e lo p m e n ts, b u t also
to ch an ge s i n th e asylu m p o li ci e s o f O E C D M e m b e r
co u n tri e s.
0 20 40 60 80 100
0 20 40 60 80 100
Note: Countries are ranked by decreasing order of the percentage of workers
in total inflows.
1. For Australia, Canada, the United States and Sweden, data concern
acceptances for settlement. For Switzerland, France and Slovak Republic,
entries correspond to residence permits delivered in general for a period
longer than one year. For the United Kingdom, data are based on entry
control at ports of certain categories of migrants (excluding European
Economic Area citizens). For Australia, Workers include accompanying
dependents who are included in the category family reunification for
all other countries.
2. Data refer to fiscal years (July 1997 to June 1998). The category
Workers includes accompanying dependents. Excluding citizens from
New Zealand who dont need a visa to enter the country.
3. Passengers, excluding European Economic Area nationals, admitted
to the United Kingdom. The data only include certain categories of
migrants: work permit holders, spouses and refugees (excluding residents
returning on limited leave or who previously settled). The category
Workers include Commonwealth citizens with a United Kingdom born
grandparent who are taking or seeking employment (UK ancestry).
4. Excluding retirees.
5. Entries of EU family members are estimated. Excluding visitors and
persons who benefited from the regularisation programme.
6. Data refer to fiscal years (October 1997 to September 1998). Excluding
immigrants who obtained a permanent residence permit following the
1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act.
7. Excluding nordic citizens and EEA citizens.
Sources: National Statistical Institutes.
Chart I.2. Immigration flows into selected OECD countries by main categories
1
in 1998
Percentages of total inflows
Workers
Slovak Rep.
Switzerland
Australia
2
United Kingdom
3
Canada
4
France
5
Denmark
United States
6
Sweden
7
Family reunification
Refugees
0 20 40 60 80 100
0 20 40 60 80 100
in total inflows.
1
in 1998
Workers
Slovak Rep.
Switzerland
Australia
2
United Kingdom
3
Canada
4
France
5
Denmark
United States
6
Sweden
7
Refugees
0 20 40 60 80 100
0 20 40 60 80 100
in total inflows.
1
in 1998
Workers
Slovak Rep.
Switzerland
Australia
2
United Kingdom
3
Canada
4
France
5
Denmark
United States
6
Sweden
7
Refugees
24
O E C D 2000
I f i n flo ws o f a sy lu m se e k e rs a re e xp re sse d a s
a p ro p o rt i o n o f t h e t o t a l fo re i g n p o p u l a t i o n ,
I re l a n d , N o rwa y a n d th e N e th e rl a n d s ra n k fi rst
se e C h a rt I . 3 ) . T h re e g ro u p s o f co u n tri e s ca n b e
d i sti n g u i sh e d i n th i s re sp e ct. T h e fi rst, co m p ri si n g
G e rm a n y a n d t h e N o rd i c co u n tri e s, a fte r a sh a rp
d e cli n e a t th e b e g i n n i n g o f th e 1 9 9 0 s, sa w a re la -
ti v e stab i li sa ti o n i n th e n u m b e r o f a sy lu m se e k e rs
i n re l a ti o n to th e to ta l re si d e n t fo re i g n p o p u la -
t i o n . T h e s e co n d g ro u p , c o m p o s e d m a i n l y o f
E u ro p e a n co u n tri e s su ch a s I re la n d , S wi tze rla n d
a n d th e U n i te d K i n gd o m , to wh i ch N o rway sh o u ld
b e ad d e d , e xp e ri e n ce d a m a rke d u p swi n g i n a sy -
l u m re q u e st s a s fro m 1 9 9 6 -9 7 . L a st l y, t h e t h i rd
g ro u p i n clu d e s co u n tri e s fo r wh i ch th e n u m b e r o f
a sy lu m se e k e rs re la ti v e t o th e t o ta l re si d e n t fo r-
e i gn p o p u la ti o n re m a i n e d re la ti ve ly co n stan t a t a
l o w l e v e l t h ro u g h o u t t h e d e c a d e . A u s t ra l i a ,
C a n ad a, F ra n ce a n d th e U n i te d S tate s we re i n th i s
g ro u p .
d) and the growth in employment-related
immigration
I n a n o v e ra l l fa v o u ra b l e e co n o m i c co n t e xt,
th e re are si gn s o f an u p tu rn i n e m p lo ym e n t-re late d
m i grati o n . H o we ve r, th i s tre n d sti ll o n ly co n ce rn s a
sm a ll n u m b e r o f co u n tri e s a n d n o t n e ce ssa ri ly a ll
c a t e g o ri e s o f m i g ra n t s s e e S t a t i s t i c a l A n n e x ,
T ab le A. 2. 1 ) . I n A u stra li a, B e lg i u m a n d th e U n i te d
K i n g d o m , e n tri e s o f fo re i g n wo rk e rs ro se su b sta n -
ti a lly b e twe e n 1 99 8 an d 1 9 99. O th e r co u n tri e s, su ch
a s A u stri a, D e n m a rk , I re la n d an d S wi tze rlan d , a lso
e xp e ri e n ce d a n i n cre a se , th o u g h a m u ch sm a lle r
o n e , i n fo re i gn wo rke r e n tri e s. I n th e U n i te d S tate s,
fo r e xa m p le , a lth o u gh e n tri e s o f p e rm a n e n t wo rk -
e rs h av e b e e n d e cli n i n g, th o se o f te m p o rary wo rk -
e rs co n ti n u e to g ro w m a rk e d l y, d u e inter alia t o
i n flo ws o f C a n ad i an p ro fe ssi o n als.
I n o rd e r to m e e t th e n e e d s o f th e lab o u r m a r-
ke t, p arti cu larly i n th e n e w te ch n o lo gy se cto r, m an y
O E C D M e m b e r co u n tri e s are se e ki n g to i m p le m e n t
p ro ce d u re s fo r p ro m o ti n g t h e m o b i li ty o f sk i lle d
a n d h i g h l y s k i l l e d l a b o u r. T h i s i s d o n e e i t h e r
th ro u g h sp e ci fi c p ro g ra m m e s, a s i s th e ca se fo r
co m p u te r te ch n i ci a n s i n G e rm a n y a n d n u rse s i n
th e U n i te d S ta te s, o r b y re la xi n g th e e li gi b i li ty cri -
t e ri a fo r ce rt a i n ca t e g o ri e s o f wo rk e rs Ja p a n ,
U n i te d K i n gd o m , U n i te d S ta te s) . F o r m o re d e ta i ls
se e S e cti o n C o n m i grati o n p o li ci e s.)
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
1
0
2
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
1
0
2
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
Chart I.3. Inflows of asylum seekers,
1990-1999
Per 100 foreigners at the beginning of the year
Denmark Finland Germany
Norway Sweden
Note: For Australia, Canada and the United States, the inflows of asylum
seekers are compared with the foreign-born population.
Source: National Statistical Offices (see notes for Table A.1.4. at the end
of the Statistical Annex).
Austria Belgium Ireland
Switzerland United Kingdom
Australia Canada France
Italy Spain United States
Netherlands
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
1
0
2
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
1
0
2
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
1990-1999
Norway Sweden
Netherlands
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
1
0
2
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
1
0
2
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
1990-1999
Norway Sweden
Netherlands
25
O E C D 2000
e) Traditional flows and new migration movements
C h a rt I . 5 p re se n ts a co m p a ri so n fo r se v e ra l
O E C D co u n tri e s o f th e stru ct u re a n d ch a n g e s o f
i n flo ws fro m th e p ri n ci p al o ri gi n co u n tri e s to se ve ral
O E C D co u n tri e s. T h re e d i sti n cti v e tre n d s ca n b e
o b se rv e d . T h e fi rst i s th e p re d o m i n a n ce i n m a n y
case s o f o n e o r two o ri gi n co u n tri e s. T h e se are o fte n
B o x 2. Women in international migration
S tati sti cs o n i n te rn ati o n al m i grati o n b y ge n d e r th at m ake i t p o ssi b le to i d e n ti fy th e ch aracte ri sti cs o f m i gran ts
a re scarce an d h ard to o b tai n . H o we ve r, th e y can b e e valu ate d wi th varyi n g d e gre e s o f accu racy an d re gu lari ty
u si n g ce n su s d ata an d e m p lo ym e n t stati sti cs. F o r e xam p le , o n th e b asi s o f th e 1 990 ge n e ral ce n su s, th e U n i te d
N ati o n s P o p u la ti o n D i vi si o n e sti m ate d at 57 m i lli o n th e to tal n u m b e r o f wo m e n li v i n g o u tsi d e th e i r co u n try o f
b i rth ; th i s re p re se n ts 48% o f all m i gran ts.
I t ap p e ars th at re ce n tly, th e re h as b e e n a tre n d to ward s th e fe m i n i sati o n o f m i grati o n . T h i s i s p arti cu larly vi si -
b le i n Asi a, wi th large flo ws o f te m p o rary wo rke rs m ai n ly fro m I n d o n e si a, th e P h i li p p i n e s, S ri L an ka an d T h ai lan d ,
b u t i t i s a lso p e rce p ti b le i n E u ro p e a n d N o rth Am e ri ca d u e , inter alia, to th e gro wi n g i m p o rtan ce o f th e fam i ly
co m p o n e n t se e C h art I . 4) .
I n 1 997, fo r th e E u ro p e an co u n tri e s an d th e U n i te d S tate s, th e sh are o f wo m e n i n th e o ve rall i m m i grati o n flo w
n ati o n als an d fo re i gn e rs) ran ge d b e twe e n 39% fo r G e rm an y an d 60% fo r G re e ce se e Tab le I .1 ) . F o r m o st o f th e
co u n tri e s stu d i e d , h o we ve r, th e p e rce n tage was i n th e ran ge o f 50% . I t was sli gh tly h i gh e r th an 50% fo r th e N o rd i c
co u n tri e s, P o rtu gal, S wi tze rlan d an d th e U n i te d S tate s, an d so m e wh at lo we r fo r Au stri a, th e N e th e rlan d s an d th e
U n i te d K i n gd o m . T h e d i ffe re n ce s are e xp lai n e d b y th e co m p o si ti o n o f th e flo ws, th o se fo r co u n tri e s i n wh i ch th e
sh are o f fam i ly re u n i o n o r re fu ge e s i s p re p o n d e ran t h avi n g a h i gh e r p ro p o rti o n o f wo m e n . T h i s te n d s to sh o w th at,
u n li ke Asi a, i n d e p e n d e n t fe m ale lab o u r m i grati o n i s sti ll re lati ve ly lo w i n E u ro p e an d N o rth Am e ri ca.
I n Tab le I .1 , it can also b e se e n th at wo m e n s sh are i n in tra-E u ro p e an flo ws is syste m ati cally lo we r th an fo r fo re ign -
e rs as a wh o le . T h i s i s p arti cu larly m arke d i n N o rd i c co u n tri e s, wh e re i t i s o ve r 5% lo we r: D e n m ark 7.2%) , F i n lan d
1 4.8% ) an d S we d e n 5.7% ) . T h is m i gh t b e e xp lai n e d b y th e fact th at te m p o rary an d ski lle d lab o u r m i grati o n i s p layi n g
an i n cre asi n gly i m p o rtan t ro le i n in tra-E u ro p e an m o b i li ty an d th at wo m e n are le ss i n vo lve d in th is re gard .
Tab le I .1 . Proportion of women in immigration flows in some OECD countries, 1997
P e rce n tage s
1 . D ata re fe r to p e rm an e n t an d lo n g-te rm m o ve m e n ts Ju ly 1 997 to Ju n e 1 998) .
2. Ad m i ssi o n s o f p e rm an e n t i m m i gran ts.
3. Ad m i ssi o n s o f p e rm an e n t i m m i gran ts O cto b e r 1 996 to S e p te m b e r 1 997) .
Sources: E u ro stat d atab ase N e w C ro n o s) ; Au strali an B u re au o f S tati sti cs; C i ti ze n sh i p an d I m m i grati o n C an ad a an d 1997 Statistical Yearbook of Immigration and
Naturalization Service, U S D e p artm e n t o f Ju sti ce .
P ro p o rti o n o f wo m e n i n e ach gro u p
R e tu rn s o f n ati o n als
F o re i gn e rs
To tal Of which: E U ci ti ze n s
Au strali a
1
50.6 47.6 . .
Au stri a 38.0 48.1 45.6
B e lgi u m 46.2 50.6 48.7
C an ad a
2
. . 50.8 . .
D e n m ark 50.5 49.8 42.7
F i n lan d 50.3 52.5 37.7
G e rm an y 46.9 38.8 35.9
G re e ce . . 60.2 56.6
L u xe m b o u rg 40.2 47.4 44.7
N e th e rlan d s 46.3 49.0 45.8
N o rway 49.1 52.2 48.0
P o rtu gal . . 51 .2 47.7
S p ai n 49.0 49.2 47.7
S we d e n 49.0 50.2 44.5
S wi tze rlan d 47.7 51 .3 48.2
U n i te d ki n gd o m 51 .6 48.8 48.7
U n i te d S tate s
3
. . 54.2 . .
26
O E C D 2000
n e i gh b o u ri n g co u n tri e s N e w Z e ala n d fo r Au stra li a,
R u ssi a fo r F i n lan d , Alge ri a an d M o ro cco fo r F ran ce ,
Alb an i a fo r I taly, S we d e n fo r N o rway, C h i n a an d th e
P h i li p p i n e s fo r Jap an , M e xi co fo r th e U n i te d S tate s) .
T h e y m ay a lso b e co u n tri e s fro m wh i ch la rg e n u m -
b e rs o f re fu ge e s h ave co m e S o m ali a i n th e ca se o f
D e n m a rk , I ra q i n th a t o f S we d e n a n d t h e fo rm e r
Yu go sla vi a i n th a t o f S wi tze rla n d ) . I n 1 9 98 , th e fi ve
m a i n se n d i n g co u n tri e s a cco u n te d fo r m o re th a n
60% o f all flo ws i n H u n gary, Jap an an d L u xe m b o u rg,
b u t l e s s t h a n o n e -t h i rd i n C a n a d a , D e n m a rk
i n 1 997) , I taly an d th e N e th e rlan d s.
I n th e ca se o f G e rm an y an d to a le sse r e xte n t
i n th at o f S wi tze rla n d a n d th a t o f th e N o rd i c co u n -
tri e s i f th e m o v e m e n ts o f th e se co u n tri e s n a ti o n -
a ls, p a rt i cu l a rly th o se o f N o rwa y a n d o f S we d e n
a re a b st ra ct e d ) , E a st-We st fl o ws a cco u n t fo r th e
g re a te r p art o f th e to ta l flo ws, wi th P o le s p re d o m i -
n a ti n g i n G e rm a n y, n a ti o n a ls o f th e fo rm e r S o v i e t
U n i o n i n F i n lan d an d th o se o f th e fo rm e r Yu go slavi a
i n S wi tze rlan d a n d , to a le sse r e xte n t, i n D e n m ark
a n d S we d e n . I n a d d i ti o n , th e lo n g -sta n d i n g p re -
d o m i n a n ce o f m i g ra t i o n flo ws fro m ce rta i n A si a n
c o u n t ri e s i s a l so wo rt h y o f n o t e i n A u s t ra l i a ,
C a n a d a , Ja p a n a n d th e U n i t e d S ta t e s) a s i s th e
e m e rg e n ce o f flo ws fro m th e se co u n tri e s to so m e
E u ro p e a n co u n tri e s F ra n ce , I t a ly a n d th e U n i te d
K i n g d o m ) .
%
%
%
%
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1988 1987 1986 1985 1989
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1988 1987 1986 1985 1989
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1988 1987 1986 1985 1989
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1988 1987 1986 1985 1989
Chart I.4. Proportion of women in total immigration flows, 1985-1997
Percentages
Greece Norway United States
Finland Switzerland
Note: Flows to Greece and Portugal do not include returns of nationals; flows to the United States refer only to permanent immigrants.
Sources: Eurostat (New Cronos database) and 1997 Statistical Yearbook of Immigration and Naturalization Service, US Department of Justice.
Spain Netherlands
Ireland Italy
Portugal Belgium
Sweden Denmark
United Kingdom Luxembourg Germany
%
%
%
%
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1988 1987 1986 1985 1989
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1988 1987 1986 1985 1989
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1988 1987 1986 1985 1989
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1988 1987 1986 1985 1989
Percentages
Finland Switzerland
Spain Netherlands
Ireland Italy
Portugal Belgium
Sweden Denmark
%
%
%
%
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1988 1987 1986 1985 1989
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1988 1987 1986 1985 1989
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1988 1987 1986 1985 1989
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1988 1987 1986 1985 1989
Percentages
Finland Switzerland
Spain Netherlands
Ireland Italy
Portugal Belgium
Sweden Denmark
27
O E C D 2000
20 15 10 5 0 20 15 10 5 0 20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0 20 15 10 5 0 20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0 20 15 10 5 0 20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0 20 15 10 5 0 20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0 20 15 10 5 0 20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0 20 15 10 5 0 20 15 10 5 0
22.2
29.8
25.8
36.0
48.9
Chart I.5. Change in inflows of migrants by country of origin to selected OECD countries,
1990-1997 and 1998
1
Australia Belgium Canada
Germany Hungary Italy
Denmark Finland France
4
1998
3
New Zealand (18.7)
United Kingdom (8.8)
China (6.1)
South Africa (5)
Philippines (3.3)
Fed. Rep. of Yug. (2.9)
India (2.6)
Vietnam (2.1)
Hong Kong, China(1.9)
Fiji (1.6)
France (7.4)
Netherlands (6.2)
Morocco (4.3)
Germany (3.2)
United States (2.8)
Italy (2.5)
Turkey (2.4)
Portugal (1.4)
Spain (1.1)
China (19.7)
India (15.3)
Philippines (8.2)
Pakistan (8.1)
Chinese Taipei (7.2)
Iran (6.8)
United States (4.8)
Bosnia Herzeg. (3.7)
Somalia (1.8)
Former Yug. (1.4)
Iraq (1.3)
Germany (1.1)
Norway (1.1)
Sweden (1)
Turkey (1)
Iceland (0.9)
United States (0.5)
Former USSR (2.5)
Sweden (0.8)
Estonia (0.7)
Somalia (0.4)
Iraq (0.3)
United States (0.2)
China (0.2)
Iran (0.2)
Vietnam (0.2)
Germany (0.2)
Algeria (16.7)
Morocco (16.1)
Turkey (6.8)
China (5.7)
Tunisia (5.3)
Zaire (4.6)
Former Yug. (2.4)
Haiti (1.9)
Poland (1.4)
J apan (1.1)
Poland (66.3)
Former Yug. (61.9)
Turkey (48.2)
Italy (35.6)
Russian Fed. (28.4)
Hungary (19.3)
Portugal (18.8)
Former USSR (17.6)
United States (17)
Romania (17)
Romania (4.6)
Ukraine (1.9)
Former Yug. (1.4)
China (0.9)
Germany (0.5)
Slovak Rep. (0.4)
Russian Fed. (0.3)
Croatia (0.3)
Vietnam (0.3)
Israel (0.1)
Albania (11.2)
Morocco (7.3)
Romania (5.9)
Former Yug. (5.7)
United States (4.7)
Poland (3.9)
China (3.4)
Germany (3.3)
Russian Fed. (3.2)
Iraq (3)
1990-1997 annual average
2
20 15 10 5 0 20 15 10 5 0 20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0 20 15 10 5 0 20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0 20 15 10 5 0 20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0 20 15 10 5 0 20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0 20 15 10 5 0 20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0 20 15 10 5 0 20 15 10 5 0
22.2
29.8
25.8
36.0
48.9
1990-1997 and 1998
1
4
1998
3
New Zealand (18.7)
China (6.1)
South Africa (5)
Philippines (3.3)
India (2.6)
Vietnam (2.1)
Fiji (1.6)
France (7.4)
Netherlands (6.2)
Morocco (4.3)
Germany (3.2)
United States (2.8)
Italy (2.5)
Turkey (2.4)
Portugal (1.4)
Spain (1.1)
China (19.7)
India (15.3)
Philippines (8.2)
Pakistan (8.1)
Iran (6.8)
United States (4.8)
Somalia (1.8)
Former Yug. (1.4)
Iraq (1.3)
Germany (1.1)
Norway (1.1)
Sweden (1)
Turkey (1)
Iceland (0.9)
United States (0.5)
Former USSR (2.5)
Sweden (0.8)
Estonia (0.7)
Somalia (0.4)
Iraq (0.3)
United States (0.2)
China (0.2)
Iran (0.2)
Vietnam (0.2)
Germany (0.2)
Algeria (16.7)
Morocco (16.1)
Turkey (6.8)
China (5.7)
Tunisia (5.3)
Zaire (4.6)
Former Yug. (2.4)
Haiti (1.9)
Poland (1.4)
J apan (1.1)
Poland (66.3)
Former Yug. (61.9)
Turkey (48.2)
Italy (35.6)
Russian Fed. (28.4)
Hungary (19.3)
Portugal (18.8)
Former USSR (17.6)
United States (17)
Romania (17)
Romania (4.6)
Ukraine (1.9)
Former Yug. (1.4)
China (0.9)
Germany (0.5)
Slovak Rep. (0.4)
Russian Fed. (0.3)
Croatia (0.3)
Vietnam (0.3)
Israel (0.1)
Albania (11.2)
Morocco (7.3)
Romania (5.9)
Former Yug. (5.7)
United States (4.7)
Poland (3.9)
China (3.4)
Germany (3.3)
Russian Fed. (3.2)
Iraq (3)
2
20 15 10 5 0 20 15 10 5 0 20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0 20 15 10 5 0 20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0 20 15 10 5 0 20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0 20 15 10 5 0 20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0 20 15 10 5 0 20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0 20 15 10 5 0 20 15 10 5 0
22.2
29.8
25.8
36.0
48.9
1990-1997 and 1998
1
4
1998
3
New Zealand (18.7)
China (6.1)
South Africa (5)
Philippines (3.3)
India (2.6)
Vietnam (2.1)
Fiji (1.6)
France (7.4)
Netherlands (6.2)
Morocco (4.3)
Germany (3.2)
United States (2.8)
Italy (2.5)
Turkey (2.4)
Portugal (1.4)
Spain (1.1)
China (19.7)
India (15.3)
Philippines (8.2)
Pakistan (8.1)
Iran (6.8)
United States (4.8)
Somalia (1.8)
Former Yug. (1.4)
Iraq (1.3)
Germany (1.1)
Norway (1.1)
Sweden (1)
Turkey (1)
Iceland (0.9)
United States (0.5)
Former USSR (2.5)
Sweden (0.8)
Estonia (0.7)
Somalia (0.4)
Iraq (0.3)
United States (0.2)
China (0.2)
Iran (0.2)
Vietnam (0.2)
Germany (0.2)
Algeria (16.7)
Morocco (16.1)
Turkey (6.8)
China (5.7)
Tunisia (5.3)
Zaire (4.6)
Former Yug. (2.4)
Haiti (1.9)
Poland (1.4)
J apan (1.1)
Poland (66.3)
Former Yug. (61.9)
Turkey (48.2)
Italy (35.6)
Russian Fed. (28.4)
Hungary (19.3)
Portugal (18.8)
Former USSR (17.6)
United States (17)
Romania (17)
Romania (4.6)
Ukraine (1.9)
Former Yug. (1.4)
China (0.9)
Germany (0.5)
Slovak Rep. (0.4)
Russian Fed. (0.3)
Croatia (0.3)
Vietnam (0.3)
Israel (0.1)
Albania (11.2)
Morocco (7.3)
Romania (5.9)
Former Yug. (5.7)
United States (4.7)
Poland (3.9)
China (3.4)
Germany (3.3)
Russian Fed. (3.2)
Iraq (3)
2
28
O E C D 2000
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
22.4
23.6
29.2
19.2
25.4
21.0 27.5
1990-1997 and 1998 (cont.)
1
Japan Luxembourg Netherlands
1998
3
2
Sweden
Portugal (2)
France (2)
Belgium (1.2)
Germany (0.8)
Italy (0.6)
United States (0.3)
Netherlands (0.2)
Spain (0.1)
Iraq (5.4)
Finland (3)
Former Yug. (1.9)
Norway (1.6)
Iran (1.5)
Bosnia-Herzeg. (1.3)
Denmark (1.1)
United Kingdom (1)
United States (1)
Somalia (0.8)
Note: The top 10 source countries are presented by decreasing order. Data for Australia, Canada and the United States refer to inflows of permanent
settlers by country of birth, for France, to issues of certain types of permits. For the United Kingdom, the data are based on entry control at ports of
certain categories of migrants. For all other countries, figures are from Population registers or Registers of foreigners. The figures for the Netherlands,
Norway and especially Germany include substantial numbers of asylum seekers. For more details on sources, refer to the introduction to the Statistical
Annex.
1. The figures in brackets are inflows in thousands.
2. Annual average flows for the period 1990-1997 except for Australia (1990-1998), Denmark (1990-1996), Finland and the United Kingdom (1992-1996).
3. 1998 except for Australia (1999), Denmark and the United Kingdom (1997).
4. Data do not include EU citizens.
5. Passengers, excluding European Economic Area nationals, admitted to the United Kingdom. Data only include certain categories of migrants: work
permit holders, spouses and refugees (excluding residents returning on limiting leave or who previously settled).
Source: National Statistical offices.
United States
Mexico (131.6)
China (36.9)
India (36.5)
Philippines (34.5)
Dominic. Rep. (20.4)
Vietnam (17.6)
Cuba (17.4)
J amaica (15.1)
El Salvador (14.6)
Korea (14.3)
Morocco (5.3)
Turkey (5.1)
Germany (4.7)
United States (3.3)
Suriname (3.2)
France (2.1)
Belgium (1.9)
Poland (1.5)
Former Yug. (1.4)
Former Yug. (11.5)
Germany (9.3)
France (5.4)
Italy (5.3)
Portugal (5.1)
United States (2.8)
Turkey (2.6)
Spain (1.7)
Austria (1.3)
Norway
China (55.7)
Philippines (47.6)
United States (27.7)
Brazil (21.9)
Korea (17.1)
Thailand (7.5)
Canada (4.6)
Germany (4.4)
Sweden (6)
Denmark (2.1)
Germany (1.1)
Somalia (1.1)
Iran (0.7)
Pakistan (0.6)
Turkey (0.5)
Sri Lanka (0.4)
United Kingdom
5
Australia (26.5)
India (16.1)
South Africa (13)
New Zealand (12.1)
J apan (10.4)
Pakistan (9.6)
Canada (8.3)
Philippines (7.5)
Poland (5.4)
Switzerland
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
22.4
23.6
29.2
19.2
25.4
21.0 27.5
1990-1997 and 1998 (cont.)
1
1998
3
2
Sweden
Portugal (2)
France (2)
Belgium (1.2)
Germany (0.8)
Italy (0.6)
United States (0.3)
Netherlands (0.2)
Spain (0.1)
Iraq (5.4)
Finland (3)
Former Yug. (1.9)
Norway (1.6)
Iran (1.5)
Denmark (1.1)
United Kingdom (1)
United States (1)
Somalia (0.8)
Annex.
United States
Mexico (131.6)
China (36.9)
India (36.5)
Philippines (34.5)
Vietnam (17.6)
Cuba (17.4)
J amaica (15.1)
El Salvador (14.6)
Korea (14.3)
Morocco (5.3)
Turkey (5.1)
Germany (4.7)
United States (3.3)
Suriname (3.2)
France (2.1)
Belgium (1.9)
Poland (1.5)
Former Yug. (1.4)
Former Yug. (11.5)
Germany (9.3)
France (5.4)
Italy (5.3)
Portugal (5.1)
United States (2.8)
Turkey (2.6)
Spain (1.7)
Austria (1.3)
Norway
China (55.7)
Philippines (47.6)
Brazil (21.9)
Korea (17.1)
Thailand (7.5)
Canada (4.6)
Germany (4.4)
Sweden (6)
Denmark (2.1)
Germany (1.1)
Somalia (1.1)
Iran (0.7)
Pakistan (0.6)
Turkey (0.5)
Sri Lanka (0.4)
United Kingdom
5
Australia (26.5)
India (16.1)
South Africa (13)
New Zealand (12.1)
J apan (10.4)
Pakistan (9.6)
Canada (8.3)
Philippines (7.5)
Poland (5.4)
Switzerland
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
20 15 10 5 0
22.4
23.6
29.2
19.2
25.4
21.0 27.5
1990-1997 and 1998 (cont.)
1
1998
3
2
Sweden
Portugal (2)
France (2)
Belgium (1.2)
Germany (0.8)
Italy (0.6)
United States (0.3)
Netherlands (0.2)
Spain (0.1)
Iraq (5.4)
Finland (3)
Former Yug. (1.9)
Norway (1.6)
Iran (1.5)
Denmark (1.1)
United Kingdom (1)
United States (1)
Somalia (0.8)
Annex.
United States
Mexico (131.6)
China (36.9)
India (36.5)
Philippines (34.5)
Vietnam (17.6)
Cuba (17.4)
J amaica (15.1)
El Salvador (14.6)
Korea (14.3)
Morocco (5.3)
Turkey (5.1)
Germany (4.7)
United States (3.3)
Suriname (3.2)
France (2.1)
Belgium (1.9)
Poland (1.5)
Former Yug. (1.4)
Former Yug. (11.5)
Germany (9.3)
France (5.4)
Italy (5.3)
Portugal (5.1)
United States (2.8)
Turkey (2.6)
Spain (1.7)
Austria (1.3)
Norway
China (55.7)
Philippines (47.6)
Brazil (21.9)
Korea (17.1)
Thailand (7.5)
Canada (4.6)
Germany (4.4)
Sweden (6)
Denmark (2.1)
Germany (1.1)
Somalia (1.1)
Iran (0.7)
Pakistan (0.6)
Turkey (0.5)
Sri Lanka (0.4)
United Kingdom
5
Australia (26.5)
India (16.1)
South Africa (13)
New Zealand (12.1)
J apan (10.4)
Pakistan (9.6)
Canada (8.3)
Philippines (7.5)
Poland (5.4)
Switzerland
29
O E C D 2000
T h e se co n d tre n d co n ce rn s th e d i ve rsi ty o f si tu -
a ti o n s a cro ss O E C D co u n tri e s a s re g a rd s th e m a i n
o ri g i n co u n tri e s o f i m m i gran ts. T h e P o rtu g u e se are
b y far th e large st gro u p i n L u xe m b o u rg, as are M agh -
re b i a n s i n F ra n ce , M e xi ca n s i n th e U n i te d S ta te s,
n a ti o n a ls o f th e fo rm e r Yu go sla v i a i n S wi tze rla n d ,
th o se o f th e U n i te d S ta te s i n th e U n i te d K i n g d o m
a n d N e w Z e a la n d e rs i n A u stra li a . H o we v e r, i n th e
ran ki n g o f th e to p te n o ri gi n co u n tri e s, so m e n ati o n -
a l i ti e s a re p re se n t i n a la rg e n u m b e r o f th e h o st
co u n tri e s e xam i n e d , su ch a s i n d e sce n d i n g o rd e r
n ati o n als o f th e U n i te d S tate s, G e rm an y, th e U n i te d
K i n gd o m , th e fo rm e r Yu go slavi a an d C h i n a.
T h e th i rd d i sti n cti ve ch aracte ri sti c co n ce rn s th e
p e rsi ste n ce o f trad i ti o n al flo ws an d th e co n ti n u i n g
gro wth o f re ce n tly e m e rge d flo ws.
C h art I .5 sh o ws ave rage i n flo ws o ve r th e d e cad e
d o tte d ) to g e th e r wi th th o se fo r th e la st av a i la b le
ye ar sh ad e d ) , m aki n g i t p o ssi b le to co m p are th e se
t wo t re n d s . F o r a g i v e n h o s t co u n t ry, wh e n a n
u n sh a d e d a re a i s sh o wn , th i s i n d i ca te s th a t th e
sh a re a t tri b u t e d to th i s o ri g i n co u n t ry i n o v e ra ll
flo ws i s lo we r fo r th e last a vai lab le y e ar th an i t was
o n a v e ra g e d u ri n g th e 1 9 9 0 s. F o r e xa m p le , i n th e
N e th e rla n d s, alth o u gh T u rk e y co n ti n u e d to b e th e
se co n d -ran ki n g so u rce o f i m m i gran ts i n to th i s co u n -
try, Tu rks sh are o f o ve rall i n flo ws fe ll b y h alf. A si m i -
l a r o b se rv a t i o n ca n b e m a d e fo r V i e t n a m e se i n
Au strali a, re si d e n ts o f H o n g K o n g C h i n a) i n C an ad a
an d P o le s an d R o m an i an s i n G e rm an y.
I n B e l g i u m , F i n l a n d , J a p a n , K o re a a n d
L u xe m b o u rg , th e d i st ri b u ti o n o f i m m i g ra t i o n b y
n ati o n ali ty h a s re m a i n e d re lati v e ly stab le . I n o th e r
co u n tri e s, h o we ve r, su ch as Au strali a, C an ad a, F ran ce ,
th e N e th e rlan d s an d S we d e n , th e re h ave b e e n m ajo r
ch a n g e s i n th e co m p o si ti o n o f th i s d i stri b u ti o n . I n
F ran ce , fo r e xam p le , th re e n e w se n d i n g co u n tri e s h ave
cle arly e m e rge d am o n g th e te n m ai n so u rce co u n tri e s
o ve r th e re ce n t p e ri o d , i.e. C h i n a, Z ai re an d H aiti . I n th e
case o f C an ad a an d Au strali a, C h art I.5 sh o ws th e m ajo r
ch an ge s th at h ave o ccu rre d i n th e ran ki n g o f th e m ai n
se n d i n g co u n tri e s. Alo n g wi th th e e m e rge n ce o f n e w
m o v e m e n ts, th e p re se n ce o f ce rta i n n a ti o n a li ti e s
cle arly sh o ws th e p e rsi ste n ce o f th e trad iti o n al in flo ws:
T u rk s a n d P o le s i n G e rm a n y, N e w Z e a la n d e rs a n d
U K n ati o n als i n Au strali a, Alge ri an s an d M o ro ccan s i n
F ran ce , Tu rks an d M o ro ccan s i n th e N e th e rlan d s, an d
n ati o n als o f Asian co u n tri e s i n C an ad a.
Tab le I .2 sh o ws th e p ro ce ss o f d i ve rsi fi cati o n o f
o ri g i n co u n tri e s. A sp e ci fi c i n d i cato r h a s b e e n co n -
stru cte d fo r th i s p u rp o se . I t i s calcu late d b y d i vi d i n g,
fo r e ach h o st co u n try co n si d e re d , th e fi ve m ai n se n d -
i n g co u n tri e s sh are i n to tal i n flo ws i n 1 9 98 b y th e i r
sh are i n th e to tal o f fo re i gn e rs o r fo re i gn -b o rn . T h u s, a
valu e o f 1 fo r a gi ve n se n d i n g co u n try m e an s th at i ts
sh are i n i n flo ws i s th e sam e as i ts sh are i n th e n u m b e r
o f fo re i gn e rs as a wh o le . T h i s i s th e case o f n ati o n als
o f th e fo rm e r Yu g o sla v i a i n G e rm a n y a n d th o se o f
H o n g K o n g C h i n a) i n C an ad a. I f th e valu e i s gre ate r
th an 1 , th i s can b e d u e e i th e r to i m m i gran ts fro m an
e m e rg i n g so u rce co u n try, o r to p re v i o u s wa v e s o f
i m m i grati o n wh i ch th o u gh p e rsi ste n t h ave h ad li ttle
i m p a ct o n th e to tal n u m b e r o f fo re i gn e rs fro m th i s
co u n try. I n th e case o f F ran ce , fo r e xam p le , th e i n d i ca-
to r i s e sp e ci ally h i gh fo r C h i n e se n ati o n als, si n ce th e i r
sh are o f i n flo ws i s n e arly th i rte e n ti m e s gre ate r th an
th e i r sh are o f th e to tal n u m b e r o f fo re i gn e rs. T h i s i s
m ai n ly d u e to th e p ro ce d u re fo r re gu lari si n g fo re i gn -
e rs i n an i lle gal si tu ati o n lau n ch e d i n Ju n e 1 997, wh i ch
i n vo lv e d a la rge n u m b e r o f C h i n e se n ati o n a ls wh o
re gu lari se d th e i r si tu ati o n i n 1 99 8. T h e p re se n ce o f
N e w Z e alan d e rs i n Au strali a an d S we d e s i n N o rway i s
n o t th e re su lt o f a re ce n t wa ve o f i m m i grati o n , b u t
p ro b a b ly i n d i cate s si ze a b le n e w i n flo ws acco m p a -
n i e d b y large o u tflo ws, an d th u s th e i n d i cato r i n th e
ra n ge o f 3 i n th e se two case s co rre sp o n d s to an o ld
wave o f m i grati o n th at h as a h i gh tu rn o ve r. I t se e m s
th at th e sam e re aso n i n g can b e ap p li e d to th e case o f
P o le s i n G e rm an y, fo r wh o m th e i n d i cato r i s 2.8.
I f th e fi ve n a ti o n ali ti e s ra n k i n g h i gh e st i n 1 99 8
i n flo ws are co n si d e re d fo r e ach o f th e co u n tri e s stu d -
i e d , C an ad a h as th e h i gh e st o ve rall i n d i cato r o f d i ve r-
si ty o f so u rce s o f i m m i grati o n 1 . 9) , co m p a re d wi th
o n ly 0.5 fo r th e N e th e rlan d s. M o re ge n e rally, i t can b e
o b se rve d th at C h in e se i m m i gran ts n o t co u n ti n g ille gal
i m m i grati o n ) ran k am o n g th e fi ve m ai n n ati o n ali ti e s o f
e n tri e s i n fo u r o f th e co u n tri e s stu d i e d Au strali a,
C an ad a, F ran ce an d th e U n i te d S tate s) , wi th a d i ve rsi ty
i n d e x ab o ve 2 1 7.0 fo r F ran ce ) . T h i s tre n d co n fi rm s th e
g ro wi n g i m p o rta n ce o f i m m i g ra ti o n fro m C h i n a i n
O E C D M e m b e r co u n tri e s. T h e e m i g rati o n o f S o u th
Afri can s to Au strali a, R u ssi an s to G e rm an y, S o m ali an s
to D e n m ark, U S n ati o n als to B e lgi u m an d th e N e th e r-
lan d s, I n d i an n ati o n als to th e U n i te d S tate s an d C an -
ad a, an d I raq i s to S we d e n i s i n d i cati ve o f th e p ro ce ss
o f d i v e rsi fi ca ti o n o f m i g ra ti o n m o v e m e n t s th a t i s
acco m p an yin g e co n o m i c glo b ali sati o n .
2. Immigration and population growth in OECD
countries
M i g rati o n p lays a si gn i fi can t ro le i n th e a n n u al
p o p u lati o n gro wth o f m an y O E C D co u n tri e s. F i rst o f all,
30
O E C D 2000
th e p re se n ce o f a fo re i gn o r fo re i gn -b o rn p o p u lati o n
co n tri b u te s to th e n atu ral i n cre ase i n th e p o p u lati o n
e xce ss o f b i rth s o ve r d e ath s) . T h e h i gh e r th e fe rti li ty
o f fo re i gn wo m e n re lati ve to n ati ve s th e m o re si gn i fi -
can t i s th is co n tri b u ti o n . S e co n d , wh e n n e t m i gratio n i s
p o si ti ve , th e p o p u lati o n o f th e h o st co u n try gro ws b y
th e sam e am o u n t.
I n th e fo l lo wi n g se ct i o n th e co n tri b u ti o n o f
m i g ra ti o n i s e xa m i n e d fro m th e p e rsp e cti v e o f i ts
i m p a ct o n t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n g ro wt h . P a rt i cu l a r
Tab le I .2. Relative importance of the top 5 countries in the total immigration flows and stocks of foreigners
insome OECD countries
M ai n i m m i gran ts co u n tri e s o f o ri gi n i n 1 998
1 . 1 998 e xce p t fo r Au strali a 1 999) an d D e n m ark 1 997) .
2. S to cks o f fo re i gn -b o rn p o p u lati o n fo r Au strali a, C an ad a an d th e U n i te d S tate s. 1 996 fo r Au strali a, C an ad a an d D e n m ark.
Sources: N ati o n al S tati sti cal O ffi ce s se e n o te s fo r Tab le A.1 .1 . at th e e n d o f th e S tati sti cal An n e x) .
To p 5 n ati o n ali ti e s
acco rd i n g to th e 1 998
vo lu m e o f i n flo ws)
I n flo ws
o f fo re i gn e rs
i n 1 998
1
% o f to tal i n flo ws
A)
S to cks
o f fo re i gn e rs
2

i n 1 997
% o f to tal sto ck
o f fo re i gn e rs B )
A) / B )
To p 5 n ati o n ali ti e s
acco rd i n g to th e 1 998
vo lu m e o f i n flo ws)
I n flo ws
o f fo re i gn e rs
i n 1 998
% o f to tal i n flo ws
A)
S to cks
o f fo re i gn e rs
i n 1 997
% o f to tal sto ck
o f fo re i gn e rs B )
A) / B )
Australia Germany
N e w Z e alan d 22.2 7.5 3.0 P o lan d 1 0.9 3.8 2.8
U n i te d K i n gd o m 1 0.4 27.4 0.4 F e d . R e p . o f Yu go slavi a 1 0.2 9.8 1.0
C h i n a 7.3 2.8 2.6 Tu rke y 8.0 28.6 0.3
S o u th Afri ca 6.0 1 .4 4.2 I taly 5.9 8.3 0.7
P h i li p p i n e s 3.9 2.4 1.7 R u ssi an F e d e rati o n 4.7 2.3 2.0
Total (in thousands) (84.1) (3 908.3) Total (in thousands) (605.5) (7 365.8)
Belgium Japan
F ran ce 1 4.6 1 1 .5 1.3 C h i n a 21 .0 1 7.0 1.2
N e th e rlan d s 1 2.3 9.1 1.4 P h i li p p i n e s 1 7.9 6.3 2.8
M o ro cco 8.5 1 4.7 0.6 U n i te d S tate s 1 0.4 2.9 3.5
G e rm an y 6.3 3.7 1.7 B razi l 8.3 1 5.7 0.5
U n i te d S tate s 5.6 1 .4 4.0 K o re a 6.4 43.5 0.1
Total (in thousands) (50.7) (903.2) Total (in thousands) (265.5) (1 482.7)
Canada Netherlands
C h i n a 1 1 .3 4.6 2.4 M o ro cco 6.5 20.0 0.3
I n d i a 8.8 4.7 1.9 Tu rke y 6.3 1 6.9 0.4
P h i li p p i n e s 4.7 3.7 1.3 G e rm an y 5.8 7.9 0.7
H o n g K o n g C h i n a) 4.6 4.8 1.0 U n i te d K i n gd o m 5.8 5.8 1.0
P aki stan 4.6 . . . . U n i te d S tate s 4.0 1 .9 2.1
Total (in thousands) (174.1) (4 971.1) Total (in thousands) (81.7) (678.1)
Denmark Norway
S o m ali a 8.6 4.1 2.1 S we d e n 22.4 1 1 .0 2.0
F o rm e r Yu go slavi a 7.1 1 3.5 0.5 D e n m ark 8.0 1 1 .5 0.7
I raq 6.3 3.4 1.9 U n i te d K i n gd o m 4.7 6.9 0.7
G e rm an y 5.5 4.8 1.2 G e rm an y 4.0 3.2 1.3
N o rway 5.3 4.8 1.1 S o m ali a 4.0 . . . .
Total (in thousands) (20.4) (237.7) Total (in thousands) (26.7) (157.5)
Finland Sweden
F o rm e r U S S R 29.8 23.6 1.3 I raq 1 5.1 4.5 3.4
S we d e n 9.6 9.3 1.0 F i n lan d 8.4 1 8.4 0.5
E sto n i a 8.1 1 2.0 0.7 F o rm e r Yu go slavi a 5.4 6.1 0.9
S o m ali a 4.3 6.5 0.7 N o rway 4.6 5.6 0.8
I raq 3.2 3.0 1.1 I ran 4.1 4.8 0.9
Total (in thousands) (8.3) (80.6) Total (in thousands) (35.7) (552.0)
France United States
Alge ri a 1 4.3 1 6.4 0.9 M e xi co 1 9.9 21 .7 0.9
M o ro cco 1 3.8 1 6.9 0.8 C h i n a 5.6 2.7 2.1
Tu rke y 5.8 5.2 1.1 I n d i a 5.5 2.3 2.4
C h i n a 4.9 0.3 17.0 P h i li p p i n e s 5.2 4.6 1.1
Tu n i si a 4.6 6.3 0.7 D o m i n i can R e p u b li c 3.1 1 .8 1.8
Total (in thousands) (116.9) (3 315.0) Total (in thousands) (660.5) (19 767.3)
31
O E C D 2000
a tte n ti o n i s th e n a cco rd e d to b i rth s to fo re i g n e rs
a n d to p e rso n s o f fo re i g n o ri g i n a n d to th e re la -
ti o n sh i p b e twe e n p o p u la ti o n a g e i n g a n d m i g ra -
t i o n . F i n a l l y, a n a n a l y si s o f t h e ch a n g e s i n t h e
fo re i g n o r i m m i g ra n t p o p u l a ti o n s i n O E C D co u n -
tri e s h i g h li g h ts th e g ro wt h wh i ch h a s ta k e n p la ce
i n th i s p o p u la t i o n a n d co n fi rm s i ts tre n d to wa rd s
i n cre asi n g d i ve rsi fi ca ti o n .
B o x 3. Intra-European mobility
S i n ce th e Tre aty o f R o m e 1 957) , th e p ri n ci p le o f fre e m o ve m e n t fo r E U M e m b e r n ati o n als i n th e co n te xt o f tak-
i n g u p e m p lo ym e n t h as b e e n re co gn i se d wi th i n th e are a fo rm e d b y th e si gn ato ry co u n tri e s. M o re re ce n tly, vari o u s
m e asu re s h av e b e e n i m p le m e n te d wi th th e ai m o f fa ci li tati n g i n tra-E u ro p e an m o b i li ty: a D i re cti ve o n th e fre e
m o ve m e n t o f th o se o u tsi d e th e lab o u r fo rce , stu d e n ts an d th e re ti re d , a se ri e s o f D i re cti ve s o n th e m u tu al re co gn i -
ti o n o f q u ali fi cati o n s an d th e o p e n i n g u p o f ce rtai n p u b li c se cto r jo b s wh i ch we re p re vi o u sly re se rve d fo r n ati o n als.
N e ve rth e le ss, th e e xte n t o f i n tra-E u ro p e an m o b i li ty an d i ts m o ti vati o n s are n o t we ll kn o wn . T ab le s I . 3 an d I . 4
p re se n t fo r th e co u n tri e s o f th e E U th e sto cks an d , fo r th i rte e n o f th e m , th e flo ws o f E U n ati o n als b y n ati o n ali ty.
F o r v ari o u s re aso n s, i n 1 9 98 th e fi ve co u n tri e s wi th th e h i gh e st p ro p o rti o n s o f fo re i gn e rs wi th E U M e m b e r
co u n try n a ti o n a li ty we re L u xe m b o u rg 9 0 . 5 % ) , I re la n d 7 5 . 2 % ) , B e lg i u m 5 7% ) , P o rtu g a l 5 3 . 7 % ) a n d S we d e n
42.4% ) . A ran ki n g o f E U M e m b e r co u n tri e s i n te rm s o f th e p e rce n tage o f E U M e m b e r co u n try n ati o n als i n th e i r
i n flo ws p ro d u ce s an alm o st si m i lar re su lt an d sh o ws u p o th e r d e sti n ati o n co u n tri e s. I n 1 997, th e p ro p o rti o n was
78% fo r L u xe m b o u rg, 59% fo r P o rtu gal, 56% fo r B e lgi u m , 39% fo r S p ai n an d 32% fo r th e U n i te d K i n gd o m . T h e o th e r
E U co u n tri e s h ave m u ch lo we r p ro p o rti o n s o f E U M e m b e r co u n try n ati o n als i n th e i r i n flo ws, ran gi n g fro m n e arly
28% i n th e case o f D e n m ark to 1 0% i n th at o f F ran ce .
T h e an alysi s o f i n tra-E u ro p e an m o b i li ty b y n ati o n ali ty sh o ws gre at d i ve rsi ty, re fle cti n g ab o ve all cu ltu ral an d
li n gu i sti c affi n i ti e s G e rm an s i n Au stri a, F re n ch an d D u tch i n B e lgi u m , F i n n s i n S we d e n an d S we d e s i n F i n lan d ) .
H i sto ri cal ti e s also p lay a ro le i n th i s m o b i li ty, su ch i s th e case o f P o rtu gu e se an d I tali an s i n F ran ce , an d o f I tali an s
i n Au stri a. E u ro p e an p e n si o n e rs also fre q u e n tly ch o o se to se ttle i n ce rtai n S o u th e rn E u ro p e an co u n tri e s, th i s i s
n o tab ly th e case o f U K n ati o n als i n S p ai n an d P o rtu gal, an d G e rm an s i n G re e ce .
Tab le I . 3. Intra-European mobility of EU citizens, 1997
I m m i grati o n flo ws b y n ati o n ali ty i n p e r ce n t o f to tal i n flo ws o f E U ci ti ze n s
Source: E u ro stat, N e w C ro n o s d atab ase .
N ati o n ali ty
R e ce i vi n g co u n try
L u xe m b o u rg P o rtu gal B e lgiu m S p ain
U n ite d
K in gd o m
D e nm ark N ethe rlan d s G e rm an y S we d e n Austria G re ece F inland Fran ce
Au stri a 0.4 0.7 0. 9 1 . 6 1 .2 1 .8 1 .7 7.0 1 . 1 3.2 1 .4 1 .3
B e lgi u m 1 6.7 4.6 6. 5 0.8 1 .7 9.6 1 .3 0. 9 1 . 2 3.0 1 .1 6.4
D e n m ark 2.0 1 .2 1 . 6 1 . 7 2.0 1 .9 1 .7 1 4. 3 1 . 5 4.0 4.9 1 .4
F i n lan d 1 .5 1 .0 1 . 5 2. 5 4.6 5.0 2.1 2.1 39. 7 2. 1 3.0 0.9
F ran ce 23.4 1 2.2 25. 5 1 3. 6 33.9 9.6 9.4 9.5 5. 0 5. 6 1 1 .6 6.4
G e rm an y 9.5 23.0 1 1 . 3 29. 1 1 2.7 20.4 25.6 1 3. 3 51 . 1 26.4 1 0.4 9.9
G re e ce 1 .1 0.1 2. 2 0. 2 1 4.7 1 .1 3.5 1 1 .0 2. 8 4. 2 1 .9 1 .2
I re lan d 1 .1 1 .3 1 . 2 0. 8 2.3 1 .9 3.2 2.6 1 . 6 1 . 0 1 .0 0.9 2.1
I taly 6.9 6.1 1 0. 0 1 0. 1 4.3 6.7 6.6 26.2 2. 8 1 1 . 0 8.7 4.2 1 3.8
L u xe m b o u rg 0.1 0. 8 0. 1 0.1 0.4 0. 1 0. 1 0.1 0.0 0.2
N e th e rlan d s 3.6 1 0.8 22. 8 5. 5 7.7 8.0 4.7 3. 8 4. 4 7.0 3.8 3.4
P o rtu gal 25.9 5. 9 6. 9 3.5 1 .0 3.4 1 7.7 0. 7 4. 5 0.4 0.3 36.4
S p ai n 1 .8 1 7.1 4. 2 5.3 6.2 5.6 4.9 2. 2 2. 3 0.9 3.6 8.1
S we d e n 1 .9 2.2 2. 3 2. 3 7.1 1 8.9 2.8 2.4 3. 5 5.8 48.3 2.2
U n i te d K i n gd o m 4.2 1 9.7 9. 8 1 9. 1 1 7.6 24.4 8.5 1 1 . 7 7. 5 24.9 1 2.8 1 2.7
To tal 1 00.0 1 00.0 1 00. 0 1 00. 0 1 00.0 1 00.0 1 00.0 1 00.0 1 00. 0 1 00. 0 1 00.0 1 00.0 1 00.0
Inper cent of total
inflows of foreigners 78.3 59.0 56.0 39.1 32.3 27.6 25.0 24.5 21.4 20.2 17.5 17.0 9.7
32
O E C D 2000
a) The components of population growth
I n o rd e r to e xp lai n th e re sp e cti ve co n tri b u ti o n s
o f n e t m i gra ti o n a n d th e rate o f n atu ra l i n cre a se to
to tal p o p u lati o n gro wth , th e e vo lu ti o n o f th e se co m -
p o n e n ts o v e r th e p a st th re e d e cad e s i n th e p ri n ci -
p al O E C D ge o grap h i c re gi o n s wi ll b e e xam i n e d an d
a d e scri p ti o n o f th e cu rre n t si tu ati o n i n th e M e m b e r
co u n tri e s wi ll b e p re se n te d .
Main demographic trends
C h a rt 1 . 6 co v e rs th e p e ri o d 1 9 6 0 -9 8 . I t sh o ws
th e re lati ve co n tri b u ti o n s o f n e t m i grati o n n ati o n als
a n d fo re i g n e rs) a n d o f n a tu ral i n cre a se e xce ss o f
b i rth s o ve r d e ath s) to th e to tal p o p u lati o n gro wth o f
th e co u n tri e s o f th e E u ro p e a n U n i o n a n d o th e r
M e m b e r co u n tri e s o f th e O E C D .
T h i s co m p a ra ti v e a n a ly si s i llu stra te s th e ge n -
e ra l tre n d o f a slo wd o wn i n d e m o g ra p h i c g ro wt h .
H o we v e r, th i s tre n d i s m o re o r le ss m a rk e d a cro ss
co u n tri e s. F o r e xa m p le , A u st ra li a a n d th e U n i t e d
S tate s, wh i ch h ad a ve ry h i gh rate o f n atu ral i n cre ase
i n 1 9 6 0 , e xp e ri e n ce d m a rk e d d e cli n e s th e re a fte r
b e fo re sta b i li si n g i n th e m i d -1 97 0 s a t a re la ti v e ly
h i g h ra t e . Ja p a n a n d S p a i n , wh i ch a l so i n i t i a l l y
e n jo y e d ra p i d d e m o g ra p h i c g ro wth , u n d e rwe n t a
co n si d e ra b le a d ju stm e n t i n th e i r b i rth ra te s, wi th
th e i r n atu ral i n cre ase rate fa lli n g b e lo w 5 p e r th o u -
san d i n th e m i d -1 980s an d ap p ro ach i n g n i l at th e e n d
o f th e p e ri o d . I n G e rm an y an d S we d e n , th e n atu ral
i n cre ase i n th e p o p u lati o n was ve ry lo w at th e e n d
o f th e p e ri o d , b u t th e tra n si ti o n wa s le ss su d d e n
th a n i n Ja p an an d S p ai n , b e ca u se th e i n i ti a l le ve ls
we re m u ch le ss h i gh fo r a d e tai le d p re se n tati o n o f
th e si tu a t i o n o f m o st o f th e se co u n tri e s, se e th e
1 999 e d i ti o n o f Trends in International Migration .
I n th e co u n tri e s o f th e E u ro p e a n U n i o n , a t th e
b e gi n n i n g o f th e 1 960s, th e re lati ve sh are o f th e n at-
u ral i n cre a se i n to tal p o p u lati o n g ro wth wa s la rg e r
th an th at o f n e t m i g rati o n e xce p t i n F ra n ce d u e to
th e m ass i n flo ws o f re p atri a te s fro m Alge ri a) . F ro m
1 9 67 o n wa rd s, n e t m i gra ti o n gre w wh i le th e n atu ral
i n cre a se co n t i n u o u sl y d e cl i n e d . B e t we e n 1 9 8 7
an d 1 99 1 , th e re la ti ve co n tri b u ti o n o f n e t m i grati o n
g re w ra p i d ly fo llo wi n g a n acce le ra ti o n i n i m m i gra -
ti o n flo ws, b u t was n o t su ffi ci e n t to ste m th e d e m o -
g ra p h i c d e cl i n e . T h e t re n d wa s t h e n re v e rse d .
H o we ve r, th e co n tri b u ti o n o f m i grati o n co n ti n u e s to
b e h i gh e r th an th e n atu ral i n cre ase th ro u g h o u t th e
e n ti re E u ro p e an U n i o n .
F o llo wi n g a ve ry d i ffe re n t tre n d , Tu rke y i s e xp e ri -
e n ci n g a re la ti v e ly h i g h n atu ra l ra te o f p o p u la ti o n
gro wth , b u t o n e wh i ch i s co n si d e rab ly lo we r th an th e
1 9 70 s fi g u re . M o re o ve r, d u e to th e re tu rn o f fo rm e r
e m i gran ts, n e t m i grati o n i n Tu rke y i s sli gh tly p o si ti ve ,
i n co n trast to th e si tu ati o n i n P o lan d fo r e xam p le .
A m o re d e tai le d an alysi s fo r 1 998 se e C h art I .7)
re ve als th at Tu rke y, M e xi co a n d , to a le sse r e xte n t,
K o re a a n d N e w Z e a la n d , h av e re g i ste re d n e g ati v e
n e t m i gra ti o n , wh i ch i s n e ve rth e le ss b ro ad ly o ffse t
Tab le I .4. European Union citizens in the foreign population of the 15 member countries, 1998
P e rce n tage s
Source: L ab o u r F o rce S u rve ys E u ro stat) .
S h are o f E U ci ti ze n s S h are o f E U lab o u r fo rce
I n to tal fo re i gn p o p u lati o n % ) I n to tal p o p u lati o n % ) I n fo re i gn lab o u r fo rce % ) I n to tal lab o u r fo rce % )
Au stri a 1 2.6 1 .1 1 1 .7 1 . 1
B e lgi u m 57.0 4.7 68.7 5. 4
D e n m ark 28.2 0.8 43.6 0. 8
F i n lan d 22.4 0.2 30.3 0. 2
F ran ce 33.8 2.0 40.2 2. 5
G e rm an y 26.5 2.3 31 .4 2. 8
G re e ce 1 3.7 0.2 1 3.0 0. 2
I re lan d 75.2 2.0 79.2 2. 4
I taly 21 .3 0.1 21 .3 0. 1
L u xe m b o u rg 90.5 30.0 92.9 36. 2
N e th e rlan d s 28.7 1 .4 43.6 1 . 7
P o rtu gal 53.7 0.3 50.7 0. 2
S p ai n 41 .2 0.3 36.1 0. 3
S we d e n 42.4 2.1 49.3 2. 0
U n i te d K i n gd o m 40.4 1 .4 44.5 1 . 6
33
O E C D 2000
25
15
10
5
0
-10
20
-5
25
15
10
5
0
-10
20
-5
25
15
10
5
0
-10
20
-5
25
15
10
5
0
-10
20
-5
25
15
10
5
0
-10
20
-5
25
15
10
5
0
-10
20
-5
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995
Chart I.6. Components of total population growth in the European Union
and in selected OECD countries, 1960-1998
Per 1 000 inhabitants at the beginning of the year
Natural increase rate Net migration rate
1
European Union (15 members
2
)
Per 1 000
France
Per 1 000
Germany
Per 1 000
Spain
Per 1 000
Sweden
Per 1 000
United Kingdom
Per 1 000
25
15
10
5
0
-10
20
-5
25
15
10
5
0
-10
20
-5
25
15
10
5
0
-10
20
-5
25
15
10
5
0
-10
20
-5
25
15
10
5
0
-10
20
-5
25
15
10
5
0
-10
20
-5
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995
1
2
)
Per 1 000
France
Per 1 000
Germany
Per 1 000
Spain
Per 1 000
Sweden
Per 1 000
United Kingdom
Per 1 000
25
15
10
5
0
-10
20
-5
25
15
10
5
0
-10
20
-5
25
15
10
5
0
-10
20
-5
25
15
10
5
0
-10
20
-5
25
15
10
5
0
-10
20
-5
25
15
10
5
0
-10
20
-5
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995
1
2
)
Per 1 000
France
Per 1 000
Germany
Per 1 000
Spain
Per 1 000
Sweden
Per 1 000
United Kingdom
Per 1 000
34
O E C D 2000
25
15
10
5
0
-10
25
15
10
5
0
-10
20
-5
20
-5
25
15
10
5
0
-10
20
-5
25
15
10
5
0
-10
20
-5
25
15
10
5
0
-10
20
-5
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995
and in selected OECD countries, 1960-1998 (cont.)
1
Australia
Per 1 000
Japan
Per 1 000
Poland
Per 1 000
Turkey
Per 1 000
United States
Per 1 000
1. The net migration figures are calculated residually using annual population
estimates and data on births and deaths.
2. Excluding Greece and Ireland from 1997 on and Luxembourg in 1998.
Source: Labour Force Statistics, OECD, 1999.
25
15
10
5
0
-10
25
15
10
5
0
-10
20
-5
20
-5
25
15
10
5
0
-10
20
-5
25
15
10
5
0
-10
20
-5
25
15
10
5
0
-10
20
-5
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995
1
Australia
Per 1 000
Japan
Per 1 000
Poland
Per 1 000
Turkey
Per 1 000
United States
Per 1 000
25
15
10
5
0
-10
25
15
10
5
0
-10
20
-5
20
-5
25
15
10
5
0
-10
20
-5
25
15
10
5
0
-10
20
-5
25
15
10
5
0
-10
20
-5
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995
1
Australia
Per 1 000
Japan
Per 1 000
Poland
Per 1 000
Turkey
Per 1 000
United States
Per 1 000
35
O E C D 2000
b y th e n atu ral i n cre a se . I n th e ca se o f P o lan d , th e
rate o f n a tu ral i n cre a se b are ly o ffse ts th e n e g ati v e
n e t m i grati o n , e xp lai n i n g th e ve ry lo w gro wth o f th i s
co u n try s p o p u lati o n .
T h e C ze ch R e p u b li c, G e rm an y, G re e ce , H u n gary,
I taly an d S we d e n h ave i n co m m o n a n e gati ve rate o f
n a t u ra l i n cre a se a n d p o si t i v e n e t m i g ra t i o n . I n
G re e ce , I taly a n d S we d e n , i t was d u e to n e t m i g ra-
t i o n t h a t t h e p o p u l a t i o n i n c re a s e d i n 1 9 9 8 . I n
B e lgi u m , C an ad a, D e n m ark, L u xe m b o u rg, an d S p ai n
d e m o grap h i c gro wth was also p ri m ari ly d u e to i m m i -
grati o n , alth o u gh th e n atu ral i n cre ase re m ai n e d p o s-
i ti v e . H o we v e r, i n F ra n ce , Ja p a n a n d th e U n i t e d
S ta te s, th e n a tu ra l i n cre ase re m a i n s th e p ri n ci p a l
co m p o n e n t o f p o p u lati o n gro wth . T h i s co m p o n e n t i s
th e m o st i m p o rtan t i n M e xi co an d Tu rke y at 28 an d
1 6 p e r th o u san d re sp e cti ve ly) . I n th e o th e r co u n tri e s,
p o p u la ti o n g ro wth i s e v e n ly d i stri b u te d b e twe e n
b o th d e m o g rap h i c co m p o n e n ts, th e le v e l o f wh i ch
ran ge s b e twe e n 0. 4 p e r th o u san d fo r Au stri a to o ve r
6 p e r t h o u sa n d fo r A u stra l i a , wi t h a p p ro xi m a te ly
5.6 p e r th o u san d i n I re lan d , 3 p e r th o u san d i n N o rway
an d 1 .5 p e r th o u san d i n th e U n i te d K i n gd o m .
T h i s an alysi s p o i n ts to th e co n clu si o n th at o ve r
a lo n g p e ri o d b e i t b y re gi o n o r b y co u n try, 1 960-98)
a n d b y cro ss se cti o n b y co u n try, i n 1 9 98 ) , n a tu ral
i n cre a se i s m o re i m p o rta n t th a n n e t m i g ra ti o n i n
to ta l p o p u lati o n gro wth i n O E C D co u n tri e s. T h i s i s
tru e n o t o n ly i n co u n tri e s, wh i ch h av e e xp e ri e n ce d
la rg e e m i gra ti o n flo ws, su ch a s M e xi co an d T u rk e y,
b u t also i n se ttle m e n t co u n tri e s su ch as th e U n i te d
S tate s. T h i s i s also th e case i n E u ro p e a n co u n tri e s,
i n p a rt i cu la r F ra n ce a n d th e N e th e rla n d s, wh e re
i m m i g ran ts h a ve te n d e d to p ro lo n g th e i r stay a n d
se ttle an d wh e re e n tri e s h ave b e e n ru n n i n g at lo we r
le ve ls th an i n p re vi o u s d e cad e s. T h e se ttle m e n t o f
i m m i gran ts an d m e m b e rs o f th e i r fam i li e s h as co n trib -
u te d , b y m e an s o f fo re i gn b i rth s, to th e i n cre ase i n th e
d o m i n an t ro le o f th e n atu ral i n cre ase s co n tri b u ti o n to
p o p u lati o n gro wth se e b e lo w) .
T h e acce le ra ti o n o f m i g rati o n m o v e m e n ts h a s
n e ve rth e le ss p laye d a n o n -n e gli gi b le ro le i n p o p u la-
ti o n gro wth i n ce rtai n o f th e O E C D M e m b e r co u n tri e s.
T h i s i s n o ta b ly th e ca se i n C an ad a , D e n m ark, I ta ly,
P o rtu gal, S p ai n an d S we d e n . T h e tre n d i s all th e m o re
m arke d i n th o se co u n tri e s wh e re fe rti li ty rate s are lo w
I taly, G e rm an y, G re e ce , P o rtu gal an d S wi tze rlan d ) . I n
se ttle m e n t co u n tri e s, su ch as Au strali a, C an ad a an d
th e U n i te d S tate s, wh i ch co n ti n u e to re ce i ve su b stan -
ti al n u m b e rs o f n e w i m m i gran ts e ach ye ar, i t m ay we ll
b e th at th e p re d o m i n an ce o f fam i ly-li n ke d i m m i gra-
ti o n i n to tal i n flo ws an d th e yo u n ge r age stru ctu re o f
0 -1 0 1 2
2
1
0
2
1
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0
-5
-10
10
5
0
-5
-10
-2
-5
Chart I.7. Natural increase rate in total population and net migration rate in OECD countries, 1998
1
Per 1 000 inhabitants as of 1 January 1998
N
e
t

m
i
g
r
a
t
i
o
n

r
a
t
e

(
p
e
r

1

0
0
0
)
Natural increase rate (per 1 000)
Mexico
Note: The net migration figures are calculated
resi dual l y usi ng annual popul ati on
1. 1990 for Mexico and 1997 for Ireland and
the United Kingdom.
Sources: Recent demographic developments
in Europe, Council of Europe, 1999 for
Ireland, the United Kingdom, Spain and
Labour Force Statistics, OECD, 1999 for
the other countries.
N
e
t

m
i
g
r
a
t
i
o
n

r
a
t
e

(
p
e
r

1

0
0
0
)
Greece
Danemark
Austria
Portugal
Spain
Finland
Sweden
United Kingdom
Switzerland
Belgium
Italy
J apan
Germany
Czech
Rep.
Luxembourg
Canada
New Zealand
Australia
United States
Norway
Poland Hungary
France
Ireland
Iceland
Turkey
Korea
Netherlands
0 -1 0 1 2
2
1
0
2
1
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0
-5
-10
10
5
0
-5
-10
-2
-5
1
N
e
t

m
i
g
r
a
t
i
o
n

r
a
t
e

(
p
e
r

1

0
0
0
)
Mexico
the United Kingdom.
N
e
t

m
i
g
r
a
t
i
o
n

r
a
t
e

(
p
e
r

1

0
0
0
)
Greece
Danemark
Austria
Portugal
Spain
Finland
Sweden
United Kingdom
Switzerland
Belgium
Italy
J apan
Germany
Czech
Rep.
Luxembourg
Canada
New Zealand
Australia
United States
Norway
Poland Hungary
France
Ireland
Iceland
Turkey
Korea
Netherlands
0 -1 0 1 2
2
1
0
2
1
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0
-5
-10
10
5
0
-5
-10
-2
-5
1
N
e
t

m
i
g
r
a
t
i
o
n

r
a
t
e

(
p
e
r

1

0
0
0
)
Mexico
the United Kingdom.
N
e
t

m
i
g
r
a
t
i
o
n

r
a
t
e

(
p
e
r

1

0
0
0
)
Greece
Danemark
Austria
Portugal
Spain
Finland
Sweden
United Kingdom
Switzerland
Belgium
Italy
J apan
Germany
Czech
Rep.
Luxembourg
Canada
New Zealand
Australia
United States
Norway
Poland Hungary
France
Ireland
Iceland
Turkey
Korea
Netherlands
36
O E C D 2000
th e n e w a rri v a ls e xe rt o v e r th e sh o rt a n d m e d i u m
te rm a m arke d e ffe ct o n th e n atu ral rate o f i n cre ase i n
th e p o p u lati o n .
T h e p re ce d i n g an alysi s also re ve als th at m i gra-
ti o n m o v e m e n ts fl u ctu a t e si g n i fi ca n tl y i n O E C D
co u n tri e s. I n th i s re g a rd , th e si tu a ti o n o b se rv e d
afte r 1 996 d e p e n d i n g o n th e co u n try) h as b e e n o n e
o f si gn i fi can t ch an ge i n co m p ari so n to th e p re ce d i n g
p e ri o d . I n d e e d , t h e re l a ti v e i m p o rta n ce o f th e
m i g rati o n co m p o n e n t i s v e ry m u ch d e p e n d e n t o n
d e ve lo p m e n ts i n th e e co n o m i c si tu a ti o n i n ce rtai n
re gi o n s o f th e wo rld i n so far as th e y affe ct th e m o ve -
m e n t s o f a sy l u m se e k e rs a n d re fu g e e s) a n d i n
m i g ra t i o n p o li cy i n e a ch co u n try. T h e flu ctu a ti n g
n atu re o f m i grati o n e xp lai n s wh y i t wo u ld b e d i ffi cu lt
t o re l y o n t h e co n t ri b u t i o n o f n e t m i g ra t i o n t o
re d u ce o r ste m th e m a rk e d d e m o g ra p h i c d e cli n e
o ccu rri n g i n m an y O E C D co u n tri e s.
b) Foreign births: a brake on demographic ageing
I n se v e ral E u ro p e a n O E C D co u n tri e s, b i rth s to
fo re i g n n a t i o n a ls a n d to p e rso n s o f fo re i g n o ri g i n
acco u n t fo r a si ze ab le p e rce n tage o f to tal b i rth s se e
B o x 4 fo r th e m e asu re m e n t o f th e se b i rth s) ; th i s p e r-
ce n tage i s o fte n h i gh e r th an th at o f fo re i gn e rs i n th e
to ta l p o p u la ti o n . F o re i g n b i rth s co n tri b u te t o th e
n atu ral i n cre ase i n th e p o p u lati o n an d can th e re fo re
act as a b rake o n d e m o grap h i c age i n g. H o we ve r, th i s
i s n o t a n i n e v i ta b le re su lt a n d i t d e p e n d s e sse n -
ti ally o n a co n ti n u i n g su cce ssi o n o f m i grati o n wave s.
A su stai n e d h alt to n e w i m m i grati o n co u ld e v e n tu -
ally le ad to a m arke d re d u cti o n i n th e se b e n e fi ci al
e ffe cts i n so fa r as th e fe rti li ty rate o f fo re i gn wo m e n
te n d s to co n ve rge wi th th at o f n ati o n als.
T h e sh a re o f fo re i g n b i rth s i s, i n so m e O E C D
M e m b e r co u n tri e s, ve ry h igh se e C h art I .8) . T h i s i s th e
case , fo r e xam p le , i n L u xe m b o u rg 45% ) , S wi tze rlan d
22. 1 % ) an d C an ad a 1 8% ) i n 1 998. H o we ve r, i n m o st
E u ro p e a n O E C D co u n t ri e s, i n p a rt i cu l a r i n t h e
U n i te d K i n gd o m E n glan d an d Wale s o n ly) , S we d e n ,
G e rm a n y , F ra n ce a n d B e l g i u m , fo re i g n b i rt h s
a cco u n t e d fo r b e t we e n 1 3 a n d 9 % o f a l l b i rt h s
i n 1 9 9 8 . N e v e rth e l e ss, F i n la n d , th e N e th e rla n d s,
N o rwa y a n d e sp e ci a l l y Ja p a n h a v e si g n i fi ca n t l y
lo we r le v e ls, wh i ch ca n b e e xp la i n e d , inter alia, b y
th e re lati ve ly sm all sh are o f fo re i gn e rs i n th e i r to tal
p o p u lati o n .
I n C a n a d a , F i n l a n d , F ra n ce , Ja p a n , N o rwa y,
S we d e n an d S wi tze rlan d , th e p ro p o rti o n o f b i rth s to
fo re i g n e rs as co m p a re d wi th th e p ro p o rti o n o f fo r-
e i g n e rs i n th e to ta l p o p u la ti o n wa s gre ate r i n 1 99 8
th a n i n 1 9 8 0 . H o we v e r, d u e to th e re l a ti v e la rg e
n u m b e r o f n atu rali sati o n s, th e re ve rse was tru e fo r
B e lgi u m an d th e N e th e rlan d s.
E xce p t i n B e lgi u m an d Jap a n , i n 1 9 98 th e p ro -
p o rti o n o f b i rt h s to fo re i g n e rs wa s i n e v e ry ca se
h i gh e r th an th e p ro p o rti o n o f fo re i gn n ati o n als i n th e
to ta l p o p u la ti o n : a p p ro xi m a te ly t wi ce i n S we d e n
an d th e U n i te d K i n gd o m , m o re th an o n e an d a h alf
ti m e s i n F i n la n d , F ran ce a n d N o rway a n d b e twe e n
o n e an d o n e an d a h alf ti m e s i n C an a d a, G e rm a n y,
L u xe m b o u rg, th e N e th e rlan d s, an d S wi tze rlan d .
A n u m b e r o f e xp lan ati o n s can b e p u t fo rward to
a cco u n t fo r th e v a ri a ti o n s o b se rv e d o v e r th e p a st
t wo d e ca d e s, t h e re l a t i v e i m p o rt a n ce o f wh i ch
B o x 4. Measuring foreign births
I t i s d i ffi cu lt to o b tai n co m p arab le d ata o n fo re i gn b i rth s as th e te rm fo re i gn m ay ap p ly to th e ch i ld o r to th e
p are n ts. I f i t i s to th e p are n ts, th e n u m b e r o f fo re i gn b i rth s wi ll vary acco rd i n g to wh e th e r th e cri te ri o n ad o p te d i s
th e n ati o n ali ty o f b o th p are n ts, o f th e fath e r o r o f th e m o th e r.
G e n e rally, si n ce fe rti li ty i s stu d i e d i n re la ti o n to wo m e n , th e n a ti o n ali ty o f re fe re n ce ch o se n i s th at o f th e
m o th e r. I n B e lgi u m , G e rm an y, L u xe m b o u rg, th e N e th e rlan d s an d S wi tze rlan d fo re i gn b i rth s are th o se o f ch i ld re n
p o sse ssi n g fo re i g n n ati o n ali ty. I n F ran ce a n d S we d e n , fo r e xam p le , fo re i gn b i rth s are th o se to fe m a le fo re i gn
n ati o n als, i n Jap an th o se wh e re b o th p are n ts are fo re i gn n ati o n als, an d i n E n glan d an d Wale s, th e y are th o se to
m o th e rs b o rn o u tsi d e th e U n i te d K i n gd o m .
D ata b ase d so le ly o n b i rth s to fo re i gn m o th e rs d o n o t ad e q u ate ly re fle ct th e co n tri b u ti o n to to tal b i rth s li n ke d
to th e p re se n ce o f th e fo re i gn p o p u lati o n o r th at o f fo re i gn o ri gi n . M o re o ve r, i n ge n e ral, th e d e gre e to wh i ch th e le g-
i slati o n o n n atu rali sati o n s i s m o re o r le ss li b e ral can e i th e r sp e e d u p o r slo w d o wn th e p ro ce ss o f ab so rp ti o n o f
fo re i gn e rs i n to th e n ati o n al p o p u lati o n an d th e re b y re d u ce o r i n cre ase th e n u m b e r o f fo re i gn b i rth s.
37
O E C D 2000
d e p e n d o n th e co u n try co n ce rn e d : h i gh e r o r lo we r
le ve ls o f n e t m i g rati o n ; d i ffe re n ce s i n fe rti li ty rate s
b e twe e n n ati o n als an d fo re i gn e rs; d i ffe re n ce s i n d i s-
tri b u t i o n b y a g e a n d b y se x o f th e fo re i g n a n d
n ati o n al p o p u lati o n s; an d ch an ge s to laws co n ce rn i n g
th e acq u i si ti o n o f n ati o n ali ty.
c) Ageing populations and migration
I n sp ri n g 1 998 th e O E C D p u b li sh e d a re p o rt o n
age i n g p o p u lati o n s, Maintaining Prosperity in an Ageing
Society. T h i s re p o rt h i g h li gh ts th e p ro sp e ct o f ri si n g
p ro p o rti o n o f th e e ld e rly i n th e p o p u lati o n an d fall-
i n g p ro p o rti o n o f th e p o p u la ti o n i n e m p lo y m e n t
to su p p o rt p e n si o n a n d h e alth -ca re syste m s. T h i s
d e m o g ra p h i c c h a l l e n g e s h o u l d b e m e t w i t h
m e d i u m -te rm a n d lo n g -te rm stra te g i e s. T h e m o st
co m m o n ly i n v o ke d p o li ci e s to m e e t th i s ch alle n g e
are th o se ai m i n g to e n h an ce th e fe rti li ty rate an d to
i n cre ase i m m i grati o n .
Age i n g p o p u lati o n s, i.e. th e gro wth i n th e re la -
ti ve sh are o f th e e ld e rly i n th e to tal p o p u lati o n , are
ca u se d b y d e cli n i n g fe rti li ty a n d re d u ce d ra te s o f
m o rta li ty a m o n g st t h e e ld e rly p o p u la ti o n . Wh i lst
th e se p ro ce sse s h ave b e e n go i n g o n fo r so m e ti m e
i n m a n y co u n tri e s, m a n y O E C D M e m b e r co u n tri e s
h ave re ach e d a p arti cu larly ad van ce d stag e . S h are s
o f e ld e rly i n th e to tal p o p u lati o n , wh i ch are alre ad y
at h i gh le ve ls, are se t to i n cre ase fu rth e r, p arti cu larly
1980 1998
0 1 2
0 1 2
10.2
13.0
10.2
9.6
3.4
5.8
0.1
2.3
15.3
22.1
15.6
18.0
0.6
1.0
13.3
13.1
10.9
12.7
7.5
5.7
37.1
45.0
15.5
8.7
Chart I.8. Share of foreign births
1
in total births relative to the share of foreigners
in the total population in selected OECD countries, 1980 and 1998
Share of foreign births
in total births (%)
I
n
c
r
e
a
s
e
D
e
c
r
e
a
s
e
1. Foreign births are those of children of foreign nationality for Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany, the Netherlands and Switzerland. For Finland, France,
Norway and Sweden, foreign births are births to a foreign mother, for Japan, to foreign parents. For England and Wales, foreign births refer to those
to mothers born outside the United Kingdom. For Canada, foreign births refer to those to foreign-born mothers who have been granted immigrant status.
The data for Japan and Germany refer to 1989 and 1991 respectively instead of 1980. Those for Canada and Norway refer to 1986, those for Finland
to 1987 instead of 1980. The data for Sweden refer to 1993, for France to 1996 and for the United Kingdom to 1997 instead of 1998.
2. Data refer to England and Wales. The share of foreign births is relative to the share of the foreign-born in the total population.
3. Data cover Germany as a whole in 1991 and 1998.
4. Between 1980 and 1998, the fall in the number of foreign births can be explained by changes in nationality laws in 1985 and 1992.
Sources: Data on births are from civil registers; data on population are from population registers for all countries except for France (1982 and 1990
Censuses), Canada (1986 and 1996 Censuses) and the United Kingdom (Labour Force Survey).
Sweden
France
Norway
Finland
Switzerland
Canada
Japan
United Kingdom
2
Germany
3
Netherlands
Luxembourg
Belgium
4
1980 1998
0 1 2
0 1 2
10.2
13.0
10.2
9.6
3.4
5.8
0.1
2.3
15.3
22.1
15.6
18.0
0.6
1.0
13.3
13.1
10.9
12.7
7.5
5.7
37.1
45.0
15.5
8.7
1
in total births (%)
I
n
c
r
e
a
s
e
D
e
c
r
e
a
s
e
Sweden
France
Norway
Finland
Switzerland
Canada
Japan
United Kingdom
2
Germany
3
Netherlands
Luxembourg
Belgium
4
1980 1998
0 1 2
0 1 2
10.2
13.0
10.2
9.6
3.4
5.8
0.1
2.3
15.3
22.1
15.6
18.0
0.6
1.0
13.3
13.1
10.9
12.7
7.5
5.7
37.1
45.0
15.5
8.7
1
in total births (%)
I
n
c
r
e
a
s
e
D
e
c
r
e
a
s
e
Sweden
France
Norway
Finland
Switzerland
Canada
Japan
United Kingdom
2
Germany
3
Netherlands
Luxembourg
Belgium
4
38
O E C D 2000
afte r a ro u n d 2 01 0 wh e n th e fi rst o f th e b a b y -b o o m
ge n e rati o n s b e gi n s to re ti re .
A m o re d e ta i le d e xa m i n a t i o n o f th e cu rre n t
d e m o g ra p h i c si tu a ti o n i n O E C D co u n tri e s sh o ws
th a t th e a g e i n g o f th e p o p u la ti o n i s m u ch m o re
m arke d i n E u ro p e an d Jap an th an i n N o rth Am e ri ca,
an d th a t i t i s i n th e se co u n tri e s th at g lo b a l lab o u r
sh o rtage s wi ll b e th e stro n ge st o ve r th e n e xt twe n ty-
fi v e y e a rs, e v e n i f d u ri n g th e tra n si ti o n p e ri o d ,
i m p ro ve d p ro d u cti vi ty an d th e u se o f su rp lu s lab o u r
fo rce te m p o rari ly e ase lab o u r d e m an d .
Can immigration relievetheeffects of population ageing?
I n cre ase d i m m i grati o n p o sse sse s th e ad van tage
o f h avi n g an i m m e d i ate an d re lati ve ly stro n g i m p act
o n th e e co n o m i cally acti ve p o p u lati o n b e cau se o f th e
ch a racte ri sti cs o f n e w i m m i gran ts, wh o are yo u n ge r
an d m o re m o b i le . I n ad d i ti o n , fe rti li ty rate s am o n gst
i m m i gran t wo m e n are o fte n re lati ve ly h i gh , wh i ch can
h e lp to b o o st p o p u lati o n gro wth , alb e i t to a li m i te d
e xte n t. T h e re a re , h o we ve r, p ra cti ca l an d p o li ti cal
co n stra i n t s th a t m a k e i t d i ffi cu lt t o d e v e l o p a n d
i m p le m e n t m i grati o n p o li ci e s ai m e d at ch an gi n g th e
d e m o g ra p h i c stru ctu re . M a n y o f th e se d i ffi cu lti e s
we re d i scu sse d i n th e 1 991 O E C D p u b li cati o n , Migra-
tion: TheDemographic Aspects. O n ly th e fo llo wi n g th re e
p o i n ts wi ll b e m e n ti o n e d h e re :
M o st O E C D co u n tri e s h ave th e sam e d e m o -
grap h i c p atte rn s, so i m m i grati o n co u ld b a si -
ca lly o n ly co m e fro m co u n t ri e s o u tsi d e th e
O E C D are a.
T h i s ap p ro ach co n si d e rs m i gra ti o n a s a co n -
t ro l v a ri a b l e , i.e. i t a ssu m e s t h a t i t wi l l b e
p o ssi b le to co n tro l th e v o lu m e an d a ge d i s-
tri b u ti o n o f i n flo ws a n d o u tflo ws. M i grati o n
p o l i c y m i g h t g i v e g re a t e r i m p o rt a n c e t o
a g e -li n k e d cri te ri a i n a d m i tti n g i m m i g ra n ts,
wh i ch a lre a d y e xi st e xp li ci tly o r i m p li ci tly.
H o we v e r, th e re a re m a n y fa ct o rs th a t b o th
li m i t a n d co m p li ca t e th e a b i li t y t o co n t ro l
i m m i gra ti o n : a g re e m e n ts o n fre e m o ve m e n t
o f p e rso n s, h u m a n i ta ri an co m m i tm e n ts a n d
o t h e r o b l i g a t i o n s s u c h a s t h a t t o g ra n t
a d m i s si o n fo r re si d e n c e o n t h e b a s i s o f
fa m i ly ti e s a s we ll as th e p e rsi ste n ce o f i lle -
g a l i m m i g ra t i o n . F u rth e rm o re , i m m i g ra ti o n
p o li ci e s fo cu si n g p ri m a ri ly o n i m m i g ra n ts
a g e o r fe rt i l i t y m a y b e se e n a s a fo rm o f
d i scri m i n a ti o n .
E xp e ri e n ce sh o ws th at m i grati o n p o li ci e s can
h ave an i m p act o n th e n u m b e r an d ch aracte r-
i sti cs o f i m m i g ra n ts, b u t th a t th e y ca n h a v e
vi rtu ally n o e ffe ct o n re tu rn s, wh e n ce th e d i ffi -
cu lty o f co n tro lli n g th e vo lu m e an d co m p o siti o n
o f n e t m i grati o n .
E v e n a ssu m i n g t h a t i t wo u l d b e p o ssi b le t o
co n tro l m i g ra t i o n flo ws so a s to re d u ce th e e co -
n o m i c d e p e n d e n cy o f t h e e l d e rl y , t h i s wo u l d
re q u i re a ra d i cal ch a n ge i n i m m i g ra ti o n p o li cy th a t
i s o n ly li k e ly i f la b o u r-su p p ly sh o rta g e s a re wi d e -
sp re a d a n d se lf-e v i d e n t to b o th th e g o v e rn m e n t
a n d t h e p u b l i c. I n th i s re g a rd , th e e xi ste n ce o f
h i g h le v e ls o f stru ct u ra l u n e m p lo y m e n t a n d th e
p o te n ti a l fo r i n cre ase d fe m a le la b o u r fo rce p a rti c-
i p a t i o n i n a n u m b e r o f O E C D co u n tri e s su g g e st
t h a t e m p l o y m e n t g ro wt h c o u l d re m a i n fa i rl y
stro n g wi th o u t re co u rse to i n cre a se d i m m i g ra ti o n
i n ta ke s.
M o re sp e ci fi cally, th e e q u i li b ri u m o f so ci al p ro -
te cti o n syste m s, to wh i ch p o p u lati o n age i n g p o se s a
m a j o r c h a l l e n g e , i s d e t e rm i n e d n o t s o l e l y b y
ch a n g e s i n th e d e p e n d e n cy ra ti o b u t a lso b y a n
a rra y o f o th e r i n sti tu ti o n a l, d e m o gra p h i c a n d e co -
n o m i c p a ra m e te rs: th e a g e o f la b o u r fo rce e n try,
re ti re m e n t a g e , p a rt i ci p a ti o n a n d u n e m p lo y m e n t
ra te s, co n tri b u ti o n ra te s a n d p e n si o n le v e ls, e co -
n o m i c g ro wt h ra te s, p ro d u cti v e ly g a i n s, e t c. I t i s
th e re fo re i llu so ry to se e k to ad ju st th e syste m b y
ch an gi n g a si n gle vari ab le i m m i grati o n ) wh i le o th e r
facto rs re m ai n co n stan t.
T h i s an alysi s sh o ws th at i m m i grati o n alo n e can -
n o t so lv e th e p ro b le m o f th e age i n g o f th e p o p u la-
ti o n . I t can e ve n b e sai d th at th e si m u lati o n s p ro v e
o n th e co n t ra ry th a t i t i s i m p o ssi b le to so lv e th e
i ssu e o f p o p u lati o n a ge i n g th ro u g h m i gra ti o n , an d
th at th e an a ly si s o f m i g rati o n p ro ce sse s b e a rs o u t
th i s co n clu si o n .
Yet should the idea of using immigration to alleviate
the imbalancein theagestructureberejected?
T h e re ca n b e n o d o u b t th a t i m m i g ra ti o n ca n
h e lp to p re v e n t a d e cre a se i n p o p u la ti o n fo r a li m -
i te d ti m e , a lth o u g h , a s h a s ju st b e e n se e n , i t ca n
o n ly b e e xp e cte d to h ave a m argi n al i m p act o n th e
an ti ci p a te d i m b a lan ce i n th e ag e stru ctu re . N e ve r-
th e le ss, i t i s wo rth e xam i n i n g h o w m i g rati o n p o li cy
can b e ad ap te d so as to co n tri b u te , inter alia, to th e
o b je cti ve o f lab o u r m a rk e t a d ju stm e n t a n d a m o re
b alan ce d age stru ctu re .
E ve n i f a d e si re fo r ch an ge cle arly e xi sts, im m i gra-
ti o n p o li cy i s o fte n p o li ti cally se n siti ve . H o we ve r, th e re
i s u su ally so m e fle xi b i li ty wi th i n e xi sti n g le g i slati o n
39
O E C D 2000
th at a llo ws v a ri ati o n s i n th e vo lu m e a n d co m p o si -
ti o n o f i m m i grati o n i n tak e s as we ll a s ch o i ce i n th e
d i stri b u ti o n o f re so u rce s acro ss th e ra n g e o f a cti vi -
ti e s re la te d to m i g ra ti o n p o li cy co n tro l o f fl o ws,
se le cti ve re cru i tm e n t an d i n te grati o n ) .
At p re se n t, th e re a p p e a rs to b e a p re fe re n ce
fo r m e ch a n i sm s wh i ch ca te r fo r te m p o ra ry la b o u r
m i g ra t i o n to i n cre a se la b o u r su p p l y ra th e r th a n
p o li ci e s ca lli n g fo r p e rm a n e n t i m m i g ra ti o n . H o w-
e v e r, th e e a se wi th wh i ch co u n tri e s m a y sh i ft th e
fo cu s o f i m m i g ra ti o n p o li cy to wa rd s d e m o g ra p h i c
o b je cti v e s v a ri e s wi d e ly. S o m e co u n tri e s a lre a d y
h av e a co m p re h e n si ve a n d co -o rd i n a te d ap p ro ach
t o wa rd s i m m i g ra t i o n n o t a b l y A u s t ra l i a a n d
C a n a d a ) i n clu d i n g ag e -re late d se le cti o n cri te ri a fo r
so m e ca te go ri e s o f i m m i g ra n t. O th e r co u n tri e s d o
n o t u se a g e -l i n k e d cri t e ri a e xp l i ci t l y, b u t t h e i r
m i g ra ti o n sy ste m a n d th e wa y i t i s i m p le m e n te d
a ffe cts th e a g e d i stri b u ti o n o f i n flo ws. T h i s i s th e
case o f th e p re fe re n ce syste m i n th e U n i te d S tate s.
I t i s a lso th e ca se i n E u ro p e , i n p a rti cu la r, v i a th e
re g u la ri sa ti o n p ro g ra m m e s th a t p ri m a ri ly b e n e fi t
o n ly e co n o m i ca lly a cti v e i m m i g ran ts. L a stly, o th e r
co u n tri e s, i f th e y d e ci d e d to sh i ft to a p e rm a n e n t
i m m i g ra ti o n p o li cy, m ay fi n d th at n e w i m m i g ra ti o n
p ro gram m e s an d a ch an ge i n ap p ro ach to i m m i grati o n
p o li cy wo u ld b e re q u i re d .
C o n se q u e n tly, m i grati o n p o li ci e s b ase d o n co n -
v e rg e n t st ra t e g i c i n te re sts a re p o ssi b le b e twe e n
co u n tri e s d e e p ly a ffe cte d b y d e m o grap h i c d e cli n e
a n d th o se e xp e ri e n ci n g h i gh p o p u la ti o n g ro wth , i f
th e m o ti vati o n fo r su ch p o li ci e s i s stro n g e n o u gh .
d) Changes in the foreign or immigrant population
in OECD countries
F o r th e E u ro p e an O E C D co u n tri e s an d li ke wi se
fo r Ja p an an d K o re a, th e m o st d e tai le d stati sti cs o n
th e fo re i gn p o p u lati o n re fe r to re si d e n ts n ati o n ali ty
se e S tati sti cal An n e x, Tab le s A. 1 . 6 an d B . 1 . 6) . T h u s
p e o p le b o rn i n th e co u n try m ay b e co u n te d am o n g
fo re i g n e rs, wh i l e o t h e rs b o rn a b ro a d m a y h a v e
acq u i re d th e n ati o n ali ty o f th e h o st co u n try an d are
n o lo n ge r co u n te d as m e m b e rs o f th e fo re i gn p o p u la-
ti o n . I n Au strali a, C an ad a an d th e U n i te d S tate s, th e
cri te ri o n i s n o t th at o f n ati o n a li ty b u t o f co u n try o f
b i rth . A d i sti n ct i o n i s m a d e b e twe e n th o se b o rn
ab ro ad fo re i gn -b o rn ) an d th o se b o rn i n th e co u n try
n ati ve -b o rn ) . T h i s ap p ro ach e n ab le s th e n u m b e r o f
i m m i gran ts re si d i n g i n th e co u n try to b e calcu late d ,
wh ate v e r th e i r n ati o n ali ty. C e rtai n E u ro p e a n co u n -
tri e s su ch as D e n m ark, th e N e th e rlan d s, N o rway an d
S we d e n h ave b e gu n to p u b li sh stati sti cs o n th e n u m -
b e r o f p e o p le b o rn ab ro ad b y co u n try o f b i rth se e
S tati sti cal An n e x, Tab le s A.1 .5 an d B .1 .5) .
Va ri a ti o n s o v e r ti m e i n th e n u m b e r o f i m m i -
gran ts o r fo re i g n e rs d o n o t fo llo w a u n i fo rm p atte rn
a cro ss co u n t ri e s. S u ch v a ri a ti o n s a re d e p e n d e n t ,
inter alia, o n m i gra ti o n p o li cy, o n e n tri e s an d d e p a r-
tu re s, o n th e d e m o g ra p h i cs o f th e fo re i g n p o p u la -
ti o n a n d o n th e n u m b e r o f n a tu ra li sa ti o n s wh i ch
co rre sp o n d i n g ly re d u ce s th e sto ck o f fo re i g n e rs) .
N o n e th e le ss, i n n e arly all o f th e O E C D co u n tri e s th e
fo re i g n o r i m m i g ra n t p o p u l a t i o n c o n t i n u e s t o
i n cre a se . I t i s a lso cle a r th a t th e e xt e n si o n o f th e
B o x 5. Estimating the contribution of migration necessary to offset population ageing
I n M arch 2000, th e U n i te d N ati o n s P o p u lati o n D i vi si o n p u b li sh e d a re p o rt e n ti tle d Replacement Migration: Is it a
Solution toDeclining and Ageing Populations? U n i te d N ati o n s, 200 0) . T h i s re p o rt, wh i ch i s b ase d o n th e assu m p ti o n
th at a n u m b e r o f O E C D M e m b e r an d n o n -m e m b e r co u n tri e s wi ll e xp e ri e n ce a d e cre a se i n th e i r p o p u la ti o n
th ro u g h 2 05 0, a ll o th e r fa cto rs b e i n g e q u al, p re se n ts fi ve d i ffe re n t sce n ari o s th at e sti m ate th e n u m b e r o f n e t
i n flo ws n e ce ssary to o ffse t all o r so m e o f th e d e m o grap h i c d e fi ci ts e xp e cte d .
T h e si m u lati o n s m o st o fte n ci te d are ai m e d at m ai n tai n i n g a co n stan t d e p e n d e n cy rati o th ro u gh 2050. T h e y
i n vo lve large vo lu m e s o f i n flo ws an d o u tflo ws an d co n si d e rab le flu ctu ati o n s i n m i grati o n . F o r e xam p le , n e t m i gra-
ti o n fo r th e U n i te d S tate s an d th e E U co u n tri e s wo u ld h ave to b e at le ast te n ti m e s h i gh e r th an th e an n u al ave r-
ag e o f i n flo ws ca lcu la te d o n th e b asi s o f th e d a ta av ai lab le fo r th e 1 9 90 s. I t wo u ld also le ad to e xtrao rd i n a ry
gro wth i n th e to tal p o p u lati o n an d i n th e p ro p o rti o n o f i m m i gran ts i n th e o ve rall p o p u lati o n .
T h e ch o i ce o f th e i n i ti al rati o s, wh i ch re fle ct th e stro n g d e m o grap h i c gro wth o f th e p ast, th e ch o i ce o f th e p ro -
je cti o n h o ri zo n , wh i ch re m ai n s su b je cti ve , th e fact th at re tu rn m i grati o n an d p o ssi b le ad ju stm e n ts i n i m m i gran ts
fe rti li ty rate are n o t tak e n i n to acco u n t an d th e a ssu m p ti o n th at th e ag e stru ctu re o f n e w a rri va ls wi ll re m a i n
co n stan t are all re aso n s to b e ci rcu m sp e ct ab o u t th e se p ro je cti o n s, as th e au th o rs th e m se lve s su gge st.
40
O E C D 2000
g e o g ra p h i ca l sp h e re o f re fe re n ce o f i n te rn a ti o n a l
m i g rati o n , a co n se q u e n ce o f th e p o li ti cal a n d e co -
n o m i c ch an ge s wh i ch h ave take n p lace o ve r th e last
d e ca d e , i s re fle ct e d i n t h e d i v e rsi fi ca t i o n o f t h e
co m p o si ti o n b y n a ti o n a li ty o f fo re i g n p o p u la ti o n s
an d i n th e g re a te r d i sp e rsi o n o f i m m i g ra n ts o f th e
sam e o ri gi n acro ss h o st co u n tri e s.
Theforeign or foreign-born population is increasing
I n th e m ajo ri ty o f O E C D co u n tri e s, th e n u m b e r o f
fo re i gn e rs an d fo re i gn -b o rn an d th e i r sh are i n th e to tal
p o p u lati o n h ave i n cre a se d o ve r th e p ast te n ye ars.
H o we ve r, B e lgi u m an d F ran ce are e xce p ti o n s to th i s
tre n d , d u e i n p art to th e large n u m b e r o f n atu rali sa-
ti o n s i n re ce n t ye ars. T h e sh are o f i m m i gran ts i n th e
to tal p o p u lati o n also d e cre ase d sli gh tly in Au stralia.
I n Au strali a an d C an ad a, i m m i gran ts acco u n te d
fo r a h i gh p e rce n ta ge o f th e re si d e n t p o p u lati o n at
clo se to 23 % i n 1 9 9 8 fo r Au stra li a a n d o v e r 1 7 % fo r
C an a d a i n 1 99 6 se e M a p I . 1 ) . I n th e U n i te d S ta te s
th e fi g u re wa s clo se to 1 0 % se e T a b le I . 5 ) . I n th i s
la tte r co u n try th e i m m i gran t p o p u lati o n i n cre a se d
b y a l m o st 7 m i l l i o n b e t we e n 1 9 9 0 a n d 1 9 9 8 . I n
A u st ra l i a a n d C a n a d a t h e i m m i g ra n t p o p u la t i o n
gre w b y 700 00 0 a n d o n e m i lli o n , re sp e cti ve ly, o ve r
th e i n te rce n sal p e ri o d 1 9 86-9 6) .
Map I.1. Non-European OECD countries: foreign-born population, latest available year
l
Percentage of the total population
* The data for Japan and Korea are for persons
of foreign nationality
Persons born abroad*
% of the total population
Less than 1.5%
Close to 10%
More than 15%
1. 1990 for the United States, 1996 for Australia, Canada and New Zealand, 1998 for the other countries.
Note: Data refer to the foreign-born (foreigners in Japan and Korea) who legally reside in the country. Figures are calculated on the basis
of Census results for Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United States and on the basis of population registers for Japan and
Korea. The percentage for Mexico has been estimated on the basis of National Institute for Migration data.
Sources: National Statistical Offices.
l
Less than 1.5%
Close to 10%
More than 15%
l
Less than 1.5%
Close to 10%
More than 15%
l
Less than 1.5%
Close to 10%
More than 15%
l
Less than 1.5%
Close to 10%
More than 15%
41
O E C D 2000
T h e fo re i g n p re se n ce i n th e t o ta l p o p u la ti o n
vari e s wi d e ly acro ss th e E u ro p e an O E C D co u n tri e s.
I t i s re la ti ve ly h i gh i n L u xe m b o u rg m o re th an 3 5% )
a n d S wi t ze rla n d 1 9 % ) i n 1 9 9 8 . I n th e o th e r tra d i -
ti o n al i m m i grati o n co u n tri e s, th e p ro p o rti o n o f fo r-
e i gn e rs i n th e to tal p o p u lati o n vari e s b e twe e n 3. 8%
t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m ) a n d 9 % A u s t ri a ) s e e
M ap I . 2) . T h i s p e rce n tage was clo se to 9% i n B e lgi u m
an d G e rm an y, as agai n st m o re th an 6% i n F ran ce an d
n e arly 4. 5% i n th e N e th e rlan d s. I n th e n e w i m m i gra-
ti o n co u n tri e s su ch a s F i n la n d , I ta ly, P o rtu g a l a n d
S p a i n , th e p ro p o rti o n o f fo re i g n e rs re m a i n s sm a ll
b e twe e n 1 . 6 an d 2. 1 % ) , th e i n cre ase i n e n tri e s o ve r
th e la st d e cad e n o twi th sta n d i n g . T h e sh a re o f fo r-
Tab le I . 5. Foreign or foreign-born population and labour force in selected OECD countries
T h o u san d s an d p e rce n tage s
1 . D ata are fro m p o p u lati o n re gi ste rs e xce p t fo r F ran ce C e n su s) , I re lan d an d th e U n i te d K i n gd o m L ab o u r F o rce S u rve y) , Jap an an d S wi tze rlan d re gi ste r o f
fo re i gn e rs) an d I taly, P o rtu gal an d S p ai n re si d e n ce p e rm i ts) .
2. D ata i n clu d e th e u n e m p lo ye d e xce p t fo r I taly, L u xe m b o u rg, th e N e th e rlan d s, N o rway an d th e U n i te d K i n gd o m . D ata fo r Au stri a, G e rm an y an d L u xe m b o u rg
are fro m S o ci al S e cu ri ty re gi ste rs, fo r D e n m ark an d N o rway fro m th e re gi ste r o f p o p u lati o n an d th e re gi ste r o f e m p lo ye e s re sp e cti ve ly. D ata fo r I taly, P o rtu gal,
S p ai n an d S wi tze rlan d are fro m re si d e n ce o r wo rk p e rm i ts. F i gu re s fo r Jap an an d th e N e th e rlan d s are e sti m ate s fro m n ati o n al S tati sti cal O ffi ce s. F o r th e
o th e r co u n tri e s, d ata are fro m L ab o u r F o rce S u rve ys.
3. 1 982 fo r F ran ce .
4. 1 990 fo r F ran ce .
5. 1 991 fo r I taly; 1 989 fo r B e lgi u m ; 1 992 fo r Jap an .
6. 1 995 fo r I taly; 1 997 fo r D e n m ark, G e rm an y an d N e th e rlan d s.
7. I n clu d i n g cro ss-b o rd e r wo rke rs.
8. E xclu d i n g th e se lf-e m p lo ye d .
9. N u m b e r o f fo re i gn e rs wi th an an n u al re si d e n ce p e rm i t o r a se ttle m e n t p e rm i t wh o e n gage i n gai n fu l acti vi ty. S e aso n al an d cro ss-b o rd e r wo rke rs are n o t
i n clu d e d .
1 0. D ata are fro m ce n su se s e xce p t fo r th e U n i te d S tate s i n 1 998 e sti m ate s fro m th e C u rre n t P o p u lati o n S u rve y) an d fo r th e Au strali an lab o u r fo rce L ab o u r F o rce
S u rve y) .
1 1 . 1 990 fo r th e U n i te d S tate s.
1 2. 1 996 fo r C an ad a.
Sources: N ati o n al S tati sti cal I n sti tu te s.
Foreign population and labour force
F o re i gn p o p u lati o n
1
F o re i gn lab o u r fo rce
2
T h o u san d s % o f to tal p o p u lati o n T h o u san d s % o f to tal lab o u r fo rce
1 988
3
1 998
4
1 988 1 998 1 988
5
1 998
6
1 988 1 998
Au stri a 344 737 4.5 9.1 1 61 327 5.4 9.9
B e lgi u m 869 892 8.8 8.7 291 375 7.2 8.8
D e n m ark 1 42 256 2.8 4.8 65 94 2.2 3.2
F i n lan d 1 9 85 0.4 1.6 . . 35 . . . .
F ran ce 3 71 4 3 597 6.8 6.3 1 557 1 587 6.4 6.1
G e rm an y 4 489 7 320 7.3 8.9 1 91 1 2 522 7.0 9.1
I re lan d 82 1 1 1 2.4 3.0 35 48 2.7 3.2
I taly 645 1 250 1.1 2.1 285 332 1.3 1.7
Jap an 941 1 51 2 0.8 1.2 86 1 1 9 0.1 0.2
L u xe m b o u rg 1 06 1 53 27.4 35.6 69
7
1 35
7
39.9 57.7
N e th e rlan d s 624 662 4.2 4.2 1 76 208 3.0 2.9
N o rway 1 36 1 65 3.2 3.7 49
8
67
8
2.3 3.0
P o rtu gal 95 1 78 1.0 1.8 46 89 1.0 1.8
S p ai n 360 720 0.9 1.8 58 1 91 0.4 1.2
S we d e n 421 500 5.0 5.6 220 21 9 4.9 5.1
S wi tze rlan d 1 007 1 348 15.2 19.0 608
9
691
9
16.7 17.3
U n i te d K i n gd o m 1 821 2 207 3.2 3.8 871 1 039 3.4 3.9
Foreign-born population andlabour force
F o re i gn -b o rn p o p u lati o n
1 0
F o re i gn -b o rn lab o u r fo rce
1 0
T h o u san d s % o f to tal p o p u lati o n T h o u san d s % o f to tal lab o u r fo rce
1 991
1 1
1 998
1 2
1 991 1 998 1 991
1 1
1 998
1 2
1 991 1 998
Au strali a 3 965 4 394 22.9 23.4 2 1 82 2 294 25.7 24.8
C an ad a 4 343 4 971 16.1 17.4 2 681 2 839 18.5 19.2
U n i te d S tate s 1 9 767 26 300 7.9 9.8 1 1 565 1 6 1 00 9.4 11.7
42
O E C D 2000
e i gn e rs i n th e to tal p o p u lati o n o f F i n lan d gre w fo u r-
fo l d b e t we e n 1 9 8 8 a n d 1 9 9 8 . D u ri n g t h e sa m e
p e ri o d , th e n u m b e r o f fo re i gn e rs i n I taly, P o rtu g a l
an d S p ai n d o u b le d , an d th e si tu ati o n was vi rtu ally
i d e n ti cal i n D e n m ark.
S i n ce 1 9 8 9 , th e fo re i g n p o p u la ti o n h a s g ro wn
co n s i d e ra b l y i n G e rm a n y a n i n cre a s e o f 6 3 %
b e twe e n 1 988 an d 1 998) d u e p ri n ci p ally to th e gro wth
i n i m m i grati o n flo ws fro m th e co u n tri e s o f C e n tral an d
E a st e rn E u ro p e . T h e fo re i g n p o p u la ti o n h a s a lso
i n cre a se d i n A u stri a a n d to a le sse r e xte n t i n th e
U n i te d K i n gd o m , S we d e n an d S wi tze rlan d . I n Jap an ,
alth o u gh th e fo re i gn p o p u lati o n i n cre ase d b y ap p ro x-
i m ate ly 60% o ve r th e p ast te n ye ars, th e p e rce n tage
o f fo re i gn e rs i n th e to tal p o p u lati o n re m ai n s lo w 1 .2%
i n 1 998) . S i m i larly, alth o u gh th e n u m b e r o f fo re i gn e rs
re si d e n t i n K o re a m o re th a n tri p le d b e twe e n 1 9 88
an d 1 998, th e i r sh are i n th e to tal p o p u lati o n re m ai n s
o n e o f th e lo we st o f th e O E C D M e m b e r co u n tri e s.
and is becoming morediversified
I n ge n e ral, th e co m p o si ti o n b y n ati o n ali ty o f th e
fo re i g n o r i m m i g ra n t p o p u la ti o n se e S ta t i sti ca l
A n n e x, T a b le s B . 1 . 5 a n d B . 1 . 6 ) v a ri e s a cro ss h o st
co u n tri e s d e p e n d i n g o n m i g ra ti o n t ra d i t i o n s, th e
e xte n t a n d n atu re o f e xi sti n g n e two rk s e sta b li sh e d
b y p re v i o u sl y i n st a l l e d m i g ra n t c o m m u n i t i e s,
Map I.2. European OECD countries:
1
foreign population in 1998
2
Foreigners
More than 15%
Between 8.5 and 9.5%
Between 1.5 and 3%
Less than 1.5%
1. The percentage has also been calculated for Bulgaria and Romania.
2. 1998 except for France (1990) and Hungary (1997).
Note: The data relate only to foreigners residing in the country legally. The data are derived from population registers except in the case
of France (census), Ireland and the United Kingdom (labour force survey) and Italy, Portugal and Spain (residence permits). The
percentages for Bulgaria, Poland and Romania are estimates.
1
2
Foreigners
More than 15%
Between 1.5 and 3%
Less than 1.5%
1
2
Foreigners
More than 15%
Between 1.5 and 3%
Less than 1.5%
1
2
Foreigners
More than 15%
Between 1.5 and 3%
Less than 1.5%
1
2
Foreigners
More than 15%
Between 1.5 and 3%
Less than 1.5%
43
O E C D 2000
e m p lo y m e n t o p p o rt u n i ti e s a n d th e g e o g ra p h i ca l
p ro xi m i ty o f th e re sp e cti ve o ri gi n co u n tri e s.
T h e p o li ti ca l a n d e co n o m i c d e v e lo p m e n ts o f
th e last d e cad e , n o tab ly th e li b e rali sati o n o f p o p u -
lati o n m o v e m e n ts i n C e n tral a n d E a ste rn E u ro p e ,
h ave e xte n d e d th e ge o grap h i cal sp h e re o f re fe re n ce
o f i n te rn ati o n al m i grati o n se e S e cti o n B ) . I n p arti cu -
la r, th e y h a v e le d to th e e m e rg e n ce o f n e w flo ws,
an d an i n cre ase i n th e d i ve rsi ty o f o ri g i n co u n tri e s.
T h e y h ave also m o d i fi e d th e co m p o si ti o n b y n ati o n -
ali ty o f th e fo re i gn p o p u lati o n wi th i n h o st co u n tri e s
a n d th e d i sp e rsi o n o f m i g ra n ts o f th e sa m e o ri g i n
acro ss d i ffe re n t h o st co u n tri e s.
I n th e co u n tri e s o f th e E u ro p e an U n i o n , th e p ro -
p o rti o n o f fo re i g n e rs fro m n o n -E U co u n tri e s h a s
i n cre ase d . As p art o f th i s o ve rall tre n d , ce rtai n o ri gi n
co u n tri e s h ave e m e rge d o r gai n e d i n i m p o rtan ce re la-
ti v e to o th e rs o f lo n g e r sta n d i n g i n th e re g i o n . I n
G e rm a n y, fo r e xam p le , th i s o b se rv ati o n a p p li e s to
n a ti o n a ls o f th e co u n tri e s o f C e n tra l a n d E a st e rn
E u ro p e a n d th e fo rm e r S o v i e t U n i o n , i n F ra n ce to
M o ro ccan s an d S e n e gale se , an d i n th e N e th e rlan d s to
n ati o n als o f th e fo rm e r Yu go slavi a. As fo r th e N o rd i c
co u n tri e s, th e p ro p o rti o n o f fo re i gn e rs wh o h ave co m e
fro m n e i g h b o u ri n g co u n tri e s h a s d i m i n i sh e d i n
F i n lan d , i n N o rway a n d i n S we d e n a s n e we r fo re i gn
co m m u n i ti e s h a ve i n cre ase d i n si ze : Asi a n s P a k i -
sta n i s, Vi e t n a m e se , I ra n i a n s a n d S ri L a n k a n s a n d
Tu rk s) i n N o rwa y a n d S we d e n ; an d n ati o n als o f th e
fo rm e r Yu go slavi a i n F i n lan d , N o rway an d S we d e n se e
S e cti o n B o n re ce n t d e ve lo p m e n ts i n Asi a an d C e n tral
an d E aste rn E u ro p e ) . T h e se tran sfo rm atio n s re fle ct n o t
o n ly th e ch an ge s i n th e o ri gin s o f th e flo ws se e ab o ve )
b u t also th e ch an ge s i n th e i r n atu re fo r e xam p le , an
i n cre ase in th e n u m b e r o f asylu m se e ke rs) .
R e ce n t ly, th e re h a s b e e n a n i n fl u x o f A si a n
n ati o n als, a n d m o re p arti cu larly C h i n e se n ati o n als,
i n t o E u ro p e a n O E C D c o u n t ri e s s e e a b o v e ,
T ab le I . 2) . Alth o u g h th i s tre n d i s sti ll to o re ce n t i n
so m e co u n tri e s to b e cle a rly re fle cte d i n th e n u m -
b e rs o f fo re i gn e rs b y n ati o n ali ty b e cau se o f th e p re -
d o m i n a n t sh are o f o th e r m i g ra ti o n flo ws, i t ca n b e
e xp e ct e d th a t , g i v e n i ts v o l u m e , t h i s ca t e g o ry o f
i m m i gran ts wi ll e m e rge rap i d ly, an d i ts re lati ve sh are
i n t h e t o t a l st o ck o f fo re i g n re si d e n t s wi l l g ro w
ste ad i ly. T h i s p ro ce ss i s i n fact alre ad y p e rce p ti b le i n
th e n e w i m m i grati o n co u n tri e s. F o r e xam p le , C h i n e se
i m m i g ra n ts ra n k a m o n g th e to p te n n a ti o n a li ti e s
se ttle d i n I taly an d S p ai n .
R e g a rd i n g i m m i g ra t i o n i n t h e co u n t ri e s o f
S o u th e rn E u ro p e , two ch aracte ri sti cs stan d o u t: th e re
e xi sts a si ze ab le gro u p o f i m m i gran ts fro m th e d e ve l-
o p i n g co u n tri e s o f Afri ca an d Asi a, an d an o th e r o f fo r-
e i gn re si d e n ts fro m E u ro p e , N o rth Am e ri ca an d L ati n
Am e ri ca. T h e se flo ws d i ffe r m a rke d ly i n n a tu re : th e
fo rm e r, p a rtly cla n d e sti n e , i s e sse n ti a lly u n sk i lle d
lab o u r m i grati o n ; th e latte r i s li n ke d to m u lti n ati o n al
fi rm s an d to fo re i gn d i re ct i n ve stm e n t to ge th e r wi th
flo ws o f re ti re d p e rso n s a n d o f sk i lle d a n d h i g h ly
ski lle d wo rke rs. I n P o rtu gal, fo r e xam p le , th e large st
fo re i g n co m m u n i t y i s A fri c a n , o ri g i n a t i n g fro m
P o rtu gal s fo rm e r co lo n i e s an d fro m o th e r co u n tri e s o f
P o rtu gu e se lan gu age an d cu ltu re su ch as C ap e Ve rd e
an d An go la. T h e se co n d large st gro u p i s co m p ri se d o f
E u ro p e an U n io n an d U n i te d S tate s n ati o n als.
R e gard i n g th e E u ro p e an co u n tri e s o f th e O E C D
se e a b o v e , Ta b le I . 4 ) , th e h i gh e st p e rce n ta g e s o f
E U a t 1 5 M e m b e rs) n a ti o n a ls, a s a p ro p o rt i o n o f
th e i r to ta l fo re i g n p o p u la ti o n a n d o f th e i r fo re i g n
lab o u r fo rce re sp e cti ve ly, we re to b e fo u n d i n 1 99 8,
i n d e cre a si n g o rd e r o f i m p o rta n ce , i n L u xe m b o u rg
90 an d 93% ) , I re lan d 75 an d 79% ) , B e lgi u m 57 an d
69% ) , P o rtu gal 54 an d 51 % ) an d S wi tze rlan d 42 an d
4 9% ) . At th e o p p o si te e n d o f th e scale , Au stri a h a d
am o n g th e lo we st p ro p o rti o n s i n b o th .
I n Au strali a, C an ad a an d th e U n i te d S tate s, th e
p ro p o rti o n o f E u ro p e a n re si d e n ts h as d e cli n e d i n
favo u r o f i m m i gran ts fro m th e d e ve lo p i n g co u n tri e s
se e S t a ti sti ca l An n e x, T a b le B . 1 . 5 ) . I n th e U n i te d
S tate s, th e n u m b e r o f E u ro p e an re si d e n ts h as falle n
wh i le t h a t o f i m m i g ra n t s fro m A si a a n d fro m t h e
Am e ri ca n co n ti n e n t h a ve i n cre a se d . B e twe e n 1 9 80
a n d 1 9 9 0 th e n u m b e r o f M e xi ca n , Vi e tn am e se a n d
C h i n e se n ati o n als alm o st d o u b le d ; th o se fro m I n d i a
an d th e D o m i n i can R e p u b li c m o re th an d o u b le d .
I n C a n ad a , th e n u m b e r o f E u ro p e an s n o ta b ly
n atio n als fro m Italy, G e rm an y, th e N e th e rlan d s an d th e
U n i te d K i n gd o m ) fe ll sli gh tly b e twe e n 1 986 an d 1 996
wh i le th e i m m i gran t p o p u lati o n o f Asi an p ro ve n an ce
d o u b le d . T h e sam e p h e n o m e n o n h as b e e n o b se rve d
i n Au strali a, wi th co n sp i cu o u s gro wth i n i m m i grati o n
flo ws fro m Asi a, N e w Z e alan d an d Afri ca, wh i le th o se o f
E u ro p e an p ro ve n an ce re m ai n e d stab le .
P e rh a p s m o re su rp ri si n g ly, o v e r th e p e ri o d s
co n si d e re d , th e re wa s a si g n i fi ca n t d ro p i n th e
n u m b e r o f C a n a d i a n s i n th e U n i te d S ta te s a n d o f
U S n a t i o n a l s i n C a n a d a s e e S t a t i s t i c a l A n n e x ,
Tab le B .1 . 5) . H o we ve r, wi th th e N o rth Am e ri can F re e
T rad e Agre e m e n t N AFTA) , th i s tre n d se e m s to h ave
b e e n re v e rse d i n re ce n t flo ws, a t le a st a s re g a rd s
flo ws o f C an ad i an s to ward s th e U n i te d S tate s.
44
O E C D 2000
Thedistribution of immigrants of thesameorigin across
therange of host countries
C e rtai n i m m i gran t co m m u n i ti e s h ave te n d e d to
i n cre ase i n co u n tri e s wh e re th e y we re n o t stro n gly re p -
re se n te d p re vi o u sly. T h e fo llo wi n g se cti o n wi ll fo cu s
o n i m m i gran ts fro m ce rtai n co u n tri e s o f th e S o u th e rn
an d E aste rn sh o re s o f th e M e d i te rran e an B asi n .
T h e d i stri b u ti o n i n E u ro p e o f n ati o n als fro m th e
th re e M a g h re b i a n co u n tri e s Alge ri a , M o ro cco a n d
T u n i si a ) , T u rk e y a n d t h e fo rm e r Yu g o sl a v i a h a s
ch a n g e d o v e r th e p a st 1 5 y e a rs. A lt h o u g h F ra n ce
re m a i n e d i n 1 9 9 8 t h e p ri n ci p a l h o st co u n t ry fo r
M ag h re b i an s wi th a to tal o f n e arly 1 . 4 m i lli o n re si -
d e n ts, se e Tab le I .6) an d i n d e e d Alge ri an e m i grati o n
re m ai n s co n ce n trate d alm o st e n ti re ly th e re , M o ro ccan
a n d T u n i si a n m i gra n ts h a v e b e e n go i n g i n g re a te r
n u m b e rs to o th e r h o st co u n tri e s se e C h a rt I . 9 ) .
A lre a d y p re se n t i n B e lg i u m a n d t h e N e th e rla n d s
1 4 0 00 0 p e rso n s i n e a ch co u n try) , M o ro ccan s h a ve
wi d e n e d th e ran ge o f th e i r d e sti n ati o n s an d n o w fo rm
si ze ab le co m m u n i ti e s i n I taly, S p ai n an d to a le sse r
Tab le I .6. Maghrebian, Turkish and former Yugoslavian residents in selected European OECD countries,
total population and labour force, 1998
T h o u san d s an d p e rce n tage s o f to tal fo re i gn p o p u lati o n an d lab o u r fo rce
1 . D ata are fro m p o p u lati o n re gi ste rs fo r all co u n tri e s e xce p t fo r F ran ce C e n su s) , I taly an d S p ai n re si d e n ce p e rm i ts) an d th e U n i te d K i n gd o m L ab o u r F o rce
S u rve y) . D ata fo r F ran ce are fo r 1 990.
2. D ata are fo r S e rb i a, M o n te n e gro , B o sn i a-H e rze go vi n a an d C ro ati a.
3. F i gu re s i n clu d e u n e m p lo ye d e xce p t fo r Au stri a an d th e N e th e rlan d s. D ata fo r F ran ce , S we d e n an d th e U n i te d K i n gd o m are fro m th e L ab o u r F o rce S u rve y;
fo r Au stri a, G e rm an y, S p ai n an d S wi tze rlan d , d ata are fro m wo rk p e rm i ts; fo r th e o th e r co u n tri e s, d ata are e sti m ate s b y th e n ati o n al stati sti cal o ffi ce s. 1 997
fo r B e lgi u m , D e n m ark, G e rm an y an d th e N e th e rlan d s.
4. An n u al ave rage o f vali d wo rk p e rm i ts. U n e m p lo ye d an d se lf-e m p lo ye d are n o t i n clu d e d .
5. D ata as o f 30 S e p te m b e r re fe r to salari e d wo rke rs o n ly. F i gu re s co ve r o n ly we ste rn G e rm an y.
6. D ata are fo r S e rb i a an d M o n te n e gro .
7. Vali d wo rk p e rm i ts. Wo rke rs fro m th e E u ro p e an U n i o n are n o t i n clu d e d i n to tal.
8. An n u al ave rage . D ata are fro m th e an n u al L ab o u r F o rce S u rve y.
9. D ata are co u n ts o f th e n u m b e r o f fo re i gn e rs wi th an an n u al re si d e n ce p e rm i t o r a se ttle m e n t p e rm i t p e rm an e n t p e rm i t) wh o e n gage i n gai n fu l acti vi ty.
Sources: L ab o u r F o rce S u rve y, E u ro stat an d N ati o n al S tati sti cal I n sti tu te s.
F o re i gn p o p u lati o n
1
To tal fo re i gn
p o p u lati o n
Of which:
Alge ri a % M o ro cco % Tu n i si a % Tu rke y %
F o rm e r
Yu go slavi a
%
B e lgi u m 892.0 8. 5 0.9 1 25.1 14.0 4.2 0.5 70.7 7.9 6.0 0.7
D e n m ark 256.3 . . . . 3.6 1.4 . . . . 38.1 14.8 34.5 13.4
F ran ce 3 596.6 61 4. 2 17.1 572.7 15.9 206.3 5.7 1 97.7 5.5 52.5 1.5
G e rm an y 7 31 9.6 1 7. 6 0.2 82.7 1.1 24.5 0.3 2 1 1 0.2 28.8 1 1 1 8.5
2
1 5.3
I taly 1 250.2 . . . . 1 45.8 11.7 47.3 3.8 . . . . 92.3 7.4
N e th e rlan d s 662.4 . . . . 1 28.6 19.4 1 .4 0.2 1 02.0 15.4 22.3 3.4
N o rway 1 65.0 . . . . 1 .3 0.8 . . . . 3.2 1.9 1 7.8 10.8
S p ai n 694.5 . . . . 1 35.7 19.5 . . . . . . . . . . . .
S we d e n 499.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 7.4 3.5 26.0 5.2
S wi tze rlan d 1 347.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . 79.5 5.9 321 .1 23.8
U n i te d K i n gd o m 2 207.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 2.9 . . . .
F o re i gn lab o u r fo rce
3
To tal fo re i gn
lab o u r fo rce
Of which:
Alge ri a % M o ro cco % Tu n i si a % Tu rke y %
F o rm e r
Yu go slavi a
%
Au stri a
4
240.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . 49.3 20.5 1 43.8 59.8
B e lgi u m 374.2 3. 3 0.9 44.3 11.8 2.2 0.6 29.9 8.0 . . . .
D e n m ark 93.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 4.0 14.9 9.3 9.9
F ran ce 1 586.7 241 . 6 15.2 229.6 14.5 84.4 5.3 79.0 5.0 30.0 1.9
G e rm an y
5
2 521 .9 . . . . . . . . . . . . 745.2 29.5 348.0
6
13.8
N e th e rlan d s 208 . . . . 35.0 16.8 . . . . 29 13.9 . . . .
S p ai n
7
1 90.6 3. 7 2.0 73.3 38.4 . . . . . . . . . . . .
S we d e n
8
21 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.0 2.3 31 .0 14.2
S wi tze rlan d
9
691 .1 . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.8 4.7 1 42.8 20.7
U n i te d K i n gd o m 1 039.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 9.0 1.8 . . . .
45
O E C D 2000
e xte n t, G e rm an y. I n 1 998, far b e h i n d F ran ce , i t was i n
I taly, fo llo we d b y G e rm an y, th at th e large st Tu n i si an
co m m u n i ti e s we re lo cate d .
Wi th th e e xte n si o n o f th e co n fli ct i n th e B alkan
re gi o n , m o st re ce n tly to K o so v o , m i gran ts fro m th e
fo rm e r Yu go slavi a h ave i n cre asi n gly go n e to n e w h o st
co u n tri e s. A lth o u g h G e rm a n y re m a i n s, b y so m e
d i sta n ce , th e co u n try wi th th e g re ate st n u m b e r o f
i m m i g ra n t s fro m t h e fo rm e r Yu g o s l a v i a o v e r
721 000 n ati o n als o f S e rb i a, M o n te n e gro , C ro ati a an d
B o sn i a ) , I ta ly i s n o w th e fo u rth h o st co u n try wi th
8 5 0 0 0 p e rso n s) a fte r S wi tze rla n d an d Au stri a . T h e
N o rd i c co u n tri e s p ri n ci p ally S we d e n an d N o rwa y)
also fe atu re am o n g th e n e w h o st co u n tri e s alo n g wi th
B u lgari a, G re e ce an d H u n gary.
T u rk i sh i m m i g ra n t s, t h e l a rg e st n u m b e r o f
wh o m a re to b e fo u n d i n G e rm an y, h a v e a lso se t-
tle d i n o th e r E u ro p e an O E C D co u n tri e s, n o tab ly, i n
d e cre a si n g o rd e r o f i m p o rta n ce , i n F ra n ce , th e
N e th e rla n d s, S wi t ze rl a n d , B e lg i u m , A u stri a a n d
D e n m ark . N u m b e ri n g o ve r 2 . 1 m i lli o n , th e T u rk i sh
co m m u n i ty i n G e rm an y i s th e la rg e st fo re i g n co m -
m u n i ty i n a E u ro p e an O E C D co u n try, a n d acco u n ts
fo r alm o st 30% o f th e re si d e n t fo re i g n p o p u lati o n i n
t h a t c o u n t ry . T u rk i s h i m m i g ra n t s b o t h i n t h e
N e th e rl a n d s a n d D e n m a rk a cco u n t fo r a p p ro xi -
m a te ly 1 5% o f th e to ta l fo re i gn p o p u lati o n , as co m -
p are d to 9% i n B e lgi u m an d ju st u n d e r 6% i n F ran ce
a n d S wi tze rla n d . I n Au stri a, o n e i n fi ve sala ri e d fo r-
e i gn wo rke rs i s o f T u rki sh o ri gi n .
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1984 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 1984 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 86 88 90 92 94 96 98
1984 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 1984 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 86 88 90 92 94 96 98
Chart I.9. Inflows of Maghrebians and Turks to Western Europe, 1984-1998
Turks
Belgium
Germany
Moroccans
Tunisians
Italy France
Netherlands
Algerians
France Belgium
Netherlands Spain
France Italy
Source: National Statistical Offices.
France Belgium
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1984 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 1984 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 86 88 90 92 94 96 98
1984 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 1984 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 86 88 90 92 94 96 98
Turks
Belgium
Germany
Moroccans
Tunisians
Italy France
Netherlands
Algerians
France Belgium
Netherlands Spain
France Italy
France Belgium
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1984 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 1984 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 86 88 90 92 94 96 98
1984 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 1984 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 86 88 90 92 94 96 98
Turks
Belgium
Germany
Moroccans
Tunisians
Italy France
Netherlands
Algerians
France Belgium
Netherlands Spain
France Italy
France Belgium
46
O E C D 2000
Foreigners or immigrants fromOECD Member or
non-member countries residing in theOECD area
A m o n g fo re i g n o r fo re i g n -b o rn re si d e n t s i n
O E C D co u n tri e s, so m e are fro m n o n -m e m b e r co u n -
tri e s wh i le o th e rs are n ati o n als o f M e m b e r co u n tri e s.
I n m o st an alyse s o f m i grati o n , fo cu s i s rare ly p lace d
o n th e la tte r gro u p e v e n th o u g h th e i r n u m b e rs are
re lati ve ly h i gh . F o r e xam p le , 73% o f th e p e rso n s fro m
th e te n m ai n i m m i gran t gro u p s i n th e U n i te d S tate s
66% i n C an ad a) are fro m an O E C D M e m b e r co u n try.
I n G e rm an y an d F ran ce , th i s p e rce n tage i s also ve ry
h i gh , b e i n g 76% fo r th e fo rm e r an d 48% fo r th e latte r.
T h e re ce n t ad m i ssi o n o f se ve ral n e w co u n tri e s to
th e O E C D h a s b o o ste d th i s tre n d . I n 1 9 9 8 , T u rk s
h e ad e d th e ran ki n gs b y n ati o n ali ty o f fo re i gn e rs re si d -
i n g i n th e E u ro p e a n M e m b e rs o f th e O E C D . T h e
I tali a n s an d th e P o rtu gu e se we re re sp e cti ve ly th i rd
an d fo u rth b e h in d n ati o n als o f th e fo rm e r Yu go slavi a) .
T h e K o re an p re d o m i n an ce i n Jap an m e ri ts h i gh li gh t-
i n g, as d o e s th at o f th e M e xi can s i n th e U n ite d S tate s.
3. Immigrants and the labour market
I n ge n e ral, th e tre n d o f th e fo re i gn lab o u r fo rce
an d i ts la b o u r m a rke t ch aracte ri sti cs p arti ci p a ti o n ,
se cto ra l d i stri b u ti o n , u n e m p lo y m e n t) a re n o t o n ly
th e re su lt o f th e p ro fi le o f th e n e w m i g rati o n flo ws,
b u t also o f th e e co n o m i c a n d i n sti tu ti o n al ch an ge s
th a t to o k p la ce d u ri n g th e p e ri o d co n si d e re d . I n
p a rt i cu la r, ch a n g e s i n th e co n d i ti o n s re q u i re d to
o b tai n n atu rali sati o n an d th e d e m o grap h i c co n tri b u -
ti o n o f n e w ge n e rati o n s o f fo re i g n e rs e n te ri n g th e
la b o u r m ark e t ca n h a v e a co n si d e ra b le i m p a ct o n
th e si ze o f th e fo re i g n la b o u r fo rce . S i m i la rly, th e
h i sto ry o f i m m i grati o n an d ch an ge s i n th e ch aracte r-
i sti cs o f th e p ro d u cti o n sy ste m a n d th e le gi sla ti o n
o n th e statu s o f i m m i gran ts an d th e i r lab o u r m arke t
acce ss affe ct th e tre n d o f th e p arti ci p ati o n rate an d
th e se cto ral d i stri b u ti o n o f jo b s.
T h e u p tu rn i n e co n o m i c a cti v i ty i n th e O E C D
a re a h a s h a d a m a jo r i m p a ct o n e m p l o y m e n t i n
M e m b e r co u n tri e s i n re ce n t ye ars, p arti cu larly i n th e
E U co u n tri e s a n d K o re a . F o r e xa m p le , i n 1 99 9 th e
o ve rall u n e m p lo ym e n t rate fe ll b y th re e -te n th s o f a
p o i n t. T h i s tre n d , wh i ch sh o u ld co n ti n u e i n th e ye ars
t o co m e , i n e v i t a b l y a ffe ct s t h e e m p l o y m e n t o f
fo re i gn e rs an d fo re i gn -b o rn .
a) Foreigners contribution to the labour force
is increasing
O ve r th e last d e cad e , th e p ro p o rti o n o f fo re i gn -
e rs o r th e fo re i gn -b o rn i n th e to ta l lab o u r fo rce h as
i n cre ase d si g n i fi can tly i n se v e ral O E C D co u n tri e s,
n o tab ly i n Au stri a, B e lgi u m , G e rm a n y, L u xe m b o u rg
an d th e U n i te d S tate s se e , T ab le I . 5 ) . B y co n trast,
th e p ro p o rti o n sli gh tly d e cli n e d i n Au strali a, F ran ce
an d i n th e N e th e rlan d s b e twe e n 1 988 an d 1 998.
C lassi fi e d b y th e si ze o f th e fo re i g n o r fo re i gn -
b o rn sh are o f to tal e m p lo ym e n t, th re e gro u p s o f co u n -
tri e s co u ld b e d isti n gu ish e d i n 1 998: a fi rst gro u p co m -
p rise d o f i n d e sce n d i n g o rd e r L u xe m b o u rg, Au strali a,
C an ad a an d S wi tze rlan d , wi th sh are s b e twe e n 55 an d
1 7.5% ; a se co n d gro u p , co m p rise d o f th e U n ite d S tate s,
Au stria, G e rm an y, B e lgi u m , F ran ce , an d S we d e n wh e re
th e sh are was at an i n te rm e d i ate le ve l, b e twe e n 1 0
an d 5 % ; an d a th i rd gro u p co m p ri se d o f th e U n i te d
K i n gd o m , I re lan d , D e n m ark, th e N e th e rlan d s, N o rway,
P o rtu gal, I taly, S p ai n an d Jap an wi th fo re i gn sh are s o f
to tal e m p lo ym e n t at le ss th an 5% .
O n th e wh o le , th i s classi fi cati o n m i rro rs fo re i gn -
e rs s h a re i n t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n , wi t h s o m e
d i ffe re n ce s d u e to th e re lati ve i m p o rtan ce o f n atu rali -
sati o n s an d th e fam i ly co m p o n e n t i n m i grati o n flo ws
acro ss co u n tri e s. T h u s, fo re i gn e rs sh are i n th e lab o u r
fo rce i s h i gh e r th an th e i r sh are i n th e to tal p o p u lati o n
i n Au stri a, Au strali a, C an ad a, G e rm an y, L u xe m b o u rg
a n d th e U n i t e d S ta t e s, b u t i s l o we r i n D e n m a rk ,
F ran ce , th e N e th e rlan d s an d N o rway.
b) and temporary migration of skilled and highly
skilled workers is increasing
P re vi o u s e d i ti o n s o f Trends in International Migration
h ave m ad e a d e tai le d an alysi s o f th e re cru i tm e n t an d
re si d e n ce cri te ri a fo r te m p o rary wo rke rs. I n ad d i ti o n
to sh o wi n g th e wi d e d i v e rsi t y o f th e re g u la ti o n s
ap p li e d i n th e M e m b e r co u n tri e s o f th e O E C D , th e y
h ave also sh o wn th at th e re i s a ce rtai n fle xi b i li ty i n
th e ad m i ssi o n s p ro ce d u re s fo r th i s typ e o f e n tran t.
Alth o u gh th e a d m i ssi o n o f p e rm a n e n t fo re i g n
wo rke rs i s cu rre n tly ve ry li m i te d , p arti cu larly i n to th e
E u ro p e an M e m b e r co u n tri e s o f th e O E C D , th e u se o f
te m p o rary lab o u r se e m s to b e e xp an d i n g an d co u n -
tri e s are i m p le m e n ti n g p o li ci e s to fa ci li ta te i t. T h e
u se o f te m p o rary fo re i gn lab o u r e n h an ce s h o st co u n -
tri e s lab o u r m arke t fle xi b i li ty an d h e lp s to alle vi ate
se cto ral lab o u r sh o rtage s. T h i s i s p arti cu larly tru e i n
th e n e w te ch n o lo gy se cto rs i n wh i ch m an y co u n tri e s
a re e xp e ri e n ci n g sh o rt a g e s o f sk i lle d a n d h i g h ly
sk i l le d wo rk e rs. T e m p o ra ry m i g ra t i o n h a s o th e r
ad van tage s fo r h o st co u n tri e s, su ch as m aki n g i t p o s-
si b le to re d u ce th e e m p lo ym e n t o f fo re i gn e rs i n an
i rre g u l a r si tu a ti o n d u ri n g a p e ri o d o f re stri ct e d
47
O E C D 2000
i m m i grati o n o r to li m i t th e e co n o m i c an d so ci al co sts
i n h e re n t to i m p le m e n ti n g an i n te grati o n p o li cy.
Tab le I .7 se ts o u t fo r a n u m b e r o f M e m b e r co u n -
tri e s th e i n flo ws o f te m p o ra ry fo re i g n wo rk e rs b y
p ri n ci p al cate go ry. T h e u p ward tre n d i n th e i r i n flo ws
i s re la ti v e ly cle a r i n A u st ra li a , Ja p a n , th e U n i t e d
K i n gd o m an d th e U n i te d S tate s. I n F ran ce , G e rm an y
an d so m e o th e r E u ro p e a n O E C D co u n tri e s, n o tab ly
I ta ly a n d S p a i n , m e asu re s to p ro m o te th e e n try o f
te m p o rary an d /o r ski lle d an d h i gh ly ski lle d wo rke rs
h ave o n ly b e e n take n ve ry re ce n tly, wi th th e u p tu rn
i n e co n o m i c a cti v i ty a n d th e e m e rg e n ce o f lab o u r
sh o rtage s i n ce rtai n se cto rs se e th e co u n try n o te s i n
P a rt I I ) . A s th e e co n o m i c o u tlo o k i m p ro v e s, so m e
u n sk i lle d wo rke rs also rai se th e i r e xp e ctati o n s a n d
te n d to tu rn away fro m th e m o st stre n u o u s acti vi ti e s,
wh i ch m ay u lti m ate ly le ad to a lab o u r sh o rtage . T h i s
tre n d h a s b e e n o b se rv e d , fo r e xa m p le , i n ce rta i n
se aso n al agri cu ltu ral acti vi ti e s.
c) Participation rates of foreigners by sex and place
of birth: persistent imbalances
I n 1 9 98, th e p arti ci p ati o n rate o f fo re i gn o r fo r-
e i gn -b o rn wo m e n was syste m ati cally lo we r th an fo r
m e n , b u t was also ge n e rally lo we r th an fo r n ati o n als
se e T ab le I . 8 ) . T h e d i ffe re n ce s b e twe e n m a le an d
fe m ale fo re i g n wo rke rs we re p arti cu larly m ark e d i n
B e lgi u m , I taly an d G e rm an y. T h e d i ffe re n ce b e twe e n
th e p arti ci p ati o n rate o f n ati o n als an d fo re i gn wo m e n
wa s g re a t e st i n D e n m a rk , t h e N e t h e rl a n d s a n d
S we d e n . H o we ve r, i n I taly an d S p ai n , wh i ch are n e w
i m m i grati o n co u n tri e s, an d L u xe m b o u rg, a co u n try i n
wh i ch e m p lo ym e n t-re late d i m m i grati o n i s ve ry p re -
d o m i n a n t, t h e a cti v i ty ra te o f fo re i g n wo m e n wa s
h i gh e r th an fo r n ati o n als.
F o r m e n , o n th e wh o le , th e acti v i ty rate i s also
h i gh e r fo r n ati o n a ls th an fo r fo re i gn e rs, b u t th e d i f-
fe re n ce s a re sm a lle r, an d i n two co u n tri e s, b e si d e s
th o se m e n ti o n e d ab o ve , th e o p p o si te i s th e ca se ,
i.e. F ran ce an d F i n lan d . I n th e E u ro p e an O E C D co u n -
tri e s, th e a cti v i ty ra te o f fo re i g n E U n a ti o n a ls i s
cl o se r to th a t o f n a ti o n a l s a n d g e n e ra ll y sli g h tly
h i g h e r. H o we v e r, G re e ce , P o rt u g a l a n d S p a i n a re
e xce p t i o n s i n t h i s re g a rd b e ca u se o f t h e l a rg e
i n flo ws o f re ti re e s wh o se ttle i n th e se co u n tri e s.
I t i s i m p o rt a n t to b e a r i n m i n d t h a t a cro ss-
se cti o n a n alysi s d o e s n o t take i n to acco u n t th e fact
th at p arti ci p ati o n rate s also d e p e n d o n th e le n gth o f
stay. I n d e e d , th e d i ffe re n ce s acco rd i n g to p lace o f
b i rt h a n d n a t i o n a l i t y , m e n a n d wo m e n t a k e n
to g e th e r, te n d to re d u ce co n si d e ra b ly b e y o n d a
p e ri o d o f stay gre ate r th an te n ye ars.
d) Recent developments in the employment of
foreigners and the increasing presence of foreign
labour in the service sector
C h art I . 1 0 m ake s i t p o ssi b le to co m p are d e v e l-
o p m e n ts i n fo re i g n e rs e m p lo y m e n t wi th th o se i n
t o t a l e m p l o y m e n t o v e r a p e ri o d o f e i g h t y e a rs,
e q u ally sp re ad acro ss th e i n d i cate d ye ar co rre sp o n d -
i n g to th e start o f an e co n o m i c u p tu rn th e re fe re n ce
y e a r fo r th e u p tu rn i s d e te rm i n e d b y th e d ate at
wh i ch th e d i ffe re n ce b e twe e n p o te n ti a l a n d a ctu a l
p ro d u cti o n i s g re a te st) . O v e ra ll, o n e o b se rve s th a t
fo re i g n e rs e m p lo y m e n t flu ctu ate s m o re m ark e d ly
th a n to ta l e m p l o y m e n t. T h e u p tu rn s i n A u stri a ,
I re lan d , I taly, N o rway an d i n P o rtu gal we re acco m p a-
n i e d b y co m p arati ve ly stro n ge r gro wth i n fo re i gn e rs
e m p lo ym e n t. I n th e case s o f I re lan d , Italy an d P o rtu gal,
wh i ch h ave re ce n tly b e co m e i m m i grati o n co u n tri e s,
th e gro wth i n fo re i gn e rs e m p lo ym e n t p re -d ate d th e
y e a r o f th e u p tu rn a n d co n ce rn e d re la ti v e ly sm a ll
n u m b e rs o f p e o p le wh o we re p ro b ab ly co n ce n trate d
i n a li m i te d n u m b e r o f se cto rs.
I n F ra n ce , G e rm a n y a n d t h e N e t h e rl a n d s ,
u p tu rn s i n e co n o m i c a cti v i ty ap p e a r to h av e b e e n
le ss favo u rab le to fo re i gn e rs. T h at sai d , i n th e latte r
two co u n tri e s fo re i g n e rs e m p lo y m e n t g re w m o re
stro n g ly th an to tal e m p lo y m e n t d u ri n g th e p e ri o d
i m m e d i a te ly p re ce d i n g th e u p tu rn , wh e re a s i n th e
case o f F ran ce th e n u m b e r o f fo re i gn wo rke rs co n ti n -
u e d to d e cli n e th ro u gh o u t th e p e ri o d wi th th e e xce p -
t i o n o f o n e y e a r 1 9 9 5 ) . I n A u stra li a , th e tre n d i n
fo re i gn e rs e m p lo ym e n t h as fo llo we d th at o f th e e co -
n o m i c cycle . T h i s was also th e case i n N o rway an d th e
U n i te d K i n g d o m , alth o u g h fo re i g n e rs e m p lo ym e n t
d i d ri se m o re stro n gly d u ri n g th e u p tu rn .
T h e stu d y o f th e d i stri b u ti o n o f fo re i gn la b o u r
b y e co n o m i c se cto r carri e d o u t i n th e p re vi o u s e d i -
ti o n s o f th e re p o rt o n Trends in International Migration,
m ak e s i t p o ssi b le to co m p le te th i s an alysi s. I n p ar-
ti cu lar, th e re i s a h i gh co n ce n trati o n i n a fe w se cto rs,
su ch a s m a n u fa ctu ri n g , i n A u st ra li a , C a n a d a a n d
G e rm an y, co n stru cti o n i n F ran ce an d L u xe m b o u rg ,
an d a fe w se rvi ce se cto rs i n th e U n i te d K i n gd o m . O n
th e wh o le , p u b li c ad m i n i strati o n e m p lo ys th e lo we st
p ro p o rti o n o f fo re i gn e rs si n ce p o sts i n th i s se cto r
are ge n e rally o n ly o p e n to n ati o n als.
C h a rt I . 1 1 sh o ws t h a t b e twe e n 1 9 9 5 a n d 1 9 9 8
th e re d u ct i o n s i n e m p lo y m e n t wh i ch h a v e ta k e n
p lace i n i n d u stry an d i n agri cu ltu re h ave b e e n m o re
T
r
e
n
d
s

i
n

I
n
t
e
r
n
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

M
i
g
r
a
t
i
o
n

4
8

O
E
C
D

2
0
0
0
Tab le I .7. Entries of temporary workers incertain OECD countries byprincipal categories, 1992, 1996-1998
T h o u san d s
Note: T h e cate go ri e s o f te m p o rary wo rke r d i ffe r fro m o n e co u n try to an o th e r. O n ly th e p ri n ci p al cate go ri e s o f te m p o ray wo rke r are p re se n te d i n th i s tab le .
T h e fi gu re s i n b racke ts i n d i cate th e n u m b e r o f e n tri e s o f p e rm an e n t wo rke rs.
1 . T h e d ata co ve r th e fi scal ye ar fro m Ju ly to Ju n e o f th e i n d i cate d ye ar an d i n clu d e acco m p an yi n g p e rso n s. I n 1 992, d ata are o ffsh o re .
2. To tal o f p e rso n s i ssu e d e m p lo ym e n t au th o ri sati o n s to wo rk i n C an ad a te m p o rari ly e xclu d i n g p e rso n s i ssu e d e m p lo ym e n t au th o ri sati o n s o n h u m an i tari an gro u n d s. P e rso n s are sh o wn i n th e ye ar i n wh i ch
th e y re ce i ve d th e i r fi rst te m p o rary p e rm i t.
3. B e n e fi ci ari e s o f p ro vi si o n al wo rk p e rm i ts AP T ) .
4. L o n g-te rm p e rm i ts o n e ye ar an d o ve r are m o stly acco rd e d to sp e ci ali sts an d se n i o r m an age rs.
5. T h e d ata co ve r th e fi scal ye ar O cto b e r to S e p te m b e r o f th e i n d i cate d ye ar . A p e rso n i s co u n te d as m an y ti m e s as h e /sh e e n te rs th e co u n try o ve r th e co u rse o f th e sam e ye ar. T h e d ata m ay we ll th e re fo re
b e o ve r-e sti m ate s.
6. T h e fi gu re s i n clu d e fam i ly m e m b e rs.
Sources: Au strali a: D e p artm e n t o f I m m i grati o n an d E th n i c Affai rs D I E A) ; C an ad a: C i ti ze n sh i p an d I m m i grati o n C an ad a; F ran ce : O ffi ce d e s m i grati o n s i n te rn ati o n ale s, Annuairedes migrations 98; G e rm an y:
B u n d e san stalt f r Arb e i t; Jap an : M i n i stry o f Ju sti ce ; K o re a: M i n i stry o f Ju sti ce ; S wi tze rlan d : O ffi ce f d ral d e s tran ge rs; U n i te d K i n gd o m : D e p artm e n t o f E m p lo ym e n t; U n i te d S tate s: U n i te d S tate s
D e p artm e n t o f Ju sti ce , 1996 Statistical Yearbook of Immigration andNaturalization Service.
1 992 1 996 1 997 1 998 1 992 1 996 1 997 1 998
Australia Japan
S ki lle d te m p o rary re si d e n t p ro gram m e
1
1 4.6 31 .7 31 . 7 37.3 H i gh ly ski lle d wo rke rs 1 08.1 78. 5 93.9 1 01 .9
Wo rki n g H o li d ay M ake rs O ffsh o re ) 25.9 40.3 50. 0 55.6
Total 40.5 72.0 81.7 92.9 Korea
(40.3) (20.0) (19.7) (26.0) H i gh ly ski lle d wo rke rs . . 36. 7 42.2 32.2
Canada
2
T rai n e e s 9.7 53. 2 51 .1 28.9
Total . . 60.0 62.3 65.1 Total . . 90.0 93.3 61.2
(252.8) (226.1) (216.0) (174.1)
France Switzerland
E m p lo ye e s o n se co n d m e n t 0.9 0.8 1 . 0 1 .2 S e aso n al wo rke rs 1 26.1 62. 7 46.7 39.6
R e se arch e rs 0.9 1 .2 1 . 1 1 .0 T rai n e e s 1 .6 0. 7 0.7 0.7
O th e r h o ld e rs o f an APT
3
2.8 2.8 2. 6 2.2 Total 127.8 63.4 47.4 40.3
S e aso n al wo rke rs 1 3.6 8.8 8. 2 7.5 (39.7) (24.5) (25.4) (26.8)
Total 18.1 13.6 12.9 11.8 United Kingdom
(42.3) (11.5) (11.0) (10.3) H i gh ly ski lle d wo rke rs lo n g-te rm p e rm i ts)
4
1 2.7 1 6. 9 1 8.7 . .
Germany S h o rt te rm p e rm i t h o ld e rs 1 4.0 1 6. 8 1 9.0 . .
Wo rke rs e m p lo ye d u n d e r a co n tract fo r se rvi ce s 1 1 5.1 45.8 38. 5 33.0 Wo rki n g H o li d ay M ake rs 24.0 33. 0 33.3 40.8
S e aso n al wo rke rs 21 2.4 220.9 226. 0 201 .6 T rai n e e s 3.4 4. 0 4.7 . .
Trai n e e s 5.1 4.3 3. 2 3.1 Total 54.1 70.7 75.7 90.5
Total 332.6 272.5 271.2 237.6
(408.9) (262.5) (285.4) (275.5) United States
5
H i gh ly ski lle d wo rke rs
S p e ci ali sts vi sa H -1 B ) 1 1 0.2 1 44. 5 . . . .
S p e ci ali sts N AFTA, vi sa T N )
6
1 2.5 27. 0 . . . .
Wo rke rs o f d i sti n gu i sh e d ab i li ti e s vi sa O ) 0.5 7. 2 . . . .
S e aso n al wo rke rs vi sa H -2A) 1 6.4 9. 6 . . . .
I n d u stri al trai n e e s vi sa H -3) 3.4 3. 0 . . . .
Total 143.0 191.2 . . . .
(116.2) (117.5) (90.6) (77.5)
49
O E C D 2000
th an co m p e n sate d fo r b y gai n s i n th e te rti ary se cto r;
th i s h i s tru e b o th o f to ta l e m p lo y m e n t an d o f th e
e m p lo ym e n t o f fo re i g n e rs. T h i s la tte r o b se rv ati o n
d o e s n o t a p p ly h o we v e r i n G e rm a n y, F ra n ce o r i n
S we d e n wh e re th e e m p lo y m e n t o f fo re i g n e rs i s
e i th e r stagn ate d o f h as falle n .
A s e ct o ra l a n a l y s i s o f re ce n t t re n d s i n t h e
e m p lo y m e n t o f fo re i g n e rs sh o ws th a t wh e re a s i n
i n d u stry a n d i n se rv i ce s i t h a s fo llo we d th e sa m e
tre n d a s to ta l e m p l o y m e n t, i n a g ri cu lt u re i t h a s
te n d e d to i n cre a se e xce p t i n F ran ce an d I re la n d )
a t t h e sa m e t i m e a s t o t a l e m p l o y m e n t i n t h i s
se cto r h a s d e cli n e d .
e) Foreigners are more vulnerable to unemployment
than nationals
I n g e n e ra l, fo re i g n e rs a re m o re v u ln e ra b le to
u n e m p lo y m e n t th a n n a ti o n a ls. T h e so u rce s o f th i s
gre ate r vu ln e rab i li ty are m u lti p le se e T a b le I . 8 ) . I n
alm o st all o f th e E u ro p e an M e m b e r co u n tri e s o f th e
O E C D e xce p t I taly an d S p ai n ) , th e e xte n t o f u n e m -
p lo ym e n t am o n gst fo re i gn -b o rn p o p u lati o n i s gre ate r
th an th e p ro p o rti o n o f th e lab o u r fo rce fo r wh i ch th e y
acco u n t. C h art I .1 2 sh o ws th at it i s i n D e n m ark an d th e
N e th e rlan d s th at th i s d i scre p an cy i s th e gre ate st, o n
ave rage , th re e ti m e s m o re . T h e si tu ati o n is also cri tical
i n B e lgi u m an d S we d e n .
T h e rate o f u n e m p lo ym e n t am o n g fo re i gn wo m e n
i s, i n ge n e ral, h i gh e r th an th at o f th e i r m ale co u n te r-
p arts; th e e xce p ti o n s are Au stri a, G e rm an y, S we d e n
an d th e U n i te d K i n gd o m . O n th e o th e r h an d , th e d i f-
fe re n ti al b e twe e n th e u n e m p lo ym e n t rate o f fo re i gn
m e n an d th e i r n ati ve co u n te rp arts i s gre ate r th an th at
b e twe e n fo re i gn an d n ati ve wo m e n . F o re i gn -b o rn m e n
an d wo m e n h ave a lo we r rate o f u n e m p lo ym e n t th an
th e i r fo re ign co u n te rp arts.
I n th e se ttle m e n t co u n tri e s Au stra li a , C an ad a
a n d th e U n i te d S ta te s) , th e d i scre p a n cy b e twe e n
th e u n e m p lo ym e n t ra te s o f th o se b o rn i n si d e a n d
th o se b o rn o u tsi d e th e co u n try i s co n si d e ra b l y
lo we r th a n th a t o b se rv e d b e twe e n fo re i g n e rs an d
n ati o n als i n E u ro p e .
T h e d i ffe re n ce s b e twe e n th e u n e m p lo y m e n t
rate s o f fo re i gn e rs an d n ati o n als an d th e fact th at fo r-
e i gn n ati o n a ls fro m d i ffe re n t co u n tri e s are typ i cally
n o t affe cte d to th e sam e d e gre e , are d u e to a se ri e s
o f fa ct o rs. T h e se fa ct o rs i n clu d e , m o st n o t a b l y,
ch an ge s i n e co n o m i c p e rfo rm an ce an d th e n atu re o f
th e p o sts o ccu p i e d b y th e d i ffe re n t e th n i c g ro u p s,
th e d e m o grap h i c stru ctu re an d th e o rd e r o f th e vari -
o u s wave s o f m i grati o n i n to th e h o st co u n try. T h e p ro -
fi le o f th e i m m i g ra n ts h as a n i m p o rtan t b e a ri n g o n
th e i r d e gre e o f e m p lo yab i li ty: vari ab le s su ch as age ,
ge n d e r, n ati o n ali ty, le ve l o f e d u cati o n , trai n i n g an d
e xp e ri e n ce , m aste ry o f th e h o st co u n try s la n gu age
Tab le I .8. Participation rate andunemployment rate of nationals andforeigners
1
bysex insome OECD countries, 1998
1 . F o r Au strali a, C an ad a an d th e U n i te d S tate s, d ata re late to fo re i gn b o rn p o p u lati o n i n ste ad o f fo re i gn e r an d to b o rn i n th e re si d e n ce co u n try i n ste ad o f
n ati o n als.
Source: L ab o u r F o rce S u rve y, E u ro stat an d Au strali an B u re au o f S tati sti cs Au gu st 1 998) ; 1 996 C e n su s, S tati sti cs C an ad a; C u rre n t P o p u lati o n S u rve y 1 998, U S
B u re au o f th e C e n su s.
P arti ci p ati o n rate U n e m p lo ym e n t rate
M e n Wo m e n M e n Wo m e n
N ati o n als F o re i gn e rs N ati o n als F o re i gn e rs N ati o n als F o re i gn e rs N ati o n als F o re i gn e rs
Au stri a 79.8 84. 3 62.4 63. 4 4.8 1 0. 3 5.3 8.9
B e lgi u m 72.9 69. 0 55.1 40. 7 6.5 1 8. 9 1 0.9 24.1
D e n m ark 84.1 69. 4 76.0 51 . 6 3.8 7. 3 6.1 1 6.0
F i n lan d 76.0 81 . 0 70.2 57. 8 1 2.7 36. 0 1 3.3 43.7
F ran ce 75.0 76. 1 62.5 49. 0 9.6 22. 0 1 3.5 26.8
G e rm an y 79.4 77. 3 63.4 48. 7 8.5 1 7. 3 1 0.1 1 5.9
I re lan d 77.4 73. 3 52.1 50. 9 8.0 1 2. 4 7.3 1 0.4
I taly 73.6 89. 1 44.4 54. 0 9.6 5. 1 1 6.7 1 7.6
L u xe m b o u rg 74.6 78. 3 43.9 53. 5 1 .5 2. 6 2.8 6.0
N e th e rlan d s 83.2 66. 5 63.5 40. 8 3.1 1 1 . 6 5.6 1 4.1
S we d e n 79.1 70. 5 73.4 52. 9 9.3 23. 2 7.5 1 9.4
U n i te d K i n gd o m 83.0 78. 1 67.4 56. 1 6.8 1 0. 7 5.2 9.4
Au strali a 74.8 70. 8 57.1 48. 7 8.3 8. 6 6.9 8.2
C an ad a 73.8 68. 4 60.2 52. 9 1 0.3 9. 9 9.5 1 1 .6
U n i te d S tate s 82.8 87. 4 72.5 62. 2 5.3 5. 6 4.6 6.1
50
O E C D 2000
110
105
100
95
90
80
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
160
100
80
60
140
120
160
140
120
100
80
60
85
110
105
100
95
90
80
85
140
120
80
100
130
110
90
140
120
80
100
130
110
90
1. The troughs in activity correspond to the greatest disparity between actual and potential GDP
(output gap), according to OECD estimates (OECD Economic Outlook, No. 67, June 2000).
Sources: Labour Force Survey (Eurostat), Australian Bureau of Statistics and Current Population
Survey (US Bureau of the Census) and OECD Economic Outlook, No. 67, June 2000.
Chart I.10. Changes in employment of foreigners and in total employment during economic recoveries
1
Index: trough = 100
Employment of foreigners Total employment
Ireland Spain Portugal
Germany Netherlands France
Australia United Kingdom United States
Years from trough Years from trough Years from trough
Current recovery
Trough
Australia 1992
France 1996
Germany 1997
Ireland 1994
Netherlands 1993
Portugal 1995
Spain 1996
United Kingdom 1993
United States 1995
110
105
100
95
90
80
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
160
100
80
60
140
120
160
140
120
100
80
60
85
110
105
100
95
90
80
85
140
120
80
100
130
110
90
140
120
80
100
130
110
90
1
Index: trough = 100
Current recovery
Trough
Australia 1992
France 1996
Germany 1997
Ireland 1994
Netherlands 1993
Portugal 1995
Spain 1996
United Kingdom 1993
United States 1995
110
105
100
95
90
80
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
160
100
80
60
140
120
160
140
120
100
80
60
85
110
105
100
95
90
80
85
140
120
80
100
130
110
90
140
120
80
100
130
110
90
1
Index: trough = 100
Current recovery
Trough
Australia 1992
France 1996
Germany 1997
Ireland 1994
Netherlands 1993
Portugal 1995
Spain 1996
United Kingdom 1993
United States 1995
51
O E C D 2000
% %
% %
% %
% %
6
0
-2
-6
4
2
-4
6
0
-2
-6
4
2
-4
25
20
15
10
5
-15
0
-5
-10
25
20
15
10
5
-15
0
-5
-10
25
20
15
10
5
-15
0
-5
-10
25
20
15
10
5
-15
0
-5
-10
10
4
2
-2
-6
6
8
-4
0
10
4
2
-2
-6
6
8
-4
0
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Foreign employment Total employment
Source: Labour Force Surveys, Eurostat.
Chart I.11. Foreign and total employment by major industry division, 1995-1998
Average annual growth rate
1 : Agriculture
2 : Industry
3 : Services
4 : Total
United Kingdom Germany
Sweden Ireland
Spain Denmark
France Belgium
% %
% %
% %
% %
6
0
-2
-6
4
2
-4
6
0
-2
-6
4
2
-4
25
20
15
10
5
-15
0
-5
-10
25
20
15
10
5
-15
0
-5
-10
25
20
15
10
5
-15
0
-5
-10
25
20
15
10
5
-15
0
-5
-10
10
4
2
-2
-6
6
8
-4
0
10
4
2
-2
-6
6
8
-4
0
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
1 : Agriculture
2 : Industry
3 : Services
4 : Total
Sweden Ireland
Spain Denmark
France Belgium
% %
% %
% %
% %
6
0
-2
-6
4
2
-4
6
0
-2
-6
4
2
-4
25
20
15
10
5
-15
0
-5
-10
25
20
15
10
5
-15
0
-5
-10
25
20
15
10
5
-15
0
-5
-10
25
20
15
10
5
-15
0
-5
-10
10
4
2
-2
-6
6
8
-4
0
10
4
2
-2
-6
6
8
-4
0
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
1 : Agriculture
2 : Industry
3 : Services
4 : Total
Sweden Ireland
Spain Denmark
France Belgium
52
O E C D 2000
an d th e le n gth o f stay i n th e h o st co u n try p lay a n o n -
n e gli gi b le ro le am o n g th e facto rs wh i ch e xp lai n th e
d e gre e o f vu ln e rab i li ty to u n e m p lo ym e n t.
I n a n u m b e r o f E u ro p e an O E C D co u n tri e s, fo r-
e i g n m a le la b o u r, wh i ch i s co n ce n tra te d i n se cto rs
wh i ch are i n d e cli n e o r u n d e rgo i n g m ajo r re stru ctu r-
i n g n o tab ly m i n i n g an d m an u factu ri n g) o r i n acti vi -
ti e s p arti cu larly su sce p ti b le to swi n gs i n th e b u si n e ss
cycle , h a s b e e n h a rd h i t b y th e lab o u r sh e d d i n g o f
th e 1 980s an d e arly 1 990s. T h e fo re i gn wo rke rs m ad e
re d u n d a n t, o fte n ap p ro a ch i n g re ti re m e n t a g e an d
h a vi n g u n d e rtake n o v e r th e co u rse o f th e i r wo rk i n g
li ve s a se ri e s o f lo w-ski lle d m an u a l jo b s, h ave li ttle
li ke li h o o d o f fi n d i n g n e w e m p lo ym e n t.
T h e p o ssi b i l i t y t h a t fa m i l y m e m b e rs h a v e ,
u n d e r ce rta i n co n d i ti o n s, o f e n te ri n g h o st co u n try
la b o u r m a rk e ts, m e a n s th a t so m e o f th e m swe ll
th e n u m b e rs o f n e w e n tri e s o n t o th e la b o u r m a r-
k e t, a n d so m e ti m e s h a v e d i ffi cu lti e s i n fi n d i n g a n
i n i t i a l jo b o r re -e n t e ri n g th e la b o u r m a rk e t . T h e
re c e n t a rri v a l o f l a rg e n u m b e rs o f i m m i g ra n t s
a g a i n st a co n ti n u e d b a ck g ro u n d , i n m a n y O E C D
co u n tri e s, o f u n fa v o u ra b le la b o u r m a rk e t co n d i -
ti o n s fo r u n sk i lle d wo rk e rs h as a lso co n tri b u te d to
th e i n cre a se i n u n e m p lo y m e n t a m o n g fo re i g n e rs.
F u rth e rm o re , th o se wh o h a v e e n te re d a s re fu g e e s
o r a s a sy lu m se e k e rs h a v e , wh e n th e y a re p e rm i t-
te d to wo rk , co n si d e ra b le d i ffi cu lti e s n o tab ly li n -
g u i s t i c ) i n s o m e h o s t c o u n t ri e s i n f i n d i n g
e m p l o y m e n t d u ri n g th e fi rst y e a rs o f th e i r st a y.
T h i s wo u ld e xp la i n th e fo re i g n e rs h i g h ra te s o f
u n e m p lo y m e n t i n D e n m a rk, N o rwa y an d S we d e n ,
co u n tri e s i n wh i ch th e an n u al flo ws o f re fu ge e s an d
a sy lu m se e k e rs a re re la ti v e ly h i g h co m p a re d wi th
o th e r ca te g o ri e s o f e n tra n ts. I n d e e d , i n g e n e ra l,
n e w arri v als fre q u e n tly n e e d to g o th ro u gh a p e ri o d
o f a d a p t a ti o n p ri o r to th e i r su cce ssfu l e n t ry i n to
th e h o st co u n try s la b o u r m a rk e t, b e i t d u e to th e
n e e d to a tta i n a m a ste ry o f th e la n g u a g e , u n d e r-
sta n d th e ad m i n i strati ve fo rm ali ti e s, b e co m e su ffi -
ci e n tly a ware o f th e p arti cu la r m o d e s o f e n try i n to
th e la b o u r m a rk e t a cq u i re jo b se a rch te ch n i q u e s)
o r a d a p t to n e w wo rk i n g co n d i t i o n s. A ll o f th e se
facto rs p lay a d e ci si ve ro le i n fi n d i n g an d re tai n i n g
a jo b .
B. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN ASIA
AND CENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPE
I n th e fo u r m o st re ce n t e d i ti o n s o f Trends in Inter-
national Migration O E C D , 1 9 9 5 to 1 9 9 9 ) , p a rti cu la r
atte n ti o n was acco rd e d to th e wi d e n i n g o ve r re ce n t
y e a rs o f th e are a o f re fe re n ce to b e co n si d e re d i n
3
2
1
0
3
2
1
0
1. August 1999 for Australia, 1996 for Canada and
March 1998 for the United States. For these
three countries, data refer to the foreign-born.
In all other countries, data refer to the foreign
population.
Sources: For European Union countries: Labour
Force Survey, Eurostat; Australia: Labour Force
Survey, Australian Bureau of Statistics; Canada:
1996 Census data, Statistics Canada; United
States: 1998 Current Population Survey, US
Bureau of the Census.
C
a
n
a
d
a
A
u
s
t
r
a
l
i
a
U
n
i
t
e
d

S
t
a
t
e
s
I
t
a
l
y
I
r
e
l
a
n
d
G
e
r
m
a
n
y
F
r
a
n
c
e
A
u
s
t
r
i
a
P
o
r
t
u
g
a
l
B
e
l
g
i
u
m
S
w
e
d
e
n
N
e
t
h
e
r
l
a
n
d
s
D
e
n
m
a
r
k
S
p
a
i
n
G
r
e
e
c
e
L
u
x
e
m
b
o
u
r
g
U
n
i
t
e
d

K
i
n
g
d
o
m
F
i
n
l
a
n
d
Chart I.12. Share of foreigners or the foreign-born in total unemployment
relative to their share in the labour force
1995-1998 average
1
3
2
1
0
3
2
1
0
population.
C
a
n
a
d
a
A
u
s
t
r
a
l
i
a
U
n
i
t
e
d

S
t
a
t
e
s
I
t
a
l
y
I
r
e
l
a
n
d
G
e
r
m
a
n
y
F
r
a
n
c
e
A
u
s
t
r
i
a
P
o
r
t
u
g
a
l
B
e
l
g
i
u
m
S
w
e
d
e
n
N
e
t
h
e
r
l
a
n
d
s
D
e
n
m
a
r
k
S
p
a
i
n
G
r
e
e
c
e
L
u
x
e
m
b
o
u
r
g
U
n
i
t
e
d

K
i
n
g
d
o
m
F
i
n
l
a
n
d
1995-1998 average
1
3
2
1
0
3
2
1
0
population.
C
a
n
a
d
a
A
u
s
t
r
a
l
i
a
U
n
i
t
e
d

S
t
a
t
e
s
I
t
a
l
y
I
r
e
l
a
n
d
G
e
r
m
a
n
y
F
r
a
n
c
e
A
u
s
t
r
i
a
P
o
r
t
u
g
a
l
B
e
l
g
i
u
m
S
w
e
d
e
n
N
e
t
h
e
r
l
a
n
d
s
D
e
n
m
a
r
k
S
p
a
i
n
G
r
e
e
c
e
L
u
x
e
m
b
o
u
r
g
U
n
i
t
e
d

K
i
n
g
d
o
m
F
i
n
l
a
n
d
1995-1998 average
1
53
O E C D 2000
an alyse s o f m i grati o n m o ve m e n ts an d p o li ci e s. Two
re gi o n s i n p arti cu lar h ave co n tri b u te d to th i s e xte n -
si o n : Asi a an d C e n tral an d E aste rn E u ro p e . C h aracte r-
i se d b y a d i ve rsi fi cati o n o f th e n ati o n ali ti e s i n vo lve d
an d th e gro wi n g i m p o rtan ce o f flo ws b e twe e n n e i gh -
b o u ri n g co u n tri e s sh a ri n g co m m o n h i sto ri cal, e co -
n o m i c a n d cu l t u ra l t ra d i t i o n s, b o t h re g i o n s a re
e xe m p lars o f th e glo b ali sati o n an d re gi o n ali sati o n o f
m i grati o n m o ve m e n ts n o t o n ly are Asi a an d C e n tral
a n d E a ste rn E u ro p e zo n e s o f e m i g ra ti o n , n o ta b ly
to wa rd s th e co u n tri e s o f th e O E C D , th e y a re a lso
e xp e ri e n ci n g e xte n si ve i n tra-re gi o n al m i grati o n .
T h e 1 9 9 9 e d i ti o n h a d e m p h a si se d o n m i g ra -
ti o n flo ws o f A si a n o ri g i n to O E C D co u n tri e s se e
M a p I . 3 ) a n d th e i m p a ct o f th e fi n a n ci a l cri si s i n
Asi a o n m i grati o n m o ve m e n ts b e twe e n Asi an co u n -
t ri e s . T h e fl o w e v o l u t i o n o f A si a n n a t i o n a l s t o
O E C D co u n tri e s, a n d th e ch a n g e i n th e i r si ze a re
p re se n te d i n d e ta i l i n p a rt A o f th i s re p o rt se e
a b o ve ) . P arti cu lar atte n ti o n i s a cco rd e d th i s y e ar to
a re v i e w o f th e i m m i g ra ti o n flo ws o f A si a n p ro v e -
n an ce i n to th e O E C D are a re ce n t d e ve lo p m e n ts i n
m i g rati o n p o li ci e s an d flo ws i n E ast an d S o u th -E ast
Asi a se e b e lo w S u b -se cti o n B . 1 ) .
1
R e ce n t m i grati o n d e ve lo p m e n ts i n C e n tral an d
E aste rn E u ro p e d i sp lay two cle ar tre n d s, n am e ly, a
re v e rsa l i n th e n e t m i g ra ti o n b a la n ce i n ce rt a i n
co u n tri e s su ch as th e C ze ch R e p u b li c a n d H u n ga ry
o r, i f n o t, at le ast th e b e gi n n i n gs o f fo re i gn i m m i gra-
ti o n ) an d th e i n cre asi n g i m p o rtan ce o f i n tra-re gi o n al
m o ve m e n ts. An i m p o rtan t p art o f th e se m o ve m e n ts
c o n c e rn s t h e m i g ra t i o n o f e t h n i c m i n o ri t i e s .
S i n ce 1 989 , C e n tral an d E aste rn E u ro p e h a s co n sti -
tu te d a n e w m i grati o n are a, an d an asse ssm e n t o f a
Map I.3. Asia: main countries of origin of immigrants residing in OECD countries in 1998
Stock in thousands
More than 1 200
Between 1 000 and 1 030
Between 300 and 500
Between 150 and 250
Less than 150
The figures in brackets
indicate the stock
per 1 000 inhabitants
of the country concerned
Japan
(3.0)
Sri Lanka
(11.6)
India
(1.0)
Thailand
(3.0)
Philippines (19.4)
Vietnam (13.3)
Cambodia (15.4)
Malaysia
(5.9)
Indonesia (0.5)
Laos
(39.6)
Korea
(27.9)
Pakistan
(1.2)
Hong Kong
(65.7)
Bangladesh
(0.8)
China
(1.1)
Note: The data presented in this
chart have been calculated on
the basis of data on the stocks
of Asian nationals residing in
Japan, Korea, Denmark,
France, Germany, Italy, the
Netherlands, Norway, Spain,
Sweden, Switzerland, the
United kingdom and, in the
cases of Australia, Canada
and the United States, on the
basis of data on the number
of residents born in Asia.
Sources: National Statistical
Offices.
Stock in thousands
More than 1 200
Between 300 and 500
Between 150 and 250
Less than 150
indicate the stock
Japan
(3.0)
Sri Lanka
(11.6)
India
(1.0)
Thailand
(3.0)
Philippines (19.4)
Vietnam (13.3)
Cambodia (15.4)
Malaysia
(5.9)
Indonesia (0.5)
Laos
(39.6)
Korea
(27.9)
Pakistan
(1.2)
Hong Kong
(65.7)
Bangladesh
(0.8)
China
(1.1)
Offices.
Stock in thousands
More than 1 200
Between 300 and 500
Between 150 and 250
Less than 150
indicate the stock
Japan
(3.0)
Sri Lanka
(11.6)
India
(1.0)
Thailand
(3.0)
Philippines (19.4)
Vietnam (13.3)
Cambodia (15.4)
Malaysia
(5.9)
Indonesia (0.5)
Laos
(39.6)
Korea
(27.9)
Pakistan
(1.2)
Hong Kong
(65.7)
Bangladesh
(0.8)
China
(1.1)
Offices.
Stock in thousands
More than 1 200
Between 300 and 500
Between 150 and 250
Less than 150
indicate the stock
Japan
(3.0)
Sri Lanka
(11.6)
India
(1.0)
Thailand
(3.0)
Philippines (19.4)
Vietnam (13.3)
Cambodia (15.4)
Malaysia
(5.9)
Indonesia (0.5)
Laos
(39.6)
Korea
(27.9)
Pakistan
(1.2)
Hong Kong
(65.7)
Bangladesh
(0.8)
China
(1.1)
Offices.
Stock in thousands
More than 1 200
Between 300 and 500
Between 150 and 250
Less than 150
indicate the stock
Japan
(3.0)
Sri Lanka
(11.6)
India
(1.0)
Thailand
(3.0)
Philippines (19.4)
Vietnam (13.3)
Cambodia (15.4)
Malaysia
(5.9)
Indonesia (0.5)
Laos
(39.6)
Korea
(27.9)
Pakistan
(1.2)
Hong Kong
(65.7)
Bangladesh
(0.8)
China
(1.1)
Offices.
54
O E C D 2000
te n -y e a r m i g ra ti o n flo w to E u ro p e a n O E C D co u n -
tri e s, th e U n i te d -S ta te s a n d C a n a d a a s we ll a s a n
o v e rv i e w o f i n tra -re g i o n a l m o v e m e n ts a n d th e i r
ch a ra cte ri sti cs i n C e n tra l a n d E a ste rn E u ro p e a re
p re se n te d i n th i s re p o rt se e S u b -se cti o n B .2) .
1. Recent developments in migration policies
and flows in East and South-east Asia
T h e re ce n t Asi a n cu rre n cy cri se s, wh i ch a ll th e
e co n o m i e s o f th e re gi o n e i th e r e xp e ri e n ce d d i re ctly
o r, d u e to th e re gi o n s h i g h d e g re e o f i n te rd e p e n -
d e n cy th ro u gh trad e an d i n ve stm e n t flo ws, su ffe re d
th e i r co n se q u e n ce s i n d i re ctly, h ave h ad p ro n o u n ce d
i m p acts o n th e re gi o n s lab o u r m arke ts. I n th i s su b -
se cti o n a b ri e f re vi e w i s p re se n te d o f th e se e co n o -
m i e s re ce n t m a cro e co n o m i c a n d la b o u r m a rk e t
d e ve lo p m e n ts, th e m o d i fi cati o n s m ad e to m i grati o n
p o li ci e s i n re sp o n se to th e se d e ve lo p m e n ts an d th e
re su lt i n g ch a n g e s i n th e si ze a n d co m p o si ti o n o f
fo re i gn wo rkfo rce s an d i n lab o u r m i grati o n flo ws.
I t sh o u ld b e e m p h asi se d fro m th e o u tse t th a t
wh i lst K o re a an d Jap an p ro vi d e th e re le van t d ata o n
lab o u r m arke t d e ve lo p m e n ts, sto cks o f fo re i gn wo rk-
e rs an d lab o u r m i g ra ti o n flo ws, th i s i s n o t th e case
fo r th e o th e r co u n tri e s o f th e re gi o n . Acro ss S o u th -
E a st A si a , t h e a v a i l a b l e d a t a o n l a b o u r m a rk e t
d e v e lo p m e n ts, i n p arti cu la r th o se o n th e e m p lo y -
m e n t o f fo re i gn wo rke rs, co n tai n li ttle d e tai l. D ata o n
sto cks a n d flo ws o f fo re i g n wo rke rs ty p i cally su ffe r
fro m th e sam e d e fi ci e n cy an d are i n ge n e ral i n co m -
p l e t e . T h i s i s m o st n o ta b l y th e ca se o f d a ta o n
la b o u r m i g ra ti o n i n M a la y si a a n d T h a i la n d wh i ch
co n tai n i n ab so lu te te rm s th e large st p o p u lati o n s o f
fo re i gn wo rke rs. I n th e se two co u n tri e s, o ffi ci al gu e s-
ti m a te s o f t h e n u m b e r o f i l le g a l i m m i g ra n ts fa r
e xce e d th e re co rd e d n u m b e r o f th o se i n p o sse ssi o n
o f a vali d re si d e n ce o r wo rk p e rm i t. T h i s p h e n o m e -
n o n i s li n ke d , inter alia, to th e d i ffi cu lti e s i n o p e rati n g
e ffe cti ve b o rd e r co n tro ls, fi n an ci al an d i n sti tu ti o n al
d i si n ce n ti v e s o n ta k i n g u p d o cu m e n te d e m p lo y -
m e n t, u n aware n e ss o f an d i n e ffi ci e n ci e s i n th e p u b -
li c o v e rse a s jo b p la ce m e n t syste m s a s we ll as th e
acti vi ti e s o f traffi cki n g ri n gs. T h o u gh i n co m p le te , th e
av ai lab le d ata are n e v e rth e le ss su ffi ci e n t to d e li n -
e a te wi th co n fi d e n ce th e b ro a d o u tli n e s o f th e se
co u n tri e s re ce n t e xp e ri e n ce s.
a) Government policy and the employment of foreign
workers prior to the crisis
I n K o re a an d Jap an , fo re i g n wo rke rs acco u n te d
p ri o r to th e cri si s fo r le ss th a n 1 % o f th e i r 2 2 a n d
68 m i lli o n lab o u r fo rce s. I n b o th co u n tri e s th e i m m i -
g ra ti o n o f u n ski lle d wo rke rs i s i n p ri n ci p le p ro h i b -
i t e d . I n K o re a , th e e xte n t o f d o cu m e n te d la b o u r
i m m i g ra t i o n i s e ffe c t i v e l y d e t e rm i n e d b y t h e
d e m an d fro m e m p lo ye rs. I n Jap an , b y co n trast, th e
i ssu a n ce o f p e rm i ts i s su b je ct to t h e a u t h o ri t i e s
asse ssm e n t o f th e la b o u r m arke t s n e e d s. Alth o u g h
t h e i r g e o g ra p h i ca l si t u a t i o n a n d i n t h e ca se o f
K o re a, ge o p o li ti cal si tu ati o n ) faci li tate s th e co m b at-
i n g o f clan d e sti n e i m m i grati o n , th e y are b o th h o st to
re la ti ve ly large n u m b e rs o f vi sa o ve rstaye rs. I rre gu -
la r la b o u r m i g ra n ts, th e o v e rwh e lm i n g m a jo ri ty o f
wh o m a re u n d e rsto o d to b e u n sk i lle d , we re e sti -
m a te d to a cco u n t fo r re sp e cti v e ly 6 0 % a n d 4 0 % o f
th e fo re i gn wo rkfo rce .
H o n g K o n g C h i n a) a n d S i n ga p o re , th o u gh th e
si ze s o f th e i r fo re i gn wo rkfo rce s d i ffe re d m arke d ly at
a p p ro xi m a te ly 1 0 a n d 2 5 % o f th e i r re sp e cti v e 3 . 2
an d 1 .9 m i lli o n lab o u r fo rce s, h ad an d re tai n i n co m -
m o n a p o li cy o f p e rm i tti n g th e e n try o f u n sk i lle d
wo rke rs. Alth o u gh th e i m m i grati o n o f ski lle d wo rke rs
i s e n co u rage d , th e se u n ski lle d wo rke rs p re d o m i n ate d :
i n th e case o f S i n gap o re to th e e xte n t o f 85% , o ve r o n e
h alf o f wh o m are u n d e rsto o d to b e M alaysian ; i n H o n g
K o n g C h i n a) fo re i gn d o m e sti c h e lp e rs, 85% o f wh o m
are fro m th e P h i li p p i n e s, acco u n te d fo r a ro u n d h alf
th e to ta l fo re i g n wo rkfo rce . L i k e Jap a n an d K o re a,
th e y a re we ll p la ce d to cu rb clan d e sti n e i m m i gra -
ti o n . M o re o ve r, i n th e case o f S i n gap o re , th e re e xi st
ri g o ro u sly e n fo rce d i n te rn a l co n tro ls. O ffi ci al e sti -
m a te s o f th e n u m b e rs o f u n d o cu m e n te d m i gra n ts
are n o t a vai lab le fo r e i th e r o f th e se co u n tri e s; th e y
are u n d e rsto o d h o we ve r to b e re lati ve ly lo w.
I n M a la y si a , th e fo re i g n wo rk fo rce wa s e sti -
m ate d p ri o r to th e cri si s to acco u n t fo r sli gh tly u n d e r
o n e q u a rte r o f th e co u n try s n i n e m i lli o n la b o u r
fo rce . D u e large ly to th e fa ct th at e ve n th o u gh th e y
face co n si d e rab le d i ffi cu lti e s i n e ffe cti ve ly co n tro l-
li n g th e co u n try s e xte n si ve fro n ti e rs th e au th o ri ti e s
h a ve cre a te d si g n i fi can t i n sti tu ti o n al a n d fi n a n ci a l
d i si n ce n ti ve s o n taki n g u p d o cu m e n te d statu s, o n e
th i rd o f th i s fo re i g n wo rk fo rce wa s b e li e v e d to b e
u n d o cu m e n te d . O f th e d o cu m e n te d fo re i g n wo rk -
fo rce le ss th an 5% we re cate go ri se d as ski lle d . T h e se
wo rke rs, wh o are acco rd e d a le gal statu s o f e xp atri -
a te gra n ti n g th e m g re a te r so ci a l ri g h ts th an th o se
a cco rd e d t o t h e i r u n sk i l l e d co u n t e rp a rt s, wo rk
m o stly as se n i o r m an age rs an d e xe cu ti ve s fo r m u lti -
n a ti o n a ls b a se d i n th e i r co u n try o f o ri g i n , 4 0 % o f
wh i ch we re i n th e P h i li p p i n e s, Jap an an d I n d i a. O ve r
h a lf o f th e m u ch g re a t e r b u lk o f u n sk i lle d la b o u r
we re I n d o n e si an ; th i s re fle cts th e re stri cti o n s o n th e
55
O E C D 2000
n a t i o n a l i t y o f l a b o u r m i g ra n t s i m p o se d b y t h e
M a laysi an au th o ri ti e s
2
an d th e two co u n tri e s clo se
so ci a l a n d cu lt u ra l l i n k s a n d k i n sh i p ti e s. B a n g -
la d e sh i s a cco u n te d fo r ap p ro xi m ate ly o n e q u a rte r
an d F i li p i n o s le ss th an 1 0% . T h e I n d o n e si an s, co rre -
sp o n d i n g to th e re su lts o f a re ce n t su rve y acco rd i n g
to wh i ch le ss th a n 1 0 % h a d p asse d b e yo n d se n i o r
h i g h sch o o l, we re m ai n ly e m p lo ye d i n p la n tati o n s
an d i n co n stru cti o n . F i li p i n o s, th e m ajo ri ty fe m ale ,
we re m o st ly e m p l o y e d i n m a n u fa ctu ri n g a n d a s
d o m e sti c h e lp e rs. O f T h a i la n d s se a so n al a v e ra g e
to ta l wo rk fo rce o f a p p ro xi m a te ly 3 1 m i lli o n , d o cu -
m e n t e d fo re i g n w o rk e rs n u m b e re d l e s s t h a n
65 000 p ri o r to th e cri si s. T h e m o st i m p o rtan t so u rce
co u n tri e s fo r t h e se wo rk e rs, th e o v e rwh e l m i n g
m ajo ri ty o f wh o m wo rke d as ke y p e rso n n e l fo r m u lti -
n ati o n al co m p an i e s b ase d i n th e i r co u n try o f o ri gi n ,
we re Ja p a n , th e U n i te d K i n g d o m a n d th e U n i t e d
S ta te s. F o r re a so n s si m i lar to th o se wh i ch ap p ly to
M alaysi a, u n d o cu m e n te d wo rke rs we re e sti m ate d to
n u m b e r ap p ro xi m ate ly o n e m i lli o n , alm o st twi ce th e
fi gu re fo llo wi n g th e 1 996 re gu lari sati o n p ro gram m e .
P ri o r to th e cri si s I n d o n e si a wa s h o st to j u st
u n d e r 50 0 00 re gi ste re d fo re i gn wo rke rs. R e fle cti n g
th e re la ti v e i m p o rta n ce o f th e i r co u n tri e s a s th e
so u rce s o f fo re i gn d i re ct i n ve stm e n t, O E C D M e m b e r
co u n try n ati o n als a cco u n te d fo r a p p ro xi m a te ly 9 0%
o f th e to tal. O f th e se , o n e th i rd we re fro m Jap an an d
K o re a , t h e i r p ro p o rt i o n h a v i n g ri s e n fro m 2 0 %
i n 1 993. I n 1 997 th e re we re , acco rd i n g to th e M i n i stry
o f L ab o u r so m e 8 2 000 ski lle d fo re i gn e rs wo rki n g i n
C h i n a co n ce n tra te d m ai n ly i n th e fi e ld s o f te ch n o l-
o gy, m an age m e n t, e d u cati o n an d cu ltu re . T h i s fi gu re
d o e s n o t fu lly ta ke i n to acco u n t h o we ve r th e n u m -
b e r wo rk i n g fo r fo re i g n -fu n d e d e n te rp ri se s th e
e m p lo ym e n t o f wh o m i s n o t su b je ct to an y n u m e ri -
cal re stri cti o n . G i ve n th at fo re i gn d i re ct i n ve stm e n ts
are acco m p an i e d b y large i n flo ws o f fo re i gn p e rso n -
n e l, m a i n ly te ch n i ca l p ro fe ssi o n a ls a n d m a n ag e rs,
t h e fi g u re o f 8 2 0 0 0 wi l l h a v e b e e n a si g n i fi ca n t
u n d e re sti m ati o n . T h e se p ro fe ssi o n als are b e li e ve d
t o b e we ll o u t n u m b e re d b y i l le g a l wo rk e rs fro m
n e i gh b o u ri n g co u n tri e s, th e o ve rwh e lm i n g m ajo ri ty
o f wh o m are u n ski lle d . I t i s u n d e rsto o d th at th e y are
large ly b ase d i n th e b o rd e r p ro vi n ce s.
b) Post-crisis economic and labour market
performance
I n re sp e ct o f th e cri si s i n i ti a l i m p acts o n e co -
n o m i c gro wth an d e m p lo ym e n t, th e co u n tri e s o f th e
re g i o n ca n b e d i v i d e d i n to th re e g ro u p s. T h e fi rst
gro u p , th o se m o st affe cte d b y th e cri si s, co m p ri se s
I n d o n e si a wh o se e co n o m y was th e h ard e st h i t, K o re a,
M alaysi a an d T h ai lan d . T h e se co n d gro u p , rath e r le ss
a ffe cte d , co m p ri se s H o n g K o n g C h i n a ) , S i n ga p o re
a n d t h e P h i li p p i n e s. C h i n a a n d Ja p a n a re , i n th i s
re sp e ct, i n a gro u p ap art. F o r th e fo rm e r, th e i m p o r-
tan ce o f th e Asi an e xp o rt m arke t i s re lati ve ly m o d e st.
T h e d e e p e n i n g o f th e re ce ssi o n i n Jap an o ccu rre d fo r
re aso n s large ly u n co n n e cte d wi th th e cri si s.
T h e lab o u r m arke t i m p acts o f th e fi n an ci al cri si s
we re h e a v y . F o r t h o s e e c o n o m i e s wh i ch we re
d i re ctly affe cte d , wi th i n twe lve m o n th s o f th e b e gi n -
n i n g o f th e cri si s th e m e d i an i n cre ase i n u n e m p lo y-
m e n t a s o ffi c i a l e s t i m a t e d w a s a l m o s t 2 0 0 % .
F u rt h e rm o re , g i v e n th a t o f th e se e co n o m i e s o n ly
K o re a p ro vi d e s lai d -o ff wo rke rs wi th an y u n e m p lo y-
m e n t b e n e fi ts at a ll, a n d e v e n th e re th e co ve ra g e
d o e s n o t e xte n d b e y o n d ce rt a i n ca te g o ri e s a n d
h e n ce , fam i ly n e two rks n o twi th stan d i n g, th e re e xi sts
sca n t p o ssi b i li ty o f a vo i d i n g d i re p o ve rty i f o n e i s
n o t e m p l o y e d th e n th e re m u st a lso h a v e ta k e n
p lace su b stan ti al tran sfe rs o f lab o u r fro m th e fo rm al
to th e i n fo rm al e co n o m y. F o re i gn wo rke rs we re p ar-
ti cu larly v u ln e rab le to d i sp lace m e n t fo r th e o ve rall
p i ctu re i n d i ca te d b y th e cri si s-affe cte d e co n o m i e s
m acro e co n o m i c d a ta was o n e o f d i sp ro p o rti o n a te ly
g re a t e r se ct o ra l co n t ra ct i o n s i n t h o se se ct o rs ,
inter alia co n stru cti o n an d m an u fa ctu ri n g, e m p lo yi n g
th e gre ate st we i gh t o f th e i r lab o u r.
T h e cri si s-a ffe cte d e co n o m i e s h ave p u lle d o u t
o f re ce ssi o n su rp ri si n gly q u i ckly. T h e re co ve ri e s i n
I n d o n e si a an d th e P h i li p p i n e s, th e re gi o n s p ri n ci p al
so u rce s o f m i gra n t wo rk e rs, ca n n o t y e t b e co n si d -
e re d as fi rm ly e stab li sh e d h o we ve r, as d o u b ts e xi st
re g a rd i n g th e q u a li t y o f th e i r e co n o m i c m a n a g e -
m e n t, wh i ch h a v e h a d le d m o st n o ta b ly to sh a rp
fa l l s i n fo re i g n d i re c t i n v e st m e n t i n fl o ws. T h e
u p tu rn s h a v e p ri m a ri ly b e e n e xp o rt -l e d a n d a re
a ttri b u ta b le i n la rg e p a rt to th e co n ti n u e d ro b u st
gro wth i n th e U n i te d S tate s. T h at th e m i d d le o f 1 999
sa w th e b e g i n n i n g o f a n e co n o m i c tu rn a ro u n d i n
Ja p a n was a lso o f co n si d e rab le i m p o rta n ce i n th i s
re gard . Ju st as th e i r h i gh d e gre e o f i n te rd e p e n d e n cy
th ro u gh trad e an d i n ve stm e n t flo ws was th e co n d u i t
o f th e cri si s co n ta g i o n , th e i m p ro v e m e n ts i n e co -
n o m i c p e rfo rm an ce h ave b e e n m u tu ally re i n fo rci n g.
T h u s far, th e re co v e ri e s h a ve b e e n ce n tre d o n th e
m an u factu ri n g se cto r; a cro ss th e re g i o n , th e h e alth
o f t h e n o n -t ra d a b l e g o o d s se ct o r, i n p a rt i cu l a r
co n stru cti o n , re m ai n s we ak.
D e sp i te th e faste r th an e xp e cte d tu rn aro u n d s i n
e co n o m i c p e rfo rm an ce u n e m p lo ym e n t rate s, th o u gh
i n ge n e ral d e cli n in g, re m ai n h i gh agai n st a b ackgro u n d
56
O E C D 2000
o f co n ti n u e d se cto ra l co n tra cti o n s a n d la rg e sca le
re stru ctu ri n g. I n T h ai lan d , wh e re d e sp i te th e u rb an -
ru ra l m i g rati o n o f an e sti m a te d o n e m i lli o n p e o p le
se aso n ally ad ju ste d u n e m p lo ym e n t h ad ri se n alm o st
th re e fo ld wi th i n twe lve m o n th s o f th e start o f th e crisi s
to o ve r 6% , th e b u rd e n o f wh i ch fe ll alm o st e n ti re ly o n
wo m e n , d a t a fro m a v a ri e t y o f g o v e rn m e n t a n d
re se arch -ce n tre so u rce s, th o u gh n o t agre e i n g o n th e
ab so lu te figu re , all co n fi rm th at it h as n o w ju st o ve r 4% .
I n M alaysi a wh e re th e au th o ri ti e s h ave atte m p te d to
li m i t th e scale o f re d u n d an ci e s b y e n co u ragi n g p ay-
cu ts, re d u cti o n s i n wo rki n g h o u rs an d te m p o rary lay-
o ffs, u n e m p lo y m e n t h as n o w falle n b ack to 3% , o n ly
h alf a p o i n t m o re th an p ri o r to th e cri si s. U n e m p lo y-
m e n t i n K o re a d e cli n e d ste ad i ly d u ri n g 1 999. N e ve r-
th e le ss, alth o u gh th e Jan u ary 2000 fi gu re o f 5.3% was a
m arke d i m p ro ve m e n t o n th at o f 1 2 m o n th s e arli e r i t
was sti ll o ve r twi ce as h i gh as th at p re vai li n g p ri o r to
th e cri si s; th i s d e sp i te a sh arp fall i n th e p arti ci p ati o n
rate . T h e n u m b e r o f th e lo n g-te rm u n e m p lo ye d an d o f
th e wo rki n g p o o r h ave i n cre ase d i n a co n te xt o f gro w-
i n g lab o u r m arke t m i sm atch . T h e lab o u r m arke t si tu a-
ti o n i n I n d o n e si a i s d i ffi cu lt to i n te rp re t d u e to th e
a b se n ce o f d a ta o n th e n u m b e r o f h o u rs wo rk e d :
alth o u gh u n e m p lo ym e n t as o ffi ci ally e sti m ate d h as
falle n b y n i n e p o i n ts to ap p ro xi m ate ly 6% o f th e e sti -
m ate d 95 m i lli o n lab o u r fo rce , o n ly o n e p o i n t h i gh e r
th an th e fi gu re p re va i li n g p ri o r to th e cri si s, u n d e r-
e m p lo ym e n t co u ld we ll b e ve ry h i gh i n d e e d .
I n S i n g a p o re , H o n g K o n g C h i n a ) a n d t h e
P h i l i p p i n e s , t h o u g h t h e i n i t i a l i m p a c t o f t h e
re g i o n a l cri si s o n th e i r la b o u r m a rk e t s wa s m u ch
le ss se v e re th a n i n th e i r d i re ctly a ffe ct e d n e i g h -
b o u rs , t h e re t u rn t o wa rd s p re -cri s i s l e v e l s o f
e m p lo ym e n t i s sti ll n o t e sta b li sh e d . I n S i n ga p o re ,
a l t h o u g h re co rd e d re d u n d a n ci e s o v e r t h e fi rst
th re e q u arte rs o f 1 9 99 we re 40% le ss th an o v e r th e
co rre sp o n d i n g p e ri o d i n 1 9 9 8 , th e la b o u r m a rk e t
h a s re m a i n e d sl a ck ch a ra ct e ri se d b y a m a rk e d
d e gre e o f m i sm a tch ; te ch n i cal sk i lls are i n p arti cu -
la rly sh o rt su p p ly. B y th e e n d o f S e p te m b e r 1 9 9 9
u n e m p l o y m e n t h a d ri se n t o 4 % fro m t h e 3 . 6 %
re co rd e d d u ri n g th e fi rst two q u arte rs an d th e le ss
th a n 2 % p re v a i li n g p ri o r to th e cri si s. H o n g K o n g
C h i n a) , wh e re th e si g n i fi ca n t lo ss o f co m p e ti ti ve -
n e ss d u e to th e d e p re ci ati o n o f th e cu rre n ci e s o f th e
o t h e r e m e rg i n g m a rk e t s h a s co m p o u n d e d t h e
e ffe cts o f th e lo n g -te rm d e -i n d u stri ali sa ti o n o f i ts
e c o n o m y , e x p e ri e n c e d ri s i n g u n e m p l o y m e n t
th ro u g h to th e e n d o f 1 9 99 b ri n gi n g th e rate to 6 % ,
twi ce th a t p re vai li n g p ri o r to th e cri si s. M an u factu r-
i n g i s i n cre a si n g ly b e i n g re lo ca te d , e sp e ci a lly to
so u th e rn C h i n a . T h i s h a s b e e n le a d i n g to th e d i s-
p la ce m e n t o f b l u e -co l la r wo rk e rs. A lth o u g h th e
P h i li p p i n e s h as b e e n e xp e ri e n ci n g ri si n g e m p lo y -
m e n t i n th e agri cu ltu re , fi sh e ri e s an d se rvi ce se cto rs
th e i n cre a se s h a v e o n l y j u st k e p t p a ce wi th th e
i n cre ase i n th e lab o u r fo rce wh i ch ro se b y o ve r th re e
q u a rte rs o f a m i lli o n to re ach a se a so n al ave rag e o f
32 m illi o n i n 1 999. U n e m p lo ym e n t re m ai n s stu b b o rn ly
h i gh th e re fo re at rate s wh i ch flu ctu ate b e twe e n 8 an d
1 2% acco rd in g to th e se aso n , ap p ro xi m ate ly o n e p o i n t
m o re th an th e rate s p re vai li n g b e fo re th e cri sis.
T h e re gi o n al cri si s h as h ad th e e ffe ct o f slo wi n g
C h i n a s g ro wth to a ra te e v e n fu rth e r b e lo w th a t
re q u i re d to cre ate n e t e m p lo ym e n t g ro wth . A t th e
e n d o f 1 999 th e e ffe cti ve u n e m p lo ym e n t rate re gi s-
te re d p lu s la i d -o ff) sto o d a t 9 % o f th e e st i m a t e d
7 5 0 m i lli o n la b o u r fo rce . I n Ja p a n , th e u n e m p lo y -
m e n t ra te h as starte d to d e cli n e h av i n g p e a k e d i n
th e su m m e r o f 1 999 at 5.1 % .
c) Initial migration policy response of receiving
countries
F o r a ll th e re ce i v i n g co u n tri e s, t h e e sse n ti a l
fo cu s o f i m m i grati o n p o li cy i n re sp o n se to th e cri si s
h as b e e n o n li m i ti n g th e e xte n t o f i lle ga l i m m i g ra -
ti o n a n d o n co m b a ti n g th e e m p lo ym e n t o f i lle g a l
fo re i gn wo rk e rs. I n th at th e o v e rwh e lm i n g m ajo ri ty
o f fo re i gn wo rk e rs i n T h a i la n d a re u n d o cu m e n te d ,
t h e a d o p t i o n o f s u c h a n a p p ro a ch b y t h e T h a i
au th o ri ti e s b o re m arke d si m i lari ti e s to th at ad o p te d
i n M alaysi a wh i ch , e xce p ti n g th e K o re an au th o ri ti e s
d e ci si o n to i m p o se a fre e ze o n th e q u o ta o f th e sm all
n u m b e r o f tra i n e e s, wa s th e o n l y co u n try wh i ch
a cti v e ly so u g h t to d i m i n i sh th e n u m b e r o f d o cu -
m e n te d fo re i g n wo rke rs. T h i s p o li cy d i re cti o n co n -
tra sts sh a rp ly wi th th a t a d o p te d b y S i n g ap o re a n d
H o n g K o n g C h i n a) wh e re th e large -scale re p atri ati o n
o f fo re i gn wo rke rs was n o t e ve n co n te m p late d .
T h e i n i ti al p o st-cri si s li n e take n b y th e M alaysi an
a u t h o ri t i e s wa s co m p ri se d o f t wo p ri n ci p a l e l e -
m e n ts: o n th e o n e h an d , b o rd e r p atro ls p arti cu larly
se a) we re ste p p e d u p a n d i n cre ase d atte n ti o n was
p ai d to th o se ai d i n g a n d ab e tti n g i lle gal e n try a n d
e m p lo ym e n t; o n th e o th e r, i t was d e ci d e d to go n o
fu rth e r th a n to m a i n t a i n t h e fre e ze i m p le m e n te d
e a rl i e r i n 1 9 9 7 o n t h e n e w re cru i t m e n t o f se m i -
sk i lle d o r u n sk i lle d wo rk e rs i n se cto rs o th e r th a n
th o se wh i ch are e xp o rt re late d o r co n si d e re d li k e ly
sti m u late e co n o m i c gro wth . I n re sp o n se to a m arke d
d e te ri o ra ti o n i n th e la b o u r m a rk e t a n d m o u n ti n g
p re ssu re fro m trad e u n i o n s th i s e le m e n t o f th e p o l-
57
O E C D 2000
i cy li n e wa s h a rd e n e d i n Ja n u a ry 1 9 9 8 : th e a n n u a l
e m p lo y m e n t le vi e s to b e p a i d b y fo re i gn wo rk e rs
we re i n cre a se d a n d re n e wa l s o f te m p o ra ry wo rk
p a sse s i n th e se rvi ce , m a n u factu ri n g an d co n stru c-
ti o n se ct o rs we re fro ze n . T h o se a ffe ct e d b y th e
fre e ze 380 000) , wh i ch co n ti n u e d th ro u gh to Au gu st,
h ad th e ch o i ce o f e i th e r acce p ti n g re d e p lo ym e n t i n
th e agri cu ltu ral se cto r o r re tu rn i n g to th e i r co u n try o f
o ri gi n . Wh e n th e fre e ze was li fte d acco m p an i e d b y
th e i ssu a n ce o f a d i re cti v e th a t i f re tre n ch m e n t i s
u n a v o i d a b l e , fo re i g n wo rk e rs sh o u l d b e l a i d -o ff
fi rst) , th e M i n i stry o f H o m e Affai rs an n o u n ce d th a t
o n ly 1 1 5 p e o p le h a d ta k e n u p th e o ffe r re d e p lo y -
m e n t an d ju st o ve r 1 1 5 000 h ad ch o se n to le ave . T h e
re m a i n d e r we re a s su m e d t o h a v e re m a i n e d i n
M a la ysi a wo rki n g i lle ga lly. T h i s p ro m p te d th e go v -
e rn m e n t to la u n ch a v o lu n ta ry re p a tri a t i o n p ro -
gram m e co m p le m e n te d b y an i n te n si fi cati o n o f th e
e ffo rts to lo cate an d e xp e l th o se i lle gal wo rke rs wh o
re m ai n e d . F ace d h o we ve r wi th a co n si d e ra b le m i s-
m atch b e twe e n th e asp i rati o n s o f a si ze ab le p ro p o r-
t i o n o f t h e 5 % u n e m p l o y e d a n d t h e v a ca n ci e s
avai lab le , i n p arti cu lar th e u n m e t d e m an d fo r wo rk-
e rs to p e rfo rm th e m o re d e m an d i n g an d d i sa gre e -
a b l e j o b s i n t h e p l a n t a t i o n , co n s t ru c t i o n a n d
se rvi ce s se cto rs th e g o v e rn m e n t h a d b e gu n b y th e
e n d o f 1 9 9 8 t o b a ck t ra ck o n i t s m o re re st ri ct i v e
ap p ro ach .
T h e T h ai go ve rn m e n t ti gh te n e d i ts b o rd e r co n -
tro ls, ad o p te d a p o li cy o f m o re stri ctly i m p le m e n t-
i n g t h e I m m i g ra t i o n L a w a n d a n n o u n ce d t h a t i t
wo u ld re p a tri a t e a ll i lle g a l wo rk e rs a p p re h e n d e d
th o u gh i n th o se case s wh e re th i s wo u ld n o t b e p o s-
si b le p ro vi si o n was m ad e fo r th e m to b e allo we d to
wo rk i n th e p ro v i n ce s b o rd e ri n g B u rm a , L a o s a n d
C a m b o d i a , wh e n ce th e m a j o ri ty o f th e u n d o cu -
m e n t e d fo re i g n wo rk e rs o ri g i n a t e ) . F a c e d l i k e
M a laysi a , h o we v e r, wi th stro n g p re ssu re fro m i n flu -
e n ti al e m p lo ye rs an d e m p lo ye rs o rgan i sati o n s, th e
g o v e rn m e n t b a ck t ra ck e d o n t h i s n e w a p p ro a ch
i n 1 998 an d e le cte d to allo w e m p lo ye rs to h i re i lle -
gal wo rke rs o n o n e -ye ar wo rk p e rm i ts o b tai n ab le fo r
a fe e o f ju st u n d e r U S 1 00 fo r v acan ci e s wh i ch h ad
b e e n b ro u g h t t o t h e a u t h o ri t i e s a t t e n t i o n a n d
re m ai n e d u n fi lle d o n 6 O cto b e r. T h o u gh re gi ste re d
th e y wo u ld n o t re ce i v e a n y le g al sta tu s. Wh at was
e ffe cti ve ly an o th e r re gu lari sati o n p ro gram m e wo u ld
b e fo llo we d b y a fu rth e r crack -d o wn . T h e i n i ti a ti v e
m e t wi th a d i sa p p o i n t i n g re sp o n se : e m p l o y e rs
re q u e ste d p e rm i ts fo r o n ly 1 0 % o f th e e sti m a t e d
900 000 i lle gal wo rke rs. T h i s i s e xp lai n e d o n th e o n e
h an d b y th e re lati ve ly h i gh le ve l o f th e fe e re q u i re d
a n d o n th e o th e r b y th e i lle g al wo rke rs re lu ctan ce
to m an i fe st th e m se lve s i n case a fu rth e r d e te ri o ra -
ti o n i n th e la b o u r m a rk e t si tu a t i o n wa s m e t b y a
p o li cy o f re p a tri a ti o n . Ju st u n d e r o n e th i rd o f th e
a cce p te d ap p li cati o n s we re i n a g ri cu ltu re a n d th e
sa m e i n co n stru cti o n ; fi sh e ri e s an d d o m e sti c a ssi s-
ta n ce e ach acco u n te d fo r a fu rth e r 1 5 % . As th e o n e -
y e a r p e rm i t s fro m t h e O ct o b e r-N o v e m b e r 1 9 9 8
q u asi -re gu lari sati o n ap p ro ach e d th e i r e xp i rati o n th e
go ve rn m e n t d e ci d e d , o n th e b asi s o f an e sti m ate o f
th e d e m an d fo r i lle gal wo rke rs i n th e m o st u n p o p u -
lar o ccu p ati o n s co n d u cte d u n d e r th e au sp i ce s o f th e
M i n i stry o f L a b o u r a n d S o ci a l We lfare , to gra n t a n
e xte n si o n to ju st u n d e r 87 0 00 u n ti l 3 1 Au gu st 20 00
u p o n p a ym e n t o f a fe e o f ju st o v e r U S $2 5 a fi g u re
m o re i n li n e wi th th at wh i ch m i gh t o th e rwi se b e p ai d
a s a b ri b e t o a n i m m i g ra t i o n o ffi c i a l o r p o l i ce
o ffi ce r .
H o n g K o n g C h i n a ) h as m a d e i n cre ase d e ffo rts
t o d e t e c t u n d o c u m e n t e d i m m i g ra n t s , a s h a s
S i n g a p o re wh i ch i n a d d i ti o n ra i se d co n si d e ra b ly
i n 1 9 9 8 t h e p e n a lti e s fo r i l le g a l i m m i g ra ti o n a n d
e m p lo ym e n t an d re n d e re d co m p an y ch i e fs p e rso n -
a lly l i a b l e fo r t h e h i ri n g o f i lle g a l i m m i g ra n t s. I n
K o re a, a raft o f p o li cy i n i ti ati ve s we re i m p le m e n te d
i n clu d i n g th e rai si n g o f p e n a lti e s o n th e e m p lo ye rs
o f i lle g al i m m i gran ts an d o n i lle g al m i g ra n ts th e m -
se lv e s, co m p le m e n te d b y th e i m p le m e n ta ti o n o f
a n a m n e st y p ro g ra m m e a n d th e o ffe r o f fi n a n ci a l
su p p o rt to sm a ll an d m e d i u m si ze d co m p a n i e s i n
th e h o p e th at i n cre a se d ca p i ta l i n v e stm e n t wo u ld
re n d e r e m p l o y m e n t i n t h e s e co m p a n i e s m o re
a ttra cti ve to n ati o n a ls.
d) Response of labour sending countries
I n re sp o n se to th e d e te ri o rati o n s i n th e re gi o n s
l a b o u r m a rk e ts th e P h i l i p p i n e s g o v e rn m e n t h a s
so u gh t, o n th e o n e h an d , to faci li tate th e re i n te gra-
ti o n o f o ve rse as wo rke rs d i sp lace d as a re su lt o f th e
cri si s an d , o n th e o th e r, aware th at d o m e sti c e co n -
o m y s ca p a ci ty to a b so rb th e m i s v e ry li m i te d , to
e n co u ra g e j o b re te n ti o n a n d to i d e n ti fy m a rk e t
n i ch e s wh e re F i li p i n o wo rk e rs h a v e a co m p e ti ti v e
e d ge , b o th wi th i n th e re g i o n an d o u tsi d e , n o ta b ly
th e O E C D are a.
T h ai lan d to o h as b e e n e n co u ragi n g i ts n ati o n als
to se e k e m p lo y m e n t a b ro a d . I n a cle ar d e p a rtu re
fro m th e p re -cri si s si tu a ti o n wh e n th e g o v e rn m e n t
d i d n o t i n t e rfe re i n t h e m a rk e t a g o v e rn m e n t
a g e n cy, i n co -o p e ra ti o n wi th co m m e rci a l b an ks, i s
p ro v i d i n g lo w i n te re st lo a n s to th i s e n d . F u rth e r-
58
O E C D 2000
m o re , th e M i n i stry o f L a b o u r a n d S o ci a l We lfa re
so u g h t co -o p e rati o n i n 1 9 98 fro m se v e ral co u n tri e s
to se n d at le a st 2 1 5 0 0 0 T h a i wo rk e rs o v e rse a s b y
th e e n d o f th e ye ar.
M a la y si a ca n a l so b e sa i d t o b e p ro m o t i n g
la b o u r e m i grati o n , b o th d o cu m e n te d a n d u n d o cu -
m e n te d . I ts ci ti ze n s stu d yi n g ab ro ad o n go ve rn m e n t
sch o larsh i p s are n o lo n ge r co m p e lle d to co m e h o m e
to se rve th e g o ve rn m e n t a s re q u i re d b y th e i r co n -
tracts. M o re o ve r, m i rro ri n g th e scan t co -o p e rati o n i t
h as re ce i ve d re ga rd i n g th e re p atri a ti o n o f u n d o cu -
m e n te d fo re i gn wo rke rs, th e ru li n g th a t M ala ysi an s
a p p re h e n d e d a b ro a d fo r o v e rst a y i n g t h e i r v i sa
sh o u ld h a v e t h e i r p a ssp o rt s i m p o u n d e d b y t h e
i m m i g ra ti o n a u th o ri ti e s o n th e i r re tu rn h a s b e e n
wi th d rawn .
e) Post-crisis trends in immigration flows and the
employment of foreign workers
I n K o re a, re gi ste re d fo re i gn wo rke rs h ave cle arly
p la ye d a b u ffe r ro le : th e n u m b e r o f ski lle d fo re i g n
wo rk e rs, h a v i n g fa ll e n b y a q u a rt e r d u ri n g 1 9 9 8 ,
i n cre a se d b y o ve r 1 0 % i n 1 9 99 ; fo llo wi n g an a lm o st
30% fall i n 1 998, th e gro wth i n th e n u m b e r o f trai n e e s
i n 1 9 99 was su ch as to b ri n g th e i r n u m b e r o v e r th e
p re -cri si s fi g u re . O n th e o th e r h an d , th e le gi sla ti o n
an d a cco m p an yi n g m e asu re s i m p le m e n te d to co m -
b at th e e m p lo ym e n t o f i lle g al m i gran t wo rke rs a n d
e n co u rage th e m to le ave d i d n o t h ave an y si gn i fi can t
i m p act b e y o n d th e v e ry sh o rt-te rm : alth o u gh th e i r
n u m b e rs fe ll b y o n e th i rd d u ri n g 1 9 98, th i s d e cli n e
was o n ly m argi n ally gre ate r th an th at i n th e n u m b e rs
o f le ga lly re g i ste re d wo rke rs a n d trai n e e s; i n 1 99 9 ,
a cco m p a n y i n g t h e a p p re ci a ti o n o f th e wo n , t h e i r
n u m b e rs i n cre ase d b y o ve r 35% b ri n gi n g th e n u m b e r
b ack to wi th i n 1 0 % o f th e p re -cri si s fi gu re . T h at th e
m e a su re s i m p le m e n te d i n th e i r re g a rd h a d sca n t
i m p act b e ars wi tn e ss to , o n th e o n e h an d , th e e xi st-
e n ce o f an e ffe cti ve flo o r o n th e n u m b e r o f u n d o cu -
m e n te d fo re i gn wo rke rs d u e to th e e stab li sh m e n t o f
fi rm ly e m b e d d e d so ci al n e two rks an d , o n th e o th e r,
th e d i ffi cu lty i n p re ve n ti n g vi sa h o ld e rs fro m o v e r-
stayi n g. I t wo u ld ap p e ar th at i n sp i te o f th e re lati ve ly
h i gh le ve l o f o ffi ci al u n e m p lo ym e n t am o n g th e lo w-
ski lle d an d th e g e n e rally we a k i n su ra n ce co ve rag e
th e re re m ai n s u n sati sfi e d d e m an d fo r lo w-wage wo rk-
e rs p re p are d to p e rfo rm th e m o re d i sagre e ab le jo b s.
I n M a la y si a , th e n u m b e r o f re g i ste re d fo re i gn
wo rk e rs d e cli n e d b y a n e sti m a te d 2 3 % i n 1 9 9 8 .
3 , 4
O ve r th e sam e p e ri o d , th e e sti m ate d n u m b e r o f i lle -
gal wo rke rs fe ll b y le ss th an 1 0% ; th i s i s d e sp i te an
am n e sty le ad i n g to th e vo lu n tary re p atri ati o n o f th e
e q u i vale n t o f 25% o f th e to tal e sti m ate d sto ck at th e
sta rt o f th e ye a r. I t wo u ld ap p e ar th at a si g n i fi ca n t
p ro p o rti o n o f th o se affe cte d b y th e fre e ze o n p e rm i t
re n e wa ls o p te d t o sta y a n d wo rk wi t h o u t p a p e rs;
e m p lo y e rs wi ll d o u b tle ss h a v e b e e n k e e n to h i re
th e m i n o rd e r to h o l d d o wn co st s i n th e fa ce o f
i n cre a se d co m p e ti ti v e p re ssu re . I n 1 99 9, th e n u m -
b e r o f re g i ste re d fo re i g n wo rk e rs wa s e sti m a te d
at 898 000, a fu rth e r d e cli n e o f 20% . A 1 999 e sti m ate
o f th e n u m b e r o f i lle gal wo rke rs i s n o t avai lab le .
T h e T h a i a u th o ri ti e s h a d b y N o v e m b e r 1 9 9 8
re p atri a te d ju st u n d e r 2 9 0 0 0 0 i lle g al wo rk e rs a n d
p re su m e d th at th e re h ad take n p lace an ad d i ti o n al
n e t o u tflo w o f a p p ro xi m a te ly 9 0 0 0 0 , b ri n g i n g th e
to ta l n u m b e r o f n o n -re g i st e re d i lle g a l wo rk e rs a s
e sti m a te d b y th e M i n i stry o f E m p lo y m e n t d o wn
to 61 0 000, a fall o f 35 % o n th e i m m e d i ate p re -cri si s
fi gu re o f ap p ro xi m ate ly o n e m i lli o n . B y co n trast, th e
n u m b e r o f d o cu m e n te d fo re i g n wo rk e rs i n cre a se d
b y alm o st 1 0% i n 1 998 to ju st u n d e r 70 000, to wh i ch
sh o u l d b e a d d e d th e 9 0 0 0 0 i lle g a l wo rk e rs wh o
we re g ran te d o n e ye a r p e rm i ts. B y M ay 1 9 99, a fu r-
th e r 4 5 0 0 0 i lle g a l wo rk e rs h a d b e e n re p a tri a te d .
E xce p t i n g th e 8 7 0 0 0 re g i ste re d i lle g a l wo rk e rs, a
1 9 9 9 fi g u re fo r d o cu m e n te d wo rk e rs h a s n o t y e t
b e e n m ad e avai lab le .
Agai n st a b ackgro u n d o f wage re strai n t co u p le d
wi th a p o si ti ve re sp o n se to th e au th o ri ti e s e xh o rta-
ti o n th at re tre n ch m e n t d e ci si o n s sh o u ld b e b ase d
p ri m ari ly o n p ro d u cti vi ty rath e r th an n ati o n ali ty, th e
n u m b e r o f fo re i gn e rs wo rki n g i n S i n ga p o re i n 1 9 98,
5 30 0 00 , co m p o se d o f 45 0 00 0 wo rk p e rm i t h o ld e rs
th e b u lk o f wh o m u n ski lle d ) an d 80 000 p a ss h o ld -
e rs wh o h a ve te rti ary o r p ro fe ssi o n al q u ali fi cati o n s
an d e arn o ve r S G D 2 00 0 p e r m o n th ) co rre sp o n d e d
to th e le v e l p re d i cte d i n 1 9 9 6 o n th e b a si s o f th e
m e d i u m te rm tre n d o b se rv e d a t th a t ti m e . T h e i r
n u m b e r i s u n d e rsto o d to h av e n o t ch an ge d si gn i fi -
ca n tly i n 1 9 9 9 . Wh i lst th e d a ta fro m th e S i n g ap o re
a u th o ri ti e s a n d fro m se n d i n g co u n tri e s p o i n ts t o
o n l y a sl i g h t a n d d i m i n i sh i n g i m p a ct o n t h o s e
a lre a d y wo rk i n g i n th e co u n try, d a ta fro m se n d i n g
co u n tri e s d o i n d i cate h o we ve r a si gn i fi can t d e cli n e
i n n e w h i re s a t th e lo we r e n d o f th e sk i lls ra n g e
d u ri n g 1 9 9 8 a n d a n a cce le ra t i o n o f t h i s d e cli n e
i n 1 999. At 23 000, th e n u m b e r o f o ve rstaye rs cau gh t
i n S i n g ap o re wa s th e h i gh e st fi g u re si n ce 1 9 90 a n d
an i n cre ase o f 64% o n th e 1 997 fi gu re . I t i s d i ffi cu lt to
d i sce rn , h o we ve r, wh e th e r th i s was d u e to i n cre ase d
i lle g a l m i g ra ti o n o r wa s th e fru i t o f th e i n cre a se d
e ffo rts at d e te cti o n .
59
O E C D 2000
I n H o n g K o n g C h i n a) to o , th e n u m b e r o f u n d o c-
u m e n te d fo re i gn e rs ca u g h t i n 1 9 98 wa s sh a rp ly u p
o n 1 997. F o r th e sam e re aso n as i n S i n gap o re , i t i s n o t
p o ssi b le to p o si ti ve ly i n te rp re t th e fi gu re s wi th co n fi -
d e n ce . T h e i ssu a n ce o f e m p lo ym e n t vi sas, alre ad y
l e ss t h a n 1 0 0 0 0 p e r y e a r, h a d b e e n d e cl i n i n g
si n ce 1 995, large ly as a re su lt o f th e d o wn tu rn i n th e
m an u factu ri n g se cto r; a fu rth e r d e cli n e was re co rd e d
i n th e 1 99 8/99 fi scal ye ar. O n th e o th e r h an d , wh i lst
co n tract te rm i n ati o n s am o n g th e m u ch large r n u m b e r
fo re i gn d o m e sti c h e lp e rs h ave b e e n ri si n g, th e i r to tal
sto ck ro se b y 5. 6% i n 1 998 i n d i cati n g th at th o se wh o
h ave lo st th e i r p o st face d li ttle d i ffi cu lty i n fi n d i n g a
fre sh o n e . D ata o n th e i ssu an ce o f e m p lo ym e n t vi sas
fo r d o m e sti c h e lp e rs d o i n d i cate h o we ve r th at m o re
re c e n t l y d e m a n d h a s b e e n d e c l i n i n g : h a v i n g
i n cre ase d b y 30% i n F Y 1 997/98 to 46 800, th e i n flo w
p e rso n s o n d o m e sti c h e lp e r vi sas d e cli n e d b y 1 7% i n
F Y 1 998/99.
A cco m p a n y i n g th e fu rth e r sla ck e n i n g o f th e
Ja p a n e se la b o u r m a rk e t, th e i n flo w o f p e rso n s o f
Jap an e se d e sce n t, wh o e n te r wi th o u t an y re stri cti o n
b e i n g p lace d o n th e i r e m p lo ym e n t, h a vi n g a lm o st
d o u b l e d o v e r t h e p re ce d i n g t wo y e a rs, fe l l b y
a lm o st 3 0 % i n 1 9 9 8 t o ju st u n d e r 4 6 5 0 0 . T h a t th e
i n flo w o f th o se wi th re stri cte d p e rm i ssi o n to wo rk,
all o f wh o m a re classi fi e d as ski lle d , ro se b y n e a rly
1 0 % t o 1 0 2 0 0 0 wa s l a rg e l y a t t ri b u t a b l e t o t h e
i n cre ase i n th e e n tri e s o f e n te rtai n e rs wh o acco u n t
fo r a lm o st th re e q u arte rs o f th e to ta l i n flo w u n d e r
th i s ca te go ry. F o llo wi n g th re e y e a rs o f at o r a b o v e
d o u b le -d i g i t gro wth , th e i n flo w o f trai n e e s ro se b y
ju st 1 % to sl i g h tl y u n d e r 5 0 0 0 0 . T o g e th e r, th e se
t h re e ca t e g o ri e s o f fo re i g n wo rk e r n u m b e re d
ap p ro xi m ate ly 455 000 at th e e n d o f 1 998, th e sam e
a s a t t h e e n d o f 1 9 9 7 . T h e n u m b e r o f p e o p l e
d e te cte d a s h a vi n g e n te re d wi th o u t p ro p e r d o cu -
m e n t a t i o n , h a v i n g ri se n b y a l m o st 5 0 % i n 1 9 9 7 ,
wh i ch q u i ckly le d th e Jap an e se au th o ri ti e s to i n tro -
d u ce ad d i ti o n al am e n d m e n ts to th e I m m i grati o n Act
i n o rd e r to fu rth e r co u n te r th e cri m i n al o rgan i sati o n s
i n v o lv e d i n clan d e sti n e i m m i g ra ti o n , i n cre a se d b y
ju st 5 % i n 1 9 9 8 , a ra t e wh i ch co rre sp o n d s t o t h e
m e d i u m te rm tre n d o b se rv e d p ri o r to 1 9 9 7 . T h e
n u m b e r o f p e rso n s d e p o rte d fe ll b y 2% i n 1 9 98 , as
d i d th e to tal n u m b e r o f u n d o cu m e n te d wo rke rs.
In 1 997, as a re su lt o f th e e co n o m i c cri si s, i n p arti c-
u lar th e d e p re ci ati o n o f th e ru p i ah an d th e p o li ti cal
u n ce rtai n ty, th e n u m b e r o f re gi ste re d fo re i gn wo rke rs
i n I n d o n e si a d e cli n e d b y alm o st 30% to 35 200. In 1 998,
th e ir n u m b e r d e cli n e d fu rth e r, b y 5% to 33 300. T h e fall
i n th e n u m b e r o f su p e rvi so rs was d i sp ro p o rti o n ate ly
th e large st re fle cti n g th e i r gre ate r d e gre e o f su b sti tu t-
ab i li ty. P o st-crisi s d ata o n th e n u m b e r o f re gi ste re d fo r-
e i g n wo rk e rs i n C h i n a a re n o t a va i la b le . R e g ard i n g
th o se e m p lo ye d i n fo re i gn -fu n d e d e n te rp ri se s, gi ve n
th a t g ro wth i n th e i r n u m b e rs i s stro n g ly li n k e d to
i n flo ws o f fo re i gn d ire ct i n ve stm e n t, wh i ch fe ll su b stan -
ti ally i n 1 998, i t i s u n li ke ly th at th e re h as take n p lace
an y si gn i fi can t in cre ase .
f) Post-crisis trends in labour emigration
P ri o r to th e cri si s th e re we re a n e sti m a te d
600 -650 0 00 lan d -b ase d F i li p i n o s wo rki n g a b ro ad i n
Asi a alo n g wi th an ap p ro xi m ate ly e q u al n u m b e r o f
i lle gal wo rke rs) . I n th e fi rst n i n e m o n th s o f 1 998 th e
o u tflo w o f n e wly h i re d F i li p i n o wo rke rs d e cli n e d b y
1 0% o n th e co rre sp o n d i n g p e ri o d i n 1 997 to 1 75 000.
T h e falls to all Asi an co u n tri e s e xce p t Jap an ju st o ff-
se t th e i n cre ase s to Am e ri ca, Afri ca an d E u ro p e . T h i s
i n i ti al d o wn tu rn was gre ate st i n K o re a an d M alaysi a
wh e re fre sh h i re s fe ll b y o ve r 50% an d b y alm o st 95%
re sp e cti ve ly. I n th e cri si s affe cte d e co n o m i e s co n -
tract re n e wa ls a lso fe ll si g n i fi ca n tly, b y 1 9 % , wh i ch
su b sta n ti al i n cre ase s i n B ru n e i an d C h i n e se Ta i p e i
n a rro wly fai le d to o ffse t. M a le wo rk e rs, th e m arke t
fo r wh o se se rvi ce s i s large ly i n acti vi ti e s wh i ch h ave
b e e n b ad ly h i t b y th e fi n an ci al cri si s su ch as p ro d u c-
ti o n , co n stru cti o n a n d sm a ll-sca le m a n u fa ctu ri n g ,
w e re m o re a ff e c t e d t h a n fe m a l e wo rk e rs t h e
d e m an d fo r wh o m re m ai n e d b u o ya n t i n su ch are a s
as d o m e sti c assi stan ce i n H o n g K o n g C h i n a) , o ffi ce
cl e a n i n g a n d ca re ta k i n g i n C h i n e se T a i p e i , a n d
e n te rta i n m e n t wo rk i n Ja p an . As th e cri si s a ffe cte d
e co n o m i e s b e g a n to p i ck u p i n 1 9 9 9 so d i d th e i r
re cru i tm e n t o f F i li p i n o wo rk e rs. Alth o u g h co n tra ct
re n e wa ls wi th i n th e Asi an re g i o n e xce p t i n Jap an )
h ave co n ti n u e d to d e cli n e , th e i n cre ase i n n e w h i re s
o v e r th e fi rst n i n e m o n th s o f 1 99 9 a s co m p a re d to
t h e sa m e p e ri o d i n 1 9 9 8 wa s ju st u n d e r 1 0 % : th e
i n cre a se s i n Jap a n 1 8% ) , K o re a 60 % ) a n d C h i n e se
T a i p e i 1 6 % ) we re su ch a s o ffse t th e co n ti n u e d
d e cli n e s to B ru n e i , H o n g K o n g C h i n a) M alaysi a an d
S i n gap o re . T h e i n cre asi n g fe m ale d o m i n an ce o f th e
lab o u r m i grati o n flo w, alre ad y ap p are n t p ri o r to th e
e co n o m i c cri si s, h a s co n ti n u e d : a s n e w h i re s o f
fe m ale wo rke rs i n cre ase d b y o ve r 1 6% i n 1 999 wh i lst
th at o f m e n i n cre ase d b y o n ly 0. 1 % , th e y acco u n te d
i n 1 999 fo r alm o st two th i rd s o f th e to tal o u tflo w.
Acco rd i n g to th e I n d o n e si a n M i n i stry o f M a n -
p o we r, th e n u m b e r o f I n d o n e si an s le g a lly wo rki n g
ab ro ad d e clin e d b y 24% in 1 998 to 380 000. T h i s o ve rall
d e cli n e was co m p o se d o n th e o n e h an d o f a 222 000
70% ) fall i n th e n u m b e r e m p lo ye d i n M alaysi a, wh i ch
60
O E C D 2000
was h o st i n 1 997 to alm o st two th i rd s o f I n d o n e si a s
d o cu m e n te d lab o u r e m i gran ts, an d o n th e o th e r b y
an o v e r 50 % i n cre a se to ju st u n d e r 1 80 00 0) i n th e
n u m b e r wo rki n g i n S au d i Arab i a co u p le d wi th ri se s
o f a si m i lar e xte n t to S i n gap o re an d C h i n e se Tai p e i
b ri n gi n g th e i r co m b i n e d to tal to ju st u n d e r 60 000. I n
a d d i ti o n to th i s d e cl i n e i n th e n u m b e r o f d o cu -
m e n t e d wo rk e rs, a p p ro xi m a t e l y 1 6 0 0 0 0 u n d o cu -
m e n te d m i gran ts le ft M alaysi a vo lu n tari ly d u ri n g th e
S e p t e m b e r-N o v e m b e r 1 9 9 8 a m n e st y p e ri o d i t i s
n o t kn o wn h o we v e r wh a t p ro p o rti o n o f th e se h a d
p re vi o u sly h e ld wo rk p e rm i ts p ri o r to th e se le cti ve
fre e ze o n th e i r i ssu e ) . Acco m p an yi n g th i s d e cli n e i n
th e n u m b e r o f i ts n ati o n a ls wo rk i n g i n S o u th -E a st
Asi a an d th e d e p re ci ati o n s o f th e i r cu rre n ci e s, re m i t-
tan ce s fro m th e Asi a-P aci fi c re gi o n n o t i n clu d i n g th e
U n i te d S ta te s) , h a v i n g i n cre a se d b y a lm o st 1 5 0 %
i n 1 9 9 7 , d e cl i n e d b y a l m o st 1 0 % i n 1 9 9 8 t o ju st
u n d e r U S $750 m i lli o n .
S u p p o rte d b y go ve rn m e n ta l e ffo rts at se cu ri n g
co -o p e rati ve arran ge m e n ts wi th o th e r co u n tri e s, th e
d o cu m e n te d la b o u r e m i g ra ti o n flo w fro m T h a i la n d
i n cre a se d b y 5 % i n 1 9 9 8 t o 1 9 2 0 0 0 : a 6 0 0 0 6 % )
i n cre a se i n th e n u m b e r g o i n g to C h i n e se T a i p e i
wh i ch acco u n te d fo r alm o st two th i rd s o f th e o ve rall
to ta l) a n d sm a ll i n cre a se s i n th o se g o i n g to O E C D
co u n tri e s to ge th e r m o re th an o ffse t a 3 340 fall i n th e
n u m b e r go i n g to AS E AN co u n tri e s wh o acco u n te d i n
th at ye ar fo r ju st u n d e r o n e q u arte r o f th e to tal. T h e
n u m b e r fe ll b ack h o we ve r d u ri n g th e fi rst h alf o f 1 999,
th e to tal fo r th e fi rst si x m o n th s b e i n g 1 6% le ss th an
fo r th e co rre sp o n d i n g p e ri o d i n 1 998. I t i s e xp e cte d ,
h o we ve r, th at as a re su lt o f th e go ve rn m e n t s co n ti n -
u e d e ffo rts to su p p o rt lab o u r e m i grati o n th e e n d o f
ye ar fi gu re wi ll h ave e xce e d e d th at o f 1 998.
T h e re g i o n s o th e r i m p o rta n t lab o u r e xp o rte r,
C h i n a, h ad a to tal o f 334 00 0 o f i ts n ati o n als wo rk i n g
a b ro a d i n 1 9 9 7 u n d e r co n tra ct s o v e rse e n b y th e
C h i n e se au th o ri ti e s, th e so le le g a l fo rm o f la b o u r
e xp o rt. Alth o u g h o v e r re ce n t ye ars ap p ro xi m a te ly
7 0 % o f C h i n a s l a b o u r e xp o rt h a s g o n e t o o t h e r
Asi an co u n tri e s, fre q u e n tly fo r large -scale co n stru c-
t i o n p ro j e c t s , t h e n u m b e r o f C h i n e se wo rk e rs
a b ro a d i s u n d e rsto o d to h a v e b e e n b ro a d ly co n -
st a n t i n 1 9 9 8 d u e e ffo rt s t o se cu re co n t ra ct s i n
o th e r se cto rs an d co u n tri e s.
g) Recent developments in migration policies
T h o u g h co n ti n u i n g to p a y g re ate r a tte n ti o n to
i lle gal m i grati o n , th e go ve rn m e n ts o f th e re g i o n are
n o w re ve rsi n g o r re laxi n g th e o th e r m e asu re s i m p le -
m e n te d wi th re g ard to fo re i gn wo rke rs i n re sp o n se
to th e cri si s an d are ad ju sti n g th e i r m i g ra ti o n p o li -
ci e s to wa rd s a ch i e v i n g m e d i u m a n d lo n g e r-t e rm
o b je cti ve s.
As th e M alaysi an e co n o m y b e gan to p u ll o u t o f
re ce ssi o n i n th e m i d d le o f 1 9 9 9 , th e I m m i g ra t i o n
D e p artm e n t, wh i lst re tain i n g a n o m i n al b an o n th e n e w
re cru i tm e n t o f p e rso n s o th e r th an p ro fe ssi o n als an d
ski lle d wo rke rs, b e gan to allo w se le cti ve re cru itm e n t
i n cri ti cal se cto rs su ch as p lan tati o n s, m an u factu ri n g
an d d o m e sti c se rvi ce s. T h e go ve rn m e n t also ap p ro ve d
i n Jan u ary 2000 th e re cru i tm e n t o f 20 000 fo re i gn wo rk-
e rs in th e te xtile an d re stau ran t se cto rs.
C o m b ati n g i lle gal i m m i grati o n an d th e e m p lo y-
m e n t o f u n d o cu m e n te d wo rke rs re m ai n s h o we ve r a
h i gh p ri o ri ty. I n M ay 1 999, th e S i n gap o re M i n i stry o f
M a n p o we r i ss u e d n e w wo rk p e rm i t ca rd s wi t h
e n h an ce d se cu ri ty fe atu re s i n o rd e r to p re ve n t th e i r
fo rg e ry. I n A u g u st 1 9 9 9 , th e Ja p a n e se p a rli a m e n t
ap p ro ve d n e w m e asu re s to co m b at i lle ga l i m m i gra-
ti o n . I n M ala ysi a, th e I m m i g ra ti o n D e p artm e n t h as
re ce n tly h i re d 300 n e w o ffi ce rs to d e te ct o ve rstaye rs
an d i lle gal wo rke rs. T h e T h ai au th o ri ti e s an n o u n ce d
th at th e e n d o f th e n e w q u asi -re gu la ri sati o n p e ri o d
i n N o v e m b e r 1 9 9 9 wo u l d b e fo llo we d b y g re a te r
e ffo rts to ap p re h e n d i lle g al wo rk e rs. T h e i m m i gra -
ti o n p o li ce are attach i n g gre ate st p ri o ri ty to catch i n g
tra ffi ck e rs, fo llo we d b y cro ss-b o rd e r wo rk e rs a n d
th e n o th e r i lle g a l wo rk e rs. F a cto ry o wn e rs ca u g h t
e m p lo yi n g i lle gal wo rke rs wi ll i n th e fi rst i n stan ce b e
i ssu e d m e re ly wi th a warn i n g h o we ve r. T h e au th o ri -
ti e s ai m to ke e p th e to tal n u m b e r o f i lle gal wo rke rs
re gi ste re d an d u n re gi ste re d ) b e lo w 200 000.
T h e fo cu s o f m i g ra ti o n p o li cy i s n o w i n cre a s-
i n gly tu rn i n g to ward s attracti n g h i gh ly ski lle d lab o u r.
T h a t S i n g a p o re m o d i fi e d th e re g u l a ti o n s g o v e r-
n i n g t h e i s s u e o f wo rk p e rm i t s a n d p a s s e s i n
S e p te m b e r 1 9 99 i n o rd e r to faci li tate th e e stab li sh -
m e n t o f fo re i gn te ch n o lo gi ca l e n tre p re n e u rs was i n
li n e wi th i ts p re vi o u sly e stab li sh e d strate gy fo r lo n g-
te rm g ro wth v i z. g re a te r e m p h a si s o n h i g h v a lu e -
ad d e d m an u fa ctu ri n g an d o n b e co m i n g th e se rv i ce
h u b fo r th e re gi o n as we ll a s wi th th e g o ve rn m e n t s
state d ai m o f m aki n g th e co u n try a ce n tre o f i d e as,
i n n o v a t i o n a n d e xch a n g e . T h e Ja p a n e se g o v e rn -
m e n t s d e ci si o n i n O ct o b e r 1 9 9 9 t o e xt e n d t h e
d u ra ti o n o f th e i n i ti a l v i sas acco rd e d to all sk i lle d
wo rk e rs wi th th e e xce p ti o n o f e n te rta i n e rs a n d to
re lax sli gh tly th e e n try re q u i re m e n ts fo r ce rtai n cate -
go ri e s o f ski lle d wo rk e r was si m i la rly i n li n e wi th a
p re -e stab li sh e d p o li cy d i re cti o n . T h e sam e i s tru e o f
th e M alay si an go ve rn m e n t s e n co u rag e m e n t o f th e
61
O E C D 2000
e n try o f p ro fe ssi o n als an d ski lle d wo rke rs i n o rd e r to
e n co u ra ge te ch n o lo g y tra n sfe r. O n th e o th e r h an d ,
th e I n d o n e si an au th o ri ti e s rati fi cati o n i n M ay 1 999 o f
th e I L O C o n ve n ti o n 1 1 1 re gard i n g n o n -d i scri m i n ati o n
i n e m p lo ym e n t o n th e gro u n d s, inter alia, o f n ati o n al-
i ty, th e re b y ab o li sh i n g i n p ri n ci p le th e li st o f o ccu p a-
ti o n s to wh i ch fo re i gn e rs are b arre d o ve rwh e lm i n gly
th o se fo r wh i ch th e go ve rn m e n t b e li e ve s th e re to b e
a su ffi ci e n t p o o l o f n ati o n als) was a cle ar d e p a rtu re
fro m i ts p re vi o u s p o li cy.
T h e re ce n t d e cl i n e s i n b o th th e o u tfl o w o f
m i gra n t wo rke rs an d i n th e re n e wa l o f e xi sti n g co n -
tra cts a s we ll a s th e i n cre a se d fe m i n i sati o n o f th e
m i g ra n t wo rk fo rce h a ve b ro u gh t u p two ke y p o li cy
i ssu e s fo r th e P h i li p p i n e au th o ri ti e s wh i ch th e y are
co n ti n u i n g to e xp lo re : th e n e e d to m a xi m i se a n d
b e tte r ch an n e l re m i ttan ce s, an d th e n e e d to fu rth e r
p ro m o te th e u se o f F i li p i n o lab o u r b y o ve rse as co m -
p an i e s wh i lst e n su ri n g th a t th e y are n o t e xp lo i te d .
T h e a ch i e v e m e n t o f th i s la tte r a i m i s i m p e d e d a t
p re se n t h o we ve r b y th e p re se n ce i n th e re gi o n an d
e lse wh e re o f o th e r co u n tri e s e q u ally e ag e r to p ro -
m o te la b o u r e xp o rt b u t le ss co n ce rn e d wi th e n su r-
i n g th e re sp e ct an d th e e xte n si o n o f th e i r n ati o n als
e m p l o y m e n t ri g h ts i n th o se re ci p i e n t co u n tri e s
wh e re e m p lo y e rs a n d th e a u th o ri ti e s co n ti n u e to
re si st i m p ro v e m e n ts. I n th i s re g a rd , t h e C h i n e se
au th o ri ti e s are d rawi n g u p R e gu lati o n s o n th e p ro -
te cti o n o f th e ri gh ts an d i n te re sts o f o ve rse as wo rk-
e rs wi th th e ai m o f gu aran te e i n g th e i r le ga l ri gh ts.
T h e y a re a lso se e k i n g to co n clu d e b i la te ra l a gre e -
m e n t s co n ce rn i n g so ci a l se cu ri ty co v e ra g e m o st
n o tab ly wi th G e rm an y an d K o re a) .
2. Trends in migration flows in Central
and Eastern Europe
T h e p o li ti ca l an d e co n o m i c ch a n g e s a s we ll a s
th e m a n i fe st a t i o n o f so ci a l a n d e t h n i c te n si o n s
wh i ch fo llo we d th e o p e n i n g o f th e b o rd e rs i n C e n tral
an d E aste rn E u ro p e le d to si ze ab le m i grati o n m o ve -
m e n ts a n d to co n ce rn s re ga rd i n g th e p o ssi b i li ty o f
la rg e -sca le p o p u la ti o n t ra n sfe rs. T h e se co n ce rn s
h a v e n o t b e e n re a li se d . A lth o u g h t h e e m i g ra ti o n
flo ws co n ti n u e , n o tab ly to wa rd s We ste rn E u ro p e , i t
wo u ld a p p e a r th a t th e m i g ra ti o n flo ws wi th i n a n d
fro m th e C e n tra l a n d E a ste rn E u ro p e a n co u n tri e s
C E E C s) are m u ch m o re co m p le x th an a strai gh tfo r-
wa rd we st wa rd flo w to wa rd s th e E u ro p e a n U n i o n
an d N o rth Am e ri ca.
Te n ye ars afte r th e o p e n i n g o f th e b o rd e rs, th e
re tu rn m o v e m e n ts o f p e rso n s wi th fa m i ly li n k s i n
th e i r n e w h o st co u n try p e rsi st i n ce rta i n re gi o n s o f
th e C E E C s. T o th e se a re a d d e d th e m o ve m e n ts o f
th o se wh o se e k to e n te r We ste rn E u ro p e b u t wh o ,
face d wi th th e se ve re ly re stri cti ve fro n ti e r co n tro ls,
a re o fte n co n strai n e d to co n si d e r re tu rn i n g to th e i r
co u n try o f o ri gi n o r, m o re o fte n , re si d e clan d e sti n e ly
a n d i n a m o re o r le ss p e rm a n e n t m a n n e r i n th e
co u n try to wh i ch th e y h ave b e e n re ad m i tte d . M o re -
o ve r, wh e th e r i t b e i n th e h e art o f th e zo n e o r vis--vis
th e S ta t e s wh i ch fo rm e rl y co m p ri se d th e S o v i e t
U n i o n , si gn i fi can t e co n o m i c d i se q u i li b ri a gi ve ri se to
m o ve m e n ts o f wo rke rs, le gal o r o th e rwi se . P e n d u lar,
cro ss-b o rd e r a n d te m p o ra ry m o v e m e n ts a re ju st
so m e o f th e fo rm s th a t lab o u r m i gra ti o n ca n ta ke .
F i n ally, we are wi tn e ssi n g th e e m e rge n ce o f th e sta-
b le se ttle m e n t o f fo re i gn e rs th o u gh th e i r p ro p o rti o n
o f th e to tal p o p u la ti o n re m a i n s sm a ll i n th e co u n -
tri e s e xa m i n e d h e re . A re th e C E E C s a cti n g a s a
b u ffe r zo n e b e twe e n th e E u ro p e a n U n i o n a n d th e
co u n tri e s o n th e i r E aste rn an d S o u th e rn b o rd e rs o r
d o th e y co n sti tu te a re al m i grati o n p o le ? I n d e e d , fo r
so m e y e ars n o w n e t m i g rati o n h as b e e n p o si ti ve i n
so m e co u n tri e s o f th e re g i o n a n d th e o ri g i n co u n -
tri e s o f th e i m m i gran ts h ave b e e n d i ve rsi fyi n g.
A p an o ram a o f m i grati o n tre n d s i n C e n tral a n d
E aste rn E u ro p e allo ws o n e to i llu strate i n th e fi rst
se cti o n , th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f E a st-We st m i g ra ti o n
flo ws to ward s We ste rn E u ro p e an d N o rth Am e ri ca. I n
th e se co n d se cti o n , an a tte m p t i s m ad e a t d rawi n g
u p an i n ve n to ry o f th e i n tra-re gi o n al flo ws as we ll as
th o se o ri gi n ati n g fro m th e co u n tri e s lyi n g to th e E ast
an d S o u th o f th e are a.
a) Development of migration flows towards
the European member countries of the OECD,
the United States and Canada
East-West flows prior to theopening of the borders
T h e vari o u s ch an ge s to th e fro n ti e rs as we ll as
su cce ssi v e e co n o m i c cri se s h a v e g i v e n ri se , si n ce
th e e n d o f th e 1 9 th ce n t u ry, to p o p u la ti o n m o v e -
m e n ts to ward s We ste rn E u ro p e an d N o rth Am e ri ca.
A fte r th e S e co n d Wo rld War, e m i gra ti o n flo ws p e r-
si ste d i lle g ally) d e sp i te th e ve ry re stri cti ve b o rd e r
co n tro ls. T h e 1 98 0s we re m arke d b y a m ass e xo d u s
o f P o le s b e twe e n 1 98 0 a n d 1 98 9, 3 00 000 o b tai n e d
au th o ri sati o n to e m i grate ) , o f wh o m alm o st 60% se t-
tle d i n G e rm a n y a n d 1 0 % i n th e U n i t e d S ta te s. I n
a d d i ti o n to th i s d o cu m e n te d e m i g ra ti o n , a lm o st
500 000 are u n d e rsto o d to h ave le ft th e co u n try clan -
d e sti n e ly. A si g n i fi ca n t p ro p o rti o n o f th e se we re
62
O E C D 2000
Aussiedler wh o so u g h t re co g n i ti o n o f th e i r e th n i c
o ri gi n i n G e rm an y; an o th e r gro u p clai m e d e xi le .
A cco rd i n g to e sti m a te s b y th e M i n i stry o f th e
I n t e ri o r, 3 0 0 0 0 0 R o m a n i a n s e m i g ra t e d d u ri n g
th e 1 980s. T h e i r d e sti n ati o n s we re le ss fo cu sse d o n
G e rm an y th an th e P o le s. I n ad d i ti o n to G e rm an y, th e
p ri n ci p a l d e st i n a t i o n s we re t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s,
H u n gary, I srae l, C an ad a, Au stri a, Au strali a an d F ran ce .
T h e P o le s, fo llo we d b y th e R o m an i an s, co n sti -
t u t e t h e l a rg e st C E E C co m m u n i t i e s i n We st e rn
E u ro p e an d N o rth Am e ri ca. G e rm an y an d th e U n i te d
S tate s are th e p ri n ci p al h o st co u n tri e s fo r co m m u n i -
ti e s o ri g i n a ti n g fro m C e n tra l a n d E a ste rn E u ro p e .
T h e p o ssi b i li ty o f acce ssi n g so ci al n e two rks fo rm e d
b y p re -e stab li sh e d e m i gran t co m m u n i ti e s e xp lai n i n
p art th e d i re cti o n , n atu re an d si ze o f th e p o st-1 98 9
E ast-We st flo ws.
Intensification of theflows towards Western Europefollowing
theopening of theborders
S h o rtly a fte r th e o p e n i n g o f th e b o rd e rs, E a st-
We st m i grati o n flo ws m o ti vate d b y e co n o m i c, p o li ti -
cal o r e th n i c re aso n s i n te n si fi e d se e M ap I .4) . F lo ws
o f p e o p l e b e l o n g i n g t o m i n o ri t y e t h n i c g ro u p s
to ward s We ste rn E u ro p e we re e xtre m e ly la rge d u r-
i n g th e p e ri o d 1 989-1 990. T h e se flo ws we re d i re cte d
to a sm a ll n u m b e r o f co u n tri e s m a i n ly G e rm a n y,
T u rk e y a n d F i n la n d ) an d d e cli n e d rap i d ly. I n 1 9 8 9
an d 1 990, G e rm an y to o k i n a to tal o f ap p ro xi m ate ly
6 2 0 0 0 0 Aussiedler, wh o o ri g i n a te d m o stly fro m th e
fo rm e r S o v i e t U n i o n , P o l a n d a n d R o m a n i a se e
T a b le I . 9 ) . T h i s h u g e flo w wa s e n co u ra g e d b y th e
le g a l g u a ra n t e e s re g a rd i n g e t h n i c G e rm a n s co n -
ta i n e d wi th i n th e G e rm a n co n sti tu ti o n . T o a le sse r
e xte n t, o th e r co u n tri e s h a v e a lso a cce p te d i m m i -
gran ts fro m C e n tral an d E aste rn E u ro p e : F i n lan d h as
e xp e ri e n ce d re tu rn m o ve m e n ts o f p e rso n s o f F i n n i sh
o ri gi n fro m th e fo rm e r S o v i e t U n i o n an d th e B a lti c
S tate s. I n 1 989, o ve r 300 000 B u lgari an s o f Tu rki sh o ri -
gi n e m i grate d , fo r th e m o st p art to Tu rke y.
C o m p are d wi th th e flo w o f p e rso n s ab le to p ro -
vi d e p ro o f o f fa m i ly li n ks wi th a We ste rn E u ro p e an
co u n try, th e o th e r E ast-We st d o cu m e n te d m i grati o n
flo ws h a v e b e e n re la ti v e ly sm a ll a n d , o n ce a g a i n ,
h ave b e e n ce n tre d o n G e rm an y. T h e flo ws o f asylu m
se e k e rs h a v e n o t b e e n i n s i g n i fi c a n t h o we v e r.
B e twe e n 1 9 8 9 a n d 1 9 9 8 , i n G e rm a n y, F ra n ce a n d
S p a i n R o m a n i a n ci t i ze n s m a d e a p p ro xi m a t e l y
2 7 2 0 0 0 , 3 2 0 0 0 a n d 1 0 0 0 0 a sy l u m a p p l i ca t i o n s
re sp e cti ve ly. D u ri n g th e sam e p e ri o d , G e rm an y an d
t h e C z e c h R e p u b l i c re c o rd e d 8 1 0 0 0 a n d
5 00 0 ap p li ca ti o n s re sp e cti v e ly fro m B u lga ri a n ci ti -
ze n s. A p p li ca ti o n s fo r a sy lu m fro m ci ti ze n s o f th e
fo rm e r S o vi e t U n i o n an d th e fo rm e r Yu go slavi a h ave
also b e e n n u m e ro u s; th e se a p p li cati o n s h ave b e e n
sp re ad acro ss a wi d e ran ge o f co u n tri e s.
E xce p t i n G e rm a n y, th e e m p lo ym e n t o f C E E C
n a t i o n a l s i n O E C D M e m b e r c o u n t ri e s d i d n o t
i n cre a se si g n i fi ca n tly. H o we v e r, i t sh o u ld b e n o te d
th at large n u m b e rs o f i m m i gran ts atte m p te d to i lle -
g a l ly cro ss th e b o rd e rs wi th th e a i m o f re a ch i n g
We ste rn E u ro p e . T h i s ap p li e s i n p arti cu lar to R o m a-
n i an s an d to B alkan G yp si e s, m o st o f wh o m so u gh t to
re ach G e rm an y an d S we d e n , as we ll as to Tu rki sh re f-
u g e e s wh o tri e d to e n te r G e rm a n y v i a th e fo rm e r
C ze ch o slo vakia. P o lan d an d th e fo rm e r C ze ch o slo vaki a
h ave h ad to acce p t th e re sp o n si b i li ty fo r re ad m i tti n g
th o se a p p re h e n d e d a tte m p ti n g to cl a n d e sti n e ly
cro ss th e i r b o rd e rs, p ri n ci p ally th o se wi th G e rm an y.
Development of temporary labour emigration
T h e E ast-We st m i g ra ti o n flo ws wh i ch fo llo we d
th e o p e n i n g o f th e C E E C s b o rd e rs we re fo cu sse d
la rge ly o n G e rm an y an d b e ga n to d e cli n e fro m th e
b e g i n n i n g o f th e 1 9 90s. Ve ry ra p i d ly, d u e large ly to
th e re stri cti ve p o li ci e s i m p le m e n te d i n th e p ri n ci p al
h o st co u n t ri e s, th e e m i g ra ti o n o f C E E C n a ti o n a ls
to o k o n a te m p o ra ry n a tu re . C e rt a i n ly, we st wa rd
e m i grati o n flo ws, p arti cu larly th o se to G e rm an y, are
far fro m b e i n g n e gli gi b le b u t th e y h av e d i m i n i sh e d
co n si d e rab ly si n ce 1 993. T h e y are m o stly o f te m p o -
ra ry wo rke rs. T h e i r ci rcu la ti o n i s fa ci li ta te d b y th e
fact th at th e m ajo ri ty o f O E C D M e m b e r co u n tri e s d o
n o t re q u i re an e n try v i sa fo r th e ci ti ze n s o f ce rtai n
C E E C s wh o wi sh to stay fo r le ss th an th re e m o n th s.
As a p ro p o rti o n o f to tal i n flo ws, e n tri e s o f P o li sh
i m m i gran ts h av e d e cre ase d si n ce 1 991 i n D e n m ark,
F ran ce , th e U n i te d K i n gd o m , th e N e th e rlan d s a n d
S we d e n . I n G e rm a n y, si n ce 1 99 3 th e n e t m i g ra ti o n
flo w o f R o m an i an n ati o n als h as b e e n ve ry lo w, i n d e e d
o cc a si o n a l l y n e g a t i v e s e e S t a t i s t i c a l A n n e x ,
T ab le B . 1 . 3 re g ard i n g G e rm an y ) . T h e e m i g ra ti o n to
Tu rke y o f B u lgari an s o f Tu rki sh o ri gi n h as d i sp laye d a
si m i lar d o wn ward tre n d si n ce 1 993. M o re ge n e rally,
t h e m o v e m e n t s o f B u l g a ri a n c i t i z e n s t o wa rd s
We st e rn E u ro p e co n t i n u e t o d i m i n i sh , wi t h t h e
e xce p ti o n o f e m i g ra ti o n to Au st ri a wh i ch re m a i n s
o n e o f B u lgari a s m o st i m p o rtan t e co n o m i c an d trad -
i n g p artn e rs. I t ap p e ars th at th e n atu re o f e m i grati o n
flo ws h as alte re d , b e i n g ch aracte ri se d n o w p ri n ci p ally
b y sh o rt an d fre q u e n t m o ve m e n ts.
63
O E C D 2000
Austria
Sweden
Germany
Hungary
Romania
Denmark
Poland
Belarus
Ukraine
Lithuania
Latvia
Croatia
Slovenia
Austria
Sweden
Germany
Hungary
Romania
Denmark
Poland
Belarus
Ukraine
Czech Republic
Lithuania
Latvia
Croatia
Slovenia
Map I.4. Net migration rate (NMR) in Central Europe and bordering countries, 1990 and 1998
1990 1998
Between -0.2 and -0.1%
More than 0.2% Less than -0.2%
Data unavailable
NMR positive NMR negative
Note: The net migration rate is the volume of net migration as a proportion of the total population at the beginning of the year (%).
Sources: Recent demographic developments in Europe, Council of Europe, and National Statistical Offices.
Slovak Republic
Czech Republic
Slovak Republic
Austria
Sweden
Germany
Hungary
Romania
Denmark
Poland
Belarus
Ukraine
Lithuania
Latvia
Croatia
Slovenia
Austria
Sweden
Germany
Hungary
Romania
Denmark
Poland
Belarus
Ukraine
Czech Republic
Lithuania
Latvia
Croatia
Slovenia
1990 1998
Data unavailable
Slovak Republic
Czech Republic
Slovak Republic
Austria
Sweden
Germany
Hungary
Romania
Denmark
Poland
Belarus
Ukraine
Lithuania
Latvia
Croatia
Slovenia
Austria
Sweden
Germany
Hungary
Romania
Denmark
Poland
Belarus
Ukraine
Czech Republic
Lithuania
Latvia
Croatia
Slovenia
1990 1998
Data unavailable
Slovak Republic
Czech Republic
Slovak Republic
Austria
Sweden
Germany
Hungary
Romania
Denmark
Poland
Belarus
Ukraine
Lithuania
Latvia
Croatia
Slovenia
Austria
Sweden
Germany
Hungary
Romania
Denmark
Poland
Belarus
Ukraine
Czech Republic
Lithuania
Latvia
Croatia
Slovenia
1990 1998
Data unavailable
Slovak Republic
Czech Republic
Slovak Republic
Austria
Sweden
Germany
Hungary
Romania
Denmark
Poland
Belarus
Ukraine
Lithuania
Latvia
Croatia
Slovenia
Austria
Sweden
Germany
Hungary
Romania
Denmark
Poland
Belarus
Ukraine
Czech Republic
Lithuania
Latvia
Croatia
Slovenia
1990 1998
Data unavailable
Slovak Republic
Czech Republic
Slovak Republic
Tab le I .9. Inflows of ethnic Germans by country of origin to Germany, 1950-1998
T h o u san d s
Source: M i n i stry o f th e I n te ri o r.
To tal
Of which:
F o rm e r U S S R R o m an i a P o lan d F o rm e r C S F R O th e rs
1 950-1 965 551 . 6 1 8. 9 1 5.4 356.7 31 . 1 1 29. 6
1 966-1 980 51 6. 0 66. 8 91 .5 275.5 59. 5 22. 7
1 981 -1 989 932. 0 1 69. 6 1 35.4 606.2 1 1 . 0 9. 9
1 990-1 995 1 509. 0 1 1 20. 8 1 78.4 201 .3 3. 4 5. 1
1 996 1 77. 8 1 72. 2 4.3 1 .2 0. 1
1 997 1 34. 4 1 31 . 9 1 .8 0.7 0. 1
1 998 1 03. 1 1 01 . 6 1 .0 0.5
C u m u late d to tal 3 924. 0 1 781 . 7 427.8 1 442.0 1 05. 0 1 67. 4
64
O E C D 2000
T h e n u m b e r o f re fu g e e s a n d a sy lu m se e k e rs
o ri g i n a t i n g fro m t h e C E E C s h a s a l so d e cl i n e d .
I n d e e d , th e O E C D M e m b e r co u n tri e s n o w co n si d e r
all o f th e C E E C s as sa fe co u n tri e s, th e ci ti ze n s o f
wh i ch are n o t e li gi b le , i n p ri n ci p le , to lo d ge asylu m
re q u e sts. M o re o v e r, th e i n tro d u ct i o n i n se v e ra l
E u ro p e a n O E C D co u n tri e s fro m 1 9 9 2 o n wa rd s o f
vi sa re gi m e s fo r th e ci ti ze n s o f th e fo rm e r Yu go slavi a
le d to a re d u cti o n i n th e n u m b e r o f p e o p le o b ta i n -
i n g re fu g e e st a tu s o ri g i n a t i n g fro m th a t re g i o n . I t
sh o u ld b e n o te d , h o we v e r, th at th i s re d u cti o n wa s
o ffse t to so m e e xte n t b y a n i n cre ase i n th e n u m b e r
o f th o se g ra n t e d te m p o ra ry re si d e n t st a t u s o n
h u m an i tari an gro u n d s, n o tab ly fro m K o so vo i n 1 997
an d 1 998.
Wh e re as p e rm an e n t e m i grati o n to O E C D co u n -
tri e s i s d e cli n i n g , th e te m p o ra ry m i grati o n o f wo rk-
e rs i s d e v e l o p i n g b o t h fro m E a st t o We s t a n d
b e twe e n th e C E E C s th e m se lve s. O n th e p ro vi d e rs
si d e , th e P o le s are th e m o st i n vo lve d , wo rki n g p ri n -
ci p ally i n G e rm an y an d Au stri a , b u t also i n F ra n ce ,
t h e C ze ch R e p u b l i c a n d S we d e n . I n G e rm a n y,
i n 1 998, th e m ajo ri ty o f P o le s i n te m p o rary e m p lo y-
m e n t d i d so u n d e r i n te r-go ve rn m e n tal agre e m e n ts
fo r se a so n a l wo rk a n d su b co n tra cte d e m p lo y m e n t
se e T a b le s I . 1 0 a n d I . 1 1 ) . I n A u stri a , i n th e sa m e
y e a r, n a ti o n a l s o f th e fo rm e r C ze ch a n d S l o v a k
F e d e ra l R e p u b li c we re th e m o st n u m e ro u s o f th e
h o ld e rs o f sh o rt te rm o r li m i te d d u rati o n two ye a r
p e rm i t s , f o l l o w e d b y P o l e s , R o m a n i a n s a n d
H u n g a ri a n s . C E E C n a t i o n a l s t h e re a cco u n t fo r
ap p ro xi m ate ly o n e i n fi ve o f th e fo re i gn n ati o n als i n
p o sse ssi o n o f a sh o rt-te rm wo rk p e rm i t, b u t b a re ly
o n e i n te n o f th o se wi th a p e rm an e n t p e rm i t.
I n o th e r te rm s, th e E a st-We st m i g ra ti o n flo ws
co rre sp o n d n o w to a p ro ce ss o f re gi o n al i n te grati o n
li m i te d to b o rd e r re gi o n s an d re gu late d b y b i late ral
a g re e m e n t s p ri n ci p a l l y b e t we e n G e rm a n y a n d
P o lan d , as we ll as th o se th at Au stri a h as si gn e d wi th
H u n gary an d th e S lo vak R e p u b li c) .
Presenceof CEEC nationals in themember countries
of theOECD
To d ay, th e m ajo ri ty o f th e O E C D M e m b e r co u n -
tri e s h ave i n th e i r p o p u lati o n a si gn i fi can t n u m b e r o f
i m m i g ra n ts fro m th e C E E C s a n d t h e co u n tri e s t o
th e i r S o u th an d E ast. I n A u stra li a, C a n a d a a n d th e
U n i t e d S ta t e s th e st a t i sti cs co n ce rn th o se b o rn
ab ro ad . I n Au strali a, ci ti ze n s o f th e fo rm e r Yu go slavi a
fo llo we d b y th o se fro m P o lan d are th e m o st n u m e r-
o u s. I n th e U n i te d S tate s, th e P o le s are ju st o u tn u m -
b e re d b y ci ti ze n s o f th e fo rm e r S o v i e t U n i o n ; i n
C a n a d a , b y co n t ra st , t h e l a t t e r o u t n u m b e r t h e
fo rm e r b y alm o st two to o n e se e Tab le I .1 2) .
O f t h e E u ro p e a n m e m b e r co u n t ri e s o f t h e
O E C D , G e rm an y i s th e p ri n ci p al h o st co u n try fo r ci ti -
ze n s o f th e C E E C s a n d th e fo rm e r S o v i e t U n i o n .
Au stri a i s h o st p ri m ari ly to R o m a n i an s a n d P o le s as
we ll as sm a lle r n u m b e rs o f p e o p le o ri gi n ati n g fro m
th e fo rm e r C ze ch an d S lo va k F e d e ral R e p u b li c an d
H u n g a ry. T h a t sa i d , i n th e ca se o f G e rm a n y a n d
Tab le I .1 0. Contract workers employed inGermany bynationality, 1993-1998
T h o u san d s
Source: M i n i stry o f th e I n te ri o r.
1 993 1 994 1 995 1 996 1 997 1 998
P o lan d 1 9.8 1 3.8 24. 5 24.4 21 .1 1 6. 9
H u n gary 1 4.4 8.9 9. 2 9.0 5.8 5. 0
C ro ati a 4.8 5.3 4. 5 4.4 3.6 2. 8
R o m an i a 1 3.5 2.2 0. 3 1 .0 2. 6
Tu rke y 1 .5 1 .6 1 . 6 1 .6 1 .4 1 . 1
C ze ch R e p u b li c . . 1 .7 2. 2 1 .9 1 .4 1 . 1
S lo vak R e p u b li c . . 1 .4 2. 0 1 .3 1 .2 0. 9
B u lgari a 3.8 2.4 1 . 9 1 .0 1 .2 0. 7
B o sn i a H e rze go vi n a 1 .3 1 .2 1 . 0 0.7 0.5 0. 7
S lo ve n i a 1 .8 1 .4 1 . 2 1 .0 0.7 0. 7
F o rm e r Yu go slav R e p u b li c o f M ace d o n i a 0.5 0.7 0. 7 0.2 0.1 0. 2
L atvi a 0.2 0.2 0. 1 0.2 0.3 0. 2
F o rm e r C S F R 4.5 . . . . . . . . . .
F e d e ral R e p u b li c o f Yu go slavi a 2.7 . . . . . . . . . .
O th e rs 1 .4 0.6 0. 2 0.1 0.2 0. 1
Total 70.1 41.2 49.4 45.8 38.5 33.0
65
O E C D 2000
li k e wi se th a t o f A u stri a , a s a re su lt o f m o re re ce n t
l a rg e -sca le m i g ra ti o n flo ws, ci ti ze n s o f th e fo rm e r
Yu go slavia are m u ch m o re n u m e ro u s th an C E E C ci ti -
ze n s b o th i n th e i r co n tri b u ti o n to th e to ta l fo re i g n
p o p u la ti o n an d to th e lab o u r fo rce . C i ti ze n s o f th e
fo rm e r Yu g o sla v i a a re th e m o st n u m e ro u s i n G e r-
m an y wh i ch i s fo llo we d , wi th m u ch sm alle r n u m b e rs,
b y S wi tze rlan d an d Au stri a.
I n F ra n ce , o f t h e fo re i g n re si d e n t s o ri g i n a lly
fro m E aste rn E u ro p e th o se fro m th e fo rm e r Yu go slavi a
an d P o lan d re sp e cti ve ly 5 3 00 0 an d 47 000 acco rd -
i n g to th e 1 99 0 C e n su s) a re th e m o st n u m e ro u s. I n
I ta ly, Alb an i a n s p re d o m i n a te fo llo we d b y n a ti o n als
o f th e fo rm e r Yu g o slav i a , R o m an i an s a n d P o le s. I n
S we d e n an d th e N e th e rlan d s, a fte r n ati o n als o f th e
fo rm e r Yu g o s l a v i a i t i s t h e P o l e s . I n F i n l a n d ,
wh e re n a ti o n a ls o f th e fo rm e r S o v i e t U n i o n p re -
d o m i n a te , th e n u m b e rs o f th o se o ri g i n a ti n g fro m
th e C E E C s a n d th e fo rm e r Yu g o sla v i a a re ve ry lo w.
E xce p ti n g th o se i n th e U n i te d S ta te s, th e la rg e st
P o li sh a n d R o m a n i a n e xp a tri a te co m m u n i ti e s a re
lo ca te d i n G e rm a n y 2 8 3 0 0 0 an d 1 0 0 0 0 0 p e rso n s
re sp e cti ve ly) .
b) Intra-regional movements in Central and Eastern
Europe since the opening of the borders
D u e to th e h e te ro ge n e i ty o f th e i r si tu ati o n s an d
th e lack o f re li ab le d a ta , i t i s at p re se n t d i ffi cu lt to
p ro vi d e an o ve rall vi e w o f th e i n tra-re g i o n al m i gra-
ti o n flo ws o r th o se i n v o lv i n g th e co u n tri e s o f th e
fo rm e r S o v i e t U n i o n a n d th e fo rm e r Yu g o sl a v i a .
I n d e e d , wh i lst th e p re -1 989 si tu ati o n was re lati v e ly
h o m o ge n e o u s an d was e sse n ti ally ch aracte ri se d b y
a vi rtu al ab se n ce o f m o ve m e n t wi th i n th e a re a , th e
p i ctu re to d ay i s alto ge th e r m o re co m p le x. I n ce rtai n
co u n tri e s b o th e m i grati o n an d i m m i grati o n flo ws are
o f a co n si d e rab le scale . I n o th e rs m o st n o tab ly th e
C ze c h R e p u b l i c ) , t h e e m i g ra t i o n fl o w i s m u c h
re d u ce d a n d i m m i g ra t i o n fl o ws a re si g n i fi ca n t .
F i n a l l y , s o m e a re st i l l e s se n t i a l l y e m i g ra t i o n
co u n tri e s se e M ap I .4) .
C e rtai n tre n d s se e m to b e co m m o n acro ss th e
wh o le o f th e are a : i n p arti cu lar, th e y are all e xp e ri -
e n ci n g th e p h e n o m e n o n o f tran si t m i grati o n to ward s
th e co u n tri e s o f We ste rn E u ro p e an d th e acco m p a -
n yi n g cla n d e sti n e e m p lo ym e n t wh i ch i s fre q u e n tly
th e m e a n s b y wh i ch th e se m i g ra n ts su rv i v e . T h i s
p h e n o m e n o n i s i n cre asi n gly o b li g i n g th e C E E C s to
i m p le m e n t p o li ci e s d e si gn e d to co n tro l th e se flo ws,
m o st co m m o n ly wi th i n th e fra m e wo rk o f re g i o n a l
co -o p e ra ti o n , i n clu d i n g wi th O E C D M e m b e r co u n -
tri e s. T h e p o p u lati o n m o ve m e n ts re su lti n g fro m th e
d i sso lu ti o n o f th e S o v i e t B lo c a n d th e co n fli cts i n
th e B alkan s as we ll as th e flo ws o f e th n i c m i n o ri ti e s
are also co m m o n co n ce rn s o f all o f th e se co u n tri e s.
T h e C E E C s are e xp e ri e n ci n g o th e r typ e s o f flo w to
varyi n g e xte n ts. T h e se flo ws p ri n ci p ally co n ce rn d o cu -
m e n te d wo rke rs, m o st co m m o n ly e m p lo ye d te m p o -
ra ri l y . I n d e e d , s h o rt -d i s t a n c e i n t e r-re g i o n a l
m o ve m e n ts, faci li tate d b y th e fact th at vi sas are typ i -
cally n o t re q u i re d fo r C E E C n ati o n als, ap p e ar to b e an
ke y co m p o n e n t o f lab o u r m i grati o n flo ws. F u rth e r, th e
wh o le o f th e re gi o n ap p e ars to e xp e ri e n ci n g to varyi n g
d e gre e s th e d e ve lo p m e n t o f p e rm an e n t i m m igratio n .
Reduction in permanent emigration flows
P e rm a n e n t e m i grati o n flo ws, large ly u n d e re sti -
m a t e d i n t h e d a ta se ts d e ri v e d fro m p o p u la ti o n
re gi ste rs an d i n su ffi ci e n tly acco u n te d fo r i n re co rd s
o f cro ss-b o rd e r m o ve m e n ts, a re te n d i n g to d e cli n e
i n m o st o f t h e e m i g ra t i o n a re a s. T h e p ri n ci p a l
d e p artu re are as i n th e re gi o n are th e fo rm e r S o vi e t
Tab le I .1 1 . Seasonal workers employed inGermany bynationality, 1992-1998
T h o u san d s
Source: B u n d e san stalt f r Arb e i t.
1 992 1 993 1 994 1 995 1 996 1 997 1 998
P o lan d 1 36.9 1 43.9 1 36. 7 1 70.6 1 96. 3 202.2 1 82.0
R o m an i a 2.9 3.9 2. 3 3.9 5. 0 5.0 5.6
S lo vak R e p u b li c 7.8 3. 9 5.4 6. 3 6.4 4.9
C ro ati a 37.4 7.0 5. 8 5.6 5. 7 5.8 3.9
H u n gary 7.2 5.3 2. 5 2.8 3. 5 3.6 2.8
C ze ch R e p u b li c 28.0 1 2.0 3. 5 3.7 3. 4 2.3 1 .8
S lo ve n i a 1 .1 0. 6 0.6 0. 6 0.5 0.3
B u lgari a 0.7 0. 7 0.1 0. 2 0.2 0.2
Total 212.4 181.7 155.8 192.8 220.9 226.0 201.6
66
O E C D 2000
U n i o n n o ta b ly U k ra i n e a n d B e l a ru s) , R o m a n i a ,
P o lan d an d B u lgari a to wh i ch sh o u ld b e ad d e d th e
fo rm e r Yu go slavi a th e n u m b e r o f re fu ge e s fro m th e
fo rm e r Yu go slavi a, n o tab ly B o sn i an s a n d K o so va rs,
p re se n t i n th e C E E C s i s re la ti v e ly h i g h ) a n d th e
B alti c S tate s.
B u lg ari a h a s n o t e xp e ri e n ce d a n y n e w wave o f
e m i g ra t i o n s i n c e t h e m a s s i v e o u t f l o w o f t h e
ye ars 1 989 -90. S i n ce 1 995, e m i grati o n , as m e asu re d
b y re c o rd e d b o rd e r cro s si n g s h a s c o n t i n u a l l y
d e cli n e d d u e i n p arti cu lar to th e re d u cti o n i n flo ws
to R o m an i a . O n th e o th e r h an d , flo ws to th e C ze ch
R e p u b li c an d H u n gary h ave i n cre ase d sli gh tly. E m i -
grati o n to Tu rke y h as b e co m e so m e wh at d e p e n d e n t
o n T u rk i sh m i g ra ti o n p o li cy. R e ce n tly, th e T u rk i sh
P arli am e n t d e ci d e d to p ro lo n g th e va li d i ty o f te m -
p o ra ry p assp o rts fo r fo re i gn ci ti ze n s o f Tu rki sh o ri -
Tab le I . 1 2.
A. Nationals of Central andEastern European countries residing insome European OECD countries, latest available year
T h o u san d s
1 . T h i s re fe rs to th e ci ti ze n s o f th e S lo vak R e p u b li c fo r th e C ze ch R e p u b li c an d H u n gary.
2. R u ssi an F e d e rati o n fo r F i n lan d .
3. P e rso n b o rn ab ro ad b y p are n ts wh o h ave e i th e r fo re i gn ci ti ze n sh i p o r are also b o rn ab ro ad .
4. I n clu d i n g B alti c S tate s fo r Au strali a; R u ssi an F e d e rati o n fo r S we d e n .
Sources: C e n su s fo r Au stri a, F ran ce , Au strali a, C an ad a an d th e U n i te d S tate s, re si d e n ce p e rm i ts fo r I taly an d p o p u lati o n re gi ste rs fo r th e o th e r co u n tri e s.
Au stri a
1 991
B e lgi u m
1 998
C ze ch R e p u b lic
1 998
D e n m ark
1 997
F i n lan d
1 998
F ran ce
1 990
B u lgari a 3. 6 0.8 6.0 . . . . 0.8
F o rm e r C S F R
1
1 1 . 3 0.8 49.6 . . . . 2.0
H u n gary 1 0. 6 1 .0 . . . . 0.5 2.9
P o lan d 1 8. 3 6.3 22.2 5.5 0.7 46.3
R o m an i a 1 8. 5 2.1 2.7 1 .1 . . 5.7
F o rm e r U S S R
2
2. 1 2.2 66.6 3.0 20.5 4.3
F o rm e r Yu go slavi a 1 97. 9 6.0 6.0 33.9 4.4 52.5
Total foreigners 517.7 892.0 219.8 249.6 85.1 3 596.6
C o u n tri e s m e n ti o n e d ab o ve as a % o f to tal fo re i gn e rs) 50.7 2.2 69.6 17.4 30.7 3.2
G e rm an y
1 998
H u n gary
1 997
I taly
1 998
N e th e rlan d s
1 997
S we d e n
1 998
S wi tze rlan d
1 998
B u lgari a 31 . 6 1 .7 . . 0.5 . . . .
F o rm e r C S F R
1
24. 5 3.7 . . 0.5 . . 4.5
H u n gary 51 . 9 . . 1 .3 3.0 3.4
P o lan d 283. 6 4.5 28.2 5.7 1 5.9 4.0
R o m an i a 89. 8 57.4 37.1 1 .1 3.1 . .
F o rm e r U S S R 50. 4 1 7.0 3.7 5.2 . . . .
F o rm e r Yu go slavi a 71 9. 5 1 6.0 85.9 28.4 26.0 321 .1
Total foreigners 7 319.6 143.8 1 250.2 678.1 500.0 1 347.9
C o u n tri e s m e n ti o n e d ab o ve as a % o f to tal fo re i gn e rs) 17.1 69.7 12.4 6.3 9.6 24.7
B. Immigrants born inCentral andEastern European countries residing inselected OECD countries, latest available year
T h o u san d s
Au strali a
1 996
C an ad a
1 996
D e n m ark
3
1 998
N e th e rlan d s
1 998
S we d e n
1 998
U n i te d S tate s
1 990
F o rm e r C S F R . . 41 .2 . . . . . . 87.0
H u n gary . . 54.2 1 .4 . . 1 4.4 1 1 0.3
P o lan d 65. 1 1 93.4 1 0.2 1 5.9 39.7 388.3
R o m an i a . . . . 1 .4 . . 1 1 .5 91 .1
F o rm e r U S S R
4
49. 8 1 06.4 4.4 1 3.7 4.6 389.9
F o rm e r Yu go slavi a 1 1 8. 5 1 22.0 32.2 47.5 1 20.9 1 41 .5
Total of foreign-born 3 908.3 4 971.1 287.7 1 513.9 968.7 19 767.3
C o u n tri e s m e n ti o n e d ab o ve as a % o f to tal fo re i gn -b o rn ) 6.0 10.4 17.3 5.1 19.7 6.1
67
O E C D 2000
gi n ; th i s co u ld i m p ro ve th e statu s o f a large n u m b e r
o f m i gran ts fro m B u lgari a.
I n P o lan d , e m i grati o n flo ws, m o ti va te d acco rd -
i n g to th e p e ri o d b y e co n o m i c o r p o li ti ca l fa cto rs,
h av e always b e e n h i gh . P o li ti cal re p re ssi o n an d th e
e co n o m i c d i ffi cu lti e s o f th e 1 9 80 s le d to h u ge e m i -
grati o n flo ws wh i ch we re cle arly n o t fu lly acco u n te d
fo r i n th e o ffi ci al e sti m ate s d e ri ve d fro m p o p u lati o n
re gi ste rs. T h e o p e n i n g o f th e b o rd e rs i n 1 990 d i d n o t
le a d to m i g ra ti o n fl o ws a n y g re a te r th a n b e fo re .
F ro m 1 991 to 1 995, 1 1 2 600 o ffi ci ally le ft th e co u n try
p e rm a n e n t l y a s co m p a re d wi t h a p p ro xi m a t e l y
1 50 0 0 0 d u ri n g th e p e ri o d 1 98 6 -9 0. S i n ce 1 9 96 , th e
an n u al p e rm an e n t e m i g rati o n flo w h as sta b i li se d at
a ro u n d 20 0 00 , a le v e l co m p a ra b le wi th th a t a t th e
b e g i n n i n g o f th e 1 9 9 0 s. I n a co n te xt o f co n ti n u a l
d e cl i n e i n t h e ra t e o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n s n a t u ra l
i n cre a se , th e p e rsi ste n ce o f p e rm a n e n t e m i grati o n
d e se rve s to b e h i gh li gh te d .
F i n a l l y , t h e t o t a l n u m b e r o f p e rm a n e n t
R o m an i a n e m i gran ts h as co n ti n u a lly d e cli n e d o ve r
re ce n t ye ars. T h e fi gu re fo r 1 99 8 was 1 7 50 0, th at i s
to say le ss th an o n e fi fth o f th e 1 990 fi gu re .
Reduction in return migration and in themigration flows
of ethnicminorities
A s i n th e ca se o f E a st-We st m i g ra ti o n flo ws,
th o se wi th i n th e C E E C s i n d u ce d b y th e o p e n i n g o f
th e b o rd e rs we re i n i ti ally e sse n ti a lly co m p ri se d o f
p e rso n s wi th fa m i ly li n k s wi th th e h o st co u n try a s
we l l a s m e m b e rs o f e t h n i c m i n o ri t i e s , l a rg e l y
H u n gari an o ri gi n ati n g fro m R o m an i a an d th e S lo vak
R e p u b l i c) , P o li sh fro m U k ra i n e , K a za k h st a n a n d
S i b e ri a ) a n d B u l g a ri a n fro m t h e fo rm e r S o v i e t
U n i o n ) .
I n t h e C ze ch R e p u b l i c, t h e o p e n i n g o f t h e
b o rd e rs l e d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e 1 9 9 0 s t o a
si ze a b le flo w o f i m m i g ran ts re tu rn i n g fro m We ste rn
E u ro p e a b le to p ro v e th e i r C ze ch o ri gi n . T h e d i v i -
si o n o f t h e C ze ch a n d S l o v a k F e d e ra l R e p u b l i c
th e n le d to i m m i g rati o n flo ws fro m th e n e w S lo va k
R e p u b li c. S o m e o f th e p e o p le wh o m o v e d h a v e
si n ce ta k e n C ze ch n a ti o n a li ty ; d u a l n a ti o n a li ty i s
n o t re co g n i se d .
R e tu rn m i gra ti o n , wh i ch i s e n co u ra g e d b y th e
R o m an i a n au th o ri ti e s, h a s i n cre a se d si g n i fi ca n tly,
i n vo lvi n g 1 1 000 p e o p le i n 1 998. I t i s n o te wo rth y th at
th e p ro p o rti o n s o f th o se age d b e twe e n 1 8 an d 40 an d
th o se o ri gi n ati n g fro m th e R e p u b li c o f M o ld o va h ave
i n cre ase d m arke d ly. F u rth e r, th e n u m b e r o f p e o p le o f
R o m a n i a n o ri g i n e xp e l l e d i n 1 9 9 8 a m o u n t e d t o
21 600. Alm o st o n e th i rd we re e xp e lle d fro m H u n gary
th i s p ro p o rti o n h a s b e e n i n cre a si n g co n ti n u a ll y
si n ce 1 993) an d o ve r a q u arte r fro m G e rm an y.
T h e re a re si ze a b le n u m b e rs o f G y p si e s i n a
large n u m b e r o f th e C E E C s, i n p arti cu lar i n B u lgari a,
H u n g a ry, R o m a n i a , th e S lo v a k R e p u b li c a n d th e
C ze ch R e p u b li c. M i g rati o n flo ws o f G y p si e s to th e
co u n tri e s o f We ste rn E u ro p e a n d wi th i n th e C E E C s
h a v e d e cli n e d co n si d e ra b ly. M a n y h a v e se ttle d
d o wn a n d a n u m b e r o f co u n t ri e s a re u n d e rt a k i n g
a cti v e e co n o m i c a n d so ci a l i n te g ra ti o n p o li ci e s i n
th e i r re gard . D e sp i te th e i m p le m e n tati o n o f assi m i -
l a t i o n i st p o l i ci e s, so m e t i m e s u n d e rt a k e n i n a n
a u th o ri ta ri a n m a n n e r i n ce rta i n o f th e C E E C s, th e
gyp si e s are ve ry o fte n m argi n ali se d an d th e i r li vi n g
co n d i ti o n s are fre q u e n tly d e p lo rab le . I n B u lgari a, fo r
e xam p le , th e n u m e ro u s gy p sy co m m u n i ti e s wh i ch
are sp re ad acro ss th e wh o le o f th e co u n try are o fte n
l o ca te d o n th e e d g e s o f to wn s a n d v i lla g e s wi th
wh o l ly u n sa t i sfa ct o ry sa n i ta ti o n . I n H u n g a ry, t h e
G yp si e s are co n ce n trate d i n th e ce n tre an d th e E ast
o f th e co u n try an d acco u n t fo r a p p ro xi m ate ly 4% o f
th e to tal p o p u lati o n . T h e y co m p ri se th e se co n d larg-
e st m i n o ri ty i n R o m an i a, afte r th e e th n i c H u n gari an s.
A lth o u g h t h e re a re si ze a b le co m m u n i ti e s a ro u n d
B u ch are st, th e y are o th e rwi se wi d e ly sp re ad acro ss
th e wh o le o f th e co u n try fo rm i n g v e ry d i v e rsi fi e d
co m m u n i ti e s, o cca si o n a lly we ll i n te g ra te d i n ru ral
are as. I n th e C ze ch R e p u b li c, th e gyp si e s are m o stly
co n ce n trate d i n u rb an are as u n d e r p re cari o u s co n d i -
ti o n s. I n th e S lo vak R e p u b li c, th e y li ve m o stly i n th e
E ast o f th e co u n try.
I n th e m a jo ri ty o f ca se s, th e G y p si e s h a v e o n
ave rage a le ve l o f e d u cati o n m u ch lo we r th an th at o f
th e re st o f th e p o p u la ti o n an d are m o re vu ln e rab le
to u n e m p lo y m e n t. M o re o v e r, a d e gre e o f re je cti o n
b y th e re st o f th e p o p u la ti o n a n d th e p ro b l e m s
o f d e li n q u e n cy re n d e r th e su cce ss o f a cti v e p o li -
ci e s targe te d to ward s th i s gro u p m u ch m o re d i ffi cu lt.
A re p o rt p o i n t i n g to t h e d i ffi cu lti e s e n co u n t e re d
b y G y p si e s a n d p ro p o si n g a p p ro p ri a t e so lu t i o n s
w a s s u b m i t t e d t o t h e C z e c h g o v e rn m e n t i n
O cto b e r 1 9 97 . T h i s re p o rt h i g h li g h te d th e n e e d to
i m p le m e n t u rg e n tly e d u cati o n a n d la b o u r m a rk e t
i n te grati o n p o li ci e s fo r th e G yp sy m i n o ri ty. C lasse s
wi ll b e o rgan i se d an d su p p le m e n tary re so u rce s wi ll
b e allo cate d to G yp sy ch i ld re n wh o are h avi n g d i ffi -
cu lty at sch o o l. M e asu re s are to b e take n to p re ve n t
e m p lo y e rs fro m d i scri m i n a ti n g a g a i n st wo rk e rs o f
G yp sy o ri gi n .
68
O E C D 2000
Persistence of transit migration
F o r m a n y m i g ra n ts se e k i n g to i lle g a lly e n te r
We ste rn E u ro p e o r N o rth Am e ri ca, th e C E E C s co n sti -
tu te a stage o n th e i r jo u rn e y. M o st o f th e se m i gran ts
a re d o cu m e n te d , h a v i n g e n te re d as to u ri sts o r a s
b u si n e ssm e n o r stu d e n ts. O th e rs p ro lo n g th e i r stay
b e yo n d th e d u rati o n o f th e i r vi sa. D u e to th e i r co m -
m o n b o rd e r wi th G e rm a n y, t h e co u n t ri e s m o st
affe cte d b y th i s are P o lan d an d th e C ze ch R e p u b li c.
B u lg a ri a a n d H u n ga ry a re a lso tran si t co u n tri e s, i n
th e i r case s fo r m i gran ts se e ki n g to e n te r G re e ce an d
Au stri a re sp e cti ve ly. H o we ve r, si n ce th e stre n gth e n -
i n g o f th e b o rd e r co n tro ls b e twe e n A u stri a a n d
H u n g ary, tra n si t m i g ra n ts p assi n g th ro u g h H u n g ary
are te n d i n g n o w to p ass th ro u g h th e m o re p e rm e -
ab le S lo vak R e p u b li c b o rd e r i n th e h o p e o f re ach i n g
G e rm an y. T ran si t m i grati o n also co n ce rn s th e B alti c
S ta te s. N a ti o n a ls o f th e fo rm e r S o v i e t U n i o n th e
R u ssi an F e d e rati o n , U krai n e an d B e laru s) as we ll as
M i d d le e a ste rn co u n tri e s p a s th ro u g h th e se co u n -
tri e s wi th th e a i m o f re ach i n g th e N o rd i c co u n tri e s,
i n p arti cu lar S we d e n .
I n 1 998, th e n u m b e r o f p e rso n s ap p re h e n d e d at
th e b o rd e rs o f th e C ze ch R e p u b li c i n cre ase d co n si d -
e rab ly, d u e large ly to th e e th n i c co n fli ct i n K o so v o .
As i n th e p ast, m o st o f th e ap p re h e n si o n s to o k p lace
o n th e b o rd e r wi th G e rm an y. T h e i n cre asi n g n u m b e r
o f a p p re h e n si o n s at th e S lo v ak R e p u b li c s b o rd e rs
p o i n t to a re ce n t u p tu rn i n clan d e sti n e tran si t m i gra-
ti o n . T h e m ajo ri ty o f th e m i gran ts cau gh t atte m p ti n g
to e n te r th e co u n try a re a p p re h e n d e d a t th e b o r-
d e rs wi th H u n gary an d U krai n e . T h o se atte m p ti n g to
le a v e a re m o stl y ca u g h t a t th e b o rd e rs wi th th e
C ze ch R e p u b li c, Au stri a an d P o lan d . T h i s i m b alan ce
allo ws o n e to tra ce th e E ast-We st jo u rn e y o f tran si t
m i gran ts se e ki n g to re ach We ste rn E u ro p e .
T ran si t m i gra ti o n i s favo u ri n g th e d e v e lo p m e n t
o f i lle ga l i m m i grati o n a n d u n d o cu m e n te d e m p lo y-
m e n t i n m an y o f th e C E E C s. T h e m i gran ts co m e fro m
n e i g h b o u ri n g co u n tri e s su ch a s T u rk e y, A lb an i a o r
th e fo rm e r Yu g o sla v i a b u t a lso fro m B a n g la d e sh ,
I n d i a an d I ran . T h e u n d o cu m e n te d e m p lo y m e n t o f
i m m i gran ts i n a n i rre gu lar si tu ati o n te n d s to b e th e
m o st p re v ale n t i n th o se co u n tri e s wi th an a lre ad y
flo u ri sh i n g i n fo rm al e co n o m y.
O n ly a fracti o n o f th e tran si t m i gran ts su cce e d i n
re ach i n g th e We st p ri n ci p ally G e rm an y, Au stri a, th e
N o rd i c co u n tri e s an d , to a le sse r e xte n t, S wi tze rlan d
a n d I ta ly ) ; o th e rs re m a i n i n th e t ra n si t co u n try o r
re tu rn to th e i r co u n try o f o ri gi n . T h i s ci rcu lar m i g ra-
ti o n , as we ll as co n tri b u ti n g to th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f
i rre g u lar m i g ra ti o n a n d to u n d o cu m e n te d e m p lo y -
m e n t, a lso gi v e s ri se to co m m e rci al acti v i ty an d to
re gi o n al trad e . T h e C E E C s, co n fro n te d wi th i m m i gra-
ti o n i n all i ts fo rm s are i n cre asi n gly se e ki n g to ad o p t
p o li ci e s d e si gn e d to b e tte r co n tro l th e flo ws an d are
p ro gre ssi ve ly i n sti tu ti n g re stri cti ve vi sa p o li ci e s wi th
re gard to ce rtai n e m i grati o n co u n tri e s. Vari o u s fo rm s
o f co -o p e rati o n h ave b e e n i m p le m e n te d wi th O E C D
M e m b e r co u n tri e s i n o rd e r to e lab o rate su ch p o li -
ci e s; th e C E E C s a re a lso b e g i n n i n g to co -o p e ra t e
b e twe e n th e m se lve s i n o rd e r to fram e th e ru le s go v-
e rn i n g th e m o ve m e n t o f p e rso n s wi th i n an e n large d
E u ro p e an m i grati o n are a.
Temporary labour migration
T re n d s i n lab o u r m i grati o n flo ws
T h e e xi ste n ce o f fre e -trad e are as h as an i m p o r-
tan t e ffe ct o n e m i grati o n . T h e d ata avai lab le sh o w a
sli gh t i n cre ase i n lab o u r m i grati o n d u e to th e i m p le -
m e n tati o n i n th e M e m b e r S tate s o f th e C e n tral E u ro -
p e a n F re e T ra d e A re a C E FT A ) ,
5
si n ce e co n o m i c
co -o p e rati o n b e twe e n co u n tri e s i n tran si ti o n favo u rs
su ch m i grati o n .
G i v e n th e i m p o rta n ce o f e m p lo y m e n t i n th e
i n fo rm a l se cto r, wh i ch i n v o lv e s n o t o n ly fo re i g n e rs
b u t a lso th e wi d e r p o p u lati o n , i t i s d i ffi cu lt to d i s-
ce rn th e p re ci se e xt e n t a n d n a tu re o f fo re i g n e rs
e m p lo y m e n t. T h at sa i d , th e a v a i la b le i n fo rm a ti o n
p o i n ts to a si g n i fi ca n t i n cre a se i n th e t e m p o ra ry
e m p lo ym e n t o f fo re i gn lab o u r.
I n H u n gary, afte r th e fall re co rd e d i n 1 996 wh i ch
wa s la rge ly d u e to a ch an ge i n th e re gu lati o n s) th e
n u m b e r o f n e wly i ssu e d wo rk p e rm i ts h as co n ti n u e d
t o ri se : fro m 1 4 0 0 0 i n 1 9 9 6 to 1 9 7 0 0 i n 1 9 9 7 a n d
to 2 2 5 0 0 i n 1 9 9 8 . A p p ro xi m a te ly 9 0 0 0 re si d e n ce
p e rm i ts we re gran te d fo r p racti si n g gai n fu l acti vi ti e s
fo r wh i ch a wo rk p e rm i t i s n o t re q u i re d . T h e n u m b e r
o f se tt le d i m m i g ra n t s a n d re fu g e e s wh o ca n ta k e
e m p lo ym e n t wi th o u t fu rth e r p e rm i ssi o n was 61 0 00
i n 1 998. O n th e b asi s o f th e se fi gu re s, th e n u m b e r o f
re giste re d fo re i gn e rs le gally p re se n t o n th e H u n gari an
la b o u r m a rk e t ca n b e e sti m a te d a t 9 0 -9 5 0 0 0 . I n
P o lan d , th e i n cre ase i n th e n u m b e r o f wo rk p e rm i ts
i ssu e d h as b e e n si gn i fi can t th o u gh i t i s i n p art e xp li -
cab le b y th e ab o li ti o n o f b u si n e ss vi sas wh i ch i n ce r-
t a i n c a s e s s u b s t i t u t e d f o r w o rk p e rm i t s .
B e t we e n 1 9 9 7 a n d 1 9 9 8 t h e n u m b e r o f p e rm i t s
i ssu e d p asse d fro m 1 7 500 to 20 800.
I n th e C ze ch R e p u b li c, afte r p e aki n g i n 1 995-96,
th e te m p o ra ry i m m i g ra ti o n o f fo re i g n wo rke rs h a s
69
O E C D 2000
d e cli n e d co n t i n u a ll y d u e to th e d e te ri o ra t i o n i n
th e la b o u r m a rk e t si tu a ti o n . T h e n u m b e r o f wo rk
p e rm i t h o l d e rs d i m i n i s h e d t h e re fo re b y 2 5 %
b e twe e n 1 9 9 6 a n d 1 9 9 8 . T h i s d e cli n e h a s la rg e l y
affe cte d U k ra i n i an wo rke rs, wh o co m p ri se th e la rg -
e st g ro u p o f fo re i g n wo rk e rs a n d wh o a re m a i n l y
e m p lo y e d i n lo w sk i lle d jo b s i n t h e co n st ru ct i o n
se cto r a n d i n m a n u fa ctu ri n g . T h e re i s, m o re o v e r,
th e p o ssi b i li ty th a t re stri cti o n s wi ll b e i m p o se d o n
S l o v a k wo rk e rs wh o , u n d e r a n a g re e m e n t co n -
cl u d e d i n 1 9 9 2 b e t we e n t h e C ze ch a n d S l o v a k
R e p u b li cs, a re a l lo we d fre e a cce ss to th e C ze ch
la b o u r m a rk e t. I m m i g ra ti o n b y S lo v a k wo rk e rs i s
lo n g-e sta b li sh e d a n d i s la rg e ly m o ti v a te d b y e co -
n o m i c facto rs wage an d u n e m p lo ym e n t rate d i sp ar-
i t i e s ) . S l o v a k m a n p o we r, wh i c h i s d i st ri b u t e d
th ro u g h o u t th e e co n o m y, so m e ti m e s m e e ts a n e e d
fo r sp e ci a l sk i l l s n o t t o b e fo u n d i n t h e C ze c h
R e p u b li c.
O ri gi n s o f fo re i gn lab o u r
T h e av ai la b le sta ti sti cs o n th e n u m b e rs o f fo r-
e i g n wo rk e rs sh o w th a t i n th e C ze ch R e p u b li c, i n
a d d i ti o n to th e S lo v a k wo rke rs wh o a re p e rm i tte d
fre e acce ss to th e lab o u r m arke t, th e re are si ze ab le
n u m b e rs o f U krai n i an s a n d P o le s i n 1 99 7 ap p ro xi -
m a t e l y 7 0 0 0 0 S l o v a k s h a d a j o b a n d a fu rt h e r
6 1 0 0 0 fo re i g n e rs h e ld a wo rk p e rm i t) . I n H u n ga ry,
wo rk p e rm i ts are ge n e rally gran te d fo r th o se se cto rs
e xp e ri e n ci n g la b o u r sh o rta g e s o r to p e rso n s wi th
p a rti cu l a r e xp e rti se o r sp e ci fi c e xp e ri e n ce . T h e
b re a k d o wn b y n a ti o n a li ty o f th e fo re i g n wo rk e rs
p o sse ssi n g wo rk p e rm i ts h as ch an ge d li ttle o ve r th e
la st th re e y e a rs. A lm o st h a lf 4 7 % ) a re R o m a n i a n ,
1 3% co m e fro m th e S tate s wh i ch fo rm e rly co m p ri se d
th e S o vi e t U n i o n i n p arti cu lar U krai n e ) ; P o lan d , th e
fo rm e r Yu go slavi a, C h i n a an d M o n go li a e ach acco u n t
fo r a p p ro xi m a te ly 4-5 % . A lm o st 1 6 % o f th e p e rm i t
h o ld e rs co m e fro m th e m o re e co n o m i ca lly d e v e l-
o p e d co u n tri e s o f E u ro p e a n d o v e rse a s. A ra th e r
large gro u p o f fo re i gn e rs wo rki n g i n H u n gary i s co m -
p ri se d o f se n i o r m a n a g e rs o f fo re i g n co m p a n i e s,
wh o , i n v i rt u e o f t h e cu rre n t l e g i sla t i o n a re n o t
re q u i re d to ap p ly fo r a wo rk p e rm i t.
I n P o la n d , wo rk p e rm i t h o ld e rs a re o f d i ve rse
o ri gi n s a n d o ccu p y fo r th e m o st p a rt ski lle d p o sts.
Ap p ro xi m ate ly 40% o f n e w wo rk p e rm i t h o ld e rs are
e m p lo ye d i n re tai li n g an d cate ri n g th i s p ro p o rti o n
h as b e e n i n cre asi n g d u e to th e wi th d rawa l o f b u si -
n e ss vi sas) , o n e fi fth are e m p lo ye d i n th e tran sp o rt
se cto r a n d o n e te n th i n e d u cati o n . U k rai n i an s h o ld
a l m o st 1 5 % o f a l l t h e p e rm i t s; V i e t n a m e se 1 2 % ;
B e laru ssi a n , B ri ti sh , R u ssi a n an d G e rm an n ati o n als
e ach acco u n t fo r b e twe e n 6 an d 8% . O ve r h alf re si d e
i n th e Warsa w re g i o n . C e rta i n n a ti o n al g ro u p s p re -
d o m i n ate i n so m e se cto rs: C h i n e se an d Vi e tn am e se
i n re tai li n g; B ri ti sh , U krai n i an s an d G e rm an s i n e d u -
cati o n : b y co n trast, th e b re akd o wn b y n ati o n ali ty i s
wi d e ly sp re ad i n i n d u stry an d th e tran sp o rt se cto r.
I rre gu lar e m p lo ym e n t an d e m p lo ym e n t
re gu lati o n s
T h e p o li ti cal an d e co n o m i c re fo rm s u n d e rtake n
i n P o lan d an d i n o th e r C E E C s h ave h ad th e e ffe ct o f
ch an gi n g th e n atu re o f P o li sh lab o u r e m i g rati o n . I n
p a rt i cu l a r, n u m e ro u s b i la te ra l a g re e m e n ts h a v e
b e e n si g n e d wi t h n e a rb y c o u n t ri e s i n c l u d i n g
G e rm an y th e p ri n ci p al h o st co u n try fo r P o li sh wo rk-
e rs) , t h e C ze ch a n d S l o v a k R e p u b li cs, U k ra i n e ,
R u ssi a , B e la ru s, L i th u a n i a a s we ll a s wi th F ra n ce ,
S wi tze rlan d an d B e lgi u m . T h e se agre e m e n ts d e fi n e
t h e c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h w o rk e rs c a n b e
a cce p t e d . G e rm a n y, fo r e xa m p le , re stri cts la b o u r
i m m i grati o n to co n tracts o f fi xe d d u rati o n wh i ch are
fre q u e n tly su b je ct to a lab o u r m arke t te st.
T h e C ze ch R e p u b li c h a s si g n e d si m i la r a gre e -
m e n ts wi th G e rm a n y, P o lan d , th e S lo va k R e p u b li c,
V i e tn a m , U k ra i n e a n d R u ssi a . N e g o ti a t i o n s wi th
M o n g o l i a , B e l a ru s , B u l g a ri a a n d A u s t ri a a re
o n -go i n g. M o re o ve r, an agre e m e n t co n ce rn i n g trai n -
e e s wa s co n clu d e d wi t h S wi tze rla n d i n 1 9 9 7 a n d
m o re re ce n tly wi th H u n gary an d L i th u an i a.
I n th e C ze ch R e p u b li c, ti g h te r re q u i re m e n ts
g o v e rn i n g lab o u r m a rk e t acce ss b y fo re i gn e rs h a ve
h a d t o b e co m b i n e d wi t h t o u g h e r p e n a l t i e s fo r
e m p lo ye rs i lle gally re cru i ti n g fo re i gn e rs. I n sp e cti o n s
b y th e M i n i stry o f L a b o u r a n d S o ci a l A ffa i rs a n d
t h e M i n i s t ry o f t h e I n t e ri o r h a v e re v e a l e d a n
u p su rg e i n th e e m p lo y m e n t o f fo re i g n e rs wi th o u t
re si d e n ce a n d /o r wo rk p e rm i ts. T h i s wo u ld i n d i -
cate th a t th e lo we r o ffi ci a l fi g u re s d o n o t n e ce ssa r-
i l y si g n i fy a re p l a ce m e n t o f m i g ra n t l a b o u r b y
n a ti v e s o r p e rm an e n t re si d e n ts.
T h e i n fo rm a l se ct o r i n H u n g a ry a cc o u n t s,
acco rd i n g to so m e e sti m ate s, fo r ap p ro xi m ate ly 30%
o f G D P ; th e p arti ci p ati o n o f fo re i gn e rs i n th i s se cto r
i s u n d e rsto o d to b e i m p o rtan t. T h e m a jo ri ty o f th e
u n d o cu m e n te d wo rk e rs e n te r as to u ri sts an d re gu -
la rly o r o cca si o n a lly u n d e rta k e a v a ri e ty o f jo b s.
T h e i r re si d e n ce i s m ad e le gal b y le avi n g th e co u n -
try o n ce a m o n th to h ave an e xi t stam p p u t i n to th e i r
p assp o rts b e cau se th e v i sa fre e a gre e m e n t a llo ws
th e m to stay o n ly u n d e r su ch co n d i ti o n s. M a n y o f
70
O E C D 2000
th e se to u ri sts fro m th e n e i g h b o u ri n g co u n tri e s
wo rk i n co n stru cti o n a n d a g ri cu lt u re d o i n g o cca -
si o n al o r se aso n al wo rk. P arti ci p ati o n o f fo re i gn e rs i n
re tai l acti vi ti e s an d m arke t/stre e t trad i n g carri e d o u t
wi t h o u t a v a l i d p e rm i t i s a l s o c o m m o n p l a c e ,
alth o u g h i ts i n ci d e n ce h a s d e cre ase d . H o u se h o ld s
are o fte n e m p lo ye rs; th e y o ffe r m a n y ki n d s o f wo rk
b u t u su ally o n ly fo r sh o rt p e ri o d s, m ay b e a co u p le
o f h o u rs p e r we e k o r m o n th .
T h e m ajo ri ty o f u n d o cu m e n te d lab o u r m i gran ts
a re fro m th e n e i g h b o u ri n g co u n tri e s, m a i n ly fro m
R o m a n i a , b u t a l so fro m U k ra i n e a n d t h e fo rm e r
Yu g o slav i a. M a n y are e th n i c H u n gari an s wh o sp e a k
th e lan gu age an d h ave re lati ve s o r o th e r co n tacts i n
th e co u n try. M i grati o n fro m n e i gh b o u ri n g co u n tri e s
i n t o H u n g a ry i s fu n d a m e n t a l l y o f a t e m p o ra ry
n atu re . T h o se i n vo lv e d try to take ad van tage o f th e
o p p o rtu n i ti e s p re se n te d b y th e o p e n b o rd e rs, b u t
d o n o t wi sh to se ttle p e rm an e n tly. E ve n i f th e p h e -
n o m e n o n i s le ss vi si b le , i rre gu lar e m p lo ym e n t a lso
e xi sts am o n g we ste rn e rs. M o st are yo u n g, th e y typ i -
ca l l y wo rk fo r fo re i g n co m p a n i e s i n m e d i a a n d
i n te rn e t acti vi ti e s o r as lan gu age te ach e rs.
A cco rd i n g to b ro a d e sti m a te s m a d e b y th e
N a ti o n a l L ab o u r B u re a u , e ach y e a r a p p ro xi m a te ly
200 000 u n d o cu m e n te d fo re i gn e rs ta ke u p e m p lo y-
m e n t i n P o l a n d . S o m e t a k e u p u n d o cu m e n t e d
e m p lo ym e n t i n o rd e r to fi n an ce th e i r we stward jo u r-
n e y th i s i s th e ca se fo r th e m a jo ri ty A fri ca n a n d
Asi an n ati o n als o f wh o m a ce rtai n n u m b e r are re gu -
larly re ad m i tte d to P o lan d afte r h avi n g b e e n ap p re -
h e n d e d at th e b o rd e r, n o ta b ly th at wi th G e rm a n y ) ;
fo r o th e rs, P o la n d i s a d e sti n a t i o n co u n try wh e re
co n tra b a n d a ct i v i ti e s a re o fte n we l l o rg a n i se d .
Acco rd i n g to th e re su lts o f a su rv e y ca rri e d o u t i n
b o th P o lan d a n d U k ra i n e , th o u gh U k rai n i a n s o fte n
u n d e rta k e va ri o u s fo rm s o f sh o rt-te rm wo rk i n th e
i n fo rm a l se ct o r, t h e i r p ri n ci p a l a ct i v i ty wh i l st i n
P o lan d co n si sts i n b u yi n g go o d s wh i ch are th e n so ld
i n U krai n e .
T h e b e gi n n i n g o f p e rm an e n t i m m i grati o n
A n u m b e r o f fa cto rs h a ve faci li ta te d th e e n try
a n d se ttle m e n t o f n e w i m m i g ra n t s i n t h e C E E C s.
F o llo wi n g th e li b e rali sati o n o f th e m o ve m e n t o f p e r-
so n s wh i ch ch a n g e d co n si d e ra b ly t h e co n d i t i o n s
u n d e r wh i ch fo re i g n e rs co u l d t ra v e l wi t h i n t h e
re gi o n , th e C E E C s m o d i fi e d th e i r n ati o n ali ty laws, i n
p a rt i c u l a r t o a l l o w e x p a t ri a t e s wh o h a d b e e n
d e p ri ve d o f th e i r ci ti ze n sh i p to re co ve r i t. A se co n d
se t o f ch a n g e s h a s co n ce rn e d th e i n tro d u cti o n o f
sh o rt an d lo n g-te rm re si d e n ce p e rm i ts fo r fo re i g n -
e rs; th e rati fi cati o n o f th e G e n e va C o n ve n ti o n o n re f-
u g e e s; th e a b o li ti o n o f v i sa re q u i re m e n ts fo r th e
n ati o n a ls o f m o st O E C D co u n tri e s; a n d , th e e stab -
li sh m e n t o f p ro g ra m m e s to e n co u ra g e te m p o ra ry
l a b o u r m i g ra ti o n to We st e rn co u n tri e s wi th th e
o b j e ct o f d e v e l o p i n g p a rt i ci p a n t s p ro fe ssi o n a l
e xp e ri e n ce an d lan gu age ski lls.
I m m i g ra t i o n flo ws a re i n cre a si n g . I n so m e o f
th e C E E C s an d li ke wi se i n th e R u ssi a n F e d e rati o n ,
i m m i g ra ti o n flo ws p ro b a b ly e xce e d th o se o f e m i -
g ra t i o n . I t i s n e ce ssa ry h o we v e r to d i ffe re n ti a te
b e twe e n th e v a ri o u s si tu a t i o n s. O n th e b a si s o f
p a rti a l i n fo rm a ti o n co n ce rn i n g th e e n tri e s o f p e r-
m an e n t re si d e n ts,
6
i t wo u ld a p p e a r th a t H u n g ary
wa s h o st i n 1 9 97 to m o re th an 1 3 000 fo re i g n e rs. I n
th e C ze ch R e p u b li c a n d i n P o la n d , e n tri e s i n clu d -
i n g th o se o f re tu rn i n g n ati o n als) n u m b e re d i n 1 99 8
a p p ro xi m a t e l y 1 0 8 0 0 a n d 8 9 0 0 re sp e ct i v e l y. I n
H u n g ary a n d th e C ze ch R e p u b li c, co u n tri e s wh e re
d e tai le d stati sti cs o n p e rm an e n t an d lo n g-te rm fo r-
e i g n re si d e n t s a re a v a i la b le , th e n u m b e r o f p e r-
so n s e n te ri n g u n d e r th e se cate g o ri e s h as i n cre ase d
o v e r t h e l a s t fo u r y e a rs , re a c h i n g 1 4 4 0 0 0 i n
H u n g a ry a n d 22 0 00 0 i n th e C ze ch R e p u b li c a t th e
m o st re ce n t ly a v a i l a b le y e a r se e T a b le I . 1 3 ) . I n
B u lg ari a, ju st o ve r 51 0 00 p e o p le p o sse sse d a lo n g-
t e rm re s i d e n c e p e rm i t i n 1 9 9 8 a n i n cre a se o f
a l m o s t 1 5 % o n t h e p re v i o u s y e a r) a n d n e a rl y
4 0 0 0 0 p e o p le p o sse sse d a p e rm a n e n t re si d e n ce
p e rm i t. To ge th e r th e y acco u n te d fo r le ss th an 1 % o f
th e to ta l p o p u la ti o n .
R o m a n i a n s i n H u n g a ry, C ze ch s i n th e S lo v a k
R e p u b li c, U k ra i n i a n s i n P o la n d o r i n B u lga ri a , fo r-
e i gn e rs wh o ch o o se to se ttle i n C e n tral an d E aste rn
E u ro p e o ri gi n ate i n th e m ajo ri ty fro m n e i g h b o u ri n g
co u n trie s. O th e r co m m u n i ti e s, su ch as th e Vi e tn am e se
a n d th e C h i n e se a re p re se n t i n a n u m b e r o f co u n -
tri e s. U n i te d S tate s an d We ste rn E u ro p e an ci ti ze n s
p ri n ci p a lly fro m G e rm a n y) a re a lso p re se n t, m o st
co m m o n ly i n h i gh ly q u ali fi e d e m p lo ym e n t, n o tab ly
m an agi n g th e su b si d i ari e s o f th e i r co m p an i e s se t u p
i n C e n t ra l a n d E a st e rn E u ro p e . O n e o b s e rv e s
gre ate r d i ve rsi ty i n th e n ati o n ali ti e s o f th o se h o ld i n g
lo n g -te rm re si d e n ce p e rm i ts. T h e m ajo ri ty o f th e m
e n te re d i n o rd e r to tak e u p e m p lo y m e n t wh e re a s
p e rm a n e n t re si d e n t s o b t a i n e d t h e i r p e rm i t fo r
fam i ly o r h u m an i tari an re aso n s.
T h e e xa m p le o f th e C ze ch R e p u b li c i llu strate s
ve ry we ll th e p h e n o m e n o n o f i n te n sifyi n g im m i grati o n
flo ws as m e asu re d b y th e i ssu an ce o f lo n g-te rm an d
71
O E C D 2000
p e rm an e n t re si d e n ce p e rm i ts) an d th e d i ve rsi fi cati o n
i n th e ran ge o f o ri gi n co u n tri e s. I n te rm s o f sto cks, th e
n u m b e r o f p e o p le h o ld i n g th e se typ e s o f p e rm i ts gre w
rap i d ly d u ri n g th e p e ri o d 1 99 3-96 a n d m o re slo wly
th e re afte r. In ad d i ti o n to th e flo ws o ri gi n ati n g fro m th e
trad i ti o n al o ri gi n co u n tri e s, th e S lo vak R e p u b li c an d
P o lan d , flo ws o rigi n ati n g fro m th e fo rm e r S o vi e t U n i o n
p ri n ci p ally U krai n e an d R u ssi a) an d fro m Asi a alm o st
e xclu si v e ly fro m Vi e tn am ) wh i ch we re i n si gn i fi ca n t
i n 1 990 h av e i n cre ase d co n si d e ra b ly si n ce . I n 1 9 97,
th e y acco u n te d fo r o ve r 40% o f n e wly re gi ste re d p e r-
m an e n t i m m i gran ts. M o re o ve r, flo ws o ri gi n ati n g fro m
B o sn i a-H e rze go vi n a an d C ro ati a, alth o u gh sti ll ve ry
sm a ll, are i n cre asi n g . T h e se flo ws o ri g i n a ti n g fro m
co u n trie s fu rth e r away an d m o re d ive rsi fi e d th an at th e
b e gi n n i n g o f th e 1 990s are sti ll co m p o se d fo r th e m o st
p art o f p e o p le e n te ri n g fo r e m p lo ym e n t-re late d re a-
so n s th e p ro p o rti o n o f wo rki n g-age m e n i s i n cre asi n g
as is th e ave rage le ve l o f e d u cati o n ) .
T h e e xa m p le o f P o la n d p o i n t s to t h e sa m e
t re n d s a l b e i t t o a l e s s p ro n o u n c e d e x t e n t .
U n ti l 1 992, i n flo ws we re large ly co m p o se d o f re tu rn -
i n g P o le s. M o re re ce n tly h o we v e r, i t a p p e a rs th a t
i m m i grati o n flo ws h ave i n clu d e d gre ate r n u m b e rs o f
fo re i g n e rs. I n d e e d , n e t m i g rati o n wi th a n u m b e r o f
co u n tri e s wh i ch d o n o t fe atu re am o n g th e trad i ti o n al
o ri gi n co u n tri e s i s p o si ti ve . Am o n g th e se n e w o ri gi n
co u n tri e s are U krai n e , K azakh stan , R u ssi a , Vi e tn am
an d B e laru s.
I n H u n g a ry, i m m i g ra ti o n flo ws i n cre a se d co n -
t i n u a l ly fro m t h e m i d -1 9 8 0 s t h ro u g h t o 1 9 9 0 . I n
a d d i ti o n to th e n e i gh b o u ri n g co u n tri e s ab o li ti o n o f
e xi t re stri cti o n s, th e p o li ti cal a n d e co n o m i c si tu a -
Tab le I .1 3. Foreigners residing insome Central andEastern European countries, bymajor nationality, latest available year
Note: D ata fo r P o lan d i s e sti m ate s o n th e b asi s o f th e M i n i stry o f th e I n te ri o r s R e gi ste rs; fi gu re s fo r R o m an i a co rre sp o n d to th e n u m b e r o f p e rso n s wh o h o ld
a te m p o rary re si d e n ce vi sa vali d fo r at le ast 1 20 d ays) . F o r th e o th e r co u n tri e s, d ata i s i ssu e d fro m p o p u lati o n re gi ste rs an d i s th e n u m b e r o f fo re i gn e rs
wh o h o ld a p e rm an e n t o r a lo n g-te rm re si d e n ce p e rm i t.
B u lgari a 1 998) C ze ch R e p u b li c 1 998) H u n gary 1 997)
T h o u san d s % T h o u san d s % T h o u san d s %
F o rm e r U S S R 35.1 38.6 U krai n e 52. 7 24.0 R o m an i a 57. 4 39.9
E U 1 5.5 17.0 S lo vak R e p u b li c 49. 6 22.6 F o rm e r Yu go slavi a 1 6. 0 11.1
C E E C 2.7 2.9 Vi e tn am 22. 9 10.4 U krai n e 1 2. 2 8.5
E u ro p e o th e rs) 8.5 9.4 P o lan d 22. 2 10.1 G e rm an y 8. 4 5.9
M i d d le E ast 8.1 8.9 R u ssi an F e d e rati o n 1 0. 0 4.6 C h i n a 7. 9 5.5
Asi a 4.5 4.9 G e rm an y 6. 2 2.8 R u ssi an F e d e rati o n 5. 4 3.8
B u lgari a 6. 0 2.7 P o lan d 4. 5 3.1
C h i n a 4. 2 1.9 S lo vak R e p u b li c 3. 7 2.6
F e d . R e p o f Yu go slavi a 3. 9 1.8 G re e ce 2. 0 1.4
U n i te d S tate s 3. 9 1.8 Vi e tn am 1 . 8 1.3
O th e rs 1 6.6 18.3 O th e rs 38. 2 17.4 O th e rs 24. 4 17.0
Total 91.0 100.0 Total 219.8 100.0 Total 143.8 100.0
%oftotal population 1.1 %of total population
2.0
%of total population
1.4
P o lan d 1 998) R o m an i a 1 998) S lo vak R e p u b li c 1 997)
T h o u san d s % T h o u san d s % T h o u san d s %
F o rm e r U S S R 1 3.7 42.0 M o ld o va 6.0 10.9 C ze ch R e p u b li c 5.8 23.3
G e rm an y 3.5 10.8 G re e ce 5.3 9.6 U krai n e 3.5 14.1
B u lgari a 1 .0 3.1 C h i n a 5.2 9.5 P o lan d 2.8 11.3
G re e ce 1 .0 3.1 Tu rke y 4.2 7.7 F o rm e r Yu go slavi a 2.0 8.2
Vi e tn am 1 .0 3.1 I taly 3.6 6.4
S yri a 3.3 6.0
G e rm an y 2.5 4.6
I raq 2.2 4.0
I ran 2.1 3.8
U n i te d S tate s 2.0 3.5
O th e rs 1 2.4 38.0 O th e rs 1 8.8 33.9 O th e rs 1 0.7 43.1
Total 32.5 100.0 Total 55.3 100.0 Total 24.8 100.0
%oftotal population 0.1 %of total population 0.2 %of total population 0.5
72
O E C D 2000
ti o n as we ll as th e e th n i c co n fli cts th at th e se co u n -
t ri e s e x p e ri e n c e d we re i m p o rt a n t u n d e rl y i n g
fa c t o rs b e h i n d l a rg e p o p u l a t i o n m o v e m e n t s .
I n 1 9 9 0, a lm o st 4 0 0 00 p e o p le e n te re d th e co u n try
le g a lly wi th th e i n te n ti o n o f se ttli n g o r o f sta y i n g
fo r a t l e a st o n e y e a r. I n fl o ws d e c l i n e d ra p i d l y
th e re afte r; th e 1 9 92 fi gu re was h alf th at o f 1 9 90. F i g-
u re s fo r th e la st fo u r y e a rs u n d e rli n e th e stab i li sa-
t i o n o f l o n g -t e rm re s i d e n t i n fl o ws a t a l e v e l
b e twe e n 1 3 0 00 a n d 1 4 0 0 0 a n d a n i n cre ase i n th e
n u m b e r o f u n d o cu m e n te d e n tra n ts a n d re si d e n ts.
B y co n tra st th e re a re fe w si g n s o f th e e m e r-
ge n ce o f stab le an d d u rab le i m m i grati o n i n B u lgari a,
R o m an i a a n d th e S lo v ak R e p u b li c. I n R o m an i a, th e
n u m b e r o f fo re i g n e rs h o ld i n g a p e rm a n e n t re si -
d e n ce p e rm i t i s ve ry lo w an d co n ti n u e s to d e cli n e
1 4 00 i n 1 998) ; th i s i s d u e to th e fact th at th e re h as
n o t e xi ste d an i n sti tu ti o n ch arge d wi th gran ti n g th i s
statu s si n ce 1 990. F u rth e r, th e le gi slati o n go ve rn i n g
e n try i n to th e co u n try, i n p arti cu lar th e fact th at to u r-
i s t s d o n o t re q u i re a v i s a , re n d e rs o t i o s e a n y
atte m p t at e valu ati n g th e n u m b e r o f fo re i gn e rs stay-
i n g te m p o rari ly. T h e S lo vak R e p u b li c s i m m i grati o n
f l o w s a re o f a s m a l l e x t e n t o f t h e o rd e r o f
2 0 0 0 e n tri e s p e r y e a r a n d a re co m p o se d i n th e
m a jo ri ty o f ci ti ze n s o f n e i g h b o u ri n g co u n tri e s th e
C ze ch R e p u b li c an d U krai n e ) .
Conclusion
At th e e n d o f th i s o ve rvi e w o f m i grati o n flo ws i n
C e n t ra l a n d E a ste rn E u ro p e , a n u m b e r o f tre n d s
e m e rge . F i rst o f all, E ast-We st m i grati o n flo ws p e r-
si st b u t a t a m u ch lo we r le v e l th a n th o se re co rd e d
b e twe e n 1 9 8 9 a n d 1 9 9 2 ; ce rta i n n a ti o n a li ti e s p re -
d o m i n ate an d ce rtai n h o st co u n tri e s a re re la ti ve ly
m o re i m p o rta n t th a n o th e rs. T h e ch a n g e s wh i ch
h a v e ta k e n p la ce i n C e n tra l a n d E a ste rn E u ro p e
h a v e l e d to a n i n te n si fi ca ti o n o f m i g ra ti o n fl o ws
b e twe e n th e C E E C s, b u t a b o v e a ll b e twe e n th e
C E E C s an d th e i r n e i g h b o u rs to th e E a st an d S o u th
th e C I S an d th e fo rm e r Yu go slavi a) . T h e re are also
si g n i fi ca n t b u t n u m e ri ca l l y l o w l e v e l We st -E a st
m i grati o n flo ws o f m an age rs an d h i gh ly ski lle d wo rk-
e rs. O ve rall, m i grati o n flo ws to ward s th e C E E C s h ave
i n cre a se d a n d , i n th e ca se s o f th e C ze ch R e p u b li c,
H u n gary an d P o lan d , h ave d i ve rsi fi e d .
T h e p ro p o si ti o n th at m i g rati o n wi th i n th i s a re a
i s b e co m i n g glo b ali se d i s, h o we ve r, su b je ct to so m e
q u ali fi cati o n . I t i s th e C ze ch R e p u b li c, wh e re re fo rm s
h ave b e e n u n d e rtake n to gran t a le gal statu s to fo r-
e i gn e rs, wh i ch m o st cle arly ap p e ars to b e co m i n g a
n e w h o st co u n try fo r fo re i gn e rs, ab o ve all fo r ci ti ze n s
o f n e i gh b o u ri n g co u n tri e s b u t also fo r th o se o ri gi n at-
i n g fro m m o re d i stan t re gi o n s. I n H u n gary, si gn i fi can t
i m m i grati o n flo ws b e ga n i n th e m i d -1 98 0s an d cu l-
m i n a te d i n 1 99 0. R e stri cti v e m e a su re s we re swi ftly
i m p le m e n te d i n o rd e r to ch e ck th i s tre n d ; o n e
o b se rve s to d ay a stab i li sati o n o f d o cu m e n te d flo ws
a n d i n cre a si n g u n d o cu m e n te d flo ws. I n P o la n d , a
n e w syste m fo r re co rd i n g flo ws h as ju st b e e n i m p le -
m e n te d an d sh o u ld e xte n d th e stati sti cal co ve rag e
to stays o f li m i te d d u rati o n . P o lan d , trad i ti o n ally an
e m i grati o n co u n try, i s n o t o n e wh e re fo re i gn e rs te n d
to se ttle . O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e p h e n o m e n o n o f
sh o rt an d fre q u e n t vi si ts fo r th e p u rp o se o f trad e i s
ve ry i m p o rtan t.
M o re g e n e ra lly, i n o rd e r to g i v e a re la ti v e ly
co m p le te d e li n e a ti o n o f th e C e n tra l a n d E a st e rn
E u ro p e a n m i g ra ti o n flo ws ta k i n g i n to a cco u n t th e
co u n tri e s ro le s as p lace s o f d e sti n ati o n , tran si t an d
o ri gi n , o n e can n o t li m i t th e stu d y to o n e o f p e rm a-
n e n t a n d lo n g-te rm m o ve m e n ts: fi rst, b e cau se th e
d e fi n i ti o n s o f th e se ca te g o ri e s a re st i ll , i n so m e
co u n tri e s, v e sti g e s o f th e S o v i e t sta ti sti ca l sy ste m
a n d se co n d b e ca u se t h i s g ro u p o f co u n t ri e s i s
d e fi n e d le ss as an are a o f se ttle m e n t th an as an are a
o f trad e an d e co n o m i c acti vi ty. T h e lack o f a ri go ro u s
re g u l a t o ry fra m e wo rk su ch a s t h a t o p e ra t e d i n
G e rm an y) h as th e e ffe ct th at m o ve m e n ts o f p e o p le
li n ke d to trad i n g acti vi ty an d o th e r fo rm s o f wo rk are
n o t we ll cap tu re d , e sp e ci ally gi ve n th at th e se sh o rt-
te rm m o v e m e n t s o f re a l a n d fa k e to u ri st s d o n o t
a lwa y s re q u i re th e p o sse ssi o n o f a v i sa . I t wo u ld
a p p e a r th a t th i s p h e n o m e n o n o f v e ry sh o rt-te rm ,
i n d e e d p e n d u lar , m i g ra ti o n i s ve ry co m m o n i n a
n u m b e r o f co u n tri e s. T h e m arke d e co n o m i c d i sp ari -
ti e s wi th i n th e re gi o n o r th e p ro xi m i ty o f a cap i tal o r
a re a o f re la ti v e ly h i g h la b o u r d e m a n d d o u b t le ss
e xp la i n th e fre q u e n cy o f sh o rt-te rm m o ve m e n ts i n
ce rtai n fro n ti e r re gi o n s. T h e e xi ste n ce o f h i sto ri c an d
cu ltu ral li n ks re n d e r n atu ral sh o rt-te rm cro ss-b o rd e r
m o ve m e n ts.
C. AN OVERVIEW OF MIGRATION POLICIES
7
M i g ra t i o n p o li ci e s i n O E C D co u n tri e s ca n b e
gro u p e d i n se ve ral ways. T h e first co n si sts o f m e asu re s
a d o p t e d a t n a t i o n a l a n d i n t e rn a t i o n a l l e v e l t o
stre n g th e n th e co n tro l o f flo ws i n clu d i n g th o se o f
asylu m -se e ke rs) . T h e se co n d co n ce rn s th e fi gh t agai n st
i rre gu lar m i grati o n an d th e i lle gal e m p lo ym e n t o f fo r-
e i gn wo rke rs. T h e th i rd co ve rs all m e asu re s th at ai m to
e n su re a b e tte r i n te g ra ti o n o f m i g ra n ts i n th e h o st
co u n try. T h e last co n ce rn s th e li n ks b e twe e n m igrati o n
73
O E C D 2000
a n d i n te rn a ti o n al co -o p e ra ti o n , p arti cu la rly i n th e
co n te xt o f th e p ro je cte d e n large m e n t o f th e E u ro p e an
U n i o n .
1. Policies for regulating and controlling flows
a) The regulation of flows and the implementation
of new legislation
T h e p o li cy o f O E C D M e m b e r co u n tri e s re gard -
i n g th e re gu la ti o n o f flo ws m an i fe sts i tse lf n o t o n ly
i n fre q u e n t ch an ge s to i m m i g rati o n le gi slati o n an d
t h e e n a ct m e n t o f n e w la ws, b u t a lso i n i n t e rn a -
ti o n a l co -o p e rati o n b e twe e n th e M e m b e r co u n tri e s
t h e m s e l v e s a n d b e t w e e n M e m b e r a n d n o n -
m e m b e r co u n tri e s. T h e se two fo rm s o f i n te rn a -
ti o n al co -o p e ra ti o n i n th e sp h e re o f m i g ra ti o n are
n o t y e t h i g h ly d e v e l o p e d b u t a re , n e v e rth e le ss,
th e fo cu s o f g ro wi n g i n te re st.
National policies
S e ve ral O E C D M e m b e r co u n tri e s m o d i fi e d th e i r
l e g i s l a t i o n b e t we e n 1 9 9 8 a n d 2 0 0 0 a n d i m p l e -
m e n te d n e w p ro v i si o n s g o v e rn i n g th e e n try, re si -
d e n ce a n d e m p lo y m e n t o f fo re i g n e rs. Wh i le so m e
re fo rm s h a ve le d to i m p ro ve m e n ts i n th e statu s o f
th o se a lre a d y se ttle d i n h o st co u n tri e s, m o st h av e
b e e n a i m e d e sse n ti a lly a t ti g h te n i n g b o rd e r co n -
t ro l s a n d a m e n d i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n s fo r e n t ry ,
re si d e n ce an d e m p lo ym e n t.
T i gh te n i n g b o rd e r ch e cks an d e n try
re q u i re m e n ts
I n Au strali a, fo r e xam p le , th e n u m b e r o f p e rso n -
n e l d e a li n g wi t h b o rd e r co n t ro l s wa s i n cre a se d
i n 1 9 9 7 -9 8 i n o rd e r to i m p ro v e th e e ffe ct i v e n e ss,
p arti cu larly i n ai rp o rts, o f ch e ck s o n n ati o n als fro m
h i g h ri sk co u n tri e s. I n t h e g e n e ra l co n te xt o f
stre n gth e n i n g m e asu re s to co m b at i lle ga l i m m i g ra-
ti o n an d th e m i gran t traffi cki n g se e b e lo w) , th e P ar-
l i a m e n t i s a t p re se n t d e b a ti n g a B i ll o n b o rd e r
co n tro ls wh i ch wo u ld a llo w sta ff fro m th e D e p a rt-
m e n t o f I m m i grati o n an d M u lti cu ltu ral Affai rs D I M A)
a n d cu st o m s o ffi ce rs t o ch e ck v e sse l s sa i l i n g i n
i n te rn a ti o n a l wa te rs wh e n th e y a re su sp e cte d o f
b e i n g i n vo lve d i n th e traffi cki n g o f p e rso n s.
I n N e w Z e alan d , n e w m e asu re s we re i n tro d u ce d
i n 1 999 i n th e co n te xt o f th e re vi si o n o f th e I m m i gra-
ti o n Act to d e al wi th ce rtai n ri sks risk management
wi th re g a rd to i m m i g ra ti o n . T h e i n t ro d u cti o n o f a
se cu ri ty d e p o si t wh e n e n te ri n g th e co u n try, re co ve r-
a b le o n le a vi n g , a n d o f p e rm i ts li m i te d to ce rta i n
a cti v i ti e s g i v e th e g o v e rn m e n t m o re fle xi b i li t y i n
m a k i n g b o rd e r ch e ck s. T h e n e w p ro v i si o n s a lso
i n clu d e a m o re e ffe cti ve p ro ce ss fo r re m o val, as we ll
a s a p ro g ra m m e fo r ch e ck i n g i d e n ti t y d o cu m e n t s
b e fo re arri val i n N e w Z e alan d i n co -o p e ra ti o n wi th
ai rli n e co m p an i e s.
O ve r th e last two ye ars, re fo rm o f th e le gi slati o n
o n ci ti ze n sh i p an d i m m i gra ti o n h as b e e n a p ri o ri ty
fo r C i ti ze n sh i p an d I m m i grati o n C an ad a. T h e gro u p
o f e xp e rts ap p o i n te d b y th e M i n i ste r h an d e d i n i ts
re p o rt i n D e ce m b e r 1 9 97 , a n d th e le g i slati ve re v i -
si o n sta ge wa s b e gu n i n Ja n u a ry 1 9 99 . T h e a m e n d -
m e n t s t o t h e l e g i sl a t i o n sh o u l d co n ce rn fa m i l y
re u n i o n , th e p ro ce ss fo r th e gran ti n g o f re fu ge e sta-
tu s an d th e se ttle m e n t o f re fu ge e s, th e syste m fo r
se le cti n g ski lle d wo rke rs an d th e b u si n e ssm e n , th e
e n try o f te m p o ra ry, h i g h ly q u ali fi e d wo rke rs a n d o f
stu d e n ts, th e cri te ri a fo r o b tai n i n g p e rm an e n t re si -
d e n t sta tu s a n d th e ap p e a l p ro ce sse s a n d d i scre -
ti o n a ry p o we rs a s re g a rd s i m m i gra ti o n . M o re o v e r,
th e cri te ri a fo r acq u i ri n g C an ad i an n ati o n ali ty are to
b e re vi se d an d d e fi n e d m o re cle arly.
T h re e o f O E C D M e m b e r co u n tri e s b e lo n gi n g to
t h e E u ro p e a n U n i o n I ta ly, P o rt u g a l a n d S p a i n
h av e re ce n tly b e co m e i m m i g rati o n co u n tri e s. T h e y
h ave n o w d e ci d e d to re co gn i se th e p e rm an e n t p re s-
e n ce o f fo re i gn e rs o n th e i r te rri to ry an d h ave u n d e r-
take n to ad ap t th e i r le gi slati o n acco rd i n gly.
I n I taly, th e i ssu e o f i m m i grati o n h as b e e n h o tly
d e b ate d si n ce 1 997, wi th th e re gu lar arri val o f fo re i gn -
e rs o n t h e A d ri a t i c co a s t a n d t h e a d o p t i o n i n
M arch 1 998 o f a n e w Act re lati n g to th e co n d i ti o n s fo r
th e e n try an d re si d e n ce o f fo re i gn e rs i n I taly. T h e go v-
e rn m e n t h ad h o p e d th at th i s Act wo u ld d e fi n i ti ve ly
re so lve th e p ro b le m o f th e i lle gal e n try o f m i gra n ts
i n to I taly. N e v e rth e le ss, i ts a ctu a l a p p li cati o n wa s
a p p ro v e d o n ly a t th e e n d o f O cto b e r 1 999, an d th e
g o ve rn m e n t h as fi n ally d e ci d e d o n a re gu lari sati o n
p ro gram m e se e b e lo w) , wh i ch was i n p ri n ci p le n o
lo n ge r to h a ve b e e n n e ce ssa ry u n d e r th e Act. T h e
I m m i grati o n Act h as th re e m a i n o b je cti ve s: to re gu -
late th e a d m i ssi o n o f fo re i gn e rs b y se tti n g a n n u al
q u o tas, to d e al m o re se ve re ly wi th i lle gal i m m i gra -
t i o n a n d m i g ra n t t ra ffi ck i n g , a n d to i m p ro v e t h e
i n te grati o n o f fo re i gn e rs re si d i n g le gally i n I taly.
T h e A c t o f 8 A u g u s t 1 9 9 8 a d o p t e d b y t h e
P o rtu g u e se P a rli a m e n t re la te s to th e e n try, re si -
d e n ce , d e p a rtu re an d e xp u lsi o n o f fo re i g n e rs. T h e
n e w law n o t o n ly ai m s to m a ke n ati o n a l le g i sla ti o n
a b l e e ffe ct i v e l y t o co n t ro l e xt e rn a l b o rd e rs a s
re q u i re d b y th e S ch e n g e n Ag re e m e n ts si g n e d b y
74
O E C D 2000
P o rtu g al o n 2 5 Ju n e 1 99 1 ) a n d o th e r a gre e m e n ts i t
h as co n clu d e d , b u t also co n fi rm s th e p o li cy o f i n te -
g ra t i n g i m m i g ra n t p o p u la t i o n s. T h e A ct cre a t e s
se ve n d i ffe re n t typ e s o f vi sa: sto p o ve r, tran si t, sh o rt
stay, te m p o rary stay, re si d e n ce , stu d y an d wo rk.
N e w le gi slati o n o n fo re i gn e rs e n te re d i n to fo rce
i n S p ai n o n 1 F e b ru ary 2 000 . E n ti tle d I n sti tu ti o n al
A ct o n th e R i g h ts a n d F re e d o m s o f F o re i g n e rs i n
S p ai n an d th e i r S o ci al I n te grati o n , th i s Act re p lace s
th e p re vi o u s o n e o f 1 985. I t ai m s to re g u late m i g ra-
ti o n flo ws, i n p arti cu lar b y stre n gth e n i n g b o rd e r co n -
tro ls, syste m i si n g th e e xp u lsi o n o f i lle gal i m m i gran ts
an d p u n i sh i n g m i gran t tra ffi ck i n g . I t a lso re fle cts a
n e w ap p ro ach b o rn o f th e aware n e ss o f th e S p an i sh
G o ve rn m e n t th at th e p h e n o m e n o n o f i m m i g rati o n
i n to S p ai n i s a p e rm an e n t o n e . T h e n e w Act th u s re c-
o g n i se s th e ri gh ts a n d fre e d o m s o f fo re i gn e rs a n d
p ro m o te s th e i r so ci a l i n te g ra ti o n se e b e lo w) . O n
4 Au gu st 2 000, th e go v e rn m e n t ad o p te d a n e w B i ll,
i n tro d u ci n g m o re re st ri ct i v e co n tro l s o f u n d o cu -
m e n te d fo re i gn e rs, wh i ch p ro vi d e s i n p arti cu lar fo r
a n i n cre a se i n se n t e n ce s a n d sa n ct i o n s a g a i n st
m i g ra n t tra ffi ck e rs a n d e m p lo y e rs wh o e n co u ra g e
th e m . U n d e r th i s B i l l, u n d o cu m e n te d fo re i g n e rs
wo u ld n o t h ave th e i r si tu a ti o n re gu lari se d ti ll afte r
fi ve ye ars, i n ste a d o f th e two ye ars p ro vi d e d fo r b y
th e Act wh i ch e n te re d i n to fo rce o n 1 F e b ru ary 2000.
S o m e We st E u ro p e a n co u n tri e s wi th a lo n g e r
tra d i ti o n o f i m m i g ra t i o n h a v e re ce n tly a m e n d e d
th e i r le gi slati o n o r ad o p te d n e w m e asu re s to co n tro l
i m m i g rati o n an d a d ap t e xi sti n g ru le s to ch an ge s i n
m i grati o n flo ws an d to th e n e w E u ro p e an stan d ard s
se e b e lo w) .
T h e n e w A l i e n s A ct i n th e N e th e rla n d s, cu r-
re n tly b e i n g d i scu sse d i n P arli a m e n t, i n clu d e s se v-
e ra l n e w re stri cti ve i m m i g ra ti o n m e a su re s. T h e se
wi ll ap p ly e sse n ti ally to asylu m se e ke rs se e b e lo w) .
An a u th o ri sati o n re q u i re m e n t fo r te m p o ra ry sta y s
was re i n tro d u ce d i n D e ce m b e r 1 998 . T h e n a ti o n als
o f m o st n o n -O E C D co u n tri e s a re o b li g e d t o h a v e
su ch au th o ri sa ti o n , wh i ch m u st b e o b tai n e d i n th e
co u n try o f o ri gi n b e fo re e n try i n to th e N e th e rlan d s,
b e fo re b e i n g ab le to ap p ly fo r a re si d e n ce p e rm i t.
I n th e U n i te d K i n gd o m , a n e w I m m i g rati o n an d
Asylu m Act was d i scu sse d b y P arli am e n t d u ri n g 1 999
se e th e 1 999 e d i ti o n o f Trends in International Migration
an d e n te re d i n to fo rce i n N o ve m b e r 1 999. I t se ts o u t
a ran ge o f m e asu re s ai m e d at ti gh te n i n g an d i m p ro v-
i n g ch e cks at p o rts o f e n try. T h e n u m b e r o f p e rso n n e l
h a n d l i n g c h e ck s , n o t a b l y a t a i rp o rt s , i s t o b e
i n cre ase d , a n d th e I m m i g ra ti o n Act m o d e rn i se d i n
o rd e r to faci li tate ve ri fi cati o n o f le gi ti m ate trave lle rs
an d b e tte r i d e n ti fy p o te n ti al ab u se s. I n ad d i ti o n , i n
Ap ri l 1 99 8 , th e a p p li cati o n o f carri e rs li a b i li ty wa s
e xte n d e d to th e E u ro star li n k b e twe e n B ru sse ls an d
L o n d o n , fo llo wi n g co m p lai n ts ab o u t th e arri val o f fo r-
e i gn e rs wi th o u t p ap e rs o n th at trai n . I n M arch 20 00,
th e U n i te d K i n gd o m a n d F re n ch G o ve rn m e n ts co n -
clu d e d an ad d i ti o n al P ro to co l to th e e xi sti n g o n e o n
th e C h a n n e l fi xe d li n k , e n a b li n g t h e i m m i g ra ti o n
a u th o ri ti e s i n b o th co u n tri e s to ch e ck trav e l d o cu -
m e n ts b e fo re d e p a rtu re . I n M a y 2 0 0 0 , th e U n i te d
K i n gd o m G o ve rn m e n t an n o u n ce d th e i m p le m e n ta-
ti o n fo r si x m o n th s o f a p i lo t p ro gram m e i n tro d u ci n g a
sy ste m o f fi n an ci a l se cu ri ty G B P 3 00 0 ) fo r ce rta i n
ca te g o ri e s o f v i sa re q u e ste d b y P h i l i p p i n e a n d
M o ro ccan n ati o n als. T h i s syste m se e m s ve ry si m i lar
to th e o n e re ce n tly i n tro d u ce d i n N e w Z e alan d .
Wh e n th e y d e ci d e to am e n d th e i r le gi slati o n o n
ali e n s, th o se O E C D co u n tri e s i n E u ro p e wh o are n o t
m e m b e rs o f th e E u ro p e an U n i o n d o so wi th a vi e w
to b ri n g i n g th e i r p ro vi si o n s i n to li n e wi th th o se o f
th e E u ro p e an U n i o n .
T h u s, S wi t ze rla n d h a s ju st co n clu d e d a fre e -
tra d e a g re e m e n t wi th th e E u ro p e a n C o m m u n i ty
p ro v i d i n g fo r t h e g ra d u a l l i b e ra l i sa t i o n o f t h e
m o v e m e n t o f p e rso n s a s re g a rd s e n try, re si d e n ce
a n d la b o u r m a rk e t a cce ss. T h e S wi ss p o p u la ti o n
a p p ro ve d th i s A gre e m e n t, d u e to e n te r i n to fo rce
i n 2 0 0 1 , b y re fe re n d u m i n M a y 2 0 0 0 . S wi tze rl a n d
i s also p la n n i n g to a cce d e to th e S ch e n ge n A gre e -
m e n ts. M o re o v e r, th e l a w o n th e re si d e n ce a n d
e st a b l i sh m e n t o f fo re i g n e rs i s b e i n g re v i e we d .
T h e B i ll d e a l s wi th a l l th e g e n e ra l p ri n ci p le s o f
S wi ss i m m i g ra ti o n p o li cy, i n clu d i n g le g i sla ti o n o n
fo re i g n e rs a n d a s y l u m , i n t e g ra t i o n p o l i cy a n d
e xte rn al p o li cy.
F o r th e i r p a rt, th e co u n tri e s o f C e n tra l a n d
E aste rn E u ro p e wh i ch are can d i d ate s fo r m e m b e rsh i p
o f th e E u ro p e an U n i o n a re e n d e a v o u ri n g to a d a p t
th e i r le gi slati o n to E u ro p e an n o rm s. T h i s i s th e case ,
fo r e xam p le , o f th e C ze ch R e p u b li c wh i ch h as re vi se d
i t s p re v i o u sly li b e ra l a p p ro a ch to th e e n try a n d
re si d e n ce o f fo re i gn e rs. A n e w ge n e ral Ali e n s Act, re g-
u lati n g e n try, re si d e n ce , wo rk, i n te grati o n an d n atu -
rali sati o n , e n te re d i n to fo rce i n Jan u ary 2000 an d i s to
b e a m e n d e d d u ri n g th e y e a r 20 0 0. U n d e r th i s A ct,
C ze ch co n su la te s a b ro a d a re n o w re sp o n si b le fo r
i ssu i n g vi sas, an d sh o rt-stay vi sas h ave b e e n re d u ce d
fro m 1 80 to 90 d a ys. T h e p u rp o se o f th e stay can n o
lo n g e r b e ch an ge d o n C ze ch te rri to ry, a n d all lo n g-
te rm vi sa ap p li cati o n s m u st i n clu d e ju sti fi cati o n d o c-
u m e n ts fo r e xam p le , a wo rk p e rm i t) . T h i s ali gn m e n t
75
O E C D 2000
o n C o m m u n i ty vi sa p o li cy h as b e e n stre n gth e n e d b y
th e ab ro gati o n o f agre e m e n ts co n clu d e d wi th R u ssi a,
U krai n e an d B e laru s, re -e stab li sh i n g a vi sa re q u i re -
m e n t fo r th e i r n a ti o n a ls. O th e r a g re e m e n ts co n -
clu d e d wi t h ce rta i n C I S R e p u b li cs a re a lso to b e
re vo ke d .
I n P o la n d , th e g o v e rn m e n t re ce n t ly a d o p te d
two le gi slati ve i n i ti ati ve s to re gu late m i grati o n flo ws.
Wh i le th e fi rst co n ce rn s t h e a cq u i si ti o n o f P o li sh
n ati o n ali ty, th e se co n d p ro p o se s an am e n d m e n t to
th e 1 997 I m m i grati o n Act so as to take acco u n t o f th e
co m m e n ts m ad e o n i t b y th e E u ro p e an i n sti tu ti o n s.
U n d e r t h i s A c t , t h e P o l i s h G o v e rn m e n t i n
Jan u ary 1 998 i n tro d u ce d a n e w syste m fo r co n tro lli n g
th e e aste rn b o rd e rs o f th e co u n try, a b o li sh i n g th e
p re v i o u s ru l e s o n t h e a d m i ssi o n o f fo re i g n e rs,
d e e m e d to o li b e ral. An e n try v i sa i s n o w re q u i re d
fro m th e n ati o n als o f all n e i gh b o u ri n g co u n tri e s wh o
h av e n o t sa i d th e y wo u ld co n clu d e a re -a d m i ssi o n
a g re e m e n t wi th P o la n d . T h i s a ffe cts B e la ru s a n d
R u ssi an n ati o n als i n p arti cu lar. N e w e n try co n d i ti o n s
h a v e b e e n i m p o se d fo r th e n a ti o n a l s o f se v e ra l
o t h e r co u n t ri e s, a n d b o rd e r ch e ck s h a v e b e e n
stre n gth e n e d .
I n B u l g a ri a , t h e n e w A l i e n s A ct a d o p t e d i n
D e ce m b e r 1 998 e n te re d i n to fo rce i n Jan u ary 2000. T h e
ge n e ral th ru st o f th e Act i s to re stri ct e n try an d tran si t
an d to p ro vi d e a su i tab le le gal fram e wo rk fo r re gu lat-
i n g th e re si d e n ce o f fo re i gn e rs e stab lish e d i n B u lgari a.
I t i n tro d u ce s se ve ral typ e s o f vi sa an d re si d e n ce p e r-
m i ts, i n clu d in g sh o rt-stay u p to 90 d ays) an d lo n g-stay
o n e ye ar p e rm i ts. T h i s Act also re q u i re s all fo re ign e rs
e n te ri n g B u lgari a to gi ve an ad d re ss i n th e co u n try an d
th e re aso n s fo r th e i r stay, an d i n cre ase s co n si d e rab ly
th e sa n cti o n s ap p li ca b le to fo re i g n e rs wh o d o n o t
co m p ly wi th th e se p ro vi si o n s.
I n Ju n e 1 9 9 9 , t h e R o m a n i a n G o v e rn m e n t
ad o p te d a p ri o ri ty O rd i n an ce am e n d i n g an d su p p le -
m e n ti n g th e 1 9 9 2 A ct o n S tate F ro n ti e rs. U p o n th e
e n try i n to fo rce o f th i s O rd i n a n ce , a fro n ti e r p o li ce
se rvi ce was cre ate d , an swe rab le to th e M i n i stry o f th e
I n te ri o r. T h e p ro je ct to m o d e rn i se R o m an i a s e aste rn
b o rd e rs, d rawn u p wi th th e su p p o rt o f th e E u ro p e an
P H AR E 1 999 an d T AI E X P ro gram m e s, was d i scu sse d
d u ri n g th e co u rse o f la st y e a r. P e rso n n e l n u m b e rs
h ave b e e n i n cre ase d o n th e co u n try s e aste rn b o rd e rs
as h ave th e m ate ri al re so u rce s fo r co n tro l.
D i ffe re n t p o li ci e s as re gard s fam i ly re u n i o n
I t se e m s th at m o st o f th e O E C D M e m b e r co u n -
tri e s wh i ch h a v e , si n ce 1 9 9 8 , u n d e rta ke n to re v i se
th e i r le g i sla ti o n o n fa m i ly re u n i o n o r to i n tro d u ce
n e w l e g i sl a t i o n , a re t e n d i n g t o l i b e ra l i se t h e i r
ad m i ssi o n p o li cy fo r th e fam i ly m e m b e rs o f alre ad y
e sta b li sh e d fo re i gn e rs, si n ce th e y h ave re co gn i se d
th e p ri n ci p le o f lo n g-stay i m m i grati o n an d se e m to
co n si d e r th at re u n i ti n g fam i li e s co n sti tu te s a ve ri ta-
b l e ri g h t fo r e sta b li sh e d fo re i g n re si d e n ts se e
b e lo w, P art I I d e vo te d to fam i ly re u n i o n ) .
I n C a n a d a , n e w p ro p o sa l s o n fa m i l y re u n i o n
h ave b e e n p u t fo rward i n th e co n te xt o f th e le gi slati ve
re fo rm u n d e r way. T h e n e w m e asu re s stre n gth e n th e
ri gh t to fam i ly re u n i o n an d p o li ci e s re lati n g to ad o p -
ti o n . T h e y a lso e xte n d th e d e fi n i ti o n o f sp o u se to
i n clu d e p artn e rs an d h o m o se xu als. N e w p ro v i si o n s
co u ld also b e ad d e d to th e re gu lati o n s o f Ap ri l 1 997
o n th e fi n an ci al so lve n cy o f sp o n so rs so as to re d u ce
th e e ffe cts o f i n so lv e n cy o n g o v e rn m e n ts a n d th e
C an ad i an taxp aye r b y m e an s o f a n e le ctro n i c i n fo r-
m a ti o n sy ste m e n a b li n g th e so ci a l se rv i ce s o f th e
d i ffe re n t P ro vi n ce s to e xch an ge i n fo rm ati o n .
I n A u s t ra l i a , s o m e c h a n g e s we re m a d e i n
N o v e m b e r 1 9 9 9 t o t h e p ro v i si o n s o n t h e fa m i l y
m e m b e rs o f m i gran ts. L i ke n atu ral an d ad o p te d ch i l-
d re n , ste p -ch i ld re n m a y n o w ap p ly fo r a vi sa o r b e
classi fi e d as fam i ly m e m b e rs fo r o th e r cate go ri e s o f
v i sa . C h i ld re n ag e d 1 8 o r o v e r an d a n y o th e r a d u lt
d e p e n d e n t o n th e fa m i l y u n i t wi ll b e su b je ct to
stri ct e r ch e ck s, wi th th e e xce p ti o n o f th e fa m i ly
m e m b e rs o f a p p l i ca n t s fo r re fu g e e st a t u s o r a
h u m a n i ta ri a n v i sa . M o re o v e r, ch i ld re n a g e d 1 8 o r
o ve r wh o ap p ly fo r a vi sa m u st b e le ss th an 25 ye ars
o f a g e a n d b e fu ll-ti m e stu d e n t s, u n le ss th e y a re
h an d i cap p e d .
S i n ce M arch 1 999, ap p li can ts fo r fam i ly re u n i o n
wh o se ap p li cati o n i s b e i n g p ro ce sse d m ay re q u e st a
d e si gn ate d p a re n t v i sa a n d wi ll b e gi ve n p ri o ri ty
wi th re g ard to th e p ro ce ssi n g o f a p p li cati o n s. M o re
fle xi b le p ro v i si o n s h a v e b e e n i n tro d u ce d fo r re la -
ti v e s wh o h a v e a p p li e d fo r a p e rm a n e n t re si d e n t
p e rm i t. I n p arti cu lar, re lati ve s o b li g e d to wa i t fo r a
le n gth y p e ri o d wi ll b e allo we d to vi si t Au strali a o n a
t e m p o ra ry b a si s u n ti l th e i r a p p li ca ti o n h a s b e e n
e xam i n e d .
I n N e w Z e a la n d , fa m i ly re u n i o n p o li cy i s cu r-
re n tly b e i n g re vi se d . U n ti l n o w, clo se fam i ly m e m -
b e rs o f N e w Z e alan d re si d e n ts o r ci ti ze n s h ave b e e n
ab le to o b tai n a ri gh t o f re si d e n ce . H o we ve r, asce n -
d a n ts h av e to m e e t th e ce n tre o f grav i ty cri te ri a ,
i.e. th e n u m b e r o f th e i r a d u lt ch i ld re n re si d i n g i n
N e w Z e ala n d m u st b e e q u al to o r g re ate r th a n th e
76
O E C D 2000
n u m b e r o f th e i r o th e r ch i ld re n li v i n g o u tsi d e N e w
Z e alan d .
I n S p ai n , th e Act o f 1 1 Jan u ary 2000 o n th e R i gh ts
an d F re e d o m s o f F o re i gn e rs an d th e i r S o ci al I n te gra-
ti o n d e vo te s a ch ap te r to th e fam ily re u n i o n o f fo re i gn -
e rs. I t e xp re ssly re co gn i se s th e ri gh t to fam i ly re u n i o n
o f re si d e n t fo re i gn e rs, a ri g h t wh i ch ap p li e s to th e
sp o u se , ch i ld re n u n d e r 1 8 an d e co n o m i cally d e p e n -
d e n t a sce n d an ts. I n F ran ce , th e Act o f 1 1 M ay 1 99 8
i n tro d u ce d se ve ral i m p o rtan t ch an ge s re gard i n g fam i ly
re u n i o n , in clu d i n g th e re d u cti o n o f th e le gal re sid e n ce
re q u i re m e n t b e fo re an ap p li cati o n fo r re u n i o n can b e
m ad e , fro m two ye ars to o n e ye ar, an d ch an ge s to th e
gro u n d s fo r re fu sal, i n p articu lar th e re so u rce cri te ria. A
n e w typ e o f te m p o rary re si d e n ce card fo r co -h ab i te e s
vie prive et familiale , was i n tro d u ce d i n 1 999 , an d
20 000 p e o p le h ave alre ad y b e n e fi te d fro m th i s m e a-
su re . T h e co -h ab i te e card gi ve s e n ti tle m e n t to wo rk
an d m ake s i t p o ssi b le to o b tai n a re si d e n ce card afte r
five ye ars o f u n i n te rru p te d lawfu l re si d e n ce .
I n G re e ce , se v e ra l le g i sl a t i v e a m e n d m e n t s
h ave b e e n ad o p te d to p ro te ct th e sp o u se an d m i n o r
ch i ld re n o f fo re i g n e rs wh o o b ta i n e d a gre e n ca rd
o r wh i te card as a re su lt o f th e re gu lari sati o n p ro -
ce d u re i m p l e m e n t e d s i n ce Ja n u a ry 1 9 9 8 , fro m
e xp u lsi o n . T h e ch i ld re n o f gre e n card h o ld e rs m u st
th e m se lve s ap p ly fo r su ch a card b e twe e n th e a ge s
o f 1 8 a n d 2 1 . I n P o rtu g al, th e Act o f 8 Au g u st 1 9 9 8
gave e ffe ct to th e ri gh t to fam i ly re u n i o n b y gran ti n g
th i s ri gh t i n fu tu re to th e fam i ly m e m b e rs o f fo re i gn -
e rs re si d i n g i n P o rtu g a l. R e u n i o n i s g ra n te d p ro -
v i d e d t h a t t h e fo re i g n e r, wh e n a p p l y i n g , i s i n
p o sse ssi o n o f a re si d e n ce p e rm i t vali d fo r m o re th an
o n e y e ar, an d h a s a d e q u ate lo d gi n g an d m e an s. I n
S we d e n , th e co n d i ti o n s fo r fam i ly re u n i o n are cu r-
re n tly b e i n g re vi se d wi th a vi e w to p ro m o ti n g li n ks
b e twe e n e ld e rly p e rso n s an d re si d e n ts.
T h e C o m m i ssi o n o f th e E u ro p e an C o m m u n i ti e s
h as p re p are d a d raft D i re cti ve o n th e ri gh t to fam i ly
re u n i o n , wh i ch was d i scu sse d b y th e E u ro p e an P ar-
li am e n t i n D e ce m b e r 1 99 9. B ase d o n ce rta i n p ro vi -
si o n s o f C o m m u n i ty law re gard i n g th e fam i ly re u n i o n
o f ci ti ze n s o f th e U n i o n e xe rci si n g th e i r ri gh t to fre e
m o ve m e n t, th e p ro p o sal e stab li sh e s a ri gh t to fam -
i ly re u n i o n fo r th i rd co u n try n ati o n a ls le g ally re si d -
i n g i n a M e m b e r S tate , as we ll a s fo r ci ti ze n s o f th e
U n i o n wh o a re n o t e xe rci si n g th e i r ri g h t to fre e
m o v e m e n t. T h e d ra ft D i re cti v e a i m s to h a rm o n i se
n ati o n al laws to e n su re le gal se cu ri ty fo r th i rd co u n -
try n ati o n als an d to m ake su re th at th e ch o i ce o f th e
M e m b e r S t a t e i n wh i ch a th i rd co u n try n a ti o n a l
wi sh e s to re si d e i s n o t b a se d e xclu si v e ly o n th e
m o re favo u rab le co n d i ti o n s o ffe re d b y th at co u n try.
T h e e xe rci se o f th i s ri g h t, re co g n i se d b y th e d ra ft
D i re cti ve , i s su b je ct to co m p li an ce wi th ce rtai n co n -
d i ti o n s sp e ci fi e d i n th e te xt, i n p arti cu lar th a t th e
th i rd p arty n ati o n al ap p lyi n g fo r fam i ly re u n i o n i s a
le gal re si d e n t.
International co-operation measures
Wi t h t h e e xce p t i o n o f t h e E u ro p e a n U n i o n
M e m b e r S tate s, i n te rn ati o n al co -o p e rati o n o n re gu -
lati n g a n d co n tro lli n g flo ws i s n o t h i gh ly d e ve lo p e d
b e twe e n O E C D M e m b e r co u n tri e s. C e rtai n typ e s o f
b i la te ral an d m u lti late ra l co -o p e ra ti o n a re , n e v e r-
t h e l e s s , i n p l a c e a s re g a rd s v i s a s a n d b o rd e r
co n tro l s. O E C D M e m b e r co u n tri e s a re g ra d u a l ly
b e co m i n g aware o f th e b e n e fi ts o f a jo i n t ap p ro ach
to th e p ro b le m o f co n tro lli n g m i grati o n flo ws.
C a n a d a h a s co n clu d e d a n u m b e r o f b i la te ra l
a g re e m e n ts e n a b li n g m o re e ffe cti v e re g u la ti o n o f
m i grati o n flo ws, an d also take s p art i n i n te rn ati o n al
i n i ti ati ve s su ch as th e U n i te d N ati o n s C o n ve n ti o n o n
T ran sn a ti o n al O rgan i se d C ri m e , wh i ch i n clu d e s P ro -
to co ls o n th e tra ffi ck i n g o f m i g ra n ts, wo m e n a n d
ch i l d re n . O n th e i n i t i a ti v e o f M e xi co , a re g i o n a l
co n fe re n ce o n m i g ra t i o n , t h e so -ca l l e d Puebla
Process wa s se t u p i n 1 9 9 6 . T h i s a n n u a l a d v i so ry
co n fe re n ce b ri n g s to g e th e r e le v e n co u n tri e s fro m
C e n tra l a n d N o rth A m e ri ca a s we ll a s re p re se n ta -
ti v e s fro m I O M , U N H C R a n d se v e ra l N G O s. A t th e
fo u rth co n fe re n ce , i n Ja n u a ry 1 9 99, th e p a rti ci p an ts
re co g n i se d t h e p o si t i v e a sp e ct s o f m i g ra ti o n fo r
d e ve lo p m e n t, a n d th a t m i g ra ti o n flo ws sh o u ld b e
d e a lt wi th o v e r th e lo n g te rm th ro u gh i n te rn ati o n al
co -o p e rati o n . I t sh o u ld b e re m e m b e re d th at u n d e r
N AF T A , M e xi co a p p li e s sp e ci a l co n d i t i o n s t o th e
e n try o f b u si n e ssm e n fro m C a n ad a an d th e U n i te d
S tate s se e b e lo w, P art I I I , n o te o n M e xi co an d , fo r a
m o re d e tai le d an alysi s, O E C D , 1 999, M i grati o n , F re e
T rad e an d R e gi o n al I n te grati o n i n N o rth Am e ri ca) .
C o -o p e rati o n b e twe e n E u ro p e an U n i o n
M e m b e r S tate s i n th e sp h e re o f re gu lati n g
an d co n tro lli n g m i grati o n flo ws
T h e co u n tri e s o f We ste rn E u ro p e h a v e t ra d i -
ti o n a l ly a p p li e d u n i la te ra l, so v e re i g n p o li ci e s i n
co n t ro lli n g i m m i g ra t i o n ta k i n g i n t o a cco u n t th e i r
o wn e co n o m i c, cu ltu ra l a n d h i sto ri ca l i n te re sts a s
we ll a s o n g o i n g l i n k s wi th ce rta i n co u n tri e s a n d
fo rm e r co lo n i e s. N e v e rth e le ss, th e d i v e rsi fi ca ti o n
a n d co n ti n u a ti o n o f i m m i g ra n t fl o ws o n th e o n e
h a n d , an d th e e co n o m i c an d p o li ti cal i n te grati o n o f
77
O E C D 2000
E u ro p e a n d i ts p ro sp e cts fo r e n la rg e m e n t, o n th e
o th e r, h a ve le d th e se co u n tri e s g rad u ally to acce p t
th e i d e a o f co -o p e rati o n i n th e sp h e re o f re gu lati n g
an d co n tro lli n g m i grati o n flo ws.
S i n ce 1 9 9 5 , th i s wi lli n g n e ss to co -o p e ra te h as
b e e n m an i fe ste d b y i m p le m e n tati o n o f th e S ch e n -
ge n Agre e m e n ts , si gn e d i n 1 985 an d 1 990. T h e fi ve
fo u n d e r m e m b e rs G e rm a n y, B e l g i u m , F ra n c e ,
L u xe m b o u rg an d N e th e rlan d s) h ave b e e n jo i n e d b y
I t a ly, S p a i n a n d P o rt u g a l , G re e ce , A u st ri a , t h e n
D e n m a rk , S we d e n a n d F i n l a n d . T h e S ch e n g e n
Ag re e m e n ts a re e sse n ti a lly a i m e d a t e n su ri n g th e
fre e m o ve m e n t o f a ll p e rso n s i n si d e th e S ch e n g e n
Are a , wh i le i m p le m e n ti n g co m p e n sato ry m e asu re s
n e e d e d to e n su re th e Are a s i n te rn al se cu ri ty. T h e se
co m p e n sato ry m e asu re s co n si st n o tab ly o f re i n fo rc-
i n g co n tro ls at th e o u tsi d e b o rd e rs o f th e S ch e n ge n
Are a, i m p le m e n ti n g co -o p e rati ve m e a su re s i n ju d i -
ci a l, p o li ce a n d cu sto m s m a tte rs, a n d se tti n g u p a
S ch e n g e n I n fo rm a t i o n S y st e m a cce ssi b l e to th e
co m p e te n t au th o ri ti e s o f th e S ch e n ge n S tate s. T h e
A g re e m e n ts a lso p ro v i d e fo r th e d ra wi n g u p o f a
jo i n t li st o f th i rd co u n tri e s wh o se n ati o n als are su b -
je ct to vi sa re q u i re m e n ts, as we ll a s a jo i n t p ro ce -
d u re fo r d e te rm i n i n g wh i ch co u n try i s re sp o n si b le
fo r an y gi ve n ap p li cati o n fo r asylu m .
A t h e sa m e t i m e , t h e M a a st ri ch t T re a t y o f
7 F e b ru ary 1 992, wh i ch m o d i fi e s th e T re aty o f R o m e
a n d e sta b li sh e d th e E u ro p e a n U n i o n , p ro v i d e s a
b a si s fo r co -o p e ra t i o n b e t we e n M e m b e r g o v e rn -
m e n ts i n th e sp h e re s o f ju sti ce an d h o m e a ffai rs, i n
o th e r wo rd s a sy l u m p o li cy, ru le s g o v e rn i n g t h e
cro ssi n g b y p e rso n s o f th e e xte rn a l b o rd e rs o f th e
M e m b e r S t a t e s, i m m i g ra t i o n p o li cy a n d p o li ci e s
re gard i n g n ati o n als o f th i rd co u n tri e s e n try, m o ve -
m e n t an d re si d e n ce ) , ju d i ci a l, cu sto m s an d p o li ce
co -o p e ra ti o n . T h e M aastri ch t T re aty also ga ve th e
E u ro p e a n C o m m u n i ty ju ri sd i cti o n o ve r d e te rm i n i n g
wh i ch th i rd co u n tri e s n ati o n als wo u ld b e su b je ct to
vi sa re q u i re m e n ts. A C o m m u n i ty re gu lati o n was th u s
i ssu e d i n 1 995, e stab li sh i n g a jo i n t li st o f th e se co u n -
tri e s. I n fact, h o we ve r, fe w le gally b i n d i n g d e ci si o n s
h ave b e e n m ad e i n th e co n te xt o f th i s co -o p e rati o n i n
th e fi e ld s o f ju sti ce an d h o m e affa i rs. A n u m b e r o f
agre e m e n ts h ave , n e ve rth e le ss, b e e n d rawn u p , su ch
as th e E u ro d ac C o n ve n ti o n , se tti n g u p a jo i n t fi n ge r-
p ri n t d atab a se o f asy lu m se e ke rs, a n d th e E u ro p o l
C o n ve n ti o n o n E u ro p e an p o li ce co -o p e rati o n , wh i ch
to o k e ffe ct i n O cto b e r 1 998.
T h e T re a ty o f A m ste rd a m o f 2 O cto b e r 1 9 9 7 ,
wh i ch m o d i fi e d th e M a a st ri ch t T re a t y, ca m e i n t o
fo rce o n 1 M a y 1 9 9 9 . I t p la ce s i ssu e s re la ti n g to
i m m i g ra ti o n a n d a sy lu m u n d e r th e ju ri sd i cti o n o f
th e E u ro p e an C o m m u n i ty wi th th e ai m o f cre ati n g an
are a o f fre e d o m , se cu ri ty an d ju sti ce i n th e M e m -
b e r S tate s. T h i s i m p li e s th at th e C o m m u n i ty i n sti tu -
ti o n s, i n p a rti cu la r th e E u ro p e a n C o m m i ssi o n , wi ll
n o w b e co m p e te n t i n th i s sp h e re , alth o u gh th e d e ci -
si o n -m a ki n g p ro ce ss h a s n o t y e t b e e n d e fi n i ti v e ly
e s t a b l i sh e d . T h e T re a t y a l s o i n co rp o ra t e s t h e
S ch e n g e n acquis i n th e E u ro p e a n U n i o n , a n d th e
C o u n c i l o f t h e E u ro p e a n U n i o n , a t t h e e n d o f
M a y 1 9 9 9 , cla ssi fi e d th e p ro vi si o n s a n d d e ci si o n s
tak e n u n d e r th e S ch e n g e n Agre e m e n ts i n te rm s o f
th o se co m i n g u n d e r C o m m u n i ty re sp o n si b i li ty an d
th o se i n vo lvi n g i n te rgo ve rn m e n tal co -o p e rati o n .
T h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m , I re l a n d a n d D e n m a rk
h ave b e e n au th o ri se d to d e fe r a cce p tan ce o f th e se
n e w p ro v i si o n s re lati n g to p o li ci e s o n i m m i gra ti o n ,
a sylu m a n d th e fre e m o v e m e n t o f p e rso n s. N e ve r-
t h e l e ss, t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m a n d I re l a n d h a v e
re ce n tly sa i d th e y wo u ld li k e to p a rti ci p a te i n th e
p ro v i si o n s o f th e S ch e n g e n acquis re la ti n g to th e
a p p li cati o n o f le g i slati o n an d ju d i ci al co -o p e ra ti o n
i n cri m i n al m atte rs, i n clu d i n g th e S ch e n ge n I n fo rm a-
ti o n S yste m . S i n ce th e se p ro v i si o n s h av e n o t b e e n
i n co rp o ra te d i n to C o m m u n i ty la w, th e y fall wi th i n
th e sp h e re o f i n te rg o ve rn m e n tal co -o p e ra ti o n . T h e
E u ro p e a n C o m m i ssi o n g a v e i ts a p p ro v a l t o su ch
p arti ci p ati o n i n Ju ly 1 999.
A t i t s sp e ci a l se ssi o n i n T a m p e re o f 1 5 a n d
1 6 O cto b e r 1 999, d e vo te d to th e cre ati o n o f an are a
o f fre e d o m , se cu ri ty a n d ju sti ce i n th e E u ro p e a n
U n i o n , th e E u ro p e an C o u n ci l co n si d e re d th at a co m -
m o n E u ro p e a n p o l i cy sh o u ld b e d ra wn u p wi t h
re gard to asylu m an d m i grati o n . T h e re wo u ld b e fo u r
m a i n a sp e cts to th i s p o li cy: p artn e rsh i p wi th co u n -
tri e s o f o ri gi n , a co m m o n E u ro p e an asylu m syste m ,
fa i r tre atm e n t o f th i rd co u n try n a ti o n a ls a n d m o re
e ffi ci e n t m an age m e n t o f m i grati o n flo ws.
T o t h i s e n d , t h e C o m m i ss i o n p re p a re d , i n
M a rch 2 0 0 0, a S co re b o a rd d e scri b i n g th e a cti o n
n e e d e d , d e fi n i n g re sp o n si b i li t i e s, e st a b li sh i n g a
ti m e tab le fo r a d o p ti o n a n d re co rd i n g th e sta te o f
p ro g re ss . T h e S co re b o a rd p ro v i d e s i n p a rti cu la r
th at th e co n d i ti o n s fo r th e ad m i ssi o n an d re si d e n ce
o f th i rd co u n try n ati o n als sh o u ld b e h arm o n i se d o n
th e b asi s o f jo i n t e valu ati o n o f e co n o m i c an d d e m o -
grap h i c tre n d s i n th e U n i o n an d th e si tu ati o n i n th e
co u n tri e s o f o ri gi n . I t a lso p ro vi d e s, wi th re g a rd to
th e m a n ag e m e n t o f m i g ra ti o n flo ws, fo r th e e sta b -
li sh m e n t o f clo se co -o p e rati o n wi th th e co u n tri e s o f
o ri gi n an d tran si t a n d a stre n gth e n i n g o f m e asu re s
to co m b at i lle gal i m m i grati o n b y stri ki n g at th e cri m -
78
O E C D 2000
i n al n e two rk s i n v o lve d . M o re o v e r, th e C o m m i ssi o n
p la n s to d e v e lo p a co m m o n p o li cy wi th re g a rd to
vi sas an d false d o cu m e n ts, an d to stre n gth e n ch e cks
a t th e U n i o n s e xte rn a l b o rd e rs b y m e a n s o f clo se
co -o p e ra ti o n b e twe e n M e m b e r S tate s b o rd e r co n -
tro l se rvi ce s a n d b y i n clu d i n g i n th i s co -o p e rati o n
S tate s th at h ave ap p li e d fo r m e m b e rsh i p .
T h e Tam p e re E u ro p e an C o u n ci l also co n si d e re d
th a t m a tte rs o f ju sti ce an d h o m e affa i rs sh o u ld b e
i n clu d e d wi th i n th e d e fi n i ti o n an d i m p le m e n tati o n o f
o th e r U n i o n p o li ci e s an d m e asu re s, su ch as e xte rn al
re lati o n s. T h u s, o n 2 D e ce m b e r 1 999, th e Ju sti ce an d
I n te rn al Affai rs C o u n ci l ad o p te d a d e ci si o n allo wi n g
fo r th e i n se rti o n i n an y n e w co -o p e rati o n o r asso ci a-
ti o n a gre e m e n t co n clu d e d wi th a th i rd co u n try o f a
sta n d a rd re a d m i ssi o n cla u se fo r n a ti o n a ls o f t h a t
co u n try o r o f o th e r co u n tri e s i n th e ca se o f tra n si t
th ro u g h th e th i rd co u n try i n q u e sti o n ) i l le g a l l y
p re se n t i n a M e m b e r S tate o f th e E u ro p e an U n i o n .
b) Procedures for admitting asylum seekers
and refugees
At i n te rn a ti o n a l le ve l, th e sta tu s o f re fu g e e s i s
re gu late d b y th e G e n e va C o n ve n ti o n o f 28 Ju ly 1 951
an d th e N e w Yo rk P ro to co l o f 31 Jan u ary 1 967, wh i ch
a re a p p li e d b y a ll O E C D M e m b e r co u n tri e s. T h e
n u m b e r o f a p p li ca ti o n s fo r a sy lu m h a s i n cre a se d
co n si d e ra b ly si n ce th e e a rly 1 9 9 0 s. N e w ty p e s o f
re q u e sts fo r p ro te cti o n h av e d e v e lo p e d , wh i ch are
n o t i n li n e wi th th e d e fi n i ti o n o f a re fu g e e as se t
o u t i n th e G e n e va C o n ve n ti o n . M o st O E C D co u n tri e s
co n si d e r th e se n e w asylu m se e ke rs to b e e co n o m i c
re fu ge e s fle e i n g p o ve rty an d e co n o m i c d e p re ssi o n
i n th e i r co u n tri e s o f o ri gi n , an d th e re fo re as se e ki n g
to ab u se th e re fu ge e statu s ap p li cati o n s p ro ce ss. As
a re su lt, th e se co u n tri e s h ave d e ci d e d to ti gh te n u p
th e i r laws an d acce le rate th e p ro ce ssi n g o f ap p li ca-
ti o n s an d ap p e als i n o rd e r to li m i t th e stay o f asylu m
se e k e rs o n th e i r te rri to ry. I n a d d i ti o n , th e y h a v e
ap p li e d n e w p ri n ci p le s to th e p ro ce ssi n g o f ap p li ca-
ti o n s th e d e fi n i ti o n o f m an i fe stly u n fo u n d e d ap p li -
cati o n s, th e p ri n ci p le o f safe co u n tri e s ) , an d h ave
li m i te d th e ri g h t o f a sy lu m a p p li ca n t s to t a k e u p
e m p lo ym e n t. T h e se m e asu re s are all ai m e d at, an d
h ave re su lte d i n , li m i ti n g e n tri e s to th e se co u n tri e s.
N e v e rt h e l e ss , so m e O E C D co u n t ri e s h a v e
gran te d te rri to ri al asylu m to i n d i vi d u als affe cte d b y
se ri o u s p o li ti ca l cri se s i n th e i r co u n tri e s o f o ri g i n
m ain ly n ati o n als o f Alge ri a an d th e fo rm e r Yu go slavi a) .
T h i s typ e o f asylu m acco rd s a te m p o rary ri gh t o f re s-
i d e n ce , wi th o u t gran ti n g re fu ge e statu s. O th e r co u n -
tri e s h ave e xp an d e d th e ri gh ts o f statu to ry re fu ge e s,
a n d tak e n ste p s ai m e d at faci li ta ti n g th e i r i n te gra -
ti o n se e b e lo w th e se cti o n o n th e i n te grati o n o f fo r-
e i g n e rs) . E u ro p e a n U n i o n co u n tri e s, fo r th e i r p a rt,
h ave se t u p co -o p e rati ve m e asu re s i n th e sp h e re o f
asylu m ai m e d , o ve r th e lo n g te rm , at e stab li sh i n g a
co m m o n E u ro p e an asylu m re gi m e .
Passing or modifying domesticlaws on theright to asylum
I n o rd e r to d e al wi th n e w typ e s o f re q u e sts fo r
asylu m , se ve ral O E C D M e m b e r co u n tri e s h ave i n tro -
d u ce d n e w m e a su re s i n to th e i r l e g i sla t i o n th a t
e n a b le th e m to p ro v i d e n e w fo rm s o f p ro te cti o n .
I n 1 9 9 8 -9 9 , C i t i ze n sh i p a n d I m m i g ra ti o n C a n a d a
re vi se d th e li st o f co u n tri e s fro m wh i ch th e statu s o f
asylu m se e ke r m ay b e re co gn i se d fo r h u m an i tari a n
re aso n s Humanitarian Designated Classes: theCountry of
AsylumClass and the SourceCountry Class. T h e n e w li st
i n clu d e s B o sn i a -H e rze g o v i n a , C o lu m b i a , C ro a ti a ,
th e D e m o cra t i c R e p u b li c o f C o n g o , E l S a l v a d o r,
G u ate m ala an d S u d an . O ve r th e sp ri n g o f 1 999, C i ti -
ze n sh i p a n d I m m i g ra t i o n C a n a d a o rg a n i se d th e
re ce p ti o n o f m o re th a n 5 0 0 0 K o so v a r n a ti o n a ls a t
th e re q u e st o f U N H C R .
T h e Au strali a n G o ve rn m e n t h as re ce n tly i n tro -
d u ce d a te m p o rary safe h ave n vi sa class e n ab li n g
i t to o ffe r h u m an i tari an p ro te cti o n fo r as lo n g as n e c-
e ssary. I n 1 998/99, th i s n e w syste m was u se d fo r th e
fi rst ti m e to re sp o n d to th e ap p e al m ad e b y U N H C R
fo r th e e vacu ati o n o f K o so var re fu ge e s i n th e fo rm e r
Yu g o sla v R e p u b li c o f M a ce d o n i a . A sp e ci a l v i sa
c a t e g o ry wa s c re a t e d fo r t h i s p u rp o s e . S o m e
4 000 K o so vars h ave b e n e fi te d fro m te m p o rary p ro -
t e ct i o n i n A u st ra l i a . I n S e p t e m b e r 1 9 9 9 , n e a rl y
2 000 vi sas to re fu ge e s fro m E ast Ti m o r we re i ssu e d
u n d e r th i s syste m . N e w agre e m e n ts h ave also b e e n
co n clu d e d to g u a ran te e th at th e q u o tas se t u n d e r
h u m an i tari an p ro gram m e s are fu lly u se d , an d to gi ve
th e g o v e rn m e n t g re ate r fle xi b i li ty i n i ts re acti o n to
h u m an i tari an cri se s. U n d e r th e se arran ge m e n ts, an y
q u o ta sh o rtfall d u ri n g th e ye ar o f ap p licati o n o f a gi ve n
p ro g ram m e ca n b e carri e d fo rwa rd to th e fo llo wi n g
ye ar. T h u s, i n 1 999/2000, so m e 840 p lace s we re ad d e d
to th e 1 2 000 alre ad y allo cate d fo r th e ye ar.
I n Ap ri l 1 9 99 , th e B e lg i a n C o u n ci l o f M i n i ste rs
ap p ro ve d th e gra n ti n g o f te m p o ra ry p ro te cti o n sta-
tu s to th e K o so var re fu g e e s. T h i s gav e e n ti tle m e n t
to re si d e n ce , a cce ss to th e la b o u r m a rk e t a n d to
e d u cati o n as we ll as to so ci al assi stan ce an d h e alth
ca re . T h e se sp e ci a l m e a su re s we re e xte n d e d u n ti l
M a rc h 2 0 0 0 . S i m i l a rl y , I t a l y re c e i v e d n e a rl y
79
O E C D 2000
30 000 K o so vars i n 1 999 u n d e r a h u m an i tari an e m e r-
ge n cy p lan . M o st o f th e se re fu ge e s re tu rn e d to th e i r
co u n try o f o ri gi n , an d b y S e p te m b e r 1 999, o n ly 2 000
we re sti ll re ce i vi n g S tate assi stan ce . I n L u xe m b o u rg,
a B i ll se tti n g u p a te m p o ra ry p ro te cti o n re gi m e fo r
K o so var Alb an i an s was d rafte d i n 1 999.
I n Ap ri l 1 999, th e C ze ch G o ve rn m e n t d e ci d e d to
o ffe r te m p o ra ry p ro te cti o n to K o so v a r n a ti o n a ls.
S o m e 8 0 0 p e rso n s we re se ttl e d i n h u m a n i t a ri a n
ca m p s, so m e o f wh o m le ft a ft e r th e si tu a ti o n h a d
sta b i li se d . O n 2 5 A u g u st 1 9 9 9 , th e S wi ss F e d e ra l
C o u n ci l ad o p te d a d e ci si o n b an n i n g asy lu m ap p li -
can ts a n d th o se ad m i tte d te m p o rari ly fro m wo rki n g
fo r o n e y e a r fro m 1 S e p te m b e r 1 9 9 9 to 3 1 Au g u st
2 0 0 0 ) a lth o u g h th e la tte r a re e n ti tle d to e n ro l i n
tra i n i n g p ro g ra m m e s. T h i s sp e ci a l m e a su re wa s
a i m e d a t co n tro lli n g th e la rge i n cre a se i n p e rso n s
a rri v i n g fro m K o so v o , an d a t d i sco u rag i n g p e rso n s
h o p i n g to fi n d wo rk b y u si n g th e asylu m p ro ce ss.
I n B e lgi u m , th e go ve rn m e n t se t o u t i ts n e w asy-
lu m p o li cy i n S e p te m b e r 1 999. T h e asylu m p ro ce d u re
h as b e e n rad i cally si m p li fi e d so th at m o st d e ci si o n s
can b e gi ve n wi th i n a m o n th , o r o n e ye ar fo r th e m o st
co m p li ca te d ca se s. T h e n e w p ro ce d u re d e fi n e s th e
gro u n d s fo r re fu si n g a m an i fe stly u n fo u n d e d ap p li ca-
ti o n , su ch a s a sta y o f m o re th a n th re e m o n th s i n a
th i rd co u n try, a p re v i o u s a p p li ca ti o n i n o n e o f th e
co u n t ri e s p a rt y t o t h e D u b l i n C o n v e n t i o n , t h e
ab se n ce o f se ri o u s asp e cts o r gro u n d s n o t li ste d i n
t h e G e n e v a C o n v e n t i o n . T h e g o v e rn m e n t a l so
d e ci d e d to i n cre ase th e cap aci ty fo r we lco m i n g can d i -
d ate s fo r re fu ge e statu s an d to e n h an ce th e q u ali ty o f
th e i r re ce p ti o n . I n ad d i ti o n , th e fi n an ci al h e lp o ffe re d
th e m i s to b e re p lace d b y m ate ri al assi stan ce h o u s-
i n g, fo o d , m e d i cal care an d su p p o rt) , to co m b at th e
ab u se s n o te d i n R e ce p ti o n C e n tre s.
I n Ap ri l 1 999 , G re e ce , wh i ch i s g rad u ally b ri n g-
i n g i ts le g i sla ti o n i n to li n e wi th i n te rn a ti o n a l a n d
E u ro p e a n st a n d a rd s, i n t ro d u ce d th e m e a su re s
re q u i re d fo r th e re co gn i ti o n an d e xp u lsi o n o f asylu m
se e ke rs, wh e th e r o r n o t th ro u gh an acce le rate d p ro -
ce d u re , an d also fo r th e e n try o f fam i ly m e m b e rs o f
sta tu to ry re fu ge e s. Wh i le th e m a i n p u rp o se o f th e
R e fu ge e s Act ad o p te d i n 1 996 i n I re lan d was to co d -
i fy p ro ce d u re s fo r a sy lu m a p p li ca ti o n s, th i s i ssu e
re m a i n s co n tro v e rsi al an d wa s a ga i n d i scu sse d b y
P arli am e n t i n N o v e m b e r 1 999. Alth o u gh i t h ad p re -
vi o u sly re fu se d to gi ve a sylu m se e ke rs th e ri g h t to
wo rk, th e I ri sh G o ve rn m e n t agre e d i n Ju ly 1 999 th at as
a n e xce p ti o n a l m e a su re , a sy lu m se e k e rs wh o h a d
li ve d i n th e co u n try fo r m o re th an twe lve m o n th s an d
wh o we re wai ti n g fo r a d e ci si o n o n th e i r ap p li cati o n ,
co u ld b e allo we d to take e m p lo ym e n t.
Alth o u gh d ra fte d a t th e sa m e ti m e a s th e n e w
1 998 I m m i g rati o n Act, th e B i ll o n re fu ge e s an d asy -
lu m se e ke rs p re p are d b y th e I tali an G o ve rn m e n t i s
sti ll b e i n g d i scu sse d i n th e C h am b e r o f D e p u ti e s.
T h e B i ll sh o u ld b e a p p ro v e d i n th e co u rse o f th e
wi n te r o f 2 0 0 0 . I t p ro v i d e s fo r i n cre a se d fi n a n ci a l
assi stan ce to a sylu m se e ke rs an d fo r th e tran sfe r o f
re sp o n si b i li ty fo r th e i r h o u si n g to m u n i ci p al au th o ri -
ti e s so as to e n co u rage th e m to ad o p t n e w m e asu re s
to p ro m o te th e i n te g ra ti o n o f a sy lu m se e ke rs an d
i m p ro ve th e i r cap aci ty to re ce i ve th e m .
T h e n e w Ali e n s Act cu rre n tly b e i n g ad o p te d b y
th e N e th e rlan d s P arli am e n t si m p li fi e s an d sh o rte n s
th e p ro ce ssi n g o f asylu m ap p li cati o n s b y re p laci n g
th e o b je cti o n p ro ce d u re b y an acce le rate d co n vo ca-
ti o n a rra n g e m e n t to ge th e r wi th a so -ca lle d p ro ce -
d u re o f i n te n t, a n d b y i m p o si n g a m axi m u m o f si x
m o n th s fo r ap p rai si n g ap p li cati o n s. I t also p ro vi d e s
fo r a re vi si o n o f th e co n d i ti o n s fo r re fu si n g an ap p li -
ca t i o n , a n d g i v e s g re a te r co e rci v e p o we rs wi th
re gard to th e co n tro l an d e xp u lsi o n o f asylu m se e k-
e rs wh o se ap p li cati o n s h ave b e e n re fu se d . I n ad d i -
ti o n , th e ch arge s fo r p ro ce ssi n g asylu m ap p li cati o n s
a re to b e a b o li sh e d . F i n ally, le gi sla ti o n o n p e rso n s
wi th o u t d o cu m e n t s, wh i ch e n te re d i n to fo rce o n
1 F e b ru a ry 1 9 99 , p ro v i d e s th a t n o a cco u n t wi ll b e
take n o f asylu m ap p li cati o n s m ad e b y p e rso n s wi th -
o u t p a p e rs a n d wh o ca n n o t ju sti fy th e a b se n ce o f
an y d o cu m e n ts p ro vi n g th e i r i d e n ti ty.
I n th e U n i te d K i n gd o m , th e m ai n p u rp o se o f th e
n e w I m m i grati o n an d Asylu m Act, wh i ch e n te re d i n to
fo rce i n N o ve m b e r 1 999, i s to sp e e d u p th e p ro ce d u re
fo r e xam i n i n g asylu m ap p li catio n s an d to m ake u p th e
b acklo g accu m u late d i n th i s re sp e ct. T h e Act also p ro -
v i d e s fo r th e g e o g ra p h i c d i sp e rsa l o f a p p l i ca n ts
th ro u gh o u t th e co u n try so a s to re d u ce th e b u rd e n
o n L o n d o n a n d th e so u th -e a st o f E n g la n d . L a stly,
t h e fi n a n ci a l a ssi sta n ce p re v i o u sly g i v e n a sy l u m
se e ke rs h as b e e n re p lace d b y a syste m o f vo u ch e rs
i n o rd e r to re d u ce co sts.
T h e Act o n th e i n te g rati o n o f m i g ran ts an d th e
re ce p t i o n o f a sy l u m se e k e rs, v o t e d i n N o rwa y
i n 1 9 9 8 , e n t e re d i n t o fo rce o n 1 M a y 1 9 9 9 . B y a
re o rg an i sati o n o f th e re ce p ti o n o f a sy lu m se e ke rs,
th e A ct a i m s to e n su re th a t th e y h a v e e n o u g h to
li v e o n an d are gi ve n b asi c h e alth care . Two i m p o r-
ta n t a m e n d m e n ts we re a d o p te d i n 1 9 9 9. T h e fi rst
t ra n sfe rs, a s fro m 1 Ju l y 2 0 0 0 , re sp o n si b i l i t y fo r
i n t e rv i e wi n g a p p l i ca n t s fro m t h e p o l i ce t o t h e
80
O E C D 2000
I m m i grati o n D e p a rtm e n t. B y m e an s o f th e se co n d ,
th e N o rwe gi a n P a rli am e n t a p p ro v e d th e se tti n g u p
o f a n i n d e p e n d e n t co m m i ssi o n to ju d g e a p p e a ls
fro m re fu sals to g ra n t a sylu m , su ch a p p e als b e i n g
h e ard at p re se n t b y th e M i n i stry o f Ju sti ce .
I n L i th u a n i a , a n e w R e fu g e e s A ct wa s to b e
su b m i tte d to P arli am e n t i n e arly 2000. T h i s Act p ro -
v i d e s a le g al b a si s fo r th e te m p o ra ry d e te n ti o n o f
asylu m se e ke rs an d i n tro d u ce s an acce le ra te d p ro -
ce d u re fo r e xam i n i n g ap p li ca ti o n s a s we ll as a n e w
a p p e a l s s y s t e m . S e v e ra l a m e n d m e n t s t o t h e
R e fu g e e s Act a d o p te d i n E sto n i a i n F e b ru ary 1 9 9 9
e n te re d i n to fo rce i n S e p te m b e r o f th e sa m e ye a r.
R e sp o n si b i li ty fo r d e ci si o n s o n asy lu m ap p li cati o n s
wa s tra n sfe rre d to th e M i g ra ti o n a n d C i ti ze n sh i p
D e p artm e n t, a R e ce p ti o n C e n tre clo se r to th e cap i -
tal was se t u p an d a ce n tral re gi ste r fo r asylu m se e k-
e rs an d re fu ge e s was cre ate d . U n d e r an am e n d m e n t
t o t h e A l i e n s A ct , wh i c h e n t e re d i n t o fo rc e i n
O cto b e r 1 999, p e rso n s wh o se ap p li cati o n fo r re fu ge e
statu s h as b e e n re fu se d b u t wh o can n o t b e re tu rn e d
to th e i r co u n try o f o ri gi n m ay a p p ly fo r a re si d e n ce
p e rm i t i n E sto n i a .
T h e C ze ch R e p u b l i c h a s a lso m a d e ch a n g e s,
ap p li cab le si n ce 1 Jan u ary 2000, to i ts le gi slati o n o n
th e ri g h t to a sy lu m . A sy lu m i s g ra n te d to p e rso n s
wh o can p ro ve th e y are p ro se cu te d i n th e i r co u n try
o f o ri g i n an d to fam i ly m e m b e rs o f su ch p e rso n s. A
ri g h t o f a p p e a l i s o p e n fo r o n e m o n t h to p e rso n s
wh o se ap p li cati o n h as b e e n re fu se d b y th e M i n i stry
o f th e I n te ri o r.
Measures for harmonising asylumpolicies
in theEuropean Union
S i n ce th e e arly 1 990s, E u ro p e an U n i o n M e m b e r
S tate s h ave tre ate d a sylu m p o li cy an d i m m i gra ti o n
p o li cy a s m a tt e rs o f co m m o n i n te re st. U n d e r t h e
S ch e n g e n Ag re e m e n ts, M e m b e r S tate s d e ci d e d to
i m p l e m e n t a jo i n t sy ste m fo r d e te rm i n i n g wh i ch
M e m b e r S ta te i s re sp o n si b le fo r a n y gi ve n a sy lu m
ap p li cati o n . T h e D u b li n C o n ve n ti o n o f 1 5 Ju n e 1 990
a lso d e als wi th th i s i ssu e , a n d si n ce i ts e n try i n to
fo rce o n 1 S e p t e m b e r 1 9 9 7 , i t h a s re p la ce d t h e
e q u i vale n t p ro vi si o n s o f th e S ch e n ge n Agre e m e n ts.
T h e D u b li n C o n ve n ti o n lays d o wn th e p ri n ci p le th at
an y a p p li cati o n fo r a sy lu m su b m i tte d to a M e m b e r
S t a te sh o u ld b e a sse sse d b y o n e M e m b e r S ta t e ,
an d o n e M e m b e r S tate o n ly, d e si g n ate d acco rd i n g
to jo i n tly e stab li sh e d cri te ri a. I t ai m s to p re ve n t asy-
lu m se e ke rs fro m su b m i tti n g ap p li cati o n s to se ve ral
co u n tri e s, b u t also to gu aran te e th at all ap p li cati o n s
are co n si d e re d .
T h e M aastri ch t T re aty o f 1 992 co n si d e rs asylu m
p o li cy to b e an i ssu e o f co m m o n i n te re st an d a m at-
te r fo r i n te rg o ve rn m e n tal co -o p e rati o n wi th re ga rd
to ju sti ce an d h o m e affai rs. P re vi o u sly, th e E u ro p e an
U n i o n C o u n ci l h ad ad o p te d se ve ral re so lu ti o n s th e
so -calle d L o n d o n R e so lu ti o n s ) i n 1 992, co n ce rn i n g
i n p arti cu lar th e d e fi n i ti o n o f m an i fe stly u n fo u n d e d
a sylu m re q u e st , a h arm o n i se d ap p ro a ch to q u e s-
ti o n s re lati n g to h o st th i rd co u n tri e s an d th e d e te r-
m i n ati o n o f co u n tri e s i n wh i ch th e re i s n o se ri o u s
ri sk o f p e rse cu ti o n . T h e se th re e p ri n ci p le s h a v e
si n ce b e e n i n co rp o ra t e d i n t o th e l e g i sl a t i o n o f
M e m b e r S tate s an d o f m o st o f th e co u n tri e s a p p ly-
i n g fo r m e m b e rsh i p o f th e E u ro p e a n U n i o n . I m p le -
m e n t a t i o n o f t h e s e p ri n c i p l e s m e a n s t h a t t h e
co m p e te n t a u th o ri ti e s ca n co n si d e r a s m a n i fe stly
u n fo u n d e d , a p p li ca ti o n s fro m p e rso n s fro m co u n -
tri e s i n wh i ch th e re i s n o se ri o u s ri sk o f p e rse cu ti o n
safe co u n tri e s o f o ri gi n ) , o r fro m p e rso n s wh o h a ve
tran si te d th ro u gh a th i rd co u n try i n wh i ch th e y co u ld
h a ve o b tai n e d p ro te cti o n safe th i rd co u n tri e s) . I n
Ju n e 1 9 9 5 , th e C o u n ci l a d o p te d a re so l u ti o n o n
m i n i m u m gu aran te e s fo r asylu m p ro ce d u re s.
T h e T re a ty o f A m st e rd a m o f 2 O ct o b e r 1 9 9 7
p la ce s th e m atte r o f a sylu m an d i m m i grati o n p o li cy
u n d e r th e ju ri sd i cti o n o f th e E u ro p e an C o m m u n i ty. I n
Ju ly 1 998, th e C o m m i ssi o n e stab li sh e d asylu m p ri o ri -
ti e s, sp e ci fi e d i n D e ce m b e r 1 998 i n th e Acti o n P lan
o f th e C o u n ci l an d th e C o m m i ssi o n o n h o w b e st to
i m p le m e n t th e p ro vi si o n s o f th e Tre aty o f Am ste rd am
o n a n a re a o f fre e d o m , se cu ri ty a n d j u st i ce . I n
M arch 1 999, th e C o m m i ssi o n p re p are d a wo rki n g d o c-
u m e n t o n co m m o n stan d ard s as re gard s asylu m p ro -
ce d u re s. I t p ro vi d e s th at th e D u b li n C o n ve n ti o n wi ll
b e re p l a ce d i n d u e co u rse b y a C o m m u n i t y l a w
i n stru m e n t, an d also th at asylu m p ro ce d u re s wi ll b e
co d i fi e d i n a le gally b i n d i n g C o m m u n i ty i n stru m e n t.
I n th e S co re b o a rd o f M a rch 2 0 0 0 , wh i ch p ro -
v i d e s i n th e lo n g te rm fo r th e e sta b li sh m e n t o f a
co m m o n E u ro p e an asylu m re g i m e , th e C o m m i ssi o n
sp e ci fi e s th a t th e o b je cti v e i s to e n su re a fu ll an d
i n clu si v e a p p l i ca t i o n o f th e G e n e v a C o n v e n ti o n
o f 1 951 , an d e sp e ci ally th e p ri n ci p le th at n o b o d y i s
se n t b a ck to fa ce p e rse cu ti o n p ri n ci p e d e n o n -
re fo u le m e n t ) . Acco rd i n g to th e C o m m i ssi o n , i n th e
lo n g te rm , a co m m o n asy lu m p ro ce d u re an d a u n i -
fo rm statu s fo r gran ti n g asylu m vali d th ro u gh o u t th e
U n i o n m u st b e e st a b li sh e d , a s m u st a t e m p o ra ry
p ro te cti o n re g i m e fo r d i sp la ce d p e rso n s o n th e
b asi s o f so li d a ri ty a m o n g M e m b e r S ta te s. O n th i s
81
O E C D 2000
last p o i n t, th e C o m m i ssi o n p re se n te d a p ro p o sal i n
D e ce m b e r 1 9 9 9 re lati n g to cre a ti o n o f a E u ro p e a n
R e fu g e e F u n d , i n tro d u ci n g a sy ste m fo r a llo cati n g
re so u rce s i n p ro p o rti o n t o th e co sts a ssu m e d b y
e a ch M e m b e r S tate . T h e E u ro p e an R e fu g e e F u n d
ca n a lso b e u se d fo r e m e rge n cy si tu a ti o n s wi th o u t
calli n g i n to q u e sti o n i ts lo n g-te rm acti o n s. T h e C o m -
m i ssi o n also p re se n te d a d raft D i re cti ve i n M ay 2000
wh i ch ai m s to e stab li sh m i n i m u m stan d ard s fo r gi v-
i n g te m p o ra ry p ro te cti o n i n th e e v e n t o f a m a ss
i n flu x o f d i sp lace d p e rso n s an d m e asu re s p ro m o ti n g
a b a l a n ce o f e ffo rts b e twe e n M e m b e r S t a t e s i n
re ce i v i n g su ch p e rso n s a n d b e a ri n g t h e co n se -
q u e n ce s th e re o f.
2. Combating illegal immigration
and the illegal employment of foreigners
O E C D M e m b e r co u n tri e s, b o th tra d i ti o n a l h o st
co u n tri e s an d n e w i m m i g ra ti o n o n e s, are h avi n g to
d e a l wi th a co n ti n u i n g ri se i n i lle g a l i m m i g ra ti o n .
T h e y are also e xp e ri e n ci n g th e n e e d to co m b a t th e
gro wth i n th e traffi cki n g o f i lle gal m i gran ts, n o w co n -
si d e re d to b e a fo rm o f o rga n i se d cri m e si m i lar to
d ru g sm u ggli n g an d p ro sti tu ti o n ri n gs. S e ve ral m e a-
su re s ai m e d at co m b ati n g i lle gal i m m i grati o n , o rgan -
i se d o r n o t, h ave b e e n take n b y M e m b e r co u n tri e s.
T i gh te n i n g b o rd e r co n tro ls p la ys an e sse n ti al ro le .
M e m b e r c o u n t ri e s h a v e a l s o i n t ro d u c e d , o r
i n cre ase d th e se ve ri ty o f, cri m i n a l an d ad m i n i stra -
ti v e sa n ct i o n s a g a i n st u n d o cu m e n te d fo re i g n e rs,
sm u ggle rs an d e m p lo y e rs. C o m b a ti n g i lle ga l i m m i -
grati o n i s e sse n ti ally a m atte r o f u n i late ral d o m e sti c
p o l i c y , a l t h o u g h t h e re i s i n c re a s i n g b i l a t e ra l
co -o p e rati o n b e twe e n co u n tri e s o n th e re ad m i ssi o n
o f i lle gal i m m i gran ts.
S o m e O E C D M e m b e r co u n tri e s e sse n ti a ll y
F ran ce , G re e ce , I taly, P o rtu gal, S p ai n an d th e U n i te d
S tate s) h ave , i n th e last fi ve ye ars, i m p le m e n te d re g-
u lari sati o n p ro gram m e s fo r u n d o cu m e n te d fo re i gn e rs
wh o , fo r th e m o st p art, re si d e i n th e i r te rri to ry, h av e
fam i ly li n ks th e re an d wo rk th e re . M o st o th e r O E C D
c o u n t ri e s d o n o t wi s h t o i n t ro d u c e su c h p ro -
g ra m m e s, m a i n ly b e ca u se o f th e ri sk o f a ttra cti n g
n e w m i gran ts h o p i n g to tak e i m m e d i ate a d v an tag e
o f th e o p p o rtu n i ty o r to re m ai n i lle gally i n th e co u n -
try i n a n ti ci p a t i o n o f t h e n e xt re g u la ri sa t i o n p ro -
g ra m m e . T h e re a re , h o we v e r, a d v a n ta g e s to th e
re gu lari sa ti o n p ro g ram m e s i m p le m e n te d re ce n tly.
I n th e fi rst p lace , th e y p ro vi d e v i tal i n fo rm a ti o n to
th e au th o ri ti e s, fo r e xam p le o n th e n u m b e r o f i m m i -
g ra n ts m e e ti n g th e re q u i re d co n d i t i o n s, o n th e
n e two rk s wh i ch h a v e e n a b le d u n d o cu m e n te d fo r-
e i g n e rs to re m a i n i ll e g a lly a n d o n th e e co n o m i c
se cto rs m o st co n ce rn e d . I n th e se co n d p lace , re gu -
lari sati o n o fte n p ro vi d e s an o p p o rtu n i ty to acco rd a
statu s an d ri g h ts to fo re i g n wo rk e rs a n d re si d e n ts
wh o h ave b e e n i n th e co u n try fo r se ve ral ye ars i n an
i lle g a l si tu a ti o n . L a stly, wh e re n u m b e rs o f i lle g a l
i m m i gra n ts i n a co u n try re a ch cri ti ca l d i m e n si o n s,
re gu lari sati o n can m e e t p u b li c se cu ri ty o b je cti ve s. I t
p re v e n ts i m m i g ra n ts fro m b e i n g e xp lo i te d an d /o r
fro m taki n g u p i lli ci t o r e ve n cri m i n al acti vi ti e s.
T h e se p ro g ram m e s we re d e scri b e d i n th e p re -
v i o u s e d i t i o n o f t h i s re p o rt Trends in International
Migration, O E C D , 1 99 9) . R e ce n t d e v e lo p m e n ts co n -
ce rn i n g th e re su l t s o f th e se p ro g ra m m e s o r th e
a d o p ti o n o f n e w o n e s a re se t o u t i n Tab le I . 1 4 , an d
th e d e tai ls o f th e p ro g ra m m e s ca n b e fo u n d i n th e
n o te s o n th e co u n tri e s m e n ti o n e d i n th e a b o v e
p aragrap h se e P art I I I o f th i s p u b li cati o n ) .
a) Policies to tighten controls and increase sanctions
M e a su re s a i m e d a t ti g h te n i n g b o rd e r co n tro ls
h a v e a t wi n o b je ct i v e : re g u la ti n g a n d co n tro lli n g
flo ws se e a b o v e ) , a n d co m b a ti n g i lle g a l i m m i g ra -
ti o n , b e i t th e e n try, re si d e n ce o r e m p lo y m e n t o f
fo re i gn e rs.
I n Au strali a, th e g o ve rn m e n t d e ci d e d to ad o p t
m e asu re s to stre n gth e n th e re so u rce s to co m b at th e
i n cre ase i n th e n u m b e r o f i lle gal arri vals se e ab o ve )
a s we ll a s th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f m i g ra n t tra ffi ck i n g
an d th e e m p lo ym e n t o f u n d o cu m e n te d fo re i gn e rs. A
h i gh -le ve l re fe re n ce gro u p h as b e e n se t u p to e xam -
i n e th e e ffe cti ve n e ss o f m e asu re s to co m b at m i gran t
tra ffi ck i n g . I n a d d i ti o n to th e p o we rs o f D I M A an d
cu sto m s o ffi ce rs to ca rry o u t ch e ck s o n v e sse ls o n
th e h i g h se a , a n e w sa n cti o n wa s i n tro d u ce d i n
Ju n e 1 999 p u n i sh i n g th e o rgan i sati o n o f th e e n try o f
g ro u p s o f a t l e a st fi v e u n d o cu m e n t e d p e rso n s.
Au stra li a co n clu d e d a b i late ra l re ad m i ssi o n ag re e -
m e n t wi th C an ad a i n Ju ly 1 999 an d h as d o n e so wi th
se ve ral o th e r co u n tri e s; i t i s i n th e p ro ce ss o f n e go ti -
a ti n g si m i la r a g re e m e n ts wi th so m e n e i g h b o u ri n g
an d E u ro p e an co u n tri e s.
I n Ja p a n , th e I m m i g ra ti o n A ct wa s re v i se d i n
Au gu st 1 9 99 to d e al wi th th e co n ti n u i n g i n cre ase i n
th e n u m b e r o f i lle gal e n tri e s. T h e n e w am e n d m e n ts,
wh i ch e n te re d i n to fo rce i n F e b ru ary 200 0, i n cre ase
p e n alti e s, wi th n o li m i tati o n i n ti m e , fo r i lle gal e n try
i n to Ja p a n . P re vi o u sly, th e o n ly sa n cti o n fo r i lle g al
e n t ry a ft e r a t h re e -y e a r st a y i n t h e co u n t ry wa s
re m o val. T h e n e w p e n alty i s a fi n e o f u p to 300 000
an d /o r th re e ye ars i n p ri so n . I n ad d i ti o n , th e b an o n
T
r
e
n
d
s

i
n

I
n
t
e
r
n
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

M
i
g
r
a
t
i
o
n

8
2

O
E
C
D

2
0
0
0
Tab le I .1 4. Main regularisation programmes of immigrants inan irregular situation inselected OECD countries, bynationality
T h o u san d s
1 . E xclu d i n g se aso n al wo rke rs 6 681 p e rso n s) an d aro u n d 1 200 sm all trad e rs n o t b ro ke n d o wn b y n ati o n ali ty.
2. P e rso n s wh o h ad b e e n gran te d a wh i te card fi rst stage o f th e re gu lari sati o n ) .
3. T h e se fi gu re s o n ly co ve r p e rm i ts gran te d fo r re aso n s o f wo rk. I f sp o u se s an d m i n o r ch i ld re n we re i n clu d e d , a to tal o f 227 300 p e rm i ts we re gran te d .
4. N u m b e r o f ap p li cati o n s re ce i ve d . D e tai ls b y n ati o n ali ty are n o t avai lab le . M o ro cco , Alb an i a, P h i li p p i n e s, Tu n i si a, fo rm e r Yu g o slavi a are am o n g th e m ai n n ati o n ali ti e s.
5. A n e w re gu lari sati o n p ro gram m e h as starte d fro m M ay 2000. I t co n ce rn s fo re i gn e rs wi th o u t th e re q u i re d p ap e rs wh o e n te re d P o rtu gal b e fo re D e ce m b e r 31 st 1 999.
6. N u m b e r o f ap p li cati o n s re ce i ve d .
7. A n e w re gu lari sati o n p ro gram m e h as b e e n h e ld fro m 23rd M arch to 31 st Ju ly 2000. D ata re late to th e n u m b e r o f ap p li cati o n s re ce i ve d .
8. D ata re fe r to all p e rso n s gran te d a p e rm an e n t re si d e n ce p e rm i t e xclu d i n g th e i r d e p e n d e n ts) d u ri n g th e p e ri o d 1 989-1 996 fo llo wi n g th e 1 986 I m m i grati o n an d R e fo rm C o n tro l Act. D ata are b ro ke n d o wn b y
co u n try o f b i rth .
9. F o re i gn e rs wh o b e n e fi te d fro m th e N i caragu an Ad ju stm e n t an d C e n tral Am e ri can R e li e f Act N o ve m b e r 1 997) an d fro m th e H ai ti an R e fu ge e I m m i grati o n F ai rn e ss Act O cto b e r 1 998) . D ata are e sti m ate s.
Sources: F ran ce : O ffi ce d e s m i grati o n s i n te rn ati o n ale s; G re e ce : N ati o n al E m p lo ym e n t O b se rvato ry; I taly, P o rtu gal an d S p ai n : M i n i stry o f th e I n te ri o r; U n i te d S tate s: I m m i grati o n an d N atu rali zati o n S e rvi ce .
F ran ce G re e ce
2
I taly
1 981 -1 982)
1
1 997-1 998) 1 997-1 998) 1 987-1 988) 1 990) 1 996)
3
1 998)
4
Tu n i sia 1 7.3 Alge ria 1 2.5 Alb an i a 239.9 M o ro cco 21 .7 M o ro cco 49.9 M o ro cco 23.0
M o ro cco 1 6.7 M o ro cco 9.2 B u lgari a 24.9 S ri L an ka 1 0.7 Tu n i sia 25.5 Alb an ia 20.2
Afri can co u n tri e s 1 5.0 C h i n a 7.6 R o m an i a 1 6.7 P h i lip p in e s 1 0.7 S e n e gal 1 7.0 P h ili p p i n e s 1 8.6
P o rtu gal 1 2.7 D e m o cratic R e p . of C o ngo 6.3 P aki stan 1 0.8 Tu n i sia 1 0.0 F o rm e r Yu go slavi a 1 1 .3 C h i n a 8.9
Alge ri a 1 1 .7 Tu n isi a 4.1 U krai n e 9.8 S e n e gal 8.4 P h ili p p in e s 8.7 P e ru 8.8
Tu rke y 8.6 P o lan d 8.6 F o rm e r Yu go slavi a 7.1 C h i n a 8.3 R o m an i a 5.9
O th e r 39.1 O th e r 38.1 O th e r 58.9 O th e r 50.1 O th e r 97.1 O th e r 62.4
Total 121.1 Total 77.8 Total 369.6 Total 118.7 Total 217.7 Total 147.9 350.0
P o rtu gal S p ain U n ite d S tate s
1 992-1 993) 1 996)
5
1 985-1 986)
6
1 991 ) 1 996) 2000)
7
1 986)
8
1 997-1 998)
9
An go la 1 2.5 An go la 6.8 M o ro cco 7.9 M o ro cco 49.2 M o ro cco 7.0 M e xi co 2 008.6 E l Salvad o r/G u atem ala 300.0
G u in e a-B i ssau 6.9 C ap e Ve rd e 5.0 P o rtu gal 3.8 Arge n ti n a 7.5 P e ru 1 .9 E l S alvad o r 1 52.3 H ai ti 50.0
C ap e Ve rd e 6.8 G u in e a-B i ssau 4.0 S e n e gal 3.6 P e ru 5.7 C h i n a 1 .4 C ari b b e an 1 1 0.5 N i caragu a 40.0
B razil 5.3 S ao To m e an d P rincip e 2.0 Arge n ti n a 2.9 D o m in i can R e p u b lic 5.8 Arge n ti n a 1 .3 G u ate m ala 64.0 E aste rn E u ro p e 1 0.0
S ao To m e an d P rin cip e 1 .4 B razi l 0.3 U n i te d K i n gd o m 2.6 C h i n a 4.2 P o lan d 1 .1 C o lo m b i a 30.3 C u b a 5.0
S e n e gal 1 .4 P h ili p p i n e s 1 .9 P o lan d 3.3 D o m i n i can R e p u b lic 0.8 P h ili p p in e s 25.7
O th e r 4.8 O th e r 3.7 O th e r 21 .1 O th e r 34.7 O th e r 7.8 O th e r 293.5
Total 39.2 Total 21.8 Total 43.8 Total 110.1 Total 21.3 126.9 Total 2684.9 Total 405.0
83
O E C D 2000
e n try i n to Jap an afte r e xp u lsi o n h as b e e n i n cre ase d
fro m o n e to fi ve ye ars.
I n A p ri l 1 9 9 9 , t h e G re e k G o v e rn m e n t i n t ro -
d u ce d a n u m b e r o f m e a su re s t o co m b a t i l l e g a l
i m m i g ra ti o n , i n clu d i n g th e se tti n g u p o f a b o rd e r
p o li ce fo rce to co m b a t m i g ra n t tra ffi ck i n g , a n d a n
i n cre ase i n th e n u m b e r o f p atro ls i n u rb an ce n tre s.
As a co m p le m e n t to th e se , G re e ce h as i n tro d u ce d a
p o li cy o f th e e xp e lli n g m i gran ts wh o h a ve co m m i t-
t e d o ffe n c e s a n d o f e sc o rt i n g u n d o c u m e n t e d
fo re i gn e rs to th e b o rd e r.
I lle g a l i m m i g ra ti o n co n ti n u e d to g ro w i n I ta ly
i n 1 998 an d 1 999, d e sp i te th e syste m ati c co n clu si o n
b y th e go ve rn m e n t o f agre e m e n ts wi th n e i gh b o u ri n g
co u n tri e s, e i th e r a s re g a rd s a s re ad m i ssi o n o r th e
q u o ta o f fo re i g n e rs le g a lly a llo we d to e n te r I t a ly.
I n 1 998, as i n p re vi o u s ye ars, n e w m e asu re s to co m -
b at i lle ga l i m m i gra ti o n an d m i gran t tra ffi ck i n g we re
i n tro d u ce d i n th e N e th e rlan d s. T h e I n fo rm ati o n an d
An a ly si s C e n tre fo r m i gran t traffi cki n g h as e n te re d
i n to a cti o n , i n co -o p e ra ti o n wi th th e p o li ce a n d
i m m i gra ti o n an d n a tu ra li sa ti o n se rvi ce s. F o r so m e
ye ars, b e twe e n 9 000 an d 1 0 000 p e rso n s h ave b e e n
tu rn e d b a ck a t S ch i p h o l a i rp o rt fo r la ck o f p ro p e r
d o cu m e n ts o r o n o th e r gro u n d s. I n 1 998, i n d e cre as-
i n g o rd e r o f i m p o rta n ce , th e n a t i o n a ls co n ce rn e d
we re e sse n ti a ll y p e rso n s fro m A fg h a n i sta n , I ra q ,
E cu a d o r, N i g e ri a a n d S ri L a n k a . C o n t ro ls p ri o r t o
e m b a rkati o n o n fli gh ts th o u gh t to b e at ri sk co n ti n -
u e d to b e carri e d o u t re gu larly. I n 1 998, K arach i was
a d d e d to th e li st o f d e p a rtu re p o i n ts p re se n ti n g a
ri sk. T h e n e w Ali e n s Act, cu rre n tly b e i n g d i scu sse d ,
p ro vi d e s fo r an i n cre ase i n th e p o we rs o f i n sp e cto rs,
allo wi n g th e m i n p arti cu lar to arre st an yo n e re aso n -
ab ly su sp e cte d o f i lle gal re si d e n ce . I n sp e cto rs wi ll
a l so b e a b le to co n fi sca t e a n d k e e p te m p o ra ri ly
i d e n ti ty a n d trav e l d o cu m e n ts an d , i n th e e ve n t o f
e x p u l s i o n , se n d t h e m d i re c t l y t o t h e cu st o m s
au th o ri ti e s o f th e co u n try o f re ad m i ssi o n .
O n th e b asi s o f th e n e w U n i te d K i n gd o m I m m i -
g ra ti o n a n d Asy lu m A ct, carri e rs wh e th e r b y ro ad ,
se a o r ai r m ay, si n ce M ay 2000 , b e fi n e d 2 000 fo r
e a ch i lle gal i m m i gran t d i sco ve re d i n th e i r tra n sp o rt
ve h i cle . T h i s m e asu re wa s a cco m p an i e d b y a co d e
o f g o o d p ra cti ce fo r ro a d h a u li e rs a n d d ri v e rs o f
b u se s o r p ri vate ve h i cle s.
I n 1 9 9 8 a n d 1 9 9 9 , t h e B a lti c S t a te s a m e n d e d
th e i r le g i sla ti o n o n i lle g a l i m m i g ra ti o n to b ri n g i t
i n to li n e wi th E u ro p e an U n i o n stan d ard s. I n E sto n i a,
t h e A c t o n re m o v a l a n d p ro h i b i t i o n o f e n t ry
o f O cto b e r 1 998 e n te re d i n to fo rce i n Ap ri l 1 999 , i n
p a ra l l e l w i t h t h e a m e n d m e n t s a d o p t e d i n
F e b ru a ry 1 999 as to th e san cti o n s ap p li cab le to fo r-
e i gn e rs re si d i n g i lle gally i n th e co u n try. A re gu lati o n
o n th e re tu rn o f fo re i gn e rs was ad o p te d i n L i th u an i a
i n e arly 1 998, at th e sam e ti m e as a re o rgan i sati o n o f
b o rd e r p o li ce se rvi ce s an d th e p re p arati o n o f a p lan
to ti gh te n b o rd e r co n tro ls.
I n Au g u st 1 999, a n e w i d e n ti ty ca rd syste m was
i n tro d u ce d i n B u lg a ri a , re p la ci n g B u lg a ri a n p a ss-
p o rts. I n co rp o ra t i n g a n a n t i -fra u d d e v i ce , t h e se
ca rd s sh o u l d h e l p l i m i t i l l e g a l e n t ri e s i n t o t h e
co u n try. I n S e p te m b e r 1 99 8, B u lg ari a, R o m an i a a n d
G re e ce si g n e d a tri late ral co -o p e ra ti o n P ro to co l to
co m b a t t ra n sfro n t i e r cri m e , i n p a rt i cu la r i l l e g a l
i m m i g ra ti o n a n d m i g ra n t tra ffi ck i n g . I n Ju n e 1 9 9 9 ,
t h e R o m a n i a n G o v e rn m e n t a d o p t e d a p ri o ri t y
O rd i n a n ce re stru ctu ri n g b o rd e r p o li ce se rv i ce s a n d
i n tro d u ci n g sa n cti o n s a g a i n st a n y o n e fa ci l i ta ti n g
i l l e g a l i m m i g ra t i o n . M o re o v e r, u n d e r t h e O rd i -
n a n ce , ca rri e rs a re re sp o n si b l e fo r t h e c o st o f
e xp e lli n g u n d o cu m e n te d m i gran ts.
As re ga rd s th e E u ro p e a n U n i o n , th e E u ro p e an
C o m m i ssi o n e xp re sse d th e o p i n i o n i n th e S co re -
b o ard i t d rafte d i n M arch 2000 th at th e fi gh t agai n st
i lle gal i m m i g rati o n sh o u ld b e ste p p e d u p , b y co m -
b ati n g th e cri m i n al n e two rks i n vo lve d wh i le gu aran -
t e e i n g t h e ri g h t s o f v i ct i m s. B y t h e e n d o f t h e
y e a r 20 00 , th e C o m m i ssi o n i s to su b m i t a p ro p o sal
o n th e ad o p ti o n o f m e asu re s layi n g d o wn m i n i m u m
ru le s as to th e p re ci se d e fi n i ti o n o f cri m i n al o ffe n ce s
a n d to th e sa n cti o n s a p p l i ca b le i n th e sp h e re o f
o rgan i se d cri m e re late d to m i gran t traffi cki n g. I n th e
lo n g te rm , th e o b je cti v e o f th e M e m b e r S tate s an d
E u ro p o l sh o u ld b e to i d e n ti fy a n d d i sm a n tle th e
cri m i n a l n e two rk s i n v o lv e d i n m i g ra n t tra ffi ck i n g ,
se tti n g th e fi gh t agai n st i lle gal i m m i grati o n as o n e o f
th e p ri o ri ti e s o f i n te rn a t i o n a l co -o p e ra ti o n . T h e
S co re b o ard a lso p ro vi d e s th at th e E u ro p e a n U n i o n
sh o u ld fo rm u la te a co h e re n t p o li cy wi th re g a rd to
re ad m i ssi o n an d re tu rn s. O n th i s p o i n t, th e C o u n ci l
re ce n tly d e ci d e d syste m a ti cally to i n clu d e a m o d e l
re ad m i ssi o n cla u se i n a n y a g re e m e n ts co n clu d e d
b e twe e n th e E u ro p e a n C o m m u n i ty an d th i rd co u n -
tri e s, a n d th e C o m m i ssi o n co u ld b e a u th o ri se d to
n e g o ti a t e re a d m i ssi o n a g re e m e n ts wi t h se v e ra l
th i rd co u n tri e s.
b) Different aspects of policies to prevent and combat
the illegal employment of foreigners
T h e fi gh t agai n st th e i lle gal e n try, re si d e n ce an d
e m p lo ym e n t o f fo re i g n e rs h a s b e co m e o n e o f th e
84
O E C D 2000
p ri o ri ti e s o f i m m i grati o n p o li ci e s i n O E C D co u n tri e s.
T h e p e rsi ste n ce o f i lle gal m i grati o n , alb e i t at d i ffe re n t
le ve ls fo r d i ffe re n t re ce i vi n g co u n tri e s, i s at th e h e art
o f cu rre n t p o li cy d e b ate s. T h i s i s tru e b o th i n co u n -
tri e s th at h ave e xp re sse d a p o li ti cal wi ll to m an a ge
m i grati o n flo ws m o re e ffe cti ve ly an d to fi gh t agai n st
th e traffi cki n g o f lab o u r, an d i n th o se th at co n ti n u e to
re ce i v e a la rg e n u m b e r o f i m m i g ra n ts as p art o f a n
acti ve p o li cy to re cru i t p e rm an e n t m i gran t wo rke rs.
B y co m p a ri n g t h e p o l i ci e s i m p le m e n t e d i n
O E C D M e m b e r co u n tri e s to p re v e n t an d sa n cti o n
t h e i l l e g a l e m p l o y m e n t o f f o re i g n e rs s e e
Tab le I .1 5) , i t i s p o ssi b le to an alyse th e cate go ri e s o f
san cti o n s la i d d o wn i n la w aga i n st wo rke rs wi th o u t
wo rk p e rm i ts, th e i r e m p lo ye rs, an d an yo n e ab e tti n g
i lle g a l e m p lo y m e n t, wi th sp e ci a l e m p h a si s o n th e
ad m i n i strati ve o rg an i sati o n o f m e a su re s to co m b a t
i lle gal e m p lo ym e n t an d o n th e gre ate r e ffe cti ve n e ss
o f jo i n t acti o n . T h i s an a lysi s was ca rri e d o u t wi th i n
th e fra m e wo rk o f th e S e m i n a r o rg a n i se d i n T h e
H a g u e o n 2 2 a n d 2 3 A p ri l 1 9 9 9 b y t h e O E C D
to ge th e r wi th th e D u tch au th o ri ti e s an d th e su p p o rt
o f th e U n i te d S tate s se e a b o v e ) . T h e Acts o f th i s
S e m i n ar o n P re ve n ti n g an d C o m b ati n g th e E m p lo y-
m e n t o f F o re i g n e rs i n a n I rre g u lar S i tu ati o n we re
p u b li sh e d b y th e O E C D i n Ju ly 2 000 u n d e r th e ti tle
Combating the Illegal Employment of Foreign Workers. I t
was se e n th at alth o u gh th e y co u ld b e e ffe cti ve , ve ry
fe w p re v e n ti v e m e a su re s we re to b e fo u n d i n th e
le g i slati o n o f M e m b e r co u n tri e s. T h e an a ly si s a lso
sh o ws t h a t t h e re s o u rc e s u s e d t o c o m b a t t h e
e m p lo y m e n t o f fo re i g n e rs i n a n i rre g u lar si tu a ti o n
are li m i te d d u e to th e d i ffi cu lty o f co n tro l o p e rati o n s
i n th e fi e ld , i n su ffi ci e n t i n fo rm ati o n to e ffe ct su ch
co n tro ls an d th e lack o f d ata fo r asse ssi n g th e re su lts
o f co n tro l o p e ra ti o n s a n d th e b ri n g i n g o f ch a rge s.
L a s t l y , t h e a n a l y s i s s h o w s t h a t i n t e rn a t i o n a l
co -o p e ra ti o n i n t h i s fi e ld i s sti ll ru d i m e n ta ry a n d
re m ai n s i n m o st case s b i late ral. B y way o f e xa m p le ,
th e b o x b e lo w d e scri b e s th e si tu ati o n i n th e U n i te d
S tate s wi th re gard to p re ve n ti n g an d co m b ati n g th e
i lle gal e m p lo ym e n t o f fo re i gn wo rke rs.
c) Recommendations as to preventing and combating
the employment of foreigners in an irregular
situation
D u ri n g th e S e m i n ar at T h e H ag u e se e ab o ve ) ,
se ve ral re co m m e n d ati o n s we re fo rm u late d as to th e
p o li ci e s wh i ch sh o u ld b e i m p le m e n te d wi th re g ard
to p re v e n ti n g a n d co m b a ti n g th e e m p lo y m e n t o f
fo re i gn e rs i n an i rre gu lar si tu ati o n . T h e y are se t o u t
b e lo w an d wi ll b e m o n i to re d an n u ally b y th e O E C D
Wo rk i n g P a rty o n M i g ra ti o n i n o rd e r to a sse ss th e
p ro gre ss m ad e b y M e m b e r co u n tri e s i n th i s sp h e re .
Whatever is done to combat the employment
of foreigners in an irregular situation must address
the problem of undeclared work in general and
not just the employment of illegal immigrants,
wh i ch i s ju st o n e e le m e n t, a n d n o t n e ce ssa ri ly th e
m o st i m p o rtan t, o f e co n o m i c acti vi ty i n th e so -calle d
u n d e rgro u n d o r u n d e clare d e co n o m y. H o we ve r,
p o li ci e s to ad d re ss th i s i ssu e m u st take i n to acco u n t
th e fact th at i lle gal i m m i gran ts are e sp e ci ally vu ln e r-
ab le b e cau se th e i r le gal statu s i s p re cari o u s: at b e st
th e y d o n o t h ave th e le gal ri gh t to wo rk n o r d o th e y
h a ve , i n m a n y i n sta n ce s, th e ri gh t to re si d e i n th e
re ce i vi n g co u n try.
Sanctions against the illegal employment of
immigrants must be applied against the main actors
involved in the relevant breaches of labour and
immigration laws. S a n cti o n s m u st b e a p p li e d n o t
o n ly agai n st d i re ct e m p lo ye rs, b u t also i n d i re ct o n e s
su b co n tracto rs wh o o u tso u rce se gm e n ts o r p h ase s o f
th e i r o p e rati o n s) . T h e y also ap p ly to an y p e rso n s wh o
a ct i v e ly p ro m o t e i l le g a l i m m i g ra t i o n a n d /o r t h e
e m p lo ym e n t o f fo re i gn e rs i n an i rre gu lar si tu ati o n , b e
th e se p e rso n s i n te rm e d i ari e s se e ki n g p ro fi t b y p ro -
vi d i n g lo d gi n g, fo r e xam p le , o r p ro fe ssi o n al traffi cke rs
o f i lle gal lab o u r. L astly, san cti o n s sh o u ld ap p ly to th e
u n d o cu m e n te d wo rke rs th e m se lve s.
Effective strategies against the employment of
illegal immigrants must be based on a combina-
tion of sanctions and of non-punitive measures
su ch as th e d i sse m i n ati o n am o n g e m p lo ye rs, i m m i -
gran ts an d se n d i n g co u n tri e s, o f i n fo rm ati o n go ve rn -
i n g th e e n try, sta y an d acce ss to th e lab o u r m arke t,
o r th e ri sks asso ci ate d wi th i lle gal e m p lo ym e n t) .
Better co-ordination and coherence of admin-
istrative measures to tackle the employment of
illegal migrants is fundamental, both at national
and local level. S u ch co -o rd i n a ti o n i s all th e m o re
i m p o rtan t i n th at lab o u r m arke ts, an d th e re fo re i lle -
gal h i ri n g p racti ce s, h ave a stro n g lo cal d i m e n si o n . A
p a rti cu larly i m p o rtan t a re a o f co -o p e ra ti o n am o n g
age n ci e s i s th e e xch an ge o f i n fo rm ati o n ab o u t i lle gal
p racti ce s, th e m e asu re s take n to ad d re ss th e m , an d
th e i r re su lts. T h i s i n fo rm a ti o n sh o u ld b e a ccu ra te ,
an d th e go ve rn m e n t age n ci e s co n ce rn e d m u st h ave
at th e i r d i sp o sal e ffe cti ve a n d accu rate m e th o d s to
e valu ate th e i r i n te rve n ti o n s. H o we ve r, th i s i n fo rm a-
ti o n sh o u l d n o t b e co ll e ct e d a t t h e e xp e n se o f
i n d i vi d u al ri gh ts to p ri vacy.
M
a
i
n

T
r
e
n
d
s

i
n

I
n
t
e
r
n
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

M
i
g
r
a
t
i
o
n

8
5

O
E
C
D

2
0
0
0
Tab le I .1 5. Recapitulative table presenting themeasures undertaken at the national level tocombat theemployment of foreigners inan irregular situation
insome OECD countries
Ap p licab le san cti o n s
R e sp o n sib le au th o riti e s
P re ve n ti ve m e asu re s
i n ad d i tio n to b o rd e r
co n tro ls)
In te rn atio n al co -o p e rati o n
D i re ct e m p lo ye r In d ire ct e m p lo ye r E m p lo ye e s
T h o se ab e tti n g ille gal
im m i gratio n o r e m p lo ym e n t
Au strali a M axim u m fi n e
o f AU D 1 0 000
b u t o n ly ap p licab le
as fo r a p e rso n wh o
i s ai d i n g an d ab e tti n g
a p e rso n to co m m it
a cri m e again st
th e C o m m o n we alth
o f Au stralia)
M axim u m fi n e
o f AU D 1 0 000
b u t o n ly ap p li cab le
as fo r a p e rso n wh o
i s ai d in g an d ab e tti n g
a p e rso n to co m m i t
a crim e agai n st
th e C o m m o n we alth
o f Au strali a)
R e m o val to th e b o rd e r,
b ar o n re -e n try
As wi th e m p lo ye rs T h e D e p artm e n t
o f I m m i grati o n
an d M u lticu ltu ral
Affai re s, p o li ce ,
cu sto m s an d se cu rity
fo rce s
I n fo rm atio n cam p ai gn s
aim e d at e m p lo ye rs;
a re vi e w o f cu rre n t
m e asu re s is u n d e r way
T h e re m ay
b e ap p ro ach e s
to re le van t au th o ritie s
i n o th e r co u n tri e s
i n p arti cu lar case s
Jap an F in e an d /o r
i m p ri so n m e n t
F i n e an d /o r
R e m o val to th e b o rd e r,
fin e an d /o r
F i n e an d /o r
im p riso n m e n t
R e gi o n al i m m igrati o n
o ffi ce s, p o lice ,
co -o p e rati o n b e twe e n
au th o ri ti e s
aim e d at e m p lo ye rs
an d wo rke rs
B i late ral co -o p e rati o n
with n e igh b o u rin g
state s
N o rway F in e crim i n al
o r re gu lato ry)
o r i m p ri so n m e n t
F i n e o r i m p ri so n m e n t R e m o val to th e b o rd e r,
fin e an d /o r
S am e san cti o n s
as th o se o n e m p lo ye rs
I m m i grati o n se rvi ce s
i m m i grati o n , ju sti ce
an d p o li ce
d e p artm e n ts)
I n fo rm atio n p am p h le ts
fo r wo rke rs
N o m e a su re s
i m p le m e n te d
S wi tze rlan d C rim i n al san ctio n s
fi n e an d
i m p ri so n m e n t) ,
re gu lato ry san cti o n s
re fu sal o f wo rk p e rm i ts
fo r th e fo re i gn
e m p lo ye e s)
P o ssib le fin e
re lu ctan t
ju risp ru d e n ce )
F i n e o r e xp u lsi o n ,
p o ssi b ly with b ar
o f re -e n try
F in e an d im p ri so n m e n t C an to n al lab o u r o ffi ce s,
re gio n al lab o u r
i n sp e cto rate s, can to n al
p o lice fo r fo re i gn e rs,
fe d e ral o ffi ce
fo r fo re i gn e rs, p o li ce ,
cu sto m s au th o ri ti e s;
au th o ri ti e s tax
an d so ci al au th o ritie s) ,
b u t lim i te d d u e to d ata
p ro te cti o n
Ad h o c p o lice co n tro ls,
ro ad sid e ch e cks, so ci al
p artn e rs co n tro ls
e xce p ti o n al)
Tu rke y N o san cti o n N o san cti o n E xp u lsio n , fi n e F in e an d i m p ri so n m e n t,
sp e cifi c san ctio n
fo r i lli ci t b ro ke rage
o f lab o u r
P o li ce , actio n p o ssi b le
b y th e lab o u r
i n sp e cto rate
an d th e e m p lo ym e n t
au th o ri ti e s
N o p re ve n tive
m e asu re s
N o m e a su re s
i m p le m e n te d
U n i te d S tate s R e gu lato ry fi n e ,
crim i n al san cti o n s
i n th e m o re se rio u s
case s fu lfi llm e n t o f civi l
re sp o n sib i lity
C o n sid e re d as d i re ct
e m p lo ye r sam e
san cti o n th e re fo re )
R e m o val to th e b o rd e r In cre ase d e n fo rce m e n t
targe ti n g th e sm u ggli n g
o f alie n s
D e p artm e n t
o f i m m i grati o n
an d n atu ralizati o n s,
lab o u r
an d e m p lo ym e n t
d e p artm e n t, lo cal
p o lice o ffi ce rs,
au th o ri ti e s
re q u i re d e m p lo ym e n t
e li gib i lity ve ri fi cati o n
with M e xi co
T
r
e
n
d
s

i
n

I
n
t
e
r
n
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

M
i
g
r
a
t
i
o
n

8
6

O
E
C
D

2
0
0
0
insome OECD countries (cont.)
co n tro ls)
Au stri a F in e , with d rawal
o f trad in g lice n ce ,
i n e li gib i lity fo r p u b lic
co n tracts, m an agi n g
co n tracto r liab le ,
b ack-p aym e n t o f taxe s
an d so ci al se cu ri ty
co n trib u ti o n s
M an agi n g co n tracto r
m ay also b e h e ld
re sp o n si b le
E xp u lsio n , b ar
o n re -e n try
In fo rm ati o n
n o t avai lab le
L ab o u r i n sp e cto rate ,
p o lice assistan ce
fo r in sp e cti o n
o p e ratio n s
I n fo rm atio n
n o t avai lab le
C o -o p e rati o n wi th in
th e fram e wo rk
o f th e E u ro p e an U n i o n
B e lgiu m F in e an d im p riso n m e n t,
clo su re o f th e co m p an y,
co n fiscati o n
o f e q u i p m e n t,
su sp e n si o n o f acti vi ty,
re gu lato ry fin e ,
p aym e n t o f li vi n g
e xp e n se s an d th e co st
o f re p atri ati n g
th e i lle gal wo rke r
I n fo rm atio n
n o t avai lab le
O rd e r to le ave
th e te rrito ry i n th e case
o f irre gu lar re sid e n ce
statu s
S am e san cti o n s
as th o se o n e m p lo ye r;
sp e cifi c san ctio n
fo r i lli ci t b ro ke rage
o f lab o u r
L ab o u r i n sp e cto rate
e m p lo ym e n t
an d lab o u r m in istry) ;
stru ctu re d
an d i n stitu ti o n ali se d
i n sp e cto rate s wh i ch
are m o re o r le ss
i n ch arge
wi th th e co m b at agai n st
i lle gal e m p lo ym e n t
co m m o n co n tro ls
b e twe e n lab o u r
i n sp e cto rate s
an d se cu ri ty fo rce s)
P re ss cam p ai gn s aim e d
at e m p lo ye rs,
d i strib u ti o n
o f b ro ch u re s
th e fram e wo rk
F i n lan d F in e o r im p riso n m e n t
fu lfillm e n t o f ci vil
S am e san cti o n
as th e d i re ct e m p lo ye r
i f th e d i re ct e m p lo ye r
i s fo re i gn
F i n e F i n e o r i m p ri so n m e n t
in case o f assi sti n g
th e e n try an d stay
o f i lle gal im m i gran ts
I m m i grati o n
d e p artm e n t, p o li ce ,
b o rd e r co n tro l o ffice rs,
e m p lo ym e n t se rvice s,
au th o ri ti e s
I n fo rm atio n
d i sse m i n ate d
to e m p lo ye rs
an d wo rke rs
th e fram e wo rk
F ran ce F in e an d /o r
i m p ri so n m e n t,
d i sb arm e n t fro m
acti vi ty, i n e li gi b i lity
fo r p u b lic co n tracts,
co n fiscati o n
o f e q u i p m e n t, clo su re
o f p re m i se s,
p u b licati o n
o f th e ju d ge m e n t,
re gu lato ry fin e sp e ci al
co n trib u ti o n ) ,
C rim i n al san ctio n s,
jo i n tly li ab le fo r co sts
an d fin e s im p o se d
o n d ire ct e m p lo ye r
M i n o r cri m i n al
an d re gu lato ry
san cti o n s, re m o val
to th e b o rd e r
i n th e case o f i rre gu lar
re si d e n ce statu s
F in e an d i m p ri so n m e n t
th e e n try an d th e stay
o f i lle gal im m i gran ts,
d isb arm e n t fro m
activi ty, b ar o n re -e n try,
in e ligi b ili ty fo r p u b li c
co n tracts fo r co m p an ie s
p o lice ,
ge n d arm e rie ,cu sto m s
o ffi ce rs, co -o p e ratio n
b e twe e n au th o ri tie s
I n fo rm atio n
d i sse m i n ate d
to wo rke rs
an d e m p lo ye rs,
p artn e rsh i p agre e m e n ts
co n clu d e d b e twe e n
ce n tral go ve rn m e n t
an d e m p lo ye rs
o rgan isati o n s, fin an ci al
i n ce n ti ve s to e n co u rage
th e e m p lo ym e n t
o f d o cu m e n te d wo rke rs
th e fram e wo rk
o f th e E u ro p e an U n i o n ,
sp e ci al b i late ral
co -o p e ratio n
with th e U K
an d G e rm an y
M
a
i
n

T
r
e
n
d
s

i
n

I
n
t
e
r
n
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

M
i
g
r
a
t
i
o
n

8
7

O
E
C
D

2
0
0
0
co n tro ls)
G e rm an y R e gu lato ry an d crim i n al
fi n e , i m p ri so n m e n t
i n th e m o re se rio u s
case s, i n e ligi b ili ty
fo r p u b lic co n tracts,
p aym e n t o f th e co st
o f re p atri ati n g
th e i lle gal wo rke r,
p aym e n t o f taxe s
an d so ci al se cu ri ty
co n trib u ti o n s
H igh re gu lato ry fi n e s R e gu lato ry fin e F i n e o r i m p ri so n m e n t
in th e case o f illici t
b ro ke rage o f lab o u r,
in th e case o f assi sti n g
ille gal e n try o r stay
u n d e r ce rtain
co n d i ti o n s; re gu lato ry
fi n e in th e case
o f assi stin g i lle gal
e m p lo ym e n t
I lle gal e n try o r stay:
b o rd e r co n tro l p o li ce ,
lo cal au th o ri ti e s
co n ce rn i n g fo re i gn e rs,
p o lice i lle gal
e m p lo ym e n t: fe d e ral
lab o u r o ffi ce , cu sto m s
o ffi ce rs, b o th with
th e su p p o rt o f tax,
so cial se cu ri ty, h e alth
an d safe ty au th o ri ti e s
as we ll as th e lo cal
au th o ri ti e s re sp o n si b le
o f fo re i gn e rs
an d o f m o o n li gh ti n g
au th o ri ti e s co o rd i n ate d
b y th e fe d e ral lab o u r
o ffi ce
I n fo rm atio n cam p ai gn s,
fi n an cial in ce n tive s
to e n co u rage
th e fram e wo rk
b i late ral co -o p e rati o n
e sp e ci ally wi th F ran ce ,
U K , N e th e rlan d s,
P o rtu gal so m e ti m e s
o n a re gio n al b asis
o r li m i te d to ce rtai n
su b je cts) , li m ite d
co -o p e ratio n
with ce rtain co u n tri e s
o f C e n tral an d E aste rn
E u ro p e an d Tu rke y
o n wo rk co n tracts
G re e ce F in e re gu lato ry
an d cri m i n al)
an d i m p ri so n m e n t
F i n e an d i m p riso n m e n t F i n e an d i m p ri so n m e n t,
p aym e n t o f d e p artu re
tax
F in e an d i m p ri so n m e n t
th e e n try an d th e stay
o f i lle gal im m i gran ts,
co n fi scati o n o f m e an s
o f tran sp o rt, p aym e n t
o f li vi n g e xp e n se s
an d th e co st
o f re p atriati n g
th e ille gal wo rke r
p o lice , cu sto m s
se rvice s, co -o p e rati o n
P re ss cam p ai gn s C o -o p e rati o n wi th in
th e fram e wo rk
N e th e rlan d s F in e an d /o r
i m p ri so n m e n t,
d i sb arm e n t fro m
carryi n g o n b u si n e ss,
clo su re o f th e co m p an y,
M an agi n g co n tracto r
m ay also b e h e ld
re sp o n si b le
R e m o val to th e b o rd e r
i n case o f i rre gu lar
F i n e o r im p ri so n m e n t P o li ce , m i n i stry
o f ju stice , lab o u r
i n sp e cto rate ,
au th o ri ti e s
an d fo re i gn wo rke rs,
fi n an cial in ce n tive s
to e n co u rage
th e fram e wo rk
b i late ral agre e m e n t
with C h i n a
P o rtu gal R e gu lato ry fi n e s,
i n e li gib i lity fo r p u b lic
co n tracts, d i sb arm e n t
fro m acce ssi n g
to C o m m u n i ty fu n d s
I n fo rm atio n
n o t avai lab le
D i sb arm e n t fro m
wo rki n g, re m o val
to th e b o rd e r
i n th e case o f i rre gu lar
re si d e n ce statu s,
re gu lato ry fi n e s
Im p riso n m e n t
in th e case o f ab e ttin g
ille gal im m i grati o n
L ab o u r i n sp e cto rate
an d I m m i grati o n
se rvice s
I n fo rm atio n
n o t avai lab le
C o -o p e rati o n with i n
th e fram e wo rk
o f th e E u ro p e an U n io n ,
re ad m issi o n
agre e m e n ts wi th F ran ce ,
S p ain , B u lgari a, P o lan d ,
an d R o m an i a,
agre e m e n ts wi th B razil,
C ap -Ve rt, G u i n e a-B issau
an d S p ai n
T
r
e
n
d
s

i
n

I
n
t
e
r
n
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

M
i
g
r
a
t
i
o
n

8
8

O
E
C
D

2
0
0
0
Source: C o m b ati n g th e i lle gal e m p lo ym e n t o f fo re i gn e rs, O E C D , 2000.
co n tro ls)
S p ai n R e gu lato ry fi n e ,
e xp u lsio n if fo re ign
ci vi l re sp o n si b ili ty
i n ce rtain case s
I n fo rm atio n
n o t avai lab le
R e m o val to th e b o rd e r
i n case o f i rre gu lar
R e gu lato ry fin e L ab o u r an d so ci al
se cu ri ty in sp e cto rate ,
se cu ri ty fo rce s
I n fo rm atio n
d i sse m i n ate d
to wo rke rs
th e fram e wo rk
re ad m i ssio n
agre e m e n ts
with M o ro cco
an d P o rtu gal
U n i te d K i n gd o m F in e s si n ce Jan u ary
1 997
I n fo rm atio n
n o t avai lab le
R e m o val to th e h o m e
co u n try, fin e
o r i m p riso n m e n t
S an cti o n in case
o f assi stin g th e e n try
an d th e stay o f ille gal
im m i gran ts
P o li ce an d i m m i grati o n
se rvice s, co -o p e rati o n
I n fo rm atio n se n t
to e m p lo ye rs
co n ce rn in g th e n e w
le gi slati o n
th e fram e wo rk
sp e ci al b i late ral
co -o p e ratio n
with F ran ce
89
O E C D 2000
B o x 6. Preventing and combating the employment of illegal foreign workers in the United States*
T h e U n i te d S tate s G o ve rn m e n t e sti m ate s th at th e co u n try h as a re si d e n t i lle gal p o p u lati o n o f ab o u t 5.5 m i lli o n
p e rso n s, an d th at th i s p o p u lati o n gro ws b y ab o u t 275 000 e ach ye ar. Avai lab le d ata i n d i cate th at th e re si d e n t i lle gal
p o p u latio n i s e co n o m ically active i n ro u gh ly th e sam e p ro p o rti o n as th e re st o f th e U S p o p u lati o n ; ab o u t two -th i rd s o f
th e ille gal p o p u lati o n wo rks i n th e U S . T h i s re sid e n t i lle gal p o p u latio n in clu d e s o n ly th o se wh o h ave re si d e d i n th e U S
fo r at le ast o n e ye ar, th u s e xclu d i n g th e se aso n al flo w o f ille gal m i gran ts to th e co u n try fo r e m p lo ym e n t p u rp o se s.
I lle gal wo rke rs can b e fo u n d wo rki n g i n all p arts o f th e U S e co n o m y. H o we ve r, th e gre ate st co n ce n trati o n s o f
i m m i gran t- an d i lle gal i m m i gran t wo rke rs are i n lo w-ski ll, lo w-wage se cto rs su ch as agri cu ltu ral p ro d u cti o n , gar-
m e n t m an u factu ri n g, fo o d p ro ce ssi n g, cate ri n g, h o te ls, lan d scap i n g an d , i n cre asi n gly, i n th e co n stru cti o n i n d u stry.
T h e U n i te d S tate s cle arly re co gn i se s th at e m p lo ym e n t i s th e p ri m a ry i m p e tu s th e m agn e t fo r i lle g al
i m m i grati o n . I n ad d i ti o n to b o rd e r co n tro l, th e U S e m p lo ys two b asi c strate gi e s to p re ve n t an d co m b at i lle gal
e m p lo ym e n t i n th e co u n try ge n e ro u s le gal i m m i grati o n fo r e m p lo ym e n t p u rp o se s, an d wo rksi te e n fo rce m e n t.
Generous legal employment-based immigration
I n re ce n t ye ars, th e U S h as ad m i tte d an ave rage o f m o re th an 850 000 p e o p le e ach ye ar as le gal p e rm an e n t
i m m i g ra n ts fo r fo u r p ri n ci p a l p u rp o se s: fa m i ly re u n i fi cati o n , e m p lo y m e n t, re fu ge e se ttle m e n t an d d i v e rsi ty.
E m p lo y m e n t-b ase d i m m i g rati o n a cco u n ts fo r 1 1 to 1 4% o f to tal le g al p e rm an e n t i m m i gra ti o n , i n clu d i n g b o th
wo rke rs an d th e i r i m m e d i ate fam i ly m e m b e rs.
T h e su b stan ti al p ro vi si o n s fo r e m p lo ym e n t-b ase d m i grati o n se rv e a s a m e a n s fo r U S e m p lo ye rs to ga i n
acce ss to , an d m e e t th e i r e m p lo ym e n t n e e d s i n , th e i n te rn ati o n al lab o u r m arke t, b y allo wi n g fo re i gn wo rke rs to
ga i n le g a l e n try to th e U S lab o u r m a rk e t. T h e p ro v i si o n s a re a lso d e si g n e d to co n stra i n i lle ga l m i g ra ti o n fo r
e m p lo ym e n t p u rp o se s. T h i s le gal e m p lo ym e n t-b ase d i m m i grati o n flo w i s, o f co u rse , re gu late d an d p re fe re n ce i s
i n cre asi n gly gi ve n to h i gh e r-ski lle d jo b s an d wo rke rs. I t o b vi o u sly d o e s n o t p re ve n t, b u t m ay we ll h e lp co n tro l,
th e sco p e o f i lle gal m i grati o n fo r e m p lo ym e n t p u rp o se s, at le ast i n so m e h i gh e r-ski ll) se cto rs o f th e U S e co n o m y.
Worksite enforcement
E ffe cti ve co n tro l o f th e b o rd e rs an d p o rts-o f-e n try i s a p ri n ci p al strate gy fo r p re ve n ti n g i lle gal i m m i grati o n
to th e U n i te d S tate s. B o rd e r co n tro l i s su p p le m e n te d b y a co m p re h e n si ve th re e -p ro n g ap p ro ach to ad d re ssi n g
i lle g al e m p lo ym e n t at U S wo rkp lace s: e m p lo ye r san cti o n s , lab o u r sta n d ard s e n fo rce m e n t, an d i m m i gra ti o n
law e n fo rce m e n t.
S i n ce 1 986, U S i m m i grati o n law h as re q u i re d e m p lo ye rs to ta ke ste p s to ve ri fy th e e m p lo ym e n t e li gi b i li ty
th e le gal statu s o f all wo rke rs th e y h i re . T h e law also p ro te cts wo rke rs agai n st d i scri m i n ati o n b ase d o n n ati o n -
ali ty o r e th n i c o ri gi n . T h i s ap p ro ach , wh i ch re co gn i se s th at e m p lo ym e n t i s th e p ri m ary re aso n fo r i lle gal i m m i gra-
ti o n to th e U S , i s i n te n d e d to e n li st e m p lo ye rs i n th e fro n t li n e i n p re ve n ti n g an d co m b ati n g i lle gal i m m i grati o n .
T h e law a lso p ro v i d e s fo r san cti o n s a d m i n i stra ti ve , ci vi l fi n e s an d , i n th e wo rst ca se s, cri m i n al p e n alti e s i f
e m p lo ye rs fai l to fo llo w th e se p ro ce d u re s, kn o wi n gly h i re i lle gal wo rke rs, o r are gu i lty o f d i scri m i n a ti o n o n th e
gro u n d s o f th e wo rke rs n ati o n ali ty o r e th n i c o ri gi n .
I t wo u ld ap p e ar th at e m p lo ye r san cti o n s h as b e e n i n e ffe cti ve i n p re ve n ti n g th e i lle gal e m p lo ym e n t o f u n au -
th o ri se d wo rke rs, an d th e I N S h as ad ju ste d i ts strate gy to fo cu s i n cre asi n gly o n th e m an u factu re rs an d p u rve yo rs
o f false o r frau d u le n t d o cu m e n ts, an d to d e ve lo p an alte rn ati ve m e ch an i sm fo r so m e e m p lo ye rs to ve ri fy wo rke rs
e m p lo ym e n t e li gi b i li ty th ro u gh acce ss to an au to m ate d ve ri fi cati o n d atab ase .
T h e se co n d p ro n g o f th e U S wo rksi te e n fo rce m e n t strate g y i n vo lv e s targe te d e n fo rce m e n t o f b a si c lab o u r
stan d ard s su ch as m i n i m u m wage , o ve rti m e , an d ch i ld lab o u r re q u i re m e n ts. T h i s sh o u ld e n co u rage e m p lo ye rs to
th i n k agai n ab o u t th e ri sks o f b e i n g san cti o n e d , an d re d u ce e co n o m i c i n ce n ti ve s fo r U S e m p lo ye rs to h i re i lle gal
wo rke rs. I n so m e case s, th e D e p artm e n t o f L ab o r h as co -o rd i n ate d i ts e n d e avo u rs wi th th e e n fo rce m e n t e ffo rts o f
th e I N S , o r carri e d th e m o u t jo i n tly wi th I N S o r o th e r law e n fo rce m e n t age n ci e s.
T h e th i rd p ro n g o f th e U S wo rk si te e n fo rce m e n t stra te g y i n v o lve s i m m i g ra ti o n e n fo rce m e n t targe te d at
U S wo rkp lace s th at e m p lo y large n u m b e rs o f lo w-ski ll, lo w-wage wo rke rs.
An asse ssm e n t o f th e e ffe cti ve n e ss o f th i s ap p ro ach h as le d th e I N S to an n o u n ce a n e w strate gy fo cu si n g o n
th e m an u factu re an d p u rve yan ce o f false o r frau d u le n t d o cu m e n ts an d o n th e i n cre asi n g p ro b le m o f th e o rgan -
i se d sm u ggli n g o f i lle gal m i gran ts sp e ci fi cally fo r U S e m p lo ym e n t. An o th e r n e w tacti c i s to e xam i n e e m p lo ye rs
e m p lo ym e n t e li gi b i li ty ve ri fi cati o n d o cu m e n ts agai n st th e ve ri fi cati o n d atab ase an d to ad vi se th e e m p lo ye r as to
wh i ch wo rke rs are false ly d o cu m e n te d , re q u i ri n g th at th e se wo rke rs b e d i sm i sse d o r th e e m p lo ye r wi ll b e su b je ct
to i n sp e cti o n an d p o ssi b le san cti o n s.
90
O E C D 2000
The representatives of several OECD Member
countries recommended an awareness-raising pro-
gramme for those operating national court sys-
tems, to ale rt th e m to th e i m p o rta n ce o f fo llo wi n g
th ro u gh wi th th e ap p li cati o n o f le gal san cti o n s, a n d
e n su ri n g th at all i m p o se d fi n e s are p a i d i n fu ll an d
i n a ti m e ly m an n e r. T h i s so rt o f i n te rve n ti o n wo u ld
re i n fo rce a n d st re n g th e n t h e ro le o f sa n cti o n s i n
co m b ati n g i lle gal h i ri n g p racti ce s i n asm u ch as fi n e s
fo r su ch p ra cti ce s a re g e n e ra lly lo w a n d th e re fo re
i n e ffe cti ve as d e te rre n ts. M o re o ve r, th e p o we rs an d
ca p a ci t i e s o f i n sp e ct i o n a g e n ci e s a re so m e ti m e s
i n su ffi ci e n t, n o ta b ly i n th e ca se o f u n d o cu m e n te d
wo rk i n p ri vate re si d e n ce s, to wh i ch th e se age n ci e s
h ave e xtre m e ly li m i te d acce ss.
The general public must be better informed
about the risks and penalties involved i n th e u se o f
i lle gal lab o u r. T h i s i n fo rm ati o n sh o u ld b e d i re cte d at
b o t h e m p lo y e rs a n d wo rk e rs i n i n d u st ri e s wh e re
th e se i lle gal p racti ce s are p re vale n t, b u t th e y sh o u ld
also b e d i re cte d at e m p lo ye rs th at re so rt to th e u se
o f u n d e clare d lab o u r o n an o ccasi o n al b asi s o n ly.
The specific measures adopted in certain
OECD Member countries can serve as a model for
other nations. E xa m p le s o f b e st p racti ce s i n clu d e
th e re q u i re m e n t to n o ti fy re l e v a n t g o v e rn m e n t
a ge n ci e s p ri o r to re cru i tm e n t, fi sca l i n ce n ti v e s fo r
t h e e m p l o y m e n t o f l e g a l wo rk e rs t h ro u g h t h e
re d u cti o n o f, o r e xe m p ti o n fro m , so ci al ch arge s an d
taxe s i n ce rtai n se cto rs an d i n ce rtai n typ e s o f jo b ) ,
an d th e stre a m li n i n g o f co n tractu al an d ad m i n i stra-
ti v e re q u i re m e n t s a sso ci a te d wi th se rv i ce se cto r
e m p l o y m e n t n o t a b ly a s co n ce rn s th e h i ri n g o f
d o m e sti c h e lp ) . An o th e r e xam p le o f a b e st p racti ce
i s th e fo rgi n g o f p artn e rsh i p s b e twe e n re le van t go v-
e rn m e n t a ge n ci e s o n th e o n e h an d , an d e m p lo ye rs
an d b u si n e ss asso ci ati o n s o n th e o th e r, to p ro m o te
jo i n t e ffo rts to co m b at i lle gal e m p lo ym e n t.
International co-operation is becoming more
urgent, i n p a rt i cu la r t o co m b a t la b o u r tra ffi ck i n g
n e two rk s. E u ro p e a n U n i o n m e m b e rs h a ve b e co m e
a wa re o f t h i s n e ce ssi t y a n d t h e C o u n ci l o f t h e
E u ro p e a n U n i o n h a s a d o p te d se v e ra l re co m m e n -
d ati o n s re ce n tly co n ce rn i n g th e re p re ssi o n o f th e
e m p lo y m e n t o f fo re i gn e rs i n an i rre gu lar si tu a ti o n .
L i k e wi se , th e C o m m i ssi o n o f th e E u ro p e a n U n i o n
h a s p ro d u ce d a re p o rt o n i lle g a l wo rk i n g e n e ra l.
T h i s re p o rt i d e n ti fi e s fo u r m ai n gro u p s o f p arti ci p an ts
i n th e u n d e clare d e co n o m y: m u lti p le jo b -h o ld e rs, th e
e co n o m i cally i n acti ve p o p u lati o n , th e u n e m p lo ye d ,
a n d t h i rd co u n try n a t i o n a l s i ll e g a l l y re si d e n t i n
th e E U . I n o th e r O E C D M e m b e r co u n tri e s, fo r e xam -
p le th e U n i te d S tate s, C an ad a an d M e xi co , i n te rn a-
ti o n a l co -o p e rati o n m e asu re s, wh e n th e y e xi st, a re
e sse n ti ally b i late ral an d o fte n h i gh ly sp e ci fi c.
3. Policies aimed at integrating immigrants
F o r m a n y y e a rs, ch a n g e s i n t h e n a tu re o f th e
m i grati o n p ro ce ss an d i n th e so ci e ti e s o f h o st co u n -
tri e s h ave alte re d th e co n d i ti o n s fo r th e i n te grati o n
o f fo re i gn an d i m m i gran t p o p u lati o n s. I n so m e h o st
co u n tri e s, th i s h a s le d to ch an ge s i n th e v e ry co n -
ce p t i o n o f i n t e g ra ti o n i t se lf. A lth o u g h tra d i ti o n a l
i n te grati o n m o d e ls h ave n o t b e e n calle d i n to q u e s-
ti o n , th e y h ave h ad to b e ad ap te d d u e to th e e ffe ct
o f a n u m b e r o f fa cto rs: i m m i g ra n ts a re e xte n d i n g
th e i r stays i n h o st co u n tri e s, an d a se co n d , an d e ve n
a th i rd g e n e ra t i o n o f i m m i g ra n ts h a v e se ttl e d i n
th o se co u n tri e s, th e g e o g rap h i c o ri g i n o f m i g ran ts
a n d th e p re v a i li n g m o d e s o f e n try h a v e b e co m e
m o re d i ve rse ; an d , th e e co n o m i c re ce ssi o n an d th e
p e rsi ste n ce o f h i gh u n e m p lo ym e n t h ave e xace rb ate d
th e p ro b le m s e n co u n te re d i n i n t e g ra ti n g ce rta i n
B o x 6. Preventing and combating the employment of illegal foreign workers in the United States* (cont.)
D e sp i te m a ssi v e i n cre ase d i n ve stm e n t i n th e se co m p re h e n si v e law e n fo rce m e n t e ffo rts, an d co n ti n u i n g
e lab o rati o n an d a d ju stm e n ts i n th e law e n fo rce m e n t strate gy an d to o ls e m p lo ye d , th e i lle ga l p o p u lati o n an d
e m p lo ym e n t i n th e U S co n ti n u e s to i n cre ase , th o u gh h o p e fu lly at a lo we r rate th an wo u ld o th e rwi se o ccu r. T h e
e ffe cti ve n e ss o f th i s i n cre ase d i n ve stm e n t an d e vo lvi n g, i m p ro ve d strate gi e s i n tu rn i n g aro u n d th i s u n acce p tab le
si tu ati o n m u st co n ti n u o u sly b e e valu ate d .
* T h i s b o x co n tai n s e xtracts fro m th e d o cu m e n t p re p are d b y Jo h n F rase r U S D e p artm e n t o f L ab o r , p u b li sh e d i n Combatingthe
Illegal Employment of Foreign Workers, O E C D , 2000.
91
O E C D 2000
gro u p s o f fo re i gn e rs an d h ave re n d e re d yo u n g p e o -
p le s acce ss to th e lab o u r m arke t m o re d i ffi cu lt.
T h e O E C D M e m b e r co u n tri e s a re i n cre asi n g ly
co n ce rn e d ab o u t th e i ssu e o f i n te grati n g fo re i gn e rs
wh o are alre ad y p re se n t as we ll as th o se wh o p lan to
re si d e i n th e h o st co u n try fo r an e xte n d e d p e ri o d .
H o we ve r, asse ssi n g th e le ve l o f i n te grati o n ach i e ve d
b y fo re i g n p o p u la t i o n s a n d i m m i g ra n t s re m a i n s
p ro b le m ati c. T h e co n ce p ti o n o f fo re i gn e rs i n te g ra-
ti o n i s ra p i d ly ch a n g i n g i n se v e ra l O E C D M e m b e r
co u n tri e s: so m e wan t to fu rth e r i m p ro ve th e i n te gra-
ti o n p o li ci e s a lre ad y i n p lace wh i le o th e rs are o n ly
n o w b e gi n n i n g to re co gn i se th e p e rm an e n t n atu re o f
th e p re se n ce o f fo re i gn e rs i n th e i r co u n tri e s. I n te gra-
ti o n i n v o lv e s co m p le x so ci al re la ti o n sh i p s; d i ffe r-
e n c e s i n t h e p e rfo rm a n c e o f n a t i o n a l s versus
i m m i gran ts, b ase d o n a fe w i n d i cato rs, d o n o t th e re -
fo re n e ce ssari ly re fle ct i n e q u ali ti e s b e twe e n th e two
gro u p s. S i m i larly, a co n ve rge n ce o f b e h avi o u ral p at-
te rn s i s n o t a su re i n d i cati o n o f su cce ssfu l i n te grati o n .
S e ve ral M e m b e r co u n tri e s h ave fo cu se d th e i r e ffo rts
o n n a tu ra li sa t i o n p o li cy, i n te g ra ti o n b y m e a n s o f
sch o o li n g ch i ld re n an d tra i n i n g a d u lts, a n d sp e ci fi c
i n te grati o n m e asu re s ai m e d at asylu m se e k e rs an d
re fu ge e s, as we ll as co m b ati n g raci sm an d d i scri m i n a-
ti o n , e sp e ci a lly i n th e wo rk p la ce . T h i s re p o rt wi ll
fo cu s o n th e n e w i n te g ra ti o n stra te g i e s re ce n tly
a d o p te d b y so m e O E C D M e m b e r co u n t ri e s, o n
acq u i si ti o n o f ci ti ze n sh i p an d tre n d s i n m i xe d m ar-
ri age s an d o n p o li ci e s fo r i n te grati n g fo re i gn e rs i n to
so ci e t y a n d th e la b o u r m a rk e t. T h e i ssu e s o f th e
sch o o li n g o f i m m i g ra n t ch i ld re n we re d e alt wi th at
le n gth i n th e p re vi o u s e d i ti o n o f Trends in International
Migration O E C D , 1 999) an d wi ll n o t b e re p e ate d h e re .
a) Main measures recently adopted by some OECD
Member countries
I n N e w Z e a la n d , th e a d o p ti o n o f m e a su re s to
faci li tate th e i n te grati o n o f i m m i gran ts an d re fu ge e s
i s a p ri o ri ty o f th e go ve rn m e n t, wh i ch h as aske d th e
I m m i grati o n S e rvi ce N Z I S ) to d e ve lo p an i n te grati o n
strate gy th at wi ll m e e t th e n e e d s o f i m m i gran ts an d
re fu ge e s i n a co m p re h e n si ve an d syste m ati c way.
I ta ly a n d S p a i n , wh i ch o n ly re ce n t ly b e ca m e
i m m i g ra ti o n co u n tri e s, h a v e b o th re ce n tly fo u n d
th at th e p re se n ce o f fo re i g n e rs i n th e i r co u n tri e s i s
b e co m i n g a stru ct u ra l p h e n o m e n o n . I n I t a ly, th i s
tre n d m an i fe sts i tse lf b o th i n th e e n try o f fo re i gn e rs
i n to th e jo b m arke t an d i n th e i r so ci a l a n d cu ltu ral
i n t e g ra t i o n b a se d o n fa m i l y fo rm a t i o n a n d t h e
e xp a n si o n o f so ci al n e two rks. T h e gro wi n g n u m b e r
o f fo re i gn m i n o rs, fam i ly re u n i o n s an d th e n u m b e r o f
re si d e n ce p e rm i ts i ssu e d fo r fam i ly-re late d re aso n s,
to ge th e r wi th th e i n cre ase i n th e n atu rali sati o n rate
an d th e n u m b e r o f m i xe d m arri age s are o th e r i n d i ca-
to rs o f fo re i gn e rs p e rm an e n t se ttle m e n t. I n th e li gh t
o f th e se stru ctu ra l ch an ge s, th e Act o f 6 M arch 1 99 8
ai m s to p ro m o te an d i m p ro ve th e i n te grati o n o f fo r-
e i gn e rs li vi n g i n I taly.
I n S p ai n , th e Act o f 1 1 Jan u ary 2000 d e als e xp li c-
i tly wi th th e ri g h ts a n d fre e d o m s o f fo re i gn e rs an d
th e i r so ci al i n te grati o n . Alth o u gh th i s Act i n clu d e s a
se ct i o n o n co n tro l li n g th e e n try, re si d e n ce a n d
e m p lo ym e n t o f fo re i gn e rs, i ts p ri m ary ai m i s to re co g-
n i se th e p e rm an e n t n atu re o f th e p re se n ce o f fo re i gn -
e rs i n th e co u n try an d to e xte n d to th e m th e b a si c
co n sti tu ti o n al ri gh ts e n jo ye d b y n ati o n als, su ch as th e
ri g h t to li v e to ge th e r wi th o n e s fa m i ly, fre e d o m o f
m o ve m e n t wi th i n S p ai n , fre e d o m to m e e t, d e m o n -
strate o r asso ci ate , th e ri gh t to e d u cati o n , wo rk, so ci al
p ro te cti o n a n d h e alth ca re , fre e d o m to jo i n tra d e
u n i o n s a n d g o o n stri k e a n d th e ri g h t o f a cce ss to
ju sti ce . M o re o ve r, th e Act p ro h i b i ts all acts o f d i scri m -
i n ati o n , i.e. an y act th at d i re ctly o r i n d i re ctly i n vo lve s
a d i sti n cti o n , e xclu si o n , re stri cti o n o r p re fe re n ce vis--
vis a fo re i gn e r b ase d o n race , co lo u r, d e sce n t, n ati o n al
o r e th n i c o ri gi n o r re li gi o u s b e li e f o r p racti ce th at p re -
v e n ts o r re st ri cts th e re co g n i ti o n a n d e xe rci se o f
h u m a n ri g h ts a n d b a si c fre e d o m s i n th e p o li ti ca l,
e co n o m i c, so ci al o r cu ltu ral fi e ld .
T h e D an i sh P a rli a m e n t p asse d i n Ju n e 1 99 8 i ts
fi rst l a w d e a li n g e xclu si v e ly wi th th e q u e sti o n o f
i n te grati n g fo re i gn e rs. T h i s n e w ap p ro ach h as i n co r-
p o ra te d th e le sso n s le arn e d fro m th e we a k n e sse s
an d sh o rtco m i n gs o f p re vi o u s i n te grati o n m e asu re s.
I t i s b ase d o n th e fact th at th e u n e m p lo ym e n t rate i s
m u ch h i gh e r am o n gst fo re i gn e rs th an am o n gst D an -
i sh n a ti o n a ls. T h e a i m o f th e n e w law, wh i ch cam e
i n to fo rce i n e arly 1 9 99 , i s to p ro m o te n e w a rri va ls
b o th re fu g e e s an d i m m i gra n ts) ch a n ce s o f fi n d i n g
wo rk, e i th e r th ro u gh d i re ct acce ss to th e jo b m arke t,
o r wi th th e h e lp o f ai d an d trai n i n g p ro gram m e s.
I n so m e M e m b e r co u n tri e s i n te g ra ti o n m e a -
su re s a i m e d a t re fu g e e s a re b e co m i n g a n i n cre a s-
i n g ly i m p o rta n t p a rt o f o v e ra ll i n te g ra ti o n p o li cy.
T h i s i s th e ca se i n C a n a d a a n d A u stra li a , wh o se
re fu g e e a i d p ro g ra m m e s a re p a rt i cu l a rl y we l l -
d e ve lo p e d , an d i n G e rm an y wh i ch d u e to th e p o li ti -
cal si tu a ti o n i n C e n tra l a n d E a ste rn E u ro p e h as to
d e al wi th re p e ate d wa ve s o f large n u m b e rs o f re fu -
g e e s. I t i s a lso th e ca se i n th o se co u n tri e s wh i ch
re ce n tl y b e ca m e i m m i g ra t i o n co u n tri e s a n d a re
92
O E C D 2000
acce p ti n g i n cre asi n g n u m b e rs o f re fu ge e s, su ch as th e
C ze ch R e p u b li c, G re e ce , I taly, M e xi co an d N o rway.
A n u m b e r o f O E C D M e m b e r co u n tri e s, su ch a s
F i n lan d , th e N e th e rlan d s, D e n m ark an d S wi tze rlan d ,
d e le ga te ce rtai n re sp o n si b i li ti e s fo r i m p le m e n ti n g
i n te g ra ti o n p o li ci e s to lo ca l a u th o ri ti e s. T h i s re la -
ti ve ly re ce n t tre n d sh o ws th at th e se co u n tri e s h ave
b e co m e aware o f th e n e e d to e n su re th e i n te grati o n
o f fo re i g n e rs a t th e lo ca l le v e l i n o rd e r b e tte r to
m e e t th e i r n e e d s an d also to re sp e ct lo cal sp e ci fi ci -
ti e s. H o we ve r, i t i s also p o ssi b le th at th e y vi e w th i s
d e le gati o n o f re sp o n si b i li ti e s as a way o f sh ari n g th e
fi n a n ci a l b u rd e n o f i m p le m e n ti n g i n te gra ti o n p o li -
ci e s. I n F i n lan d , th e Act o n th e I n te grati o n o f I m m i -
gran ts an d th e R e ce p ti o n o f Asylu m S e e k e rs, wh i ch
e n te re d i n to fo rce i n M ay 1 999, ap p o rti o n s re sp o n si -
b i li ty fo r th e i n te grati o n o f fo re i gn e rs. T h e M i n i stry
o f L ab o u r i s re sp o n si b le fo r d e ve lo p i n g i n te grati o n ,
co -o rd i n ati o n an d co n tro l p o li cy. T h e R e gi o n al C e n -
tre s fo r E co n o m i c D e v e lo p m e n t a n d E m p lo y m e n t
are re sp o n si b le fo r th e i n te grati o n o f fo re i gn e rs i n to
so ci e ty an d wo rki n g li fe . L astly, m u n i ci p ali ti e s h ave
re sp o n si b i li ty fo r p re p ari n g i n te grati o n p ro gram m e s
i n co -o p e ra ti o n wi th th e co m p e te n t e m p lo y m e n t
an d so ci al au th o ri ti e s.
H a vi n g o b se rve d th e sp re ad o f d i scri m i n ato ry
p racti ce s, i n p a rti cu lar wi th re gard to lab o u r m arke t
acce ss, a n u m b e r o f O E C D M e m b e r co u n tri e s h ave
b e co m e a wa re o f t h e n e e d t o a d o p t m e a su re s
ai m e d at co m b ati n g raci sm an d d i scri m i n a ti o n se e
b e lo w) .
b) Acquisition of citizenship
A cq u i ri n g th e ci ti ze n sh i p o f a h o st co u n try
re fle cts a p ro ce ss o f g ra d u a l e co n o m i c a n d so ci a l
i n te grati o n , an d i n d e e d m ay fa ci li tate i t. T h e n u m -
b e r o f n a tu ra li sati o n s d e p e n d s e sse n ti a lly o n th e
m a gn i tu d e a n d ti m e o f m i g ra ti o n wa v e s, a n d h o w
li b e ral th e le gi slati o n co n ce rn i n g ci ti ze n sh i p i s. I t i s
a lso l i n k e d t o h o w m u ch i m p o rt a n ce fo re i g n e rs
p la ce u p o n a cq u i ri n g th e ci ti ze n sh i p o f th e h o st
co u n try an d th e co n se q u e n ce s o f th e p o ssi b le lo ss
o f th e i r o ri gi n al ci ti ze n sh i p .
T h e b a si s o n wh i ch co u n tri e s d e te rm i n e h o w
ci ti ze n sh i p ca n b e a cq u i re d a n d g ra n te d , b e i t
b i rth p lace , d u rati o n o f re si d e n ce o r ki n sh i p fo r th e
fi rst t wo t h e p ri n c i p l e i s jus soli, fo r t h e l a t t e r
jussanguinis , p la y s a fu n d a m e n ta l ro le i n h o w th e
i n te g ra t i o n o f fo re i g n e rs i n to th e h o st co u n try i s
co n ce i v e d a n d i n th e d i sti n cti o n s d ra wn b e twe e n
fo re i gn an d n a ti o n a l p o p u la ti o n s. C h an ge s i n n atu -
rali sa ti o n p ro ce d u re s d o o ccu r, e i th e r to li b e rali se
la ws th at h av e b e e n to o re stri cti ve , o r vice versa fo r
a m o re d e ta i le d d i scu ssi o n , re fe r to th e sp e ci a l
ch a p te r o n th e a cq u i si ti o n o f ci ti ze n sh i p i n Trends in
International Migration, O E C D , 1 9 95) . T h e se m o d i fi ca-
ti o n s m ay i m p act o n th e n a tu rali sati o n rate a n d th e
e xte n t o f th e fo re i g n p o p u la ti o n i n th e h o st co u n -
t ry, p a rt i cu l a rl y wh e n t h e y a i m t o fa ci l i t a t e t h e
n atu ra li sati o n o f i m m i gran ts d e sce n d an ts.
I n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s, n a t i o n a l s o f H a i t i , E l
S a lv ad o r, G u ate m ala an d H o n d u ras we re to b e n e fi t
fro m a n atu rali sati o n p ro gram m e i n 1 999, wh i ch h ad
b e e n li m i te d to n ati o n als o f N i caragu a an d C u b a b y
th e C e n tra l Am e ri ca n R e li e f Act N AC AR A) i n 1 99 7,
b u t th i s B i ll h as n o t ye t b e e n p asse d .
A B i ll a m e n d i n g ce rtai n p ro v i si o n s o n B e lg i a n
n ati o n ali ty h as b e e n u n d e r d i scu ssi o n i n P arli am e n t
si n ce S e p te m b e r 1 999, an d wo u ld si m p li fy an d re lax
th e p ro ce d u re s fo r acq u i ri n g ci ti ze n sh i p . C i ti ze n sh i p
m a y n o w b e o b ta i n e d b y d e cla ra ti o n b y p e rso n s
b o rn i n B e lgi u m wh o h a ve a B e lg i an p a re n t o r wh o
h a v e re si d e d co n ti n u o u sly i n B e lg i u m fo r se v e n
ye ars, o r b y n atu rali sati o n u n d e r a co st-fre e p ro ce -
d u re i f th e fo re i gn e r h as re si d e d i n th e co u n try fo r
th re e ye ars. T h e age co n d i ti o n s wi ll b e re laxe d , an d
th e B i ll p ro p o se s e li m i n a ti o n o f t h e re q u i re m e n t
th a t th e a p p li ca n ts sta te th e i r d e si re fo r i n te g ra -
ti o n .
I n G e rm an y, th e n e w C i ti ze n sh i p C o d e e n te re d
i n to fo rce o n 1 Jan u ary 2000. I t rad i cally am e n d s th e
p ri n ci p le o f ki n sh i p : G e rm an ci ti ze n sh i p , wh i ch u n ti l
n o w h as b e e n o b tai n e d o n th e b asi s o f jussanguinis,
ca n n o w b e a cq u i re d u n d e r ce rta i n co n d i ti o n s o n
th e b a si s o f jussoli. T h e p e ri o d o f re si d e n ce th a t
m u st p re ce d e n a tu ra li sati o n h a s b e e n sh o rte n e d .
Ad u lt fo re i gn e rs q u ali fy afte r e i gh t ye ars le gal re si -
d e n ce i n ste ad o f th e 1 5 y e ars u n d e r th e p re v i o u s
law) . M o re th an 4 m i lli o n fo re i gn e rs o u t o f a to tal o f
7. 4 m i lli o n ) fu lfi l th i s re q u i re m e n t. C h i ld re n b o rn i n
G e rm an y to fo re i gn p are n ts acq u i re G e rm an ci ti ze n -
sh i p at b i rth i f th e i r fath e r o r m o th e r h as th e ri gh t o f
re si d e n ce a n d h a s le g a lly re si d e d i n G e rm a n y fo r
e i gh t ye ars o r h as h ad a p e rm an e n t re si d e n t p e rm i t
fo r th re e ye ars. T h e se ch i ld re n h o ld d u al ci ti ze n sh i p
u n ti l th e a ge o f 23 . T h e y m u st d e ci d e b e twe e n th e
a g e s o f 1 8 a n d 2 3 wh i ch ci ti ze n sh i p th e y wi sh to
ad o p t. A b ro ad -b ase d i n fo rm ati o n cam p ai gn to su p -
p o rt th e re fo rm h a s b e e n o rgan i se d b y th e F e d e ral
G o ve rn m e n t s O ffi ce o f th e D e le gate fo r F o re i gn e rs.
O n e m o n th afte r th e Act s e n try i n to fo rce , th e n u m -
b e r o f n atu rali sati o n re q u e sts h as ri se n sh arp ly, an d
e ve n d o u b le d o r tri p le d i n so m e ci ti e s.
93
O E C D 2000
S e ve ral o th e r co u n tri e s h ave re ce n tly m o d i fi e d
th e i r laws o n ci ti ze n sh i p . I n G re e ce , a n e w law wh i ch
cam e i n to fo rce o n 3 0 M ay 1 999 state s th at ap p li ca-
ti o n s fo r n a tu ra li sa ti o n b y th e fo re i g n sp o u se s o f
G re e k n a ti o n als m u st b e p ro ce sse d i m m e d i a te ly,
p ro vi d e d th at th e y re si d e i n G re e ce an d h ave gi ve n
b i rth to a ch i ld afte r th e d ate o n wh i ch th e law was
p u b li sh e d ) . A s we ll a s faci li ta ti n g a cce ss to G re e k
ci ti ze n sh i p , th e se m e asu re s are also i n li n e wi th th e
co u n try s d e m o grap h i c p o li cy to co m p e n sate fo r th e
G re e ks lo w b i rth -rate . I n F e b ru ary 2000, afte r a n e t-
wo rk fo r co u n te rfe i ti n g th e d o cu m e n ts re q u i re d fo r
n atu ra li sati o n was d i sco v e re d , a law was p asse d to
re i n fo rce a n d ce n tra li se th e n a tu ra li sa ti o n p ro ce -
d u re fo r P o n ti n e G re e ks fro m C I S co u n tri e s. Ap p li ca-
ti o n s m u st n o w b e scre e n e d b y an i n i ti al co m m i tte e
i n th e C I S co u n try co n ce rn e d an d th e n re vi e we d b y
a se co n d co m m i tte e i n G re e ce .
I n S we d e n , si n ce th e b e gi n n i n g o f 1 999 i t i s p o s-
si b le fo r fo re i gn e rs wh o can le g a lly e sta b li sh th e i r
i d e n ti ty to o b ta i n S we d i sh ci ti ze n sh i p i f th e y h av e
re si d e d i n th e co u n try fo r at le ast e i g h t y e ars an d i f
th e y ca n p ro ve th at th e i r cu sto m ary i d e n ti ty i s co r-
re ct. R e ce n tly, a C i ti ze n sh i p C o m m i tte e p ro p o se d
th at S we d e n re co gn i se d u al ci ti ze n sh i p . O th e r m e a-
su re s ai m e d at faci li tati n g n atu rali sati o n fo r th e ch i l-
d re n o f u n m a rri e d fa th e rs, a d o p te d ch i ld re n a n d
state le ss p e rso n s h ave also b e e n su gge ste d .
I n L atvi a, fo llo wi n g an i n i ti al ro u n d o f m o d i fi ca-
ti o n s i n 1 995, m e asu re s e asi n g th e p ro vi si o n s o f th e
C i ti ze n sh i p A ct we re i m p le m e n te d i n 1 9 98 . T h e se
n e w m e asu re s re m o ve th e co n d i ti o n s o f b i rth p la ce
a n d a g e fro m th e cri t e ri a to b e fu lfi lle d to o b ta i n
L a tvi an ci ti ze n sh i p . I n ad d i ti o n , all ch i ld re n b o rn i n
L atvi a a fte r 1 9 91 a u to m ati cally acq u i re ci ti ze n sh i p .
N a tu ra li sati o n a p p li ca ti o n s h a ve tri p le d si n ce th i s
d a te . I n 1 9 99, th e L i th u an i an G o v e rn m e n t d e ci d e d
to gran t n ati o n ali ty au to m ati cally to R u ssi an s se ttle d
i n th e co u n try, wh o acco u n t fo r 8% o f th e p o p u lati o n .
I n B u lgari a , a law se tti n g o u t th e co n d i ti o n s fo r
acq u i ri n g ci ti ze n sh i p an d allo wi n g th e p o ssi b i li ty o f
d u al ci ti ze n sh i p fo r B u lgari an n ati o n als was re ce n tly
p asse d . T h e law i n tro d u ce d fo r th e fi rst ti m e sp e ci fi c
cri te ri a fo r n atu rali sati o n , i n clu d i n g a p e ri o d o f re si -
d e n ce o f at le ast fi v e y e ars, h a vi n g an i n co m e an d
e m p lo ym e n t, an d m aste ri n g th e lan gu age . M arri age
to a B u lg ari a n n a ti o n al au to m ati cally q u a li fi e s fo r-
e i gn e rs fo r B u lg ari an ci ti ze n sh i p . I n th e gran ti n g o f
ci ti ze n sh i p , ad m i n i strati v e p ri o ri ty i s gi ve n to re fu -
g e e s, fo re i g n e rs b o rn i n B u lg a ri a , an d th e sp o u se s
an d ch i ld re n o f B u lgari a n n ati o n a ls. T h e R o m an i a n
C i ti ze n sh i p Act i s to b e re vi se d i n 2000. N ati o n ali ty
m i gh t b e gran te d to fo re i gn e rs i f th e y re n o u n ce th e i r
n a ti o n a li ty o f o ri g i n a n d h a v e re si d e d fo r a t le ast
fi ve ye ars i n R o m an i a.
T h e n atu ra li sati o n rate , i n o th e r wo rd s th e p e r-
ce n tage o f th e to tal fo re i gn p o p u lati o n th at acq u i re s
th e ci ti ze n sh i p o f th e h o st co u n try i n a g i ve n y e a r,
a n d th e n u m b e r o f n atu rali sa ti o n s a re go o d i n d i ca -
to rs o f fo re i gn e rs i n te g rati o n . I n 1 998, th e re was an
i n cre a se i n n a tu ra li sa t i o n s i n a n u m b e r o f O E C D
M e m b e r co u n tri e s, su ch a s S we d e n , th e U n i te d
K i n gd o m , D e n m ark, F i n lan d , F ran ce , S p ai n , C an ad a
a n d A u st ra l i a . I n t h a t sa m e y e a r, S we d e n , t h e
N e t h e rl a n d s , N o rw a y , F i n l a n d , D e n m a rk a n d
B e lgi u m h ad th e h i gh e st n atu rali sati o n rate s.
I n so m e O E C D co u n tri e s, n a tu ra li sa t i o n s fe ll
sh arp ly b e twe e n 1 9 97 a n d 1 998 , i n p arti cu lar i n th e
U n i te d S tate s, G e rm an y an d N o rway. I n o th e r co u n -
tri e s, th i s d e cre a se was sm a ll Jap an , L u xe m b o u rg
an d th e N e th e rlan d s) .
c) Mixed marriages
I n se ve ral O E C D co u n tri e s, m arryi n g a ci ti ze n i s
sti ll th e m o st co m m o n way fo r fo re i g n e rs to acq u i re
ci ti ze n sh i p . I n S wi tze rlan d , m i xe d m arri age s acco u n t
fo r ap p ro xi m ate ly 28% o f all m arri age s. T h i s n u m b e r
ro se sli g h tly i n 1 9 9 7 la st a v a i la b le y e a r o v e r th e
p re vi o u s ye ar, am o u n ti n g to n e arly 1 0 900. I n F ran ce ,
th e n u m b e r o f m i xe d m arri age s h as b e e n i n cre asi n g
si n ce 1 9 9 4 , wi t h a l m o st 2 4 0 0 0 m i xe d m a rri a g e s
i n 1 9 9 6 , o r sli g h tly m o re th a n 9 % o f a ll m a rri a g e s.
T h e sam e u p ward tre n d i s fo u n d i n B e lgi u m , wh e re
th i s p e rce n tage i s o ve r 1 4% , wh i ch i s th e sam e as i n
G e rm an y. I n Au strali a, as i n S wi tze rlan d , m i xe d m ar-
ri a g e s a c c o u n t fo r a h i g h p e rc e n t a g e o f t o t a l
m arri age s n e arly o n e -fo u rth ) .
T h e n u m b e r o f m i xe d m a rri a ge s as a p e rce n t-
age o f to tal m arri age s m ay b e se e n as an i n d i cato r o f
th e l e v e l o f i n te g ra ti o n o f i m m i g ra n t g ro u p s i n to
so ci e t y, i n th e se n se th a t th e se m a rri a g e s cre a te
p e rm a n e n t ti e s to th e h o st co u n try. H o we v e r, a
d e ta i le d a n a ly si s o f th e d e m o g rap h i c stru ctu re o f
th e fo re i gn o r fo re i gn -b o rn p o p u lati o n i s n e ce ssary
to u n d e rstan d th e re lati ve i m p o rtan ce o f m i xe d m ar-
ri a g e s i n O E C D co u n tri e s a n d t h e i r li n k s wi th th e
i n te grati o n o f i m m i gran ts i n th e h o st co u n try.
d) Policies for integrating foreigners into society
and the labour market
I n te grati o n p o li ci e s vary acco rd i n g to th e co u n -
try d e p e n d i n g o n th e n atu re o f th e i n te grati o n p ro b -
le m s e n co u n te re d an d th e i n te grati o n m o d e ls u se d .
94
O E C D 2000
I n te grati o n p o li ci e s m ay th u s e i th e r b e d e si gn e d fo r
all i m m i gran ts, o r targe te d at p arti cu lar gro u p s. T h e y
m a y b e a i m e d a t n e w a rri v a l s, o r a t fo re i g n e rs
alre ad y se ttle d i n th e h o st co u n try. O f fo re m o st co n -
ce rn to th e go ve rn m e n ts o f all h o st co u n tri e s i s th at
i m m i g ra n ts q u i ck ly m a st e r th e l a n g u a g e . T h i s i s
vi e we d as a p re co n d i ti o n fo r i n te grati o n . M an y lan -
g u a g e t ra i n i n g p ro g ra m m e s h a v e b e e n i m p l e -
m e n te d b y O E C D M e m b e r co u n tri e s, ai m e d b o th at
ch i l d re n , v i a th e sch o o l sy ste m , o r a t a d u lts, b y
m e an s o f sp e ci fi c trai n i n g. I n se ve ral trad i ti o n al h o st
co u n tri e s, ch an ge s h ave re ce n tly b e e n m ad e i n th e
m o d ali ti e s o f fi n an ci n g m e asu re s ai m e d at th e i n te -
g ra ti o n o f fo re i g n e rs. T h e G e rm a n , A u strali a n a n d
U n i te d S tate s G o ve rn m e n ts, fo r e xam p le , as we ll as
th o se o f D e n m ark an d S wi tze rlan d , h ave d e ci d e d to
le t p ri v a te o rg a n i sa ti o n s, lo ca l a sso ci a ti o n s, lo ca l
a u t h o ri t i e s o r t h e fe d e ra t e d st a t e s fi n a n ce a n d
i m p le m e n t i n te grati o n p o li ci e s an d m a n a ge p u b li c
fi n an ci n g e arm arke d fo r th i s p u rp o se , as o p p o se d to
h av i n g n ati o n al o r fe d e ral b o d i e s b e ar fu ll fi n a n ci al
re sp o n si b i li ty fo r th e se p o li ci e s.
Assistanceto newarrivals
I n C an ad a an d Au strali a, su p p o rt to i m m i gran ts
i s p ro v i d e d i m m e d i a te ly u p o n th e i r a rri v a l i n th e
co u n try. S u ch su p p o rt tak e s th e fo rm o f assi stan ce
wi th ad m i n i strati ve p ro ce d u re s an d fo rm ali ti e s a n d
fi n an ci al a n d lan gu age assi stan ce . I n Au strali a, se v-
e ral g o ve rn m e n t p ro g ram m e s are ai m e d d i re ctly a t
n e w i m m i g ra n t s, p a rti cu la rly a s re g a rd s te a ch i n g
E n g li sh to ch i ld re n Yo u th E S L ) a n d a d u lts. I n th e
ca s e o f a d u l t s, t h e g o v e rn m e n t i m p l e m e n t e d
i n 1 997-98 an e d u cati o n al syste m b ase d o n te ach i n g
i n th e h o m e o r i n sm a ll g ro u p s E S L H o m e T u to r
S ch e m e ) . P ro gram m e s to assi st e th n i c co m m u n i ti e s
C o m m u n i ty P ro gram s) gi ve p re fe re n ce to fo re i gn e rs
wi th h u m a n i ta ri an sta tu s, n e w a rri v als, wo m e n an d
se n i o r ci ti ze n s, a n d th o se li v i n g i n i so la te d ru ra l
are as. T h e N ati o n al I n te gra te d S e ttle m e n t S tra te g y
i s a m o re g e n e ra l g o v e rn m e n t p ro g ra m m e t o
fa ci l i t a t e th e i n t e g ra t i o n o f a ll fo re i g n e rs a n d to
co -o rd i n ate th e p ro gram m e s o f se ve ral m i n i stri e s.
T h e C a n a d i a n G o v e rn m e n t h a s i m p le m e n te d
se v e ra l p ro gra m m e s ai m e d a t fa ci li ta ti n g th e i n te -
gra ti o n o f i m m i g ran ts. T h e m o st i m p o rtan t o f th e se
are : th e L an gu a ge P ro g ra m fo r N e w I m m i g ra n ts to
C a n a d a ; th e R e se tt le m e n t Assi sta n ce P ro g ra m
wh i ch p ro v i d e s a ssi sta n ce , n o ta b ly i n t h e fo rm o f
te m p o rary a cco m m o d a ti o n a n d i n te rp re ta ti o n se r-
vi ce s, to i n d i vi d u a ls a d m i tte d to C a n a d a as p art o f
th e an n u al re fu ge e p lan ; th e I n tro d u cti o n P ro gram ;
an d , th e P ro gram fo r th e S e ttle m e n t an d I n te grati o n
o f I m m i gran ts wh i ch p ro vi d e s fu n d s to co m m u n i ty-
b a se d o rg an i sa ti o n s i n v o lv e d i n th e i n te g rati o n o f
n e w a rri v a ls o ffe ri n g i n te rp re ta ti o n a n d e m p lo y -
m e n t -re l a t e d se rv i ce s, a n d c u l t u ra l a wa re n e ss
p ro gram m e s) .
I n E u ro p e an co u n tri e s, i n te grati o n p o li ci e s fo cu s
o n th e sch o o li n g o f ch i ld re n , v o ca ti o n a l tra i n i n g ,
le arn i n g th e lan gu age o f th e h o st co u n try, an d assi s-
ta n ce i n o b ta i n i n g a cco m m o d a ti o n a n d a cce ss to
h e alth care . I n G e rm an y, p ro je cts ai m e d at th e i n te -
grati o n o f fo re i gn e rs i m p le m e n te d b y th e L ab o u r an d
S o ci al Affai rs M i n i stry fo cu s o n lan gu age te ach i n g, th e
so ci al an d p ro fe ssi o n al i n te grati o n o f yo u n g p e o p le
a n d wo m e n , a n d o n i m p ro vi n g e v e ry d a y re la ti o n s
b e twe e n G e rm an s an d fo re i gn e rs. I n S we d e n , a n e w
i n te grati o n p o li cy h as b e e n ap p li e d si n ce 1 998, wh i ch
syste m ati cally take s i n to acco u n t cu ltu ral an d e th n i c
d i ve rsi ty. T h e p o li ci e s sp e ci fi cally ai m e d at fo re i gn e rs
as a g ro u p m u st b e li m i te d to th e i n ve stm e n ts an d
th e m e a su re s n e ce ssary d u ri n g th e fi rst ye ars afte r
th e i r arri v al i n S we d e n . I m p le m e n ta ti o n o f th i s n e w
i n te grati o n p o li cy i s b e i n g m o n i to re d b y th e N ati o n al
I n te grati o n O ffi ce , cre a te d i n Ju n e 1 9 98. O n e o f th e
N o rwe gi an G o ve rn m e n t s p ri o ri ti e s i s to p ro vi d e n e w
arri vals wi th th e m e an s o f b e co m i n g i n d e p e n d e n t as
ra p i d ly as p o ssi b le a n d to re d u ce u n e m p lo y m e n t
am o n g fo re i gn e rs.
I n D e n m a rk, th e n e w I n te gra ti o n Act o f 26 Ju n e
1 9 9 8 , wh i ch b e c a m e e ffe ct i v e i n Ja n u a ry 1 9 9 9 ,
re q u i re s lo cal au th o ri ti e s to i m p le m e n t an i n tro d u c-
ti o n p ro gra m m e a i m e d a t n e w fo re i gn a rri vals o ve r
th e ag e o f 1 8 . T h i s th re e -y e a r p ro g ram m e i n clu d e s
co u rse s i n D a n i sh la n gu a ge an d cu ltu re , a s we ll as
tra i n i n g o n h o w to o b tai n e m p lo y m e n t. D u ri n g th e
i n tro d u cti o n p e ri o d , a sp e ci al a llo wan ce i s gra n te d
to re fu g e e s a n d i m m i g ra n ts i n n e e d o f fi n a n ci a l
assi stan ce . T h e I n te grati o n Act also p ro vi d e s fo r th e
se tti n g u p o f I n te g ra ti o n C o u n ci ls i n to wn s wh e re
m o re th an 50 p e o p le re q u e st i t. T h e se C o u n ci ls m ay
i ssu e p u b li c a sse ssm e n ts o f i n te g rati o n i n i ti a ti ve s
u n d e rtake n b y th e m u n i ci p ali ty an d o f i n tro d u cti o n
p ro gram m e s i m p le m e n te d b y lo cal au th o ri ti e s.
S e ve ral O E C D M e m b e r co u n tri e s h ave re ce n tly
i m p le m e n te d sp e ci fi c p ro gram m e s ai m e d at faci li tat-
i n g th e re tu rn an d re i n te grati o n o f th e i r n ati o n als. I n
K o re a, a law o n th e e m i grati o n , i m m i grati o n an d sta-
tu s o f K o re an s ab ro ad wa s p asse d i n Ja n u a ry 20 00 .
P e rso n s o f K o re an o ri gi n m ay n o w se ttle i n K o re a fo r
two ye ars an d h ave th e i r re si d e n ce e xte n d e d . T h e y
are also au th o ri se d to e n te r K o re a fre e ly fo r th e p u r-
p o se o f vi si ts, an d m ay h o ld e m p lo ym e n t an d e n gage
95
O E C D 2000
i n e co n o m i c a cti vi ti e s su ch as th e p u rch a se o f re a l
e state . P e rso n s wh o re si d e i n K o re a fo r lo n ge r th an
th re e m o n th s re ce i ve m e d i cal co ve r.
I n G re e ce , i n F e b ru a ry 2 0 0 0 th e g o v e rn m e n t
p asse d le gi slati o n tran sfe rri n g re sp o n si b i li ty fo r th e
i n te grati o n o f re tu rn G re e k e m i gran ts an d p e rso n s o f
G re e k o ri gi n fro m th e S e cre tari at-G e n e ral fo r G re e ks
Ab ro ad to th e M i n i stry o f th e I n te ri o r.
Special assistancefor refugees and asylumseekers
S e v e ra l O E C D M e m b e r co u n tri e s h a v e b e e n
face d wi th si g n i fi can tly gro wi n g n u m b e rs o f asy lu m
se e k e rs an d re fu ge e s o ve r th e p ast fe w ye a rs, a n d
h ave ad ap te d th e i r i n te grati o n p o li ci e s an d /o r i m p le -
m e n te d sp e ci al p ro gram m e s to assi st th e se two cate -
g o ri e s o f fo re i g n e rs. I n N e w Z e a la n d , assi sta n ce i s
p ro vi d e d to re fu ge e s th ro u gh th e M an ge re R e fu ge e
R e se ttle m e n t C e n tre . R e fu ge e s m ay stay th e re fo r si x
we e ks an d th e C e n tre p ro vi d e s th e m wi th acco m m o -
d ati o n an d i n fo rm ati o n se rvi ce s an d m e d i cal care .
I n C an ad a, se ve ral p ro gram m e s ai m to faci li tate
th e i n tro d u cti o n a n d i n te g ra t i o n o f re fu g e e s a n d
i n d i v i d u a ls wi th h u m a n i t a ri a n st a tu s, su ch a s th e
P ri v a t e S p o n so rsh i p o f R e fu g e e s P ro g ra m , th e
R e fu g e e R e se t t l e m e n t M o d e l i m p l e m e n t e d
i n 1 999 an d th e R e se ttle m e n t Assi sta n ce P ro gram
wh i ch re p la ce d th e Ad a p tati o n Assi stan ce P ro gram
i n A p ri l 1 9 9 8 . M o st o f th e se p ro g ra m m e s a re ru n
jo i n tly b y C i ti ze n sh i p an d I m m i grati o n C an ad a C I C )
a n d p ri v a t e o rg a n i sa t i o n s. T h e y a i m t o p ro v i d e
fi n a n ci a l a n d m a te ri a l a ssi sta n ce to re fu g e e s a n d
i n d i vi d u a ls ad m i tte d fo r h u m a n i ta ri a n re aso n s, as
we ll as to h e lp th e m gai n acce ss to b asi c se rvi ce s.
T h e n e w D an i sh la w o n i n te g rati o n , p a sse d i n
Ju n e 1 9 9 8 , t ra n sfe rs t h e re sp o n si b i l i t i e s o f t h e
N ati o n al C o u n ci l fo r R e fu ge e s re gard i n g i n te grati o n to
lo cal au th o ri ti e s. An a cco m m o d ati o n p ro gram m e i n
to wn s, b ase d o n a q u o ta syste m , re q u i re s th at lo cal
au th o ri ti e s assi st re fu ge e s i n fi n d i n g acco m m o d ati o n
su i te d to th e i r p e rso n al ci rcu m stan ce s.
Integrating foreigners into thelabour market and combating
racismand discrimination
Vo cati o n al trai n i n g an d faci li tati n g th e acce ss o f
y o u n g p e o p le a n d th e u n e m p lo y e d to th e la b o u r
m a rk e t a re o th e r fu n d a m e n ta l e le m e n ts o f O E C D
M e m b e r co u n t ri e s i n t e g ra t i o n p o li ci e s. I n m a n y
O E C D co u n tri e s, fo re i g n e rs h av e h i g h e r u n e m p lo y-
m e n t rate s th an n ati o n als, an d i t h as p ro ve d d i ffi cu lt
to i n te grate th e m i n to th e lab o u r m arke t. N u m e ro u s
p ro gra m m e s h a v e b e e n i m p le m e n te d a t b o th th e
n a ti o n al a n d lo cal le ve l. G e n e ra lly ai m e d a t th o se
g ro u p s wi th th e h i g h e st u n e m p lo y m e n t th e lo n g -
te rm u n e m p lo ye d a n d o ld e r u n e m p lo y e d p e o p le ,
wo m e n wi th fe w q u a li fi ca ti o n s a n d y o u n g p e o p le
le a v i n g t h e e d u ca ti o n a l sy ste m wi th o u t q u a li fi ca -
t i o n s) , th e y p ro v i d e e i th e r tra i n i n g o r v o ca t i o n a l
e xp e ri e n ce co n t ra ct s o r j o b s sp o n so re d b y t h e
S ta te , b o th i n th e p u b li c an d p ri va te se cto rs. N e w
i n i ti ati ve s a i m e d at co m b ati n g raci sm an d d i scri m i -
n a ti o n i n th e wo rk p l a ce a tte m p t to a d d re ss th e
p ro b le m s a sso ci a t e d wi th th e i n te g ra t i o n o f th e
re ce n t wa v e s o f i m m i g ra n t s, p a rti cu la rly i n th o se
co u n tri e s th a t h a d n o t p re v i o u sly e xp e ri e n ce d a
fo re i gn p o p u lati o n i n flu x.
T h e G re e k G o ve rn m e n t i s p re p ari n g a B i ll th a t
wo u ld tran sfe r th e re sp o n si b i li ty fo r e co n o m i c i m m i -
gran ts n o w e xe rci se d b y th e M i n i stry o f P u b li c O rd e r
to th e M i n i stry o f th e I n te ri o r. T h i s law wi ll co n ta i n
p ro vi si o n s o n th e i n te grati o n i n to so ci e ty o f fo re i gn -
e rs a n d re tu rn G re e k e m i g ran ts. T h e B i ll a lso p ro -
v i d e s fo r t h e c re a t i o n o f a n I n t e rm i n i s t e ri a l
C o m m i tte e fo r M i grati o n P o li cy an d gre ate r i n vo lve -
m e n t o f lo cal a u th o ri ti e s i n th e i n te grati o n o f th e se
two cate go ri e s o f i m m i gran ts.
I n D e n m a rk , t h e n e w I n t e g ra t i o n A c t o f
Ju n e 1 998 p ro vi d e s fo r assi stan ce an d fi n an ci al su p -
p o rt m e asu re s to ai d n e w arri vals i n th e i r se arch fo r
wo rk, so th at th e y can b e i n te grate d i n to th e lab o u r
m ark e t as so o n as p o ssi b le . I n F ran ce , atte m p ts to
fa ci li t a t e i m m i g ra n ts i n te g ra t i o n i n to th e la b o u r
m arke t fo rm p art o f wi d e r e ffo rts co n ce rn i n g th e p ro -
v i si o n o f v o ca ti o n a l tra i n i n g a n d p ro m o ti n g th e
acce ss o f yo u n g p e o p le an d th e u n e m p lo ye d to th e
lab o u r m arke t.
I n th e N e th e rla n d s, b o th ge n e ra l a n d sp e ci fi c
m e asu re s are i n p lace to faci li tate th e i n te grati o n o f
fo re i g n e rs i n to th e la b o u r m a rke t. T h e ge n e ral law
o n re c ru i t i n g j o b -se e k e rs ca m e i n t o fo rce o n
1 Jan u ary 1 998. I t re q u i re s th at m u n i ci p ali ti e s i m p le -
m e n t m e a su re s to fa ci li tate th e i n te g ra ti o n o f fo r-
e i g n e rs i n t o t h e l a b o u r m a rk e t , sp e ci fi ca l l y b y
m e a n s o f li n g u i sti c a n d v o cati o n a l tra i n i n g . Yo u n g
jo b -se e k e rs a n d th e lo n g -te rm u n e m p l o y e d wh o
fi n d i t h a rd to fi n d wo rk m a y b e p la ce d b y m u n i ci -
p ali ti e s i n su b si d i se d p o si ti o n s i n p u b li c o r p ri v ate
co m p an i e s. I n th e sp ri n g o f 1 998, a wo rki n g p arty o n
m i n o ri ti e s an d th e lab o u r m arke t was se t u p b y th e
M i n i st ri e s o f th e I n te ri o r a n d S o ci a l Affa i rs. C o m -
p o se d o f re p re se n tati ve s o f th e so ci al p artn e rs, p ri -
vate o rg an i sati o n s an d m i n o ri ty gro u p s, i t h a s b e e n
gi ve n th e task o f i m p ro vi n g th e b alan ce b e twe e n th e
su p p ly o f an d d e m an d fo r jo b s fo r m i n o ri ty gro u p s.
96
O E C D 2000
I n N o rwa y, th e go v e rn m e n t h a s su b m i tte d two
re fo rm s to P arli am e n t ai m e d re sp e cti ve ly at au th o ri s-
i n g ye ar-ro u n d se aso n al p e rm i ts, wh i ch are cu rre n tly
li m i te d to a p e ri o d b e twe e n 1 5 M ay an d 31 O cto b e r,
a n d a t l o we ri n g t h e m i n i m u m e d u c a t i o n l e v e l
re q u i re d to o b tai n a wo rk p e rm i t, wh i ch i s cu rre n tly
se t at th re e ye ars o f h i gh e r e d u cati o n . I n Au gu st 1 999,
th e le gi slati o n o n th e i ssu an ce o f wo rk p e rm i ts was
re la xe d fo r n a ti o n a ls o f m e m b e r co u n tri e s o f th e
C o u n ci l o f th e B are n ts S e a to allo w N o rwe gi an fi sh i n g
co m p an i e s to e m p lo y R u ssi an staff. N ati o n als o f C e n -
tral an d E aste rn E u ro p e an co u n tri e s sh o u ld also b e
ab le to b e n e fi t fro m th i s m e asu re . T h e go ve rn m e n t
h as a lso co m m i ssi o n e d a gro u p o f le ga l e xp e rts to
p ro p o se ch an ge s i n th e syste m o f trai n i n g an d e d u ca-
ti o n p ro v i d e d to n e w i m m i g ra n ts so a s to m a k e i t
m o re co h e re n t an d e ffe cti ve .
M e asu re s i m p le m e n te d to faci li tate th e i n te gra-
ti o n o f fo re i gn e rs i n to th e lab o u r m arke t are ai m e d
n o t o n ly at p ro vi d i n g acce ss to e m p lo ym e n t, b u t also
at co m b ati n g raci sm an d d i scri m i n ati o n i n th e wo rk-
p la ce . I n N o rwa y, th e C e n tre fo r C o m b a ti n g E th n i c
D i scri m i n ati o n , cre ate d i n S e p te m b e r 1 998, was o ffi -
ci ally i n au gu rate d b y th e M i n i ste r fo r L o cal Au th o ri -
ti e s a n d R e g i o n a l D e ve lo p m e n t i n F e b ru ary 1 9 9 9 .
T h i s C e n tre wi ll p ro vi d e le gal assi stan ce to vi cti m s o f
d i scri m i n a ti o n b a se d o n re li g i o n , ra ce , co l o u r o r
n a ti o n a l o r e th n i c o ri g i n . I n th e C ze ch R e p u b li c,
th e 1 9 9 9 E m p lo y m e n t A ct co n ta i n s sp e ci fi c p ro v i -
si o n s ai m e d at co m b ati n g th e d i scri m i n ati o n o f wh i ch
fo re i gn e rs i n p arti cu lar m i gh t b e vi cti m s.
I n G e rm an y, a p ro je ct o n d e ve lo p i n g strate gi e s
a i m e d a t d e a l i n g wi t h x e n o p h o b i a a m o n g s t
G e rm a n s a n d fo re i g n e rs wa s i m p le m e n te d i n th e
R u h r re g i o n i n e a rly 1 9 98 . T h i s p ro gra m m e ai m s to
re so lve i n te r-cu ltu ral co n fli cts wh i ch m ay ari se i n th e
wo rkp lace o r i n e ve ryd ay re lati o n s, an d to d e ve lo p
strate gi e s to p re ve n t th e i so lati o n o f i m m i gran ts.
I n B e lgi u m , i n Ju ly 1 999 th e go ve rn m e n t u n d e r-
to o k to e valu ate th e e ffe cti ve n e ss o f th e cu rre n t le g-
i slati o n agai n st raci sm an d re vi si o n i sm an d to ad ap t
i t i f n e ce ssa ry. T h e C e n tre fo r E q u a l O p p o rt u n i t y
an d th e F i gh t ag ai n st R aci sm wi ll p arti ci p ate i n th i s
e valu ati o n . A ge n e ral a n ti -d i scri m i n ati o n law, wh i ch
i n p arti cu lar wi ll p ro h i b i t d i scri m i n ati o n o n th e b asi s
o f se xu a l p re fe re n ce , i s to b e p re se n te d to P a rli a -
m e n t. A co lle cti v e b arga i n i n g agre e m e n t, si gn e d i n
Ju ly 1 9 9 8 , re q u i re s th a t e m p lo y e rs m a y n o t wh e n
re cru i ti n g d i scri m i n a te b e twe e n ca n d i d ate s o n th e
b a si s o f th e i r a ge , se x, m a ri ta l sta tu s, m e d i ca l h i s-
to ry, race , ski n co lo u r, n ati o n al o r e th n i c o ri gi n , p o li t-
i cal o r re li gi o u s b e li e fs, o r m e m b e rsh i p o f a u n i o n o r
an y o th e r o rgan i sati o n .
O v e r th e p a st two y e a rs, th e F re n ch G o v e rn -
m e n t h as b e co m e aware o f th e e xte n t o f d i scri m i n a-
to ry p ra cti ce s a g a i n st fo re i g n e rs a n d p e rso n s o f
fo re i gn o ri gi n an d h as d e ci d e d to ad o p t m e asu re s to
co m b at th e se p racti ce s b o th i n e ve ryd ay li fe an d i n
th e h i ri n g o f wo rk e rs. A ro u n d -ta b le d i scu ssi o n o n
ra ci a l d i scri m i n a t i o n i n t h e wo rk p l a ce wa s h e ld
b e twe e n th e go ve rn m e n t an d th e o th e r so ci al p art-
n e rs i n M a y 1 9 9 9 . S e v e ra l a p p ro a ch e s we re p ro -
p o se d a n d d i scu ss e d . T h e se i n cl u d e d h o w t o :
b ro ad e n kn o wle d ge an d u n d e rstan d i n g o f d i scri m i -
n ato ry p racti ce s; i m p ro v e th e trai n i n g o f a ll th o se i n
th e p u b li c an d p ri vate sp h e re s i n v o lv e d i n co m b at-
i n g d i scri m i n a ti o n ; d e v e lo p sp o n so rsh i p o f y o u n g
jo b -se e k e rs; a n d , i n clu d e cla u se s o n co m b a t i n g
ra ci sm i n co n tracts si gn e d wi th m u n i ci p ali ti e s. P ro -
p o sa ls t o m o d i fy le g i sla t i o n i n o rd e r to i n cre a se
th e e ffe cti v e n e ss o f m e a su re s a g a i n st ra ci a l d i s-
cri m i n a ti o n we re a lso d i scu sse d . A wo rk i n g g ro u p
o n d i scri m i n a ti o n G roupe dtude des discriminations,
GED) , wh i ch wa s s e t u p o n 1 5 A p ri l 1 9 9 9 , wi l l
p re se n t p a p e rs a n d ru n a wa re n e ss-ra i si n g ca m -
p ai gn s ai m e d at b ro ad e n i n g kn o wle d ge a n d u n d e r-
st a n d i n g o f ra ci a l d i scri m i n a t i o n . I t s sco p e wi l l
e n co m p a ss all a sp e cts o f so ci e ty, n o tab ly e m p lo y -
m e n t, acco m m o d ati o n , co n tact wi th p u b li c se rvi ce s,
cu ltu re an d e d u cati o n .
R e ce n tly tran sfo rm e d i n to th e wo rki n g gro u p o n
co m b a ti n g d i scri m i n a ti o n Groupe dtude et de lutte
contreles discriminations, GELD , i t wi ll b e re sp o n si b le
fo r m an a gi n g th e to ll-fre e an ti -d i scri m i n a ti o n te le -
p h o n e n u m b e r an d a to ll-fre e n u m b e r fo r fi li n g co m -
p l a i n t s re g a rd i n g ra ci a l d i scri m i n a t i o n . S p e ci a l
co m m i ssi o n s h a v e b e e n se t u p i n F re n ch dparte-
ments Commissions dpartementales daccs la citoyennet,
CODAC to d e te ct d i scri m i n a to ry a cts a t th e lo ca l
le v e l. T h e i r re sp o n si b i li ti e s wi ll b e d e fi n e d i n th e
co u rse o f 2 00 0 . A fte r o rg a n i si n g ci ti ze n sh i p m e e t-
i n gs Assises de la citoyennet i n M arch 2000, th e go v-
e rn m e n t h a s d e ci d e d to stre n gth e n th e syste m fo r
co m b ati n g d i scri m i n ati o n an d i s go i n g to cre a te a n
i n te rm i n i ste ri al co m m i tte e co m p ri si n g re p re se n ta -
ti v e s o f th e M i n i stri e s o f th e I n te ri o r, E m p lo y m e n t
an d S o ci al Affai rs an d Ju sti ce .
I n th e E u ro p e a n U n i o n i n N o ve m b e r 1 9 99 , th e
C o m m i ssi o n p re se n te d a se ri e s o f an ti -d i scri m i n ati o n
p ro p o sa l s b a se d o n A rt i cl e 1 3 o f t h e T re a t y o f
Am ste rd am , wh i ch au th o ri se s th e C o u n ci l to take th e
n e ce ssa ry m e a su re s to co m b a t a n y d i scri m i n ati o n
b a se d o n se x, ra ce o r e t h n i c o ri g i n , re l i g i o n o r
97
O E C D 2000
b e li e fs, d i sab i li ty, age o r se xu al o ri e n tati o n . O n e o f
th e se p ro p o sa ls co n ce rn s i m p le m e n ta ti o n o f th e
p ri n ci p le o f th e e q u al tre atm e n t o f p e rso n s re gard -
le ss o f race o r e th n i c o ri gi n . I n M ay 2000 , afte r co n -
su lti n g P arli a m e n t, th e C o m m i ssi o n a m e n d e d th i s
te xt, e xte n d i n g i ts ap p li ca ti o n to th e p u b li c se cto r,
to p u b li c b o d i e s a n d le g a l p e rso n s, a s we ll a s t o
u n p a i d a n d v o lu n ta ry wo rk , p ra cti ca l tra i n i n g p ro -
gram m e s an d m e d i cal an d h o m e care . T h e p ro p o sal
i s fo llo we d b y a re p o rt o n i ts i m p act o n fi rm s, p arti c-
u la rl y sm a ll a n d m e d i u m -si ze d e n te rp ri se s. T h e
C o m m i ssi o n co n si d e rs th at le gi slati o n p ro te cti n g p e r-
so n s ag a i n st arb i tra ry d i scri m i n ati o n h e lp s to p ro -
m o te p arti ci p ati o n i n so ci al li fe an d p re ve n t so ci a l
e xclu si o n . I t e n su re s th at fi rm s h ave at th e i r d i sp o sal
t h e m o st h i g h l y q u a l i fi e d wo rk e rs a n d re q u i re s
e m p lo ye rs to ju sti fy th e i r d e ci si o n s i n fi e ld s su ch as
re cru i tm e n t, p ro m o ti o n , acce ss to trai n i n g an d o th e r
wo rki n g co n d i ti o n s.
4. Migration, international co-operation
and the enlargement of the European Union
T o g e th e r wi th co -o p e ra ti o n to co n tro l flo ws,
co -o p e rati o n o n re gi o n al e co n o m i c i n te g rati o n an d
su stai n ab le d e ve lo p m e n t i s also a m e an s o f e ve n tu -
a lly re d u ci n g th e i n ce n ti v e s to e m i g ra te i n th o se
co u n t ri e s wi th h i g h e m i g ra ti o n p o te n t i a l. L i n k i n g
m i gra ti o n a n d d e v e lo p m e n t i s a wa y o f p ro m p ti n g
p o li cy-m ake rs i n h o st an d se n d i n g co u n tri e s to take
m o re b ro ad ly i n to acco u n t th e i m p act o n m i grati o n o f
m e asu re s take n i n i n te rn ati o n al e co n o m i c re lati o n s.
I n th i s re gard , th e re i s a gro wi n g d e si re to d e ve lo p
re a l p artn e rsh i p s wi th se n d i n g co u n tri e s i n o rd e r to
i n vo lve th e m i n th e fi gh t agai n st i lle gal i m m i grati o n .
I n th i s co n n e cti o n , th i s re p o rt wi ll e xa m i n e re ce n t
d e v e lo p m e n ts i n p artn e rsh i p p o li ci e s wi th se n d i n g
co u n tri e s i n th e fi e ld o f jo i n t d e ve lo p m e n t an d assi s-
tan ce to re tu rn i n g i m m i gran ts, fo llo we d b y d e ve lo p -
m e n t s i n a sso ci a t i o n a g re e m e n t s b e t we e n t h e
E u ro p e a n C o m m u n i t y a n d a n u m b e r o f t h i rd
co u n tri e s. L astly, sp e ci al atte n ti o n wi ll b e gi ve n to
th e n e w m i grati o n p o li ci e s th at can d i d ate co u n tri e s
wi ll b e re q u i re d to ad o p t wi th a vi e w to acce d i n g to
th e E u ro p e an U n i o n .
a) Partnership for joint development
and assistance to returning immigrants
National policies
I n th e N e th e rlan d s, a n e w law o n th e re tu rn o f
i m m i gran ts e n te re d i n to fo rce o n 1 5 Ju n e 1 999. P ri o r
le g i sla ti o n wa s a i m e d a t fa ci li ta ti n g th e v o lu n ta ry
re tu rn o f n o n -D u tch re fu ge e s a n d i m m i gran ts fro m
M e d i te rra n e a n co u n tri e s. T h e n e w la w o ffe rs lo n g-
te rm u n e m p l o y e d p e rso n s o v e r th e a g e o f 4 5 a
m o n th ly a llo wa n ce i f th e y re tu rn to th e i r co u n try.
T h e n e w p ro vi si o n s co m p ri se su p p le m e n tary m e d i -
cal i n su ran ce , th e i n tro d u cti o n o f a sp e ci al vi sa faci l-
i ta ti n g vi si ts to fam i ly m e m b e rs sti ll re si d i n g i n th e
N e th e rla n d s, th e i n d e xi n g o f th e m o n th ly a ll o w-
a n ce s a n d a n o p ti o n to re tu rn to th e N e th e rla n d s
o n e ye ar a fte r re tu rn i n g to th e h o m e co u n try. T h e
law also co m p ri se s i n d i vi d u ali se d allo wan ce s i n th e
e v e n t o f d i v o rce , fi n a n ci a l p ro v i si o n s fo r o rp h a n s
u n ti l th e y re ach th e i r m a jo ri ty an d a sp e ci fi c p ro v i -
si o n fo r d i sab le d p e rso n s wh o d i d n o t re q u e st a n
allo wan ce u n d e r th e fo rm e r syste m ; i n ad d i ti o n , th i s
syste m also i n clu d e s n ati o n als o f E U co u n tri e s fro m
fo rm e r re cru i tm e n t co u n tri e s G re e ce , I ta ly, S p a i n
an d P o rtu gal) .
G e rm a n y i s cu rre n t l y i m p l e m e n t i n g a p ro -
g ra m m e o f jo i n t d e v e lo p m e n t a n d a ssi st a n ce t o
re tu rn i n g i m m i gran ts i n te n d e d m ai n ly, b u t n o t o n ly,
fo r re fu g e e s wh o wi sh to re tu rn to th e i r co u n try o f
o ri gi n . T h i s p ro gram m e , e stab li sh e d b y th e M i n i stry
fo r E co n o m i c co -o p e ra ti o n a n d D e v e lo p m e n t, i s
b ase d o n fi n an ci al ai d , a syste m o f sp e ci al lo an s an d
jo b -se arch a ssi sta n ce to e n a b le tra i n e d fo re i g n e rs
a n d re fu g e e s to u se th e sk i lls a n d e xp e ri e n ce th at
th e y h a ve a cq u i re d i n G e rm an y to p ro m o te d e v e l-
o p m e n t i n th e i r o wn co u n try. I n th i s fra m e wo rk ,
G e rm a n y h a s si g n e d b i la te ra l a g re e m e n ts wi th a
n u m b e r o f co u n t ri e s, i n cl u d i n g T u rk e y , C h i l e ,
Vi e tn am , S lo ve n i a, C ro ati a, th e e x-Yu go slav R e p u b li c
o f M ace d o n i a, Alb an i a an d th e P ale sti n i an Au th o ri ty.
An agre e m e n t wi th B o sn i a-H e rze go vi n a i s cu rre n tly
u n d e r d i scu ssi o n .
Afte r h avi n g lau n ch e d th e lo cal d e ve lo p m e n t/
m i grati o n p ro gram m e in 1 995, i n 1 998 F ran ce d re w u p
a jo i n t d e ve lo p m e n t p o li cy wi th se n d i n g co u n tri e s,
a n d e sta b li sh e d a n i n te rm i n i ste ri a l d e le g a te fo r
j o i n t d e v e lo p m e n t a n d i n te rn a ti o n a l m i g ra t i o n
u n d e r th e su p e rvi si o n o f th e M i n i ste r fo r E m p lo y -
m e n t an d S o li d ari ty. O n e o f th e fi rst m e asu re s take n
u n d e r th i s p o li cy wa s th e i n i ti a ti v e to fi n d ti m e ly
so lu ti o n s to e n ab le fo re i gn e rs wh o d i d n o t q u ali fy
fo r re g u la ri sa ti o n to re tu rn to th e i r co u n try u n d e r
a cce p tab le co n d i ti o n s. T h i s p o li cy i s b a se d o n two
d i ffe re n t sch e m e s, i.e. re -i n te grati o n assi stan ce an d
a co n tract fo r re -i n te gra ti o n i n th e co u n try o f o ri gi n .
R e -i n te grati o n assi stan ce i s ai m e d o n ly at fo re i gn e rs
wh o h ave to le ave F ran ce , so m e o f wh o m are acco m -
p a n i e d b y th e i r fa m i li e s. P sych o lo gi cal assi stan ce ,
98
O E C D 2000
a d m i n i stra t i v e a n d m a te ri a l a n d fi n a n ci a l a i d a re
p ro v i d e d i n F ra n ce b e fo re th e i r d e p a rtu re . Assi s-
tan ce fo r th e re se ttle m e n t o f p e rso n s an d fo r start-
i n g u p sm a l l se l f-e m p l o y m e n t p ro j e ct s i s a l so
gran te d to re tu rn i m m i gran ts i n th e co u n try o f o ri gi n .
A co n t ra ct fo r re -i n te g ra ti o n i n th e co u n try o f
o ri g i n i s cu rre n t ly a v a i la b l e t o n a t i o n a ls o f M a li ,
M o ro cc o a n d S e n e g a l wh o a re a s k e d t o l e a v e
F ran ce . T h i s co n tract e n ti tle s i m m i gran ts to trai n i n g
i n F ra n ce , fo llo we d b y a d d i ti o n a l t ra i n i n g i n t h e
co u n try o f o ri gi n fo llo wi n g th e i r re tu rn . S i x m o n th s
afte r th e re tu rn , th e Office des migrations internationales
O M I ) g e n e rally co n fi rm s th at re tu rn e e s h av e b e e n
e ffe cti ve ly re -i n te grate d , an d m ay re co m m e n d th a t
t h e y b e g ra n t e d a v i sa a l l o wi n g t h e m t o t ra v e l
b e twe e n th e i r co u n try o f o ri gi n an d F ran ce .
European policy of partnership with sending countries
O n e o f th e face ts o f th e co m m o n E u ro p e an p o l-
i cy o n a sy lu m a n d i m m i g ra ti o n , a s d e fi n e d b y th e
Tam p e re E u ro p e an C o u n ci l i n D e ce m b e r 1 999, co n -
si sts o f e stab li sh i n g p artn e rsh i p s wi th se n d i n g co u n -
tri e s. T h e co m p re h e n si ve ap p ro ach to m i grati o n th at
i s to b e d e ve lo p e d wi ll e n co m p ass p o li ti cal asp e cts,
h u m an ri gh ts an d d e ve lo p m e n t i ssu e s i n th e se n d i n g
an d tran si t co u n tri e s a n d re gi o n s, o n th e b a si s o f a
p artn e rsh i p ai m e d at p ro m o ti n g jo i n t d e ve lo p m e n t.
T o th i s e n d , th e H i gh L e ve l Wo rki n g G ro u p o n
Asylu m an d M i g rati o n cre ate d i n D e ce m b e r o f 1 9 98
wa s i n stru cte d to d e ve lo p acti o n p lan s fo r sp e ci fi c
co u n t ri e s A fg h a n i st a n a n d b o rd e ri n g re g i o n s,
M o ro cco , A lb a n i a a n d b o rd e ri n g re g i o n s, S o m ali a ,
S ri L an ka an d I raq ) ai m e d p ri m ari ly at an alysi n g th e
p o li ti ca l, e co n o m i c a n d h u m a n ri g h ts si tu a ti o n s i n
th e se co u n tri e s an d th e cau se s o f m i grati o n an d th e
re a so n s th a t le a d p e o p l e to l e a v e th e i r co u n try.
T h e se acti o n p lan s co n ta i n p ro p o sals fo r co n cre te ,
o p e ra ti o n a l m e a su re s fo r co -o p e ra ti o n wi th th e
co u n tri e s co n ce rn e d i n th re e i n te gra te d fi e ld s: fo r-
e i g n p o li cy, e co n o m i c d e ve lo p m e n t an d assi stan ce
an d m i grati o n an d asylu m . T h e G ro u p s m an d ate i s
to b e e xte n d e d an d fu rth e r acti o n p lan s m ay b e p re -
p are d fo r o th e r co u n tri e s an d re gi o n s th at h ave ye t
to b e d e te rm i n e d .
b) Agreements between the European Community
and Turkey and the countries of the Maghreb
Theassociation agreement with Turkey
I n v i rtu e o f th e a sso ci a t i o n A g re e m e n t co n -
clu d e d i n 1 96 3 b e twe e n th e E u ro p e an C o m m u n i ty
an d Tu rk e y, th e si gn ato ri e s h a ve a gre e d to d raw o n
th e p ro vi si o n s o f th e T re aty o f R o m e i n o rd e r grad u -
ally to e ffe ct th e fre e m o ve m e n t o f wo rke rs, th e fre e -
d o m o f e sta b li sh m e n t a n d th e fre e p ro v i si o n o f
se rv i ce s, a s we ll a s th e a d o p ti o n o f th e m e a su re s
n e ce ssa ry i n t h e a re a s o f so ci a l p ro t e c t i o n fo r
T u rk i sh wo rk e rs ta k i n g u p e m p lo y m e n t wi th i n th e
C o m m u n i ty. T h re e d e ci si o n s o f th e E C -Tu rke y Asso -
ci a ti o n C o u n ci l h a v e re la te d to th e co n d i ti o n s fo r
re n e wi n g Tu rki sh n ati o n als wo rk an d re si d e n ce p e r-
m i ts an d th e co -o rd i n ati o n o f so ci al se cu ri ty re gi m e s
fo r Tu rki sh wo rke rs an d th e i r fam i li e s. Alth o u gh co m -
p l e te fre e d o m o f m o v e m e n t fo r T u rk i sh wo rk e rs
wi th i n th e E u ro p e an C o m m u n i ty h a s n o t y e t b e e n
g ra n te d , n u m e ro u s ru li n gs o f th e E u ro p e a n U n i o n
C o u rt o f Ju sti ce h ave sp e ci fi e d th e le gal sco p e o f th e
p ro v i si o n s o f th e Asso ci a ti o n Ag re e m e n t a n d th e
d e ci si o n s o f th e Asso ci ati o n C o u n ci l. L i ttle b y li ttle ,
th e C o u rt h as re co gn i se d a d i re ct e ffe ct o f m a n y o f
th e se p ro vi si o n s, th e re b y co n fe rri n g ri gh ts an d gu ar-
an te e s to Tu rki sh wo rke rs an d th e i r fam i li e s re si d i n g
i n M e m b e r S ta te s o f th e C o m m u n i ty. I n th e S u ru l
d e ci si o n o f 4 M a y 1 9 9 9 , th e C o u rt re co g n i se d th e
d i re ct e ffe ct o f a n a rti cle o f D e ci si o n 3 /8 0 o f th e
Asso ci ati o n C o u n ci l o f 1 9 S e p te m b e r 1 980, wh i ch se t
d o wn th e p ri n ci p le o f e q u a li t y o f tre a tm e n t wi th
re sp e ct to so ci al se cu ri ty.
T h e N a zli d e ci si o n o f 1 0 F e b ru a ry 2 0 0 0 co n -
fi rm e d th e ri gh t to wo rk o f a Tu rki sh wo rke r wh o h ad
b e e n gi v e n a su sp e n d e d p ri so n se n te n ce an d wh o
h ad b e e n h e ld i n p re -tri al d e te n ti o n fo r o ve r a ye ar,
as we ll as h i s ri gh t to o b tai n an e xte n si o n o f h i s re si -
d e n ce p e rm i t p u rsu a n t to D e ci si o n 1 /8 0 o f th e E C /
Tu rke y Asso ci ati o n C o u n ci l. F u rth e rm o re , th e C o u rt
ru le d th a t h i s d e p o rt a ti o n co u ld n o t b e ju sti fi e d
m e re ly a s a m e a n s o f d e te rri n g o th e r fo re i g n e rs,
b u t m u st b e o rd e re d o n gro u n d s o f m ai n tai n i n g la w
an d o rd e r, as d e fi n e d b y C o m m u n i ty L aw, i.e. i f i t i s
co n si d e re d th at th e i n d i v i d u a l s p e rso n a l co n d u ct
co n sti tu te s an i m m e d i ate th re at to law an d o rd e r.
I n th e S avas d e ci si o n o f 1 1 M ay 2000, th e C o u rt
ru le d th at, si n ce th e p ra cti ca l p ro vi si o n s g o v e rn i n g
th e ri gh t o f fre e e stab li sh m e n t an d th e re fo re o f re s-
i d e n ce ) o f T u rk i sh n a ti o n a ls h a d n o t b e e n d e te r-
m i n e d b y th e Asso ci ati o n C o u n ci l, th e p ro vi si o n s o f
th e Asso ci ati o n Agre e m e n t an d i ts Ad d i ti o n al P ro to -
co l d o n o t h ave a d i re ct e ffe ct i n E U M e m b e r S tate s.
T h e C o u rt also ru le d th at th e sta n d sti ll clau se p ro -
v i d e d fo r i n t h e A d d i t i o n a l P ro to co l h a s a d i re ct
e ffe ct a n d cle a rly p ro h i b i ts th e co n tra cti n g S ta te s
fro m i n tro d u ci n g n e w n a ti o n a l re stri ct i o n s to th e
99
O E C D 2000
fre e d o m o f e stab li sh m e n t an d ri gh t o f re si d e n ce o f
Tu rki sh n ati o n als, as fro m th e d ate o f e n try i n to fo rce
o f th e P ro to co l, 1 Jan u ary 1 973.
Co-operation Agreements with Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria
T h e a g re e m e n ts si g n e d b y th e C o m m u n i t y,
Tu n i si a, Alge ri a, an d M o ro cco i n 1 976 si m p ly p ro vi d e
fo r th e n o n -d i scri m i n ato ry tre atm e n t o f wo rke rs fro m
th e se co u n tri e s wi th re sp e ct to wo rki n g co n d i ti o n s,
wage s an d so ci al b e n e fi ts. R e ce n t ju d ge m e n ts o f th e
E u ro p e a n C o m m u n i ty C o u rt o f Ju sti ce co n fi rm th e
d e si re to p ro vi d e e n h an ce d p ro te cti o n at th e C o m -
m u n i ty le ve l fo r i m m i g ran t wo rk e rs fro m th e co u n -
tri e s o f th e M a g h re b . T h e E l Ya ssi n i d e ci si o n o f
2 M arch 1 999 re co gn i se s n o tab ly th e d i re ct e ffe ct o f
p a ra gra p h 1 o f a rti cle 4 0 o f th e E C -M o ro cco Agre e -
m e n t, wh i ch se t d o wn th e p ri n ci p le o f e q u a li ty o f
tre a tm e n t fo r M o ro ccan wo rke rs a n d th e i r fa m i li e s
re gard i n g th e i r p ay an d co n d i ti o n s o f e m p lo ym e n t.
M o ro ccan wo rke rs can n o w take d i re ct ad van tage o f
th i s p ri n ci p le . N e v e rth e le ss, th e C o u rt h a s re fu se d
to a llo w, b y an alo gy wi th th e p ri n ci p le s o f ju ri sp ru -
d e n ce d ra wn fro m th e E C -T u rk e y A gre e m e n t, th a t
M o ro ccan wo rke rs h ave th e ri gh t to re si d e i n a M e m -
b e r S ta te o f th e C o m m u n i ty o n ce th e y h a v e b e e n
g ra n t e d t h e ri g h t t o wo rk i n t h a t s a m e S t a t e .
T h e C o u rt h a s i n fact ta ke n th e vi e w th a t th e fre e
m o v e m e n t o f wo rk e rs i s n o t th e o b je cti v e o f th e
E C -M o ro cco Agre e m e n t .
I n th e F a tn a M e sb ah d e ci si o n o f 1 1 N o v e m b e r
1 999, th e C o u rt lai d d o wn th e ru le s o f ap p li cati o n o f
th e co -o p e rati o n agre e m e n t i n th e case o f a wo rke r
wi th d u al ci ti ze n sh i p a s a re su lt o f h avi n g acq u i re d
th e n ati o n ali ty o f th e h o st M e m b e r S tate . T h e C o u rt
ru le d th a t i n su ch case s th e co n fli ct o f n ati o n a li ti e s
sh o u ld b e re so lv e d u n d e r th e la w o f th e M e m b e r
S t a te co n ce rn e d a n d th a t th e E C -M o ro cco A g re e -
m e n t o n ly ap p li e d i f th e co u rts o f th e M e m b e r S tate
ru le d th at th e wo rke r was o f M o ro ccan n ati o n ali ty. I n
th e sa m e d e ci si o n , th e C o u rt g a v e a n e xte n si v e
i n te rp re tati o n o f th e co n ce p t o f fam i ly m e m b e rs o f
a M o ro cca n wo rk e r, co n si d e ri n g th a t th e wo rk e r s
a sce n d a n ts a n d th o se o f h i s sp o u se we re fa m i ly
m e m b e rs as we ll as h i s sp o u se an d ch i ld re n .
T h re e n e w Asso ci ati o n Agre e m e n ts b ase d o n a
u n i fo rm m o d e l h av e b e e n e sta b li sh e d i n p lace o f
th e co -o p e ra t i o n a g re e m e n t s o f 1 9 7 6 . T h e A g re e -
m e n t si g n e d wi th T u n i si a o n 1 7 A p ri l 1 9 9 5 ca m e
i n to fo rce o n 1 M a rch 1 9 9 8 . O n th e b a si s o f t h i s
a g re e m e n t, a wo rk i n g g ro u p wa s e sta b l i sh e d i n
S e p te m b e r 1 9 9 9 b y a d e ci si o n o f th e E C -T u n i si a
Asso ci ati o n C o u n ci l an d wa s i n stru cte d to e valu ate
t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e s o c i a l p ro v i s i o n s
co n tai n e d i n th e agre e m e n t.
T h e A g re e m e n t wi th M o ro cco wa s si g n e d o n
1 0 N o ve m b e r 1 99 5 an d ca m e i n to fo rce o n 1 M a rch
2000. N e go ti ati o n s o n an Agre e m e n t wi th Alge ri a co n -
ti n u e . T h e m e asu re s fo r wo rke rs re m ai n large ly si m i -
l a r to th o se o f th e e a rl i e r a g re e m e n t s, wi t h th e
a d d i ti o n o f th e p ri n ci p le o f n o n -d i scri m i n a ti o n fo r
d i sm i ssal fro m e m p lo ym e n t. T h e agre e m e n ts sp e ci fy
i n a co m m o n sta te m e n t th at th e gran ti n g, re n e wa l,
an d re fu sal o f re si d e n ce p e rm i ts i s re gu late d so le ly
b y th e le gi slati o n o f m e m b e r S tate s an d th e b i late ral
agre e m e n ts b e twe e n th e se S tate s an d e ach co u n try.
T h e m e asu re s o n th e ri gh t o f e stab li sh m e n t an d p ro -
vi si o n o f se rvi ce s re m ai n ve ry li m i te d , an d i n co n trast
wi th wh at i s p ro vi d e d fo r i n th e E u ro p e an Asso ci ati o n
Agre e m e n ts co n clu d e d wi th th e co u n tri e s o f C e n tral
a n d E a st e rn E u ro p e , t h e y a re o n ly a p p li ca b l e to
co m p an i e s fro m M agh re b co u n tri e s an d n o t to th e i r
n a ti o n a ls. T h e p o ssi b i li ty o f i n clu d i n g th e ri g h t o f
e stab li sh m e n t an d li b e rali sati o n o f se rvi ce p ro vi si o n
wi th i n th e sco p e o f th e E C -M agh re b Agre e m e n t i s to
b e re vi e we d b y th e S ta te s n o m o re th an fi ve ye a rs
afte r th e i r e n try i n to fo rce .
T h e i n i ti ati o n o f a so ci a l d i a lo gu e i s p la n n e d ,
ad d re ssi n g n o tab ly all th e p ro b le m s re lati n g to th e
q u a li t y o f li fe a n d wo rk o f m i g ra n t co m m u n i t i e s,
m i grati o n m o ve m e n ts, i lle gal i m m i grati o n , an d p o li -
ci e s a n d p ro g ra m m e s fa v o u ri n g e q u a l tre a tm e n t
b e twe e n th e n ati o n als o f th i rd M e d i te rran e an co u n -
tri e s an d E U co u n tri e s . I n ad d i ti o n , th e re -i n te grati o n
o f n ati o n als fo u n d to b e i n an i rre gu lar si tu ati o n wh o
h a v e b e e n re p a tri ate d to th e i r co u n try o f o ri g i n i s
co n si d e re d a p ri o ri ty i ssu e .
T h e se n e w a g re e m e n ts are a n i n te g ral p a rt o f
th e p o li cy o f re gi o n a l i n te gra ti o n o f th e M e d i te rra -
n e an B asi n b e i n g co n d u cte d b y th e E u ro p e an U n i o n
as p art o f th e E u ro -M e d i te rran e an P artn e rsh i p th at i t
e stab li sh e d i n B arce lo n a i n 1 995. T h i s p artn e rsh i p i s
to b e stru ctu re d i n th re e p arts: a p o li ti cal an d se cu ri ty
p artn e rsh i p m aki n g i t p o ssi b le to d e fi n e a co m m o n
are a o f p e ace an d stab i li ty, an e co n o m i c an d fi n an ci al
p artn e rsh i p m a ki n g i t p o ssi b le to b u i ld a n a re a o f
sh a re d p ro sp e ri ty, a n d a p a rtn e rsh i p i n th e so ci a l,
cu l t u ra l a n d h u m a n fi e l d s a i m e d a t d e v e l o p i n g
h u m an re so u rce s, p ro m o ti n g u n d e rstan d i n g b e twe e n
cu ltu re s an d e xch an ge s b e twe e n ci vi l so ci e ti e s.
T h e m i g ra t i o n i s s u e i s a d d re s s e d i n t h e
th i rd p art, th ro u gh an ap p ro ach i n vo lvi n g co n tro lle d
1 00
O E C D 2000
m an age m e n t o f i m m i grati o n . T h e p arti ci p an ts i n th e
B a rce l o n a C o n fe re n ce d e ci d e d to st e p u p th e i r
co -o p e ra t i o n fo r e a si n g m i g ra t o ry p re ssu re s, t o
e stab li sh clo se r co -o p e rati o n i n th e fi e ld o f i lle ga l
i m m i g ra t i o n a n d t o a d o p t b i la te ra l re a d m i ssi o n
agre e m e n ts. At th e sam e ti m e , th e S tate s u n d e rto o k
to p ro te ct all ri gh ts re co gn i se d b y th e e xi sti n g le gi sla-
ti o n fo r i m m i gran ts le gally se ttle d i n th e i r re sp e cti ve
co u n tri e s. F u rth e rm o re , th e E u ro p e a n C o m m i ssi o n
h ad alre ad y p o i n te d o u t th at a co n si d e rab le p ro p o r-
ti o n o f th e i m m i gran ts i n th e C o m m u n i ty we re fro m
th i s re gi o n , wi th wh i ch th e y o fte n m a i n ta i n e d clo se
ti e s an d to th e e co n o m y o f wh i ch th e y o fte n m ad e a
we lco m e co n tri b u ti o n th ro u gh th e i r re m i ttan ce s.
c) Association Agreements between the European
Community and the countries of Central and
Eastern Europe
T h e se a sso ci ati o n a g re e m e n ts an d th e i r m a i n
p ro v i si o n s re gard i n g th e m o ve m e n t o f wo rke rs, th e
ri gh t o f e stab li sh m e n t an d p ro vi si o n o f se rvi ce s we re
p re se n te d i n th e p re v i o u s e d i ti o n o f th i s re p o rt
cf. Trends in International Migration, O E C D , 1 9 99) . T h e
p re se n t re p o rt wi ll co n fi n e i tse lf to d e scri b i n g th e
C E E C s strate gy o f acce ssi o n to th e E u ro p e an U n i o n .
T h e acce ssi o n strate gy o f th e C E E C s was d e ve l-
o p e d o n th e b asi s o f th e C o p e n h a ge n p ri n ci p le s
E u ro p e an C o u n ci l o f Ju n e 1 993) . T h e E u ro p e Agre e -
m e n ts we re co n si d e re d to b e p art o f an o ve rall p re -
a cce ssi o n st ra t e g y a n d th e n a re i n fo rce d p re -
a cce ssi o n stra te g y , th e p ri n ci p le s o f wh i ch we re
e stab li sh e d b y th e C o m m i ssi o n i n Age n d a 2000 an d
ra ti fi e d b y t h e L u xe m b o u rg E u ro p e a n C o u n ci l i n
D e ce m b e r 1 999. T h e P H AR E P ro gram m e , wh i ch i s th e
fi n an ci al i n stru m e n t o f th e re i n fo rce d p re -acce ssi o n
strate gy, an d wh i ch h ad b e e n e xte n d e d i n 1 994 to th e
fi e ld o f h o m e affai rs an d ju sti ce , was re o ri e n te d at th e
e n d o f 1 998 so as to co n ce n trate m o re e ffe cti ve ly o n
th e o b je cti ve s o f a cce ssi o n . T h e p ro gra m m e gi ve s
p arti cu lar p ri o ri ty to e n ab li n g th e can d i d ate S tate s to
stre n gth e n th e i r ad m i n i strati ve an d ju d i ci al cap aci ty,
e sp e ci ally i n th e fi e ld o f h o m e affai rs an d ju sti ce . I t
can also co -fi n an ce i n ve stm e n ts to e q u i p can d i d ate
co u n tri e s wi th i n frastru ctu re , an d as fro m 2000, i t wi ll
b e su p p le m e n te d b y n e w fi n an ci al i n stru m e n ts th at
wi ll m ak e i t p o ssi b le to su p p o rt p u b li c o r p ri v a te
i n ve stm e n t i n th i s fi e ld . As fro m th i s sam e d ate , th e
P H AR E P ro gram m e wi ll d e vo te p art o f i ts b u d ge t to
re gi o n al d e ve lo p m e n t an d so ci al co h e si o n .
A cce ssi o n p a rtn e rsh i p s we re e sta b li sh e d wi th
e ach can d i d ate co u n try, wh i ch se t o u t th e sh o rtan d
m e d i u m -te rm p ri o ri ti e s. I n co n ju n cti o n wi th th e se
p artn e rsh i p s, e ach co u n try p re p are s a n ati o n al p ro -
gra m m e fo r th e a d o p ti o n o f th e acquis communautaire
N P AA) , wh i ch i n d i cate s th e re so u rce s an d ti m e tab le
fo r th e i m p le m e n tati o n o f p artn e rsh i p p ri o ri ti e s. I n
a d d i ti o n , a ll ca n d i d a te co u n tri e s fro m C e n tra l an d
E aste rn E u ro p e h ave b e e n allo we d to p arti ci p ate i n
C o m m u n i ty p ro g ram m e s, i n p a rti cu lar i n th e fi e ld s
o f e d u c a t i o n , v o c a t i o n a l t ra i n i n g , s m a l l a n d
m e d i u m -si ze d e n te rp ri se s an d p u b li c h e alth .
A t t h e L u x e m b o u rg E u ro p e a n C o u n c i l i n
D e ce m b e r 1 997, i t was d e ci d e d i n p arti cu lar to start
a cce ssi o n n e g o t i a t i o n s wi t h P o l a n d , th e C ze ch
R e p u b li c, H u n gary, E sto n i a an d S lo ve n i a, an d th e se
n e go ti ati o n s b e gan i n M arch 1 998. At th e sam e ti m e ,
th e C o m m i ssi o n i m p le m e n te d a p ro ce ss o f an n u al
e v a lu a ti o n scre e n i n g ) o f th e p ro g re ss a cco m -
p li sh e d b y th e can d i d a te co u n tri e s i n ap p lyi n g th e
acquis; th e late st e valu ati o n d ate s fro m O cto b e r 1 999.
O n th e b a si s o f th e C o m m i ssi o n s p ro p o sa ls, th e
H e lsi n ki E u ro p e an C o u n ci l gave a n e w d i m e n si o n to
th e e n large m e n t p ro ce ss.
T h e o ve rall re p o rt o n th e p ro gre ss o f e ach ca n -
d i d a t e c o u n t ry o n t h e ro a d t o a c c e s s i o n wa s
re le ase d b y th e C o m m i ssi o n o n 1 3 O cto b e r 1 999 fo r
co n si d e ra ti o n at th e H e lsi n k i E u ro p e a n C o u n ci l i n
D e ce m b e r 1 999. S i n ce th e C o lo gn e E u ro p e an C o u n -
ci l i n Ju n e 1 99 9 h a d e m p h asi se d th e i m p o rta n ce o f
e sta b li sh i n g th e p ro sp e cts o f acce ssi o n fo r th e can -
d i d ate co u n tri e s wi th wh i ch n e go ti ati o n s h ad n o t ye t
b e e n i n i ti ate d , th e C o m m i ssi o n , i n i ts o ve rall re p o rt,
e n d e a v o u rs n o t o n l y t o e v a l u a t e t h e p ro g re ss
to wa rd s m e e ti n g th e C o p e n h ag e n cri te ri a, b u t also
to m ak e p ro p o sa ls fo r an a cce ssi o n strate gy fo r a ll
ca n d i d a t e co u n tri e s. M o st o f i t s p ro p o sa ls we re
ap p ro ve d b y th e H e lsi n ki E u ro p e an C o u n ci l.
I n th e fi e ld o f ju sti ce an d h o m e affai rs, th e C o m -
m i ssi o n h a s o b se rv e d th a t i n th e te n ca n d i d a t e
co u n tri e s o f C e n tral an d E aste rn E u ro p e , p ro gre ss i s
u n e v e n a cro ss se cto rs a n d i n re lati o n to ad o p ti o n
a n d i m p le m e n ta ti o n . I m m i g rati o n , asylu m , p o li ce ,
d ru gs, b o rd e r co n tro ls, th e fi g h t aga i n st co rru p ti o n ,
ju d i ci al co -o p e rati o n a n d th e ge n e ral re fo rm o f th e
ju d i ci a l sy ste m are e sse n ti al i ssu e s th a t th e ca n d i -
d ate co u n tri e s m u st ad d re ss. Acco rd i n g to th e C o m -
m i ssi o n , L i th u a n i a , E sto n i a , S lo v e n i a , L a tv i a a n d
B u lg a ri a h a v e m a d e m a jo r p ro g re ss, b u t H u n g a ry
h a s m a d e li t tle p ro g re ss, a n d P o la n d , th e C ze ch
R e p u b li c an d th e S lo vak R e p u b li c h ave p ro gre sse d
o n ly slo wly. L a stl y, m u ch re m a i n s to b e d o n e i n
R o m a n i a . O n th e wh o le , i t se e m s th a t th e i m p le -
1 01
O E C D 2000
m e n ta ti o n o f an e ffe cti ve b o rd e r m an ag e m e n t sys-
t e m p o se s g re a t d i ffi cu l t i e s i n m o st ca n d i d a t e
co u n tri e s, i n p arti cu la r i n P o lan d , R o m an i a a n d th e
C ze ch R e p u b li c. I n th i s co n n e cti o n , th e T a m p e re
E u ro p e a n C o u n ci l d e vo te d to h o m e affai rs an d ju s-
ti ce aske d i n O cto b e r 1 999 th at th e can d i d ate co u n -
tri e s b e ra p i d ly i n clu d e d i n th e co -o p e ra ti o n a n d
te ch n i cal m u tu al assi stan ce th at n e e d s to b e d e ve l-
o p e d b e t we e n t h e b o rd e r c o n t ro l s e rv i c e s o f
E U M e m b e r S tate s.
d) The new dimension of the EU enlargement
process: implications for the migration policies
of countries that are candidates for accession
T h e H e l si n k i E u ro p e a n C o u n c i l o n 1 0 a n d
1 1 D e c e m b e r 1 9 9 9 m a rk e d a n e w st a g e i n t h e
e n large m e n t p ro ce ss. R e calli n g th at acce ssi o n to th e
E u ro p e a n U n i o n i s co n d i ti o n a l u p o n co m p li a n ce
wi th a ll th e C o p e n h a g e n cri te ri a , i t re a ffi rm s th e
i n clu si v e ch aracte r o f th e acce ssi o n p ro ce ss, wh i ch
n o w co m p ri se s 1 3 ca n d i d ate S tate s wi th i n a si n gle
fram e wo rk . T h i s b e i n g th e case , o n th e b asi s o f th e
C o m m i s s i o n s re p o rt s , t h e E u ro p e a n C o u n c i l
d e ci d e d to o rgan i se i n F e b ru ary 2000 b i late ral i n te r-
g o v e rn m e n tal co n fe re n ce s wi th a vi e w to i n i ti ati n g
n e g o ti a ti o n s wi th R o m a n i a , th e S lo v a k R e p u b li c,
L atvi a, L i th u an i a, B u lgari a an d M alta o n th e te rm s o f
th e i r acce ssi o n .
N e ve rth e le ss, th e E u ro p e a n C o u n ci l re ca lle d ,
a s h a d b e e n a g re e d wh e n th e fi rst n e g o ti a t i o n s
b e g a n i n M a rch 1 9 9 8 , th a t e a ch ca n d i d a t e S t a t e
wo u ld b e ju d ge d o n i ts o wn sp e ci fi c m e ri ts. F u rth e r-
m o re , i n i ts o v e ra ll re p o rt th e C o m m i ssi o n co n si d -
e re d th a t th e o p e n i n g o f n e g o ti a ti o n s sh o u ld b e
d e te rm i n e d o n th e b asi s o f th e p ri n ci p le o f d i ffe r-
e n ti a ti o n , i n p a rti cu lar to ta k e a cco u n t o f th e fact
th at so m e can d i d ate s are n o t i m m e d i ate ly i n a p o si -
ti o n to m e e t th e C o p e n h age n cri te ri a i n th e m e d i u m
te rm . T h i s p ri n ci p le o f d i ffe re n ti ati o n wi ll th e re fo re
ap p ly wh e n e v e r a n e w ch ap te r i s to b e o p e n e d fo r
n e go ti ati o n .
T h e a p p li ca ti o n o f th e A m ste rd a m T re aty wi ll
le a d to fu n d a m e n ta l ch a n g e s i n i m m i g ra ti o n a n d
asylu m , si n ce th e re i s vi rtu ally co m p le te agre e m e n t
a m o n g th e E U M e m b e r S tate s th a t a g e n u i n e co m -
m o n p o li cy m u st b e d e ve lo p e d i n th i s fi e ld an d th at
th e y m u st agre e o n th e m e an s o f attai n i n g th i s go al.
T h e co u n tri e s wi sh i n g to a cce d e to th e E u ro p e a n
U n i o n m u st n o w co n si d e r th e n e w m e a su re s a s
b e i n g p a rt o f th e acquiso f th e E u ro p e an U n i o n , an d
wi ll th e re fo re h a v e to i n co rp o ra te th e m i n to th e i r
n a ti o n a l le gi slati o n . I n p arti cu lar, th e y wi ll b e su b -
je ct to sp e ci fi c co n strai n ts re gard i n g th e su rve i llan ce
o f fo re i gn b o rd e rs an d co m p li an ce wi th i n te rn ati o n al
s t a n d a rd s o n a sy l u m , v i s a s a n d i m m i g ra t i o n .
A lt h o u g h th e E u ro p e a n U n i o n i s p ro v i d i n g a ssi s-
tan ce to h e lp ca n d i d a te co u n tri e s o ve rco m e th e se
d i ffi cu lti e s th ro u g h fi n a n ci al an d te ch n i cal a i d p ro -
g ram m e s, su ch a s th e P H AR E P ro g ra m m e , th i s a i d
wi ll n o t i n i tse lf b e su ffi ci e n t to so lve all p ro b le m s,
i n p a rt i cu la r th o se co n ce rn i n g th e a d ju stm e n t o f
g o v e rn m e n t d e p a rt m e n t s a n d t h e u p g ra d i n g o f
h u m an re so u rce s.
A n u m b e r o f C e n tra l a n d E a st e rn E u ro p e a n
co u n tri e s, su ch as th e C ze ch R e p u b li c, H u n gary an d
P o lan d , wh i ch are i n th e p re -acce ssi o n p h a se , h ave
a d o p t e d th e m e a su re s n e ce ssa ry fo r th i s a d j u st -
m e n t, an d h av e i n p a rti cu la r co n clu d e d a se ri e s o f
re ad m i ssi o n agre e m e n ts to co u n te r i lle gal i m m i gra-
ti o n . T h e C ze ch R e p u b li c h a s re ce n tly re v i se d i t s
i m m i grati o n le gi slati o n an d vi sa p o li cy se e ab o ve ) .
F o r H u n g a ry, th i s a d j u st m e n t co n ce rn s two m a i n
a sp e cts: e n su ri n g th e fre e m o ve m e n t o f p e rso n s i n
th e E u ro p e an U n i o n an d re i n fo rci n g fo re i gn b o rd e r
co n tro ls. S p e ci fi c p ro vi si o n s are also b e i n g p re p are d
to ali gn H u n ga ri an le g i slati o n wi th th e Asso ci a ti o n
A gre e m e n t co n clu d e d wi th th e E u ro p e a n C o m m u -
n i ty. I n p arti cu lar, th e se p ro vi si o n s i n clu d e p re fe re n -
ti al tre atm e n t fo r E U ci ti ze n s, a n d o th e rs th at h av e
re ce n tly b e e n ad o p te d co n ce rn th e statu s o f th e ke y
co rp o rate staff.
T h e i ssu e o f re fu ge e s a n d th e ri g h t o f asy lu m
ra i se sp e ci a l d i ffi cu lti e s: th e ca n d i d a te co u n tri e s,
wh i ch h av e b e e n tran si t co u n tri e s fo r asy lu m se e k -
e rs wi sh i n g to re a ch th e E u ro p e a n U n i o n , are n o w
th e m se lv e s b e co m i n g d e sti n a ti o n co u n tri e s. T h e y
h ave as a ge n e ral ru le rati fi e d th e 1 951 G e n e va C o n -
v e n ti o n o n re fu g e e s, a s we ll a s th e o th e r i n te rn a -
ti o n a l tre a ti e s o n h u m a n ri g h ts. T h e y wi ll h a v e to
a d o p t th e 1 99 0 D u b li n C o n v e n ti o n o n d e te rm i n i n g
th e S tate re sp o n si b le fo r e xam i n i n g ap p li cati o n s fo r
a sy l u m , wh i ch i s n o w i n fo rce i n th e E U M e m b e r
co u n tri e s. T h e C o m m i ssi o n fo re se e s th at i t wi ll u lti -
m ate ly b e n e ce ssary to e stab li sh a co m m o n asylu m
p ro ce d u re an d a u n i fo rm statu s vali d th ro u gh o u t th e
U n i o n fo r gran ti n g asylu m . C an d i d ate co u n tri e s wi ll
also h ave to ad ap t th e i r le gi slati o n acco rd i n gly.
1 02
O E C D 2000
B o x 7. Migrations and the labour market in the CEECs in the context of
European Union enlargement
I t can n o w b e se e n to b e e sse n ti al to e stab li sh th e li n ks b e twe e n m i grati o n an d lab o u r m arke ts, wh i ch th e
B rati slava se m i n ar p ro p o se d to d o fo r C E E C s i n th e co n te xt o f th e i r acce ssi o n to th e E u ro p e an U n i o n . T h i s se m i -
n ar was o rgan i se d i n M arch 2000 b y th e O E C D , th e S lo vak au th o ri ti e s an d th e Au stri an F e d e ral C h an ce lle ry wi th
th e su p p o rt o f th e S wi ss C o n fe d e rati o n . T h e p ri n ci p al o b je cti ve s o f th e se m i n ar we re to an alyse th e e m p lo ym e n t
ch aracte ri sti cs o f fo re i gn wo rke rs i n se le cte d C e n tral an d E aste rn E u ro p e an co u n tri e s, to an alyse i n gre ate r d e p th
th e fu n cti o n i n g o f th e lab o u r m arke t at th e re gi o n al le ve l i n clu d i n g fro n ti e r are as) an d to p ro p o se m e asu re s to
b e tte r re gu late th e m o ve m e n ts an d e xch an ge o f fo re i gn wo rke rs b e twe e n th e C E E C s th e m se lve s o n th e o n e h an d
an d b e twe e n th e C E E C s an d th e E u ro p e an M e m b e r co u n tri e s o f th e O E C D o n th e o th e r. F o u r m ai n to p i cs we re
e xam i n e d d u ri n g th e se m i n ar. T h e y are d e scri b e d b e lo w an d i n clu d e th e ke y p ro p o sals fo rm u late d .
Migration flows and the status of foreign workers in the CEECs. B o th i n te rm s o f flo ws an d i n te rm s o f statu s o f
fo re i gn wo rke rs, cle ar d iffe re n ce s are ap p are n t acro ss th e C E E C s. A first cate go ry o f co u n tri e s, wh ich i n clu d e s H u n gary
an d th e C ze ch R e p u b li c, are h i gh ly o p e n , n o tab ly as re gard s F D I an d trad e . T h e i r m an age m e n t o f wo rk p e rm i ts is in su f-
fici e n tly re gu late d . T h e y are e xp e ri e n ci n g th e e m e rge n ce o f stab le i m m igrati o n , acco m p an i e d i n th e case o f H u n gary
b y th e d ive rsi fi catio n o f th e co u n trie s o f o ri gi n Asi an co u n tri e s i n p articu lar . A se co n d cate go ry o f co u n tri e s are e xp e ri -
e n ci n g u n favo u rab le e co n o m i c an d so ci al co n d i ti o n s an d h ave a clo se d atti tu d e wi th re gard to i m m i grati o n e ve n
th o u gh i n flo ws are ve ry lo w. T h i s i s tru e n o tab ly o f B u lgari a an d R o m an i a. A th i rd cate go ry o f co u n tri e s, co m p ri se d o f
th e S lo vak R e p u b li c an d P o lan d , can b e co n si d e re d as th e in te rm e d i ate case : th e S lo vak R e p u b li c s m i grati o n flo ws are
q u i te lo w, an d P o lan d is e xp e rie n ci n g b o th h i gh e m igrati o n an d i m m i grati o n flo ws th e se latte r are m o stly te m p o rary) .
T h e i d e a th at th e C E E C s co n sti tu te a b u ffe r zo n e b e twe e n th e E U an d th e p ri n ci p al re gi o n s o f e m i grati o n i n th e
R e p u b li cs o f th e fo rm e r S o vi e t U n io n in p articu lar U krai n e an d B e laru s) was also d i scu sse d i n d e p th .
T h e e xam i n ati o n o f wo rk p e rm i t e xe m p ti o n s acco rd e d to fo re i gn e rs re ve als a cle avage b e twe e n th e C E E C s:
P o lan d gran ts th e m m o stly to p ro fe sso rs, re se arch e rs an d m e d i cal p racti ti o n e rs, wh e re as th e C ze ch R e p u b li c gran ts
th e m m o stly to se lf-e m p lo ye d wo rke rs, e m p lo ye e s an d , li ke H u n gary, m an age rs o f fo re ign -o wn e d co m p an i e s. T h is d if-
fe re n ce wo u ld ap p e ar to b e li n ke d to th e fact th at H u n gary an d th e C ze ch R e p u b li c re ce i ve th e m o st F D I . Wi th re gard
to th e statu s o f re si d e n ts an d fo re i gn wo rke rs i n so m e o f th e C E E C s, th e e xi ste n ce o f le gi slati ve lacu n ae i n th e se co u n -
tri e s was i d e n ti fi e d , n o tab ly wi th re gard to th e u n au th o ri se d e m p lo ym e n t o f fo re i gn e rs. T h e re e xist i n fact fe w san c-
ti o n s wh i ch can b e i m p o se d o n fo re i gn wo rke rs i n an i rre gu lar si tu ati o n , an d th e re e xi st n o p ro vi si o n s to i m p o se
san cti o n s agai n st th e i r e m p lo ye rs o r th e i n te rm e d i ari e s wh o faci li tate u n au th o ri se d e m p lo ym e n t. L e gi slati o n i n th e
m ajo ri ty o f th e C E E C s i s m u ch m o re li b e ral i n th i s re gard th an th at p re vaili n g i n th e M e m b e r S tate s o f th e E U . T h i s i s
d o u b tle ss d u e to th e fact th at i m m i grati o n , b o th le gal an d i lle gal, is fo r th e C E E C s a re lati ve ly n e w p h e n o m e n o n . I n
ge n e ral, th e p ro ce d u re s fo r gran ti n g wo rk p e rm i ts are ve ry re stri cti ve wi th re gard to salari e d wo rke rs, wh e re as th e
le gislatio n i s typ i cally i m p re ci se an d o ccasi o n ally ve ry lib e ral with re gard to se lf-e m p lo ye d wo rke rs.
Aggre gate d d ata o n th e lab o u r m arke t, fo r e xam p le u n e m p lo ym e n t an d p arti ci p ati o n rate s, d e m o n strate th at
th e le ve ls an d th e d e gre e s o f vari ati o n are b ro ad ly th e sam e i n th e C E E C s an d th e M e m b e r S tate s o f th e E U . T h i s
i m p li e s th a t th e d e ci si o n to e m i g ra te d o e s n o t d e p e n d so le ly o n th e la b o u r m a rk e t si tu a ti o n an d th at m o re
i n -d e p th an alysi s i s n e ce ssary i n o rd e r to b e tte r i d e n ti fy th e cau se s o f m i grati o n i n th e re gi o n . T h e d i ffe re n ce s i n
wage s acro ss co m m o n b o rd e rs are at th e m o m e n t ve ry h i gh an d are co n tri b u ti n g to e co n o m i c d e ve lo p m e n t i n th e
m ajo ri ty o f th e fro n ti e r re gi o n s. T h e se d i ffe re n ce s, wh i ch vary co n si d e rab ly, can b e e xp e cte d to d i m i n i sh . N e ve r-
th e le ss, u n e m p lo y m e n t p e rsi sts i n th e C E E C s a n d lo n g -te rm u n e m p lo ym e n t i s d e ve lo p i n g i n so m e o f th e m ,
cre ati n g co n trasti n g si tu ati o n s acro ss co u n tri e s.
Migration and regional integration. S o m e p arti ci p an ts to o k th e vi e w th at go ve rn m e n ts sh o u ld e n co u rage ,
i n d e e d faci li tate , th e e co n o m i c i n te grati o n o f fro n ti e r are as, wh e re p e rso n al m o b i li ty i s o fte n h i gh , as th i s wo u ld
p ro g re ssi ve ly m o d e ra te th e e co n o m i c d i sp ari ti e s acro ss fro n ti e r re gi o n s. S wi tze rla n d wa s m e n ti o n e d i n th i s
re gard to p o i n t o u t th e n atu re an d i n te n si ty o f th e so ci o -cu ltu ral li n ks fo rm e d i n th e fro n ti e r re gi o n s, an d th e p o si -
ti ve i n flu e n ce o f cro ss-b o rd e r e m p lo ym e n t o n S wi tze rlan d s e co n o m i c d e ve lo p m e n t an d i ts lab o u r m arke t. T h i s
S wi ss e xam p le m i gh t se rve as a b asi s fo r d e e p e r re fle cti o n o n th e ro le o f re gi o n al e co n o m i e s an d th e m o ve m e n t
o f cro ss-b o rd e r wo rke rs i n th e co n te xt o f E U e n large m e n t. T h i s m o d e l co u ld also i n fo rm re fle cti o n s o n th e d e ve l-
o p m e n t o f e xch a n g e s b e twe e n th e C E E C s, n o ta b ly wi th a vi e w to b e tte r p ro m o ti n g th e e co n o m i c an d so ci al
i n te grati o n o f e th n i c m i n o ri ti e s.
The adjustment of the CEECs migration policies. I n th e C E E C s, m i grati o n flo ws are b e co m i n g m o re d i ve rse
b o th i n th e i r o ri gi n an d i n th e i r n atu re lab o u r m i grati o n , p e rm an e n t o r te m p o rary, fam i ly-li n ke d m i grati o n , re fu -
ge e s an d asylu m ap p li can ts, e tc. ) . B o rd e r co n tro ls an d th e co n tro l o f flo ws, vi sa p o li cy, co m b ati n g th e e m p lo y -
m e n t o f fo re i g n e rs i n a n i rre g u la r si tu a ti o n sh o u ld b e t h e su b je ct o f m o re p re ci se le g i sl a ti o n a n d th e
i m p le m e n tati o n o f m e asu re s i n th e i r re gard sh o u ld b e m o re e ffi ci e n t. F u rth e rm o re , th e statu s o f m i gran t salari e d
1 03
O E C D 2000
Notes
1 . T h i s su b -se cti o n was d rafte d b y Jo h n S i m p so n , C o n -
su lta n t t o th e O E C D , o n th e b a si s o f th e n a ti o n a l
re p o rts d e li ve re d b y th e e xp e rts h avi n g p arti ci p ate d
i n th e wo rksh o p o n M i grati o n an d th e lab o u r m arke t
i n Asi a o rga n i se d b y th e Ja p a n I n sti tu te o f L a b o u r
a n d th e Ja p a n M i n i stry o f L a b o u r, i n co lla b o ra ti o n
wi th th e I L O a n d th e O E C D a n d h e ld i n T o k y o i n
Jan u ary 2000.
2. U n ski lle d n ati o n als fro m co u n tri e s o th e r th an
B a n g la d e sh , I n d i a , P a k i sta n , th e P h i li p p i n e s a n d
T h a i la n d a re p e rm i tte d to wo rk i n M a la y si a o n a n
e xce p ti o n al b asi s o n ly.
3. A re vi si o n fro m th e fi gu re o f 30% q u o te d fro m th e
M i n i stry o f F i n an ce i n last ye ars re p o rt.
4. D u e to th e fall i n th e n u m b e r o f d o cu m e n te d fo re i gn
wo rke rs an d th e re q u i re m e n t th at th e y co n tri b u te 9%
o f th e i r gro ss wage to th e M alaysi an E m p lo ye e s P ro vi -
d e n t F u n d wh i ch i s, i n p ri n ci p le , to b e re i m b u rse d
wh e n th e y le ave ) th e am o u n t o f re m i ttan ce s tran sm i t-
te d th ro u g h o ffi ci a l ch a n n e ls b y fo re i gn wo rk e rs i n
M alaysi a fe ll b y alm o st 50% i n 1 998 to M YR 3.2 b i lli o n .
5. F o u n d e d i n 1 992 b y th e Vi se grad co u n tri e s, th e C e n -
tra l E u ro p e an F re e T rad e Agre e m e n t C E FT A) co m -
p ri se d , at th e m i d d le o f 1 999, th e fo u n d i n g m e m b e rs
H u n ga ry, P o lan d , T h e C ze ch a n d S lo v ak R e p u b li cs)
jo i n e d b y B u lgari a, R o m an i a an d S lo ve n i a.
6. T h e p re se n t state o f th e C E E C s m i grati o n stati sti cs i s
su ch th a t th e y a d e q u a te ly co v e r n e i th e r m i g ra ti o n
m o ve m e n ts, th e n u m b e r o f fo re i gn e rs i n th e p o p u lati o n
n o r th e n u m b e r o f fo re i gn wo rke rs.
7. S e cti o n C h as b e e n d rafte d wi th th e co -o p e rati o n o f
L u ci le B arro s, C o n su ltan t to th e O E C D S e cre tari at.
B o x 7. Migrations and the labour market in the CEECs in the context of European Union
enlargement (cont.)
wo rke rs sh o u ld b e i m p ro ve d , i n p arti cu lar as re gard s th e i ssu an ce an d re n e wal o f wo rk p e rm i ts an d th e ro le s i n
th e re cru i tm e n t p ro ce ss acco rd e d to sp e ci ali se d p u b li c o r p ri vate age n ci e s. F i n ally, to varyi n g e xte n ts acco rd i n g
to th e co u n try co n ce rn e d , th e le gal fram e wo rk re gu lati n g th e si tu ati o n o f se lf-e m p lo ye d fo re i gn wo rke rs n e e d s
e i th e r to b e m o re cle arly d e fi n e d i n o rd e r to p re ve n t p o te n ti al i m m i gran ts fro m ab u si n g th i s ch an n e l o f e n try th e
C ze ch R e p u b li c, fo r e xam p le ) , o r to h ave th e g ap s fi lle d i n H u n gary, fo r e xa m p le ) . L astly, th e C E E C s n e e d to
co -o rd i n ate th e i r strate gi e s i n th e are a o f m i grati o n p o li cy wi th re gard to th e co u n tri e s wi th wh i ch th e y wi ll sh are
th e e xte rn al b o rd e rs o f an e n large d E U .
T h e C E E C s co u ld i n th i s re gard an ti ci p ate th e acce ssi o n p ro ce ss b y d e ve lo p i n g a re al so ci al d i alo gu e , o n th e
o n e h an d , b e twe e n th e so ci al p artn e rs i n th e i r re sp e cti ve co u n tri e s an d , o n th e o th e r, b e twe e n th e m se lve s. F o r i ts
p art, th e E U sh o u ld atte m p t to d raw u p co m m o n p ri n ci p le s co n ce rn i n g e q u ali ty o f tre atm e n t an d n o n -d i scri m i n ati o n
wi th re gard to n a ti o n ali ty i n th e co n te xt o f acce ss to th e la b o u r m a rke t. T h e E u ro p e an C o m m i ssi o n d i d i n fact
p re se n t p ro p o sals to th i s e n d i n N o ve m b e r 1 999; th e se are cu rre n tly u n d e r d i scu ssi o n i n th e C o u n ci l se e ab o ve ) .
The prospective enlargement of theEU to include the CEECs. T h e C E E C s are i n th e m i d d le o f a tran si ti o n
p e ri o d wi th re gard to th e i r re lati o n s wi th th e E U . O n th e o n e h an d , th e asso ci ati o n agre e m e n ts, calle d th e E u ro p e
Agre e m e n ts, are i n th e i r i m p le m e n tati o n p h ase . O n th e o th e r h an d , th e acce ssi o n n e go ti ati o n s wh i ch b e gan wi th
th e m ajo ri ty o f th e C E E C s h ave si n ce b e e n e xte n d e d to i n clu d e all o f th e m . T h e E U h as p ro gre ssi ve ly d e fi n e d th e
n e w b ase s o f E u ro p e an p o li cy wi th re gard to i m m i grati o n an d asylu m , wh i ch re n d e rs d i ffi cu lt at th e m o m e n t th e
p re ci se d e fi n i ti o n o f th e acq u i s wh i ch th e C E E C s are re q u i re d to re sp e ct an d i n te grate i n to th e i r n ati o n al le gi s-
lati o n s. T h e i n sti tu ti o n al re fo rm s wh i ch are cu rre n tly b e i n g u n d e rtake n b y th e E U , wh i ch h ave th e ai m o f re ce i vi n g
th e ca n d i d ate co u n tri e s u n d e r co n d i ti o n s acce p tab le to a ll, ca n b e e xp e cte d to co n tri b u te to e asi n g so m e o f
th e se d i ffi cu lti e s. An i m p ro ve m e n t i n re lati o n s an d co -o p e rati o n wi th th e i n sti tu ti o n s o f th e E U i s also n e ce ssary,
n o tab ly as re gard s th e C E E C s p arti ci p ati o n i n C o m m u n i ty p ro gram m e s fo r e xam p le , i n th e are as o f e d u cati o n
an d vo cati o n al trai n i n g) an d th e i ssu e o f th e ri gh t o f e stab li sh m e n t d u ri n g th e tran si ti o n p e ri o d wh i ch wi ll fo llo w
th e i r acce ssi o n to th e E U .
1 05
O E C D 2000
Part II
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE LEGISLATION
AND THE PROCEDURES GOVERNING THE IMMIGRATION
OF FAMILY MEMBERS IN CERTAIN OECD COUNTRIES
A. INTRODUCTION
T h i s st u d y
1
fo cu se s m a i n ly o n t h e fo ll o wi n g
O E C D co u n t ri e s: A u stra li a , B e lg i u m , C a n a d a , th e
C ze ch R e p u b li c, F i n lan d , F ran ce , G e rm an y, I taly, th e
N e th e rlan d s, N o rway, S p ai n , S we d e n , S wi tze rlan d ,
th e U n i te d K i n gd o m an d th e U n i te d S ta te s, as we ll
as o n B u lgari a an d th e S lo vak R e p u b li c. T h e se co u n -
tri e s h ave h ad to d e al wi th th e p re se n ce an d gro wth
o f su b sta n ti a l gro u p s o f fo re i g n wo rk e rs wh o h a v e
b e e n se ttle d th e re fo r lo n g p e ri o d s o f ti m e ; th e y
h a v e a cco rd i n g ly i n tro d u ce d fa m i ly re u n i o n , a n d
t u rn e d i t i n t o a sp e ci fi c ri g h t t h a t i s g e n e ra l l y
re st ri cte d to fo re i g n e rs, a lth o u g h so m e co u n tri e s
ap p ly th i s p ro ce d u re to th e fo re i gn fam i li e s o f th e i r
o wn n ati o n als.
T h e arri val o f fam i li e s e n ab le s i m m i gran t wo rk-
e rs to le ad n o rm al fam i ly li ve s, co n tri b u te s to th e i r
se cu ri ty, a n d i n te g ra t e s th e m i n to th e co u n tri e s
wh e re th e y h ave se ttle d . F u rth e rm o re , si n ce re stri c-
ti o n s we re ap p li e d to i m m i grati o n i n se v e ral O E C D
co u n tri e s i n E u ro p e , fam i ly re u n i o n h as b e co m e th e
m ai n le gal m e an s o f e n te ri n g ce rtai n co u n tri e s. H o w-
e v e r, i n n o n -E u ro p e a n O E C D co u n tri e s su ch a s
Au strali a, C an ad a an d th e U n i te d S tate s, p e rm an e n t
i m m i g ra ti o n i s n o t su b j e ct to m a jo r re stri ct i o n s.
I n 1 998, fam i ly i m m i grati o n acco u n te d fo r two -th i rd s
o f all i m m i grati o n i n to th e U n i te d S tate s, an d o ve r a
q u arte r o f all i m m i grati o n i n to Au strali a an d C an ad a
se e Tab le I I .1 ) . I n all th re e co u n tri e s, th e m o st co m -
m o n fo rm o f fam i ly i m m i grati o n i s wh e n p e rm a n e n t
m i g ra n ts e n te r th e co u n try a cco m p a n i e d b y th e i r
fam i li e s. I t sh o u ld b e n o te d , h o we ve r, th at th i s i s n o t
u su a lly a n au to m ati c ri gh t i n th e case o f te m p o ra ry
m i grati o n .
T h e le ga l b a si s fo r fa m i ly re u n i o n i s se t o u t i n
i n te rn ati o n al i n stru m e n ts an d n ati o n al laws A) , b u t
si n ce th e p ri n ci p le was fi rst e stab li sh e d , i t h as b e e n
i n te rp re te d i n d i ffe re n t wa y s i n a ll th e co u n tri e s
u n d e r d i scu ssi o n .
A d i sti n cti o n i s ge n e ra lly d ra wn b e twe e n p e r-
m an e n t a n d te m p o rary wo rke rs i n E u ro p e a n co u n -
tri e s; th e e xce p ti o n i s th e U n i te d K i n gd o m . As far as
p e rm a n e n t wo rk e rs a re co n ce rn e d , th e p ro ce ss
i n v o lv e s a u t h o ri si n g fa m i l y m e m b e rs to jo i n t h e
wo rke r wh e n h e h as b e e n se ttle d i n th e co u n try fo r a
sh o rte r o r lo n g e r p e ri o d o f ti m e , a n d i ssu i n g th e m
wi th re si d e n ce p e rm i ts. Te m p o rary wo rke rs are n o r-
m a lly d e n i e d th i s o p ti o n , alth o u gh e xce p ti o n s m ay
b e m ad e i n th e case o f h i gh ly ski lle d wo rke rs, wh o
m ay b e acco m p an i e d b y th e i r fam i li e s acco m p an y-
i n g fam i li e s) ; th e latte r are n o t allo we d to e n te r th e
lab o u r m arke t.
T h i s q u e sti o n i s ta ck le d q u i t e d i ffe re n tl y i n
n o n -E u ro p e a n co u n tri e s i.e. Au stra li a , th e U n i te d
S tate s an d N e w Z e alan d ) an d th e U n i te d K i n gd o m .
T h e se co u n tri e s d o n o t i ssu e re si d e n ce p e rm i ts, an d
a u th o ri sa ti o n to re m a i n i n th e co u n try i s li n k e d to
vi sas o f wh i ch th e re are m a n y cate go ri e s e.g. i n th e
U n i te d S tate s) , an d wh o se n u m b e r i s li m i te d b y p re -
d e te rm i n e d q u o tas. T h i s m e an s th at i t i s n o lo n g e r
th e i m m i gran t wh o ap p li e s fo r re u n i o n , b u t th e fam -
i ly m e m b e r wh o p u ts i n fo r th e vi sa th at i s ap p ro p ri -
a te to h i s ca te g o ry ; th i s wi ll b e i ssu e d to h i m i f h e
m e e ts th e q u a li fy i n g co n d i t i o n s. V i sa s ce rta i n ly
favo u r m e m b e rs o f th e fam i li e s o f p e rm an e n t re si -
d e n ts, b u t th e y m a y a lso b e i ssu e d to t e m p o ra ry
wo rke rs, p arti cu larly wh e n th e y e n ab le fo re i gn e rs to
arri ve d i re ctly wi th th e i r fam i li e s acco m p an yi n g fam i -
li e s) . T h i s si tu ati o n i s ge n e rally m o re li ke to ari se i n
th e ab o ve co u n tri e s th an i n E u ro p e an co u n tri e s.
T h e large n u m b e r o f vi sas an d th e p ro gram m e s
th at h ave b e e n sp e ci ally d e si gn e d to cate r to ce rtai n
ca te g o ri e s o f i m m i g ra n t fo st e r d e fi n i ti o n a l i ssu e s
th a t m a k e s i t d i ffi cu l t to d ra w co m p a ri so n s a n d
d e ve lo p syn th e se s. R e fe re n ce sh o u ld also b e m ad e
1 06
O E C D 2000
Tab le I I .1 . Inflows of permanent settlers by entry class in Australia, Canada and the United States, 1990-1999
T h o u san d s
1 . Actu al arri vals o f p e rm an e n t se ttle rs. C o u n ts i n clu d e b o th p ri m ary ap p li can ts an d th e i r acco m p an yi n g d e p e n d e n ts, i f an y. D ata re fe r to fi scal ye ars Ju ly to
Ju n e o f th e gi ve n ye ar .
2. A lan d i n g co rre sp o n d s to a p e rso n o b tai n i n g th e ri gh t o f p e rm an e n t re si d e n ce , e i th e r wi th i n C an ad a o r fro m ab ro ad . I n clu d i n g acco m p an yi n g d e p e n d e n ts
fo r e co n o m i c an d h u m an i tari an cate go ri e s.
3. Wi th th e e xce p ti o n o f i m m e d i ate re lati ve s o f U S ci ti ze n s, i m m i gran ts i n a class o f ad m i ssi o n i n clu d e p ri n ci p al b e n e fi ci ari e s , i.e. th o se ali e n s wh o d i re ctly
q u ali fy fo r th e class o f ad m i ssi o n u n d e r U S i m m i grati o n laws, an d d e ri vati ve b e n e fi ci ari e s , i.e. th e sp o u se s an d u n m arri e d ch i ld re n o f p ri n ci p al i m m i gran ts.
D ata re fe r to fi scal ye ars O cto b e r to S e p te m b e r o f th e gi ve n ye ar .
4. N u m e ri cally u n re stri cte d im m i gran ts co m p ri si n g sp o use s, u n m arri e d m i n o r ch i ld re n , an d o rp h an s ad o p ted b y U S ci ti ze n s as we ll as p are n ts o f ad u lt U S citi ze n s.
5. N u m e ri cally re stri cte d re lati ve s co m p ri se th e fo llo wi n g fo u r p re fe re n ce classe s: i) U n m arri e d ad u lt so n s an d d au gh te rs o f U S ci ti ze n s; ii) S p o u se s an d u n m ar-
ri e d so n s an d d au gh te rs o f p e rm an e n t re si d e n t ali e n s; iii) M arri e d so n s an d d au gh te rs o f U S ci ti ze n s; iv) B ro th e rs an d si ste rs o f ad u lt U S ci ti ze n s.
6. P ri o r to fi scal ye ar 1 992, d ata i n clu d e m e m b e rs o f th e p ro fe ssi o n s o r p e rso n s o f e xce p ti o n al ab i li ty i n th e sci e n ce s an d arts, ski lle d an d u n ski lle d wo rke rs i n
sh o rt su p p ly, an d sp e ci al i m m i gran t vi sas. D ata i n clu d e i m m i gran ts i ssu e d e m p lo ym e n t-b ase d p re fe re n ce vi sas fro m fi scal ye ar 1 99 2 o n .
7. R e fu ge e s we re ad m i tte d u n d e r vari o u s laws. T h e R e fu ge e Act o f 1 980 n o w go ve rn s all re fu ge e ad m i ssi o n s.
8. U n d e r th e 1 986 I m m i grati o n R e fo rm an d C o n tro l Act, fo re i gn e rs wh o h ad b e e n acco rd e d te m p o rary le gal statu s co u ld ap p ly, b e twe e n D e ce m b e r 1 988 an d
D e ce m b e r 1 990, fo r a p e rm an e n t re si d e n ce p e rm i t.
9. U n d e r th e I m m i grati o n Act o f 1 990, a 3-ye ar p ro gram 1 992-1 994) au th o ri ze d 40 000 vi sas an n u ally fo r n ati ve s o f th e 34 co u n tri e s d e te rm i n e d to h ave b e e n
ad ve rse ly affe cte d b y th e 1 965 i m m i grati o n re fo rm . I n 1 995, a p e rm an e n t p ro gram m e au th o ri ze d 55 000 vi sas an n u ally.
Source: D I M A O ve rse as arri vals an d d e p artu re s d ata, D e p artm e n t o f I m m i grati o n an d M u lti cu ltu ral Affai rs D I M A) ; C i ti ze n sh i p an d I m m i grati o n C an ad a;
U S D e p artm e n t o f Ju sti ce .
1 990 1 991 1 992 1 993 1 994 1 995 1 996 1 997 1 998 1 999
AUSTRALIA
1
I M M I G R AT I O N P R O G R AM M E 94. 0 1 02. 8 89.3 54.5 46.7 57.7 67.0 56. 6 47. 3 49.6
1 . F am i ly 49. 9 53. 9 48.6 32.1 33.6 37.1 46.5 36. 5 21 . 1 21 .5
2. S ki ll 42. 8 48. 4 40.3 22.1 1 2.8 20.2 20.0 1 9. 7 26. 0 27.9
3. S p e ci al e li gi b i li ty 1 . 2 0. 5 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.5 0. 4 0. 2 0.2
H U M AN I T AR I AN P R O G R AM M E 1 1 . 9 7. 7 7.2 1 0.9 1 1 .4 1 3.6 1 3.8 9. 9 8. 8 8.8
N O N -P R O G R AM M E M I G R AT I O N S 1 5. 3 1 1 . 1 1 1 .0 1 0.8 1 1 .7 1 6.1 1 8.3 1 9. 3 21 . 2 25.7
TOTAL 121.2 121.7 107.4 76.3 69.8 87.4 99.1 85.8 77.3 84.1
CANADA
2
I m m e d i ate fam i ly 41 . 4 46. 8 54.8 67.9 52.3 44.1 43.7 39. 7 36. 7 40.8
P are n ts an d gran d p are n ts 32. 9 39. 1 42.0 42.6 41 .4 33.1 24.6 20. 2 1 4. 2 1 4.5
TO T AL F AM I L Y 74. 4 85. 9 96.8 1 1 0.4 93.7 77.2 68.3 60. 0 50. 9 55.2
S ki lle d wo rke rs P ri n ci p al ap p li can ts 32. 7 31 . 4 26.6 29.8 28.6 34.6 42.1 44. 9 35. 9 41 .5
S ki lle d wo rke rs S p o u se s o r d e p e n d an ts 44. 3 31 . 4 27.4 33.1 40.5 46.9 55.7 60. 7 45. 3 50.9
B u si n e ss P ri n ci p al ap p li can ts 4. 7 4. 3 7.0 8.3 7.0 5.3 6.2 5. 6 3. 8 3.6
B u si n e ss S p o u se s o r d e p e n d an ts 1 4. 0 1 2. 8 21 .4 24.4 20.4 1 4.2 1 6.3 1 4. 3 1 0. 0 9.4
TO T AL E C O N O M I C 95. 6 80. 0 82.3 95.7 96.6 1 00.9 1 20.3 1 25. 5 94. 9 1 05.4
L i ve -i n C are gi ve r P ri n ci p al ap p li can ts 3.0 4.8 4.7 3.8 2. 3 2. 4 2.6
L i ve -i n C are gi ve r S p o u se s o r d e p e n d an ts 0.2 0.8 0.9 0. 5 0. 4 0.6
O th e r 3. 6 4. 2 5.5 7.8 7.5 0.8 4.1 3. 4 2. 5 1 .5
TO T AL M I G R AT I O N P R O G R AM M E 1 73. 6 1 70. 2 1 84.6 21 6.9 202.7 1 84.4 1 97.5 1 91 . 6 1 51 . 2 1 65.4
R E F U G E E P R O G R AM M E 36. 1 35. 9 37.0 24.9 1 9.7 27.8 28.3 24. 1 22. 6 24.4
B acklo g 6. 7 26. 7 33.2 1 5.0 1 .9 0.7 0.3 0. 3 0. 3 0.1
TOTAL 212.8 228.5 249.3 249.0 216.9 212.9 226.1 216.0 174.1 189.8
UNITED STATES
3
I m m e d i ate re lati ve s o f U S ci ti ze n s
4
231 . 7 237. 1 235.5 255.1 249.8 220.4 300.4 322. 4 284. 3
R e lati ve p re fe re n ce s
5
21 4. 6 21 6. 1 21 3.1 226.8 21 2.0 238.1 294.2 21 3. 3 1 91 . 5
TO T AL F AM I L Y 446. 2 453. 2 448.6 481 .8 461 .7 458.5 594.6 535. 8 475. 8
WO R K E R S P R E F E R E N C E S
6
58. 2 59. 5 1 1 6.2 1 47.0 1 23.3 85.3 1 1 7.5 90. 6 77. 5
R E F U G E E S
7
97. 4 1 39. 1 1 1 7.0 1 27.3 1 21 .4 1 1 4.7 1 28.6 1 1 2. 2 54. 7
I R C A le gali zati o n
8
880. 4 1 1 23. 2 1 63.3 24.3 6.0 4.3 4.6 2. 5 1 . 0
L e gali zati o n d e p e n d an ts 52.3 55.3 34.1 0.3 0.2 0. 1 0. 0
D i ve rsi ty P ro gram m e
9
33.9 33.5 41 .1 47.2 58.8 49. 4 45. 5
O th e rs 54. 3 52. 2 42.6 35.0 1 6.8 1 0.2 1 1 .6 7. 9 6. 0
TOTAL 1536.5 1827.2 974.0 904.3 804.4 720.5 915.9 798.4 660.5
Comparative Analysis of the Legislation and the Procedures Governing the Immigration of Family Members in Certain OECD Countries
1 07
O E C D 2000
to th e fre q u e n t u se o f th e sp o n so r te ch n i q u e
wh e re b y fa m i ly m e m b e rs m ay o b ta i n a v i sa i f th e y
a re sp o n so re d , th a t i s to say i f a ci ti ze n o r p e rm a -
n e n t re si d e n t u n d e rt a k e s to p ro v i d e fo r a l l th e i r
n e e d s fo r a v ari a b le p e ri o d o f ti m e . T h i s a p p ro ach
o p e n s u p a b ro ad e r i n te rp re tati o n o f th e fam i ly th at
e n co m p a sse s a sp o n so r s fi a n c e ) , co u si n s a n d
m o re d i st a n t re la ti v e s su ch a s n e p h e ws, n i e ce s,
gran d ch i ld re n o r o rp h an s.
I t fo llo ws th a t fa m i ly re u n i o n i s a co n ce p t th at
vari e s acco rd i n g to e co n o m i c facto rs an d to m o re o r
le ss re stri cti v e co n ce p ti o n s o f th e fa m i ly. T h e re i s
h e n ce a n e e d to i d e n ti fy th o se wh o are li ke ly to b e n -
e fi t fro m re u n i o n B ) , an d we sh all th e n e xam i n e th e
co n d i ti o n s go ve rn i n g fam i ly re u n i o n an d th e e n try o f
th e acco m p an yi n g fam i ly C ) . L astly, fam i ly m e m b e rs
co m e u n d e r le g a l sy ste m s th at m ay va ry fro m o n e
co u n try to th e n e xt, fo r e xam p le i n re sp e ct o f acce ss
to th e lab o u r m arke t an d so ci al we lfare D ) .
B. THE LEGAL FOUNDATION
OF FAMILY REUNION
1. International conventions
M a n y i n te rn a ti o n a l a g re e m e n ts co n tai n re fe r-
e n c e s t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l s ri g h t t o fa m i l y l i fe :
A rti cle 1 6 o f th e U n i v e rsa l D e cla ra ti o n o f H u m a n
R i g h ts o f 1 0 D e ce m b e r 1 9 48 sa y s th a t a n y o n e h a s
th e ri gh t to m arry an d fo u n d a fam i ly; Arti cle 8 o f th e
E u ro p e an C o n ve n ti o n fo r th e P ro te cti o n o f H u m a n
R i gh ts says th at e ve ryo n e h as th e ri gh t to re sp e ct fo r
h i s p ri vate an d fam i ly li fe ; Arti cle 1 9 o f th e E u ro p e an
S o ci al C h arte r o f 8 O cto b e r 1 961 says th at co u n tri e s
m u st m a k e e v e ry e ffo rt t o fa ci l i t a t e t h e fa m i l y
re u n i o n o f m i g ra n t wo rk e rs wh o th e m se lv e s h a v e
p e rm i ssi o n to stay i n th e co u n try ; Arti cle 1 2 o f th e
C o n ve n ti o n o n th e L e gal S tatu s o f M i g ran t Wo rke rs
o f 2 4 N o v e m b e r 1 9 7 7 m a k e s p ro v i si o n fo r fa m i ly
re u n i o n ; an d lastly, th e U n i te d N ati o n s C o n v e n ti o n
o n t h e R i g h t s o f t h e C h i l d o f 2 6 Ja n u a ry 1 9 9 0
2
stre sse s th e p ro te cti o n o f th e ch i ld s i n te re sts, wh i ch
i n tu rn re la te s t o fa m i ly li fe . T h e sa m e a p p li e s to
b i late ral a gre e m e n ts, b u t th e se g o n o fu rth e r th a n
arti cu late th e p ri n ci p le o f fam i ly re u n i o n , an d le ave
p racti cal d e tai ls to n ati o n al laws.
3
2. National laws
M a n y co u n tri e s h a v e b ro u g h t i n le g i sla ti o n o n
fa m i l y re u n i o n d u ri n g th e l a st 2 5 y e a rs o r so . I t
sh o u ld b e p o i n te d o u t i n th i s co n te xt th at as fam i ly
re u n i o n was i n tro d u ce d at th e sam e ti m e as a b an o n
p e rm a n e n t i m m i g rati o n , i t i s th e o n ly m e an s, ap art
fro m a s y l u m , o f e n a b l i n g fo re i g n e rs t o s e t t l e
p e rm an e n tly in m o st o f th e cou n tries u n d er exam in ation .
G e rm an y re fu se d to b e an i m m i grati o n co u n try
fo r a lo n g ti m e , b u t i t h as n o w fi n ally acce p te d fam i ly
i m m i g ra t i o n . F a m i l y re u n i o n wa s i n i t i a l l y t h e
re sp o n si b i li ty o f th e Lnder, b u t a ri gh t n o w co ve rs i t
u n d e r a fe d e ral L aw o n fo re i gn e rs o f 9 Ju ly 1 998.
S i n ce 1 9 8 9 , th e q u e sti o n o f wh i ch v i sa sh o u ld
b e i ssu e d t o m e m b e rs o f a fo re i g n e r s fa m i ly h a s
b e e n d e alt wi th i n Au strali a b y th e M i grati o n R e gu -
lati o n s , b acke d u p b y th e P ro ce d u re Ad vi ce M an -
u a l a n d th e M i g ra ti o n S e ri e s I n st ru cti o n s . T h e
M i g ra t i o n R e g u l a t i o n s w e re a m e n d e d o n
1 N o v e m b e r 1 9 9 9 . I n B e lg i u m , t h e ri g h t t o fa m i ly
re u n i o n i s co ve re d b y th e L aw o f 1 5 D e ce m b e r 1 980,
a s a m e n d e d i n th i s re sp e ct b y th e L a ws o f 6 M a y
a n d 6 A u g u st 1 9 9 3 . I n B u l g a ri a , t h e i ssu e co m e s
u n d e r Arti cle 8 a o f th e L aw o n fo re i g n e rs li vi n g i n
B u lgari a; fam i ly re u n i o n i s also co ve re d i n Arti cle 25
o f th e d ra ft la w o n fo re i g n ci ti ze n s i n B u lg ari a a n d
Arti cle 24 o f th e d raft law o n re fu ge e s.
I n C a n a d a , t h e I m m i g ra t i o n A ct o f 1 9 7 6 a n d
re late d re gu lati o n s co ve r fam i ly re u n i o n . H o we ve r, a
d ra ft re fo rm o f i m m i g ra ti o n law i s cu rre n tly u n d e r
way. I n S p ai n , th e co n d i ti o n s fo r fa m i ly re u n i o n a re
se t o u t i n A rt i cl e 5 4 o f R o y a l D e cre e 1 5 5 /1 9 9 6 o f
2 F e b ru a ry 1 9 96 an d th e I m p le m e n tati o n D e cre e o f
O rgan i c L aw 7/1 985 o n th e ri gh ts an d fre e d o m s o f fo r-
e i gn e rs i n S p ai n . F am i ly re u n i o n i s n o t u n d e rsto o d i n
th e sam e way i n th e U n i te d S tate s an d C an ad a as it i s
i n E u ro p e an co u n tri es.
Am e ri can law i s trad i ti o n ally favo u rab le to fam -
i ly i m m i g ra ti o n . T h e US Immigration Act d e a ls wi th
fa m i l y i m m i g ra t i o n , a n d m a n a g e s t h e si t u a t i o n
th ro u gh th e i ssu e o f vi sas. As far as i m m i gran t wo rk-
e rs a re co n ce rn e d , th e e n try o f fa m i ly m e m b e rs i s
b a se d o n t h e fa m i l y p re fe re n ce sy st e m se e
T a b le I I . 2 ) , a n d m o st i m m i grati o n q u o tas h a ve p ro -
m o te d fa m i ly re u n i o n . T h e US Immigration Act 1990
also co n tai n s a lo n g li st o f vi sas to su i t vari o u s ci rcu m -
sta n ce s, p arti cu larly th o se th at are i ssu e d to fa m i ly
m e m b e rs wh o are d e e m e d to b e n o n -i m m i gran ts.
T h e 1 9 90 A ct a lso i n tro d u ce s q u o ta s fo r m e m -
b e rs o f fa m i li e s o f A m e ri ca n ci ti ze n s wh o a re n o t
i m m e d i ate re lati ve s , th at i s to say re lati v e s o th e r
th an sp o u se s, ch i ld re n u n d e r th e age o f 1 8 an d p ar-
e n ts. T h i s p ro v i si o n p re vi o u sly e xi ste d fo r fo re i gn -
e rs fa m i l y m e m b e rs , t h e fo re i g n m e m b e rs o f
fa m i li e s o f Am e ri ca n ci ti ze n s n o t b e i n g co ve re d b y
q u o t a s. H o we v e r, t h e 1 9 9 0 A ct p ro v i d e s th a t th e
1 08
O E C D 2000
to t a l n u m b e r o f a n A m e ri ca n s i m m e d i a te fa m i l y
m e m b e rs wh o e n te re d th e co u n try i n th e p re vi o u s
ye a r m u st b e se t ag ai n st th e to tal n u m b e r o f v i sa s
i ssu e d fo r fam i ly re u n i o n o r fam i ly p re fe re n ce i n th e
p re v i o u s y e a r. T h i s h a s h a d th e e ffe ct o f fu rth e r
re d u ci n g th e n u m b e r o f vi sas i ssu e d to m e m b e rs o f
fo re i gn e rs fam i li e s.
I n F i n lan d , th e q u e sti o n i s go ve rn e d b y th e L aw
o n fo re i gn e rs o f 1 997, an d b y M i n i ste ri al I n stru cti o n s
o f 1 9 9 3 re la ti n g to fa m i ly re u n i o n fo r re fu ge e s a n d
re si d e n ce an d wo rk p e rm i ts. I n F ran ce , ap art fro m a
D e cre e o f 2 4 D e ce m b e r 1 9 45 e n ab li n g th e fam i li e s
o f fo re i g n e rs to se ttle , i t wa s n o t u n ti l 1 9 7 6 th a t a
d e si re to i n te grate fo re i gn e rs p ro m p te d re gu lati o n s
o n fam i ly re u n i o n d e si gn e d to e n a b le fo re i g n p e o -
p le to le ad n o rm al fam i ly li ve s. A D e cre e o f 26 Ap ri l
1 9 7 6 se t o u t t h e co n d i t i o n s u n d e r wh i ch fa m i l y
m e m b e rs o f a fo re i gn e r li vi n g le gally i n F ran ce co u ld
co m e an d jo i n h i m o r h e r. T h e ri gh t o f fo re i gn e rs i n a
re gu lar si tu a ti o n to b e jo i n e d b y th e i r fam i li e s
4
h as
h ad le gal p ro te cti o n si n ce th e L aw o f 24 Au gu st 1 993
an d i s also co ve re d b y Arti cle s 29-30 biso f th e O rd i -
n an ce o f 2 N o ve m b e r 1 945 a s am e n d e d b y th e L aw
o f 1 1 M ay 1 998.
F a m i l y re u n i o n i n I t a l y i s d e a lt wi th b y L a w
N o . 4 0 o f 1 9 F e b ru a ry 1 9 9 8 a n d a P re s i d e n t i a l
D e cre e o f 3 0 D e ce m b e r 1 9 6 5. I n N o rwa y, i t i s co v -
e re d b y th e I m m i gra ti o n L a w o f 2 4 Ju ly 1 98 8. I n th e
N e th e rlan d s, th e m ai n le gi slati o n i s co n tai n e d i n th e
L a w o n fo re i g n e rs o f 1 3 Ja n u a ry 1 9 6 5 re ce n t l y
a m e n d e d i n 1 9 9 8 ) , th e D e cre e a n d R e g u la ti o n o n
fo re i gn e rs, an d a C i rcu lar wi th n o re al le gal stan d i n g
wh i ch co n ta i n s th e i n stru cti o n s g i v e n to th e i m m i -
g ra t i o n a n d n a ti o n a l i ty se rv i ce s a n d to th e lo ca l
i m m i grati o n p o li ce .
I n th e U n i te d K i n g d o m , th e 1 98 4 I m m i g ra ti o n
R u le s h ave b e e n am e n d e d o n se ve ral o ccasi o n s, th e
m o st re ce n t b e i n g i n 1 997. S lo vaki a h as le gal p ro vi -
si o n s o n fam i ly re u n i o n i n L aw 7 3/9 5 o n fo re i gn e rs
re si d e n ce , L a w 28 3 /9 5 o n re fu g e e s, L a w 3 8 7 /9 6 o n
e m p lo ym e n t, an d L aw 70/97 o n e th n i c S lo vaki an s. I n
S we d e n th e re le v a n t p ro v i si o n s a re se t o u t i n th e
1 98 9 L a w o n fo re i gn e rs. T h e re le va n t le g i sla ti o n i n
S wi tze rlan d i s th e L aw o f 26 M arch 1 931 o n th e re si -
d e n ce a n d se ttle m e n t o f fo re i gn e rs, an d i ts I m p le -
m e n tati o n O rd i n an ce s, p arti cu larly th e O rd i n an ce o f
6 O ct o b e r 1 9 8 6 . I n t h e C ze ch R e p u b l i c, t h e L a w
o f 1 9 9 2 o n fo re i g n e rs l i v i n g i n t h e R e p u b l i c, a s
a m e n d e d i n 1 9 9 4 a n d 1 9 9 6 , co n t a i n s p ro v i si o n s
re lati n g to fam i ly re u n i o n .
C. BENEFICIARIES OF FAMILY REUNION
G e n e rally sp e aki n g, a d i sti n cti o n m ay b e d rawn
b e twe e n p e rm an e n t an d te m p o rary wo rke rs, i n th at
th e fo rm e r h a ve a ri g h t to fa m i ly re u n i o n wh e re a s
th e latte r d o so o n ly rare ly. F am i ly re u n i o n fo r te m -
p o ra ry wo rke rs ap p e a rs to b e o u t o f ki lte r wi th th e
te m p o rary n atu re o f th e i r re si d e n ce .
T h at i s wh y fam i ly re u n i o n i s d e n i e d to te m p o rary
wo rke rs i n G e rm an y wh e re , li ke te m p o rary re si d e n ts,
fam i ly m e m b e rs m u st h ave a wo rk p e rm i t. I n C an ad a,
te m p o rary wo rke rs m ay u su ally b e acco m p an i e d b y
m e m b e rs o f th e i r fam ily b u t th e se are u su ally n o t e n ti -
tle d to wo rk. H o we ve r, a re ce n t re gu la ti o n p e rm i ts
e m p l o y m e n t a u th o ri za ti o n s to b e i ssu e d to th e
sp o u se s o f h i gh ly ski lle d te m p o rary wo rke rs so th e y
m ay acce p t e m p lo ym e n t i n C an ad a wi th o u t jo b vali d a-
ti o n . T h e sp o u se s o f fo re i gn stu d e n ts wh o are n o t fu ll-
ti m e stu d e n ts th e m se lve s m ay b e i ssu e d e m p lo ym e n t
au th o ri zati o n s wi th o u t re q u iri n g jo b vali d ati o n .
Tab le I I .2. Family reunification, by type of relationship with the sponsor 1992-1998, United States
T h o u san d s
Source: S tati sti cal Ye arb o o ks o f th e I m m i grati o n an d N atu rali zati o n S e rvi ce , D e p artm e n t o f Ju sti ce .
1 992 1 993 1 994 1 995 1 996 1 997 1 998
Family members of an American citizen 235.5 255.1 249.8 220.4 300.4 322.4 284.3
S p o u se s 1 28. 4 1 45.8 1 45.2 1 23.2 1 69. 8 1 70.3 . .
C h i ld re n 42. 3 46.8 48.1 48.7 64. 0 76.6 . .
O th e r re lati ve s 64. 8 62.4 56.4 48.4 66. 7 75.5 . .
Family-sponsored immigrants 213.1 226.8 212.0 238.1 294.2 213.3 191.5
N o n m arri e d ch i ld re n o f an Am e ri can ci ti ze n 1 2. 5 1 2.8 1 3.2 1 5.2 20. 9 22.5 . .
S p o u se s an d ch i ld re n o f p e rm an e n t i m m i gran ts 1 1 8. 2 1 28.3 1 1 5.0 1 44.5 1 82. 8 1 1 3.7 . .
M arri e d ch i ld re n o f an Am e ri can ci ti ze n 22. 2 23.4 22.2 20.9 25. 5 21 .9 . .
B ro th e rs an d si ste rs o f an Am e ri can ci ti ze n 60. 2 62.3 61 .6 57.5 65. 0 55.2 . .
Total 448.6 481.8 461.7 458.5 594.6 535.8 475.8
To tal % o f to tal i n flo ws o f p e rm an e n t i m m i gran ts) 46.1 53.3 57.4 63.6 64.9 67.1 72.0
1 09
O E C D 2000
T h e U n i te d S tate s tak e s a m o re le n i e n t li n e b y
a llo wi n g te m p o ra ry wo rk e rs t o b e jo i n e d b y th e i r
fam i li e s, b u t i t d o e s n o t gi ve th e m an e n ti tle m e n t to
wo rk. I n F ran ce , fa m i ly re u n i o n fo r te m p o rary wo rk-
e rs i s n o t n o rm ally p o ssi b le u n le ss i t i s su b je ct to
th e acco m p an yi n g fam i ly p ro ce d u re : i t m ay o n ly b e
u se d i n e xce p ti o n a l ca se s wh e re th o se co n ce rn e d
ap p e ar to h ave a go o d ch an ce o f ad ap ti n g to li fe i n
F ran ce ; i t d o e s n o t gi ve th e m a ri gh t to ge t a jo b .
S wi t z e rl a n d e x c l u d e s c e rt a i n c a t e g o ri e s
se a so n a l wo rk e rs, p e o p le wi th sh o rt-sta y re si -
d e n ce p e rm i t s, t ra i n e e s a n d p e o p l e t a k i n g t h e
wa te rs fro m a n y e n ti t le m e n t t o fa m i ly re u n i o n .
S o m e co u n tri e s also i n clu d e m e m b e rs o f th e fam i -
li e s o f t h e i r o wn n a ti o n a ls i n sp e ci a lly a m e n d e d
fa m i l y re u n i o n l a ws . E xa m p l e s o f t h i s i n cl u d e
B u lg a ri a, C a n ad a, th e U n i te d K i n g d o m wh e re p e r-
m a n e n t re s i d e n t s a re t re a t e d a s n a t i o n a l s ,
A u stra l i a a n d th e U n i t e d S ta t e s wh e re n a ti o n a ls
h a v e p re fe re n ce o v e r fo re i g n e rs, an d F i n la n d , th e
N e th e rlan d s, S lo v a k i a , S wi tze rla n d an d th e C ze ch
R e p u b li c wh e re th e cri te ri o n fo r a wo rke r wh e th e r
a n ati o n a l o r a fo re i gn e r to b e jo i n e d b y h i s fam i ly
i s p e rm an e n t re si d e n ce .
B y co n tra st, u n d e r F re n ch an d B e lgi a n la w, fo r-
e i g n m e m b e rs o f a n a ti o n a l s fam i ly re ce i ve a re si -
d e n ce p e rm i t au to m ati cally. I n G e rm an y, p ro te cti o n
o f th e fa m i ly i s co v e re d b y A rti cle 6 o f th e F u n d a -
m e n t a l L a w; a l t h o u g h i t co v e rs e v e ry o n e , i t i s
d e si g n e d to a p p ly to n a ti o n a ls fi rst a n d fo re m o st.
T h e fo re i g n m e m b e rs o f th e fam i ly o f a G e rm an li v-
i n g i n G e rm a n y a re e n ti tle d to a re si d e n ce p e rm i t
Arti cle 23 o f th e L aw o f 1 990) .
Au stra li a d i st i n g u i sh e s b e twe e n two k i n d s o f
i m m i g ra ti o n : th a t o f fa m i l y m e m b e rs a n d t h a t o f
sk i lle d wo rk e rs. T h e fo rm e r a re a llo we d to e n te r
A u stra li a o n th e b a si s o f th e i r fa m i ly li n k s
5
wi th a
sp o n so r wh o m a y b e a n a ti o n a l , a p e rm a n e n t
i m m i gran t C an ad a i s th e sa m e i n th i s re sp e ct) o r a
N e w Z e alan d n a ti o n al; th e latte r h ave to m e e t sp e -
ci fi c cri te ri a re lati n g to sk i lls an d k n o wle d g e o f th e
l a n g u a g e . S e v e ra l ty p e s o f v i sa re fl e ct d i ffe re n t
ki n d s o f fam i ly li n k, b u t n ati o n als h ave p ri o ri ty wh e n
i t co m e s to b e i n g jo i n e d b y th e i r fam i li e s.
T h e co n ce p t o f th e fam i ly, wh e th e r i t i s th at o f a
wo rk e r, a stu d e n t o r a re fu g e e , i s o p e n to b ro a d
i n te rp re tati o n . I n all th e co u n tri e s u n d e r co n si d e r-
a ti o n , th e fam i ly i n clu d e s th e sp o u se an d ch i ld re n
u n d e r th e age o f 1 8, b u t i t i s so m e ti m e s e xte n d e d to
e m b race o ld e r re la ti v e s an d , i n ce rtai n case s, o th e r
fam i ly m e m b e rs se e Tab le I I .3) .
H o we v e r, a sp e ci al p o i n t n e e d s to b e m ad e i n
co n n e cti o n wi th m e m b e r co u n tri e s o f th e E u ro p e an
C o m m u n i ty: stri ctly sp e aki n g, u n d e r E C law, th e re i s
n o su ch th i n g as fam i ly re u n i o n , as fam i ly m e m b e rs
h a v e a ri g h t to fo llo w o r jo i n a n E C n a ti o n a l wh o
e xe rci se s h i s ri g h t to fre e d o m o f m o v e m e n t; th e y
re ce i ve a re si d e n ce p e rm i t i m m e d i ate ly. I n ad d i ti o n
to th e sp o u se an d ch i ld re n u n d e r th e age o f 21 , th e
fam i ly i rre sp e cti ve o f th e m e m b e rs n ati o n a li ti e s)
i n clu d e s an E C n ati o n al s d e p e n d e n t re lati ve s i n th e
asce n d i n g li n e an d h i s sp o u se .
1. The workers family
a) The spouse
T h e n o ti o n o f sp o u se i s o p e n to a large n u m b e r
o f d e fi n i ti o n s. I n p racti ce , th e q u e sti o n i s wh e th e r i t
i n co rp o ra te s co -h ab i te e s o r th e wi v e s o f a p o ly ga -
m o u s fo re i gn e r. R e p li e s va ry. M o st co u n tri e s i n si st
o n m arri e d co u p le s li vi n g to ge th e r.
Thestatus of spouse
T h e statu s o f sp o u se h as to b e p ro ve d ; i t i s u su -
a l l y co n t a i n e d i n a ce rt i fi ca t e t h a t se t s o u t t h e
h o ld e r s ci v i l sta tu s. Wh e re th e m arri a ge h a s ta ke n
p la ce a b ro a d , o r i f t h e re i s a n y d o u b t a s t o t h e
a u th e n ti ci ty o f th e ce rti fi ca t e th a t h a s b e e n p ro -
d u c e d , i n B e l g i u m , F ra n c e , G e rm a n y a n d t h e
N e th e rla n d s, th e d i p lo m ati c o r co n su la r au th o ri ti e s
m ay b e aske d to au th e n ti cate th e clai m .
A m arri a g e o f co n ve n i e n ce a cts a s a n i m p e d i -
m e n t t o f a m i l y re u n i f i c a t i o n i n F ra n c e , t h e
N e th e rla n d s, S p a i n , a n d S wi tze rlan d , wh e th e r i t i s
b e twe e n fo re i gn e rs o r b e twe e n a S wi ss n ati o n al an d
a fo re i gn e r. T h e m arri a ge m u st h ave take n p la ce at
le ast two ye ars e arli e r fo r fam i ly re u n i o n to b e p e r-
m i tte d i n B u lga ri a. B y wa y o f co m b ati n g th e fo rce d
m arri age s o f ve ry yo u n g ch i ld re n , B e lgi an law state s
th at b o th sp o u se s m u st b e at le ast 1 8 ye ars o f age .
Co-habitees
A d i sti n cti o n m a y b e d rawn b e twe e n co u n tri e s
th at re je ct co -h ab i te e s fo r fam i ly re u n i o n an d th o se
th a t a cce p t th e m . T h e fo rm e r ca te g o ry i n cl u d e s
B e lg i u m , B u lg a ri a , C a n a d a , th e C ze ch R e p u b l i c,
F ran ce , G e rm an y, I taly an d th e U n i te d S tate s.
6
H e re ,
p a rt i cu l a rl y i n t h e ca se o f h o m o se xu a l u n i o n s,
co -h a b i te e s h a v e n o ri g h t to fa m i ly re u n i o n . H o w-
e ve r, i t sh o u ld b e n o te d th at, u n d e r F ran ce s L aw o f
1 5 N o ve m b e r 1 999,
7
two ad u lts o f th e sam e o r d i ffe r-
e n t ge n d e r m ay si gn a ci vi l co ve n an t o f so li d a ri ty
1 1 0
O E C D 2000
Pacte civil de solidarit, o r PACS) a s a b a s i s fo r
co -h a b i tati o n . T h e n e w arra n ge m e n ts wi ll p ro b ab ly
h a ve i m p li ca ti o n s fo r fam i ly re u n i o n . F o r th e ti m e
b e i n g, th e y e n ti tle co -h ab i te e s to a te m p o rary re si -
d e n ce p e rm i t m a rk e d vie prive et familiale), p ro -
vi d e d th at th e two h ave alre ad y li ve d to ge th e r fo r at
le ast th re e ye ars i n th e ca se o f co -h a b i tati o n wi th a
F re n ch o r E U n ati o n al, o r fi ve ye ars fo r co -h ab i tati o n
wi th a n o n -E U n ati o n al.
B y co n trast, i n F i n lan d , N o rway, an d th e U n i te d
K i n gd o m i f th e re lati o n sh i p h as e xi ste d fo r at le ast
two y e a rs, S wi tze rla n d , A u strali a , th e N e th e rla n d s
a n d S we d e n , co -h a b i te e s d o h a v e e n ti tle m e n t t o
fa m i ly re u n i o n . I n th e two la st-n a m e d co u n tri e s, a
h o m o se xu a l re la ti o n sh i p i s n o o b sta cle to fa m i ly
re u n i o n , wh i le i n A u stra l i a i t m u st h a v e b e e n i n
e xi ste n ce fo r a y e a r. A h o m o se xu al re la ti o n sh i p i s
a c c e p t a b l e a s l o n g a s o n e o f t h e p a rt i e s i s a
Tab le I I . 3. Family members eligible to benefit from the family reunification procedure
1 . P o lygam o u s sp o u se s are n o t allo we d to b e n e fi t fro m fam i ly re u n i fi cati o n i n th e co u n tri e s p re se n te d i n th i s Tab le .
2. M u st b e o rp h an s, u n m arri e d an d le ss th an 1 9 ye ars o f age .
S p o u se s
1
N o n m arri e d
p artn e rs
M i n o r ch i ld re n P are n ts
B ro th e rs
an d si ste rs
O th e rs
Au strali a X X
T h e re lati o n sh i p
h o m o se xu al
i n clu d e d ) m u st
h ave e xi ste d fo r at
le ast 1 ye ar
X X X X
N e p h e ws, n i e ce s,
fi an c e ) s
B e lgi u m X X X
O n ly o f
B e lgi u m n ati o n als
o n ly i n e xce p ti o n al
ci rco n stan ce s
B u lgari a X X
C an ad a X U n d e r re vi e w) X X X
2
X
N e p h e ws, n i e ce s,
gran d ch i ld re n )
2
F i an c e ) s
C ze ch R e p . X X X X
F i n lan d X
T h e co u p le m u st
h ave co h ab i te d fo r
at le ast 1 ye ar
X X O n ly i n
e xce p ti o n al case s
O n ly i n
e xce p ti o n al case s
X
F i an c e ) s
F ran ce X X
G e rm an y X X
I taly X X X X D e p e n d e n t
p are n ts fi rst,
se co n d o r th i rd
ge n e rati o n o n ly)
N e th e rlan d s X X
I n clu d i n g
h o m o se xu al
p artn e rs)
X X
S lo vak R e p . X X
S p ai n X X
S wi tze rlan d X X X
U n i te d S tate s X X
Q u o tas
X
Am e ri can
n ati o n als Q u o tas
M arri e d ch i ld re n
o f an Am e ri can
n ati o n al
1 1 1
O E C D 2000
n a ti o n a l, o r h a s a se ttle m e n t p e rm i t, o r h a s b e e n
gi ve n asylu m .
8
T h e re i s n o re fe re n ce to th i s cri te ri o n
i n B u lgari a.
Polygamous husbands
T h e q u e sti o n a s to wh e th e r p o ly ga m o u s fam i -
li e s sh o u ld b e n e fi t fro m fa m i ly re u n i o n h a s b e e n
rai se d i n m an y co u n tri e s, p arti cu larly i n E u ro p e a n
co u n tri e s. T h e cu rre n t si tu a ti o n i s q u i te cle ar: law-
m ake rs o n ly ackn o wle d ge th e E u ro p e an fam i ly, an d
p o lygam o u s m arri a ge s are th e re fo re ru le d o u t. T h i s
i s th e so lu ti o n th at h as b e e n ad o p te d i n all th e le g-
i sl a t i v e sy st e m s e xa m i n e d .
9
Ju sti fi ca ti o n fo r th i s
e xclu si o n i s b ase d o n th e i d e a th at fam i ly re u n i o n i s
d e si g n e d to fu rth e r th e i n te gra ti o n o f fo re i g n e rs i n
th e so ci e ty i n wh i ch th e y are li vi n g, an d p o lygam y, a
m atte r o n wh i ch we ste rn law i s to tally si le n t, m ake s
i n te grati o n i n to we ste rn so ci e ty m u ch m o re d i ffi cu lt,
n o t to say i m p o ssi b le . G e n e rally sp e aki n g, p o ly ga-
m o u s h u sb an d s m ay o n ly b e jo i n e d b y o n e wi fe an d
h e r ch i ld re n . H o we ve r, i n Au strali a, p o lygam o u s h u s-
b a n d s d o n o t m e e t t h e st a t u t o ry d e fi n i t i o n o f
sp o u se a n d th e y a re th e re fo re u n a b l e to ta k e
a d v a n t a g e o f a n y fa m i ly li n k ; h o we v e r, t h e y m a y
b ri n g o ve r all o f th e i r n atu ral an d ad o p te d ) ch i ld re n
as lo n g as th e y are d e p e n d e n t.
I n F ran ce , th e C o u n ci l o f S tate d e ci d e d i n 1 980
1 0
th at th e ri gh t to le ad a n o rm al fam i ly li fe m e an t th at
a p o ly g a m o u s h u sb a n d co u ld b ri n g h i s wi v e s i n to
th e co u n try. T h i s so lu ti o n was re p lace d b y th e L aw
o f 24 Au g u st 1 99 3,
1 1
an d th e re gu lari sa ti o n e xe rci se
carri e d o u t i n Ju n e 1 997 e xclu d e d fo re i gn e rs li vi n g i n
p o lygam o u s re lati o n sh i p s.
An obligation to co-habit
To b e su re th at a m arri age h as re ally take n p lace ,
m an y co u n trie s i n si st th at th e sp o u se s o r co -h ab ite e s)
li ve to ge th e r fo r a p e ri o d o f ti m e . F ailu re to d o so m ay
e n co u rage su sp i ci o n s th at i t i s a m a rri age o f co n ve -
n i e n ce e.g. i n th e N e th e rlan d s, S wi tze rlan d an d th e
U n i te d S tate s) . S e p arati o n an d d i vo rce th e re fo re affe ct
th e sp o u se s le ave to re m ain , p arti cu larly i f it h ap p e n s
d u ri n g a wai ti n g p e ri o d fo llo wi n g e ffe cti ve re u n i o n .
C o u n t ri e s re s p o n d d i ffe re n t l y t o d e a t h : s o m e
e.g. Au strali a, C an ad a, th e N e th e rlan d s, S lo vaki a an d
S wi tze rla n d ) a ssi m i la te i t i n to d i v o rce ; i n C a n a d a ,
d e ath d o e s n o t affe ct th e ri gh t to re m ai n p ro vid e d th e
sp o u se h as arri ve d i n C an ad a, an d m o st o f th e o th e r
co u n trie s i n th e su rve y ad o p t th e sam e attitu d e .
I n m o st co u n t ri e s, d i v o rce m e a n s t h a t t h e
sp o u se s ri g h t t o st a y i s wi t h d ra wn . T h i s i s t h e
si tu a ti o n i n S p ai n , fo r i n stan ce , u n le ss th e sp o u se s
h ad b e e n li vi n g to ge th e r fo r th e p re vi o u s two ye ars,
i n F ra n ce i f th e d i v o rce o ccu rs wi t h i n o n e y e a r o f
re u n i o n , i n th e N e th e rlan d s an d i n S we d e n wh e n i t
o ccu rs wi th i n two ye ars o f re u n i o n , an d i n S wi tze rlan d
wh e n i t o ccu rs wi th i n fi ve ye ars o f re u n i o n . A si m i lar
so lu ti o n i s e m p lo y e d i n S lo v a k i a wh e re th e re si -
d e n ce p e rm i t can n o t b e re n e we d , p arti cu larly i f th e
co u p le h ave n o ch i ld re n o f th e i r o wn .
A wai ti n g p e ri o d o f o n e ye ar ap p li e s i n B e lgi u m
an d F ran ce . U n d e r B e lgi an law,
1 2
th e M i n i ste r h as a
o n e -y e ar wai ti n g p e ri o d th a t m a y b e e xte n d e d b y
th re e m o n th s d u ri n g wh i ch h e m ay d e ci d e wh e th e r a
sp o u se m a y sta y ; h e m a y th e re fo re ch e ck o n th e
co h ab i tati o n ru le d u ri n g th i s p e ri o d .
1 3
I f th e sp o u se s
n o lo n ge r li ve to ge th e r, o r i f th e y are i n th e p ro ce ss
o f ge tti n g d i v o rce d d u ri n g th e y e a r fo llo wi n g th e i r
e n try i n to F ran ce , th e card i ssu e d to th e sp o u se m ay
n o t b e re n e we d te m p o rary card ) an d m ay e ve n b e
wi th d rawn re si d e n t s card ) .
I n F i n la n d , d i v o rce wi th i n two ye a rs o f fa m i ly
re u n i o n c a n c e l s t h e e n t i t l e m e n t t o s t a y i f t h e
s p o u se s h a v e n o ch i l d re n o f t h e i r o wn . I n t h e
N e t h e rl a n d s, i f t h e m a rri a g e o r co -h a b i t a t i o n )
b re a k s u p i n t h e t h re e m o n th s t h a t fo llo w fa m i ly
re u n i o n , th e sp o u se n o lo n g e r h a s an y ri gh t to stay
e xce p t fo r h u m an i tari an re aso n s. Afte r th re e ye ars o f
m arri age , th e sp o u se h a s a p e rso n al e n ti tle m e n t to
stay as lo n g as h e h as li ve d le gally i n th e N e th e rlan d s
fo r a ye ar as a re su lt o f h i s m arri age , an d can su p p o rt
h i m se lf. H e also h as fre e acce ss to th e lab o u r m arke t
wi th o u t th e n e e d fo r au th o ri sati o n . A re fu sal to gran t
le ave to re m ai n m u st take acco u n t o f Arti cle 8 o f th e
E u ro p e a n C o n v e n ti o n o n H u m a n R i g h ts. F i n a lly,
wh e n th e sp o u se o r co -h a b i te e h a s b e e n li v i n g i n
th e co u n try le gally fo r fi ve ye a rs, h e i s e n ti tle d to a
p e rm an e n t re si d e n ce p e rm i t as lo n g a s h e h a s th e
m e an s to su p p o rt h i m se lf, an d i s n o th re at to p u b li c
o rd e r an d p u b li c o r n ati o n al se cu ri ty.
I n G e rm a n y , fa i l u re t o c o m p l y wi t h t h e
co -h a b i ta ti o n ru le re su lts i n th e re si d e n ce p e rm i t
b e i n g wi th d ra wn i f th e co u p l e h a v e li v e d i n th e
F e d e ral R e p u b li c fo r u n d e r fo u r ye a rs. I n B u lga ri a,
th e ri g h t to fa m i ly re u n i o n i s ca n ce lle d i f th e m ar-
ri ag e b re a k s u p wi th i n fi ve y e a rs, o r th e re i s su ffi -
c i e n t e v i d e n ce t h a t co -h a b i t a t i o n h a s ce a se d .
H o we ve r, i n th e case o f re fu ge e s, d i vo rce d o e s n o t
te rm i n ate th e ri g h t to stay o f sp o u se s a n d ch i ld re n .
I n N o rwa y, th e ri g h t to sta y te rm i n a te s i f th e m ar-
ri a g e e n d s wi th i n th re e y e a rs o f re u n i o n , th ro u g h
e i th e r d i vo rce o r d e ath .
1 1 2
O E C D 2000
I n S wi t ze rl a n d , t h e ri g h t t o st a y g ra n t e d t o
sp o u se s te rm i n a te s a s so o n a s th e y ce a se li v i n g
to ge th e r o r g e t d i vo rce d wi th i n fi ve y e a rs o f fa m i ly
re u n i o n . T h e go ve rn m e n t th e n h as d i scre ti o n ary p o w-
e rs to allo w th e i n d i v i d u als to stay. D i ffe re n t p ro vi -
si o n s a p p ly to sp o u se s wh o h a v e b e e n g i v e n a n
e n ti tle m e n t to se ttle : th e y o n ly lo se th e i r ri gh t to stay
i f th e y co m m i t b re ach e s o f p u b li c o rd e r o r i f th e i r se t-
tle m e n t e n ti tle m e n t i s re v o k e d . C h i ld re n h a ve th e
sam e statu s as th e p are n t i n wh o se ch arge th e y are .
H o we ve r, i n so m e co u n tri e s, th e b re a k-u p o f a
m a rri a g e a n d d e a th m a k e n o d i ffe re n ce to fa m i ly
m e m b e rs. T h i s i s tru e o f Au strali a o r I taly wh e re th e
re si d e n ce p e rm i t m ay b e alte re d to i n clu d e a ri gh t
to wo rk o r fo llo w a co u rse o f stu d y) . I t i s also tru e o f
th e U n i te d K i n gd o m i f th e sp o u se o r ch i ld re n h ave
b e e n gran te d p e rm an e n t le ave to re m ai n . T h e so lu -
ti o n i s m o re u n ce rtai n fo r th o se wi th o n ly te m p o rary
le ave to re m ai n . I n th e C ze ch R e p u b li c, a fo re i gn e rs
re si d e n ce p e rm i t m ay e xp i re i f h e fai ls to d e clare an
ab se n ce o f m o re th an 1 80 d ays. F rau d an d fai lu re to
co m p ly wi th cri m i n al law wi ll si m i larly cau se a re si -
d e n ce p e rm i t to b e wi th d ra wn . I n m o st co u n tri e s,
wh e n a co u p le n o lo n ge r li ve to ge th e r as a re su lt o f a
d e a t h , t h i s d o e s n o t re su l t i n t h e re fu s a l o f a
re si d e n ce p e rm i t.
I n G e rm a n y, th e d e a th o f a sp o u se d o e s n o t
au to m ati cally le ad to th e lo ss o f a re si d e n ce p e rm i t;
t h i s c a n b e re n e w e d fro m t h e t i m e t h a t t h e
co -h a b i t a ti o n b e ca m e e ffe ct i v e . T h e sa m e p ro v i -
si o n s ap p ly i n B e lg i u m a n d i n S p ai n wh e re p e o p le
wh o h ave b e n e fi te d fro m fam i ly re u n i o n h ave a ri gh t
th at can n o t b e take n a way fro m th e m : sp o u se s a n d
ch i ld re n are e n ti tle d to th e i r o wn re si d e n ce p e rm i t i f
th e i n i ti ato r o f fam i ly re u n i o n was a le gal re si d e n t i n
th e co u n try at th e ti m e o f d e ath . I n th e N e th e rlan d s,
th e re si d e n ce p e rm i ts o f fa m i ly m e m b e rs a re n o t
re n e we d fo llo wi n g th e d e ath o f th e i n i ti ato r o f fam i ly
re u n i o n . D e ath h a s n o e ffe ct o n th e ri gh t to stay i n
B u lgari a, C an ad a i f p e rm an e n t re si d e n t statu s h as
b e e n gran te d ) , F i n lan d , I taly an d th e C ze ch R e p u b -
li c. I n F ran ce , wh e re th e re are n o sp e ci fi c p ro vi si o n s,
case s are lo o ke d at co m p assi o n ate ly.
C o n v e rse ly, i n N o rwa y th e d e a th o f a sp o u se
with i n th re e ye ars o f re u n i o n le ad s to th e lo ss o f a re si-
d e n ce p e rm i t. I n S we d e n , d e ath wi th i n two ye a rs o f
re u n i o n i s an o b stacle to fu rth e r re sid e n ce i n th e co u n -
try, wh i le i n S wi tze rlan d d e ath h as th e sam e e ffe ct as
d i vo rce i f i t o ccu rs with in fi ve ye ars o f re u n i o n .
I n m an y co u n tri e s, th e go ve rn m e n t m ay re fu se
to i ssu e re si d e n ce p e rm i ts to fo re i gn e rs wh o h a ve
e n te re d m arri age s o f co n ve n i e n ce . E xam p le s i n clu d e
G e rm a n y,
1 4
S p a i n , F ra n ce ,
1 5
S wi tze rla n d a n d t h e
U n i te d S ta te s wh e re a fra u d u le n t m a rri ag e b lo ck s
ri gh ts to fam i ly re u n i o n ,
1 6
o r e ve n i n vali d ate s th e m . I n
o rd e r to e sta b li sh wh e th e r i t i s frau d u le n t, th e U S
au th o ri ti e s I m m i grati o n an d N atu rali zati o n S e rvi ce )
ch e ck o n th e facts su rro u n d i n g th e co -h ab i tati o n .
b) Children
T h e ch i ld re n ta ke n i n to co n si d e ra ti o n are u su -
a ll y le g i ti m a te o r n a tu ra l ch i ld re n wi th a l e g a ll y
e sta b li sh e d re lati o n sh i p . C h i ld re n wh o h av e b e e n
ad o p te d i n Au stra li a, F ra n ce , G e rm an y a n d S p ai n )
o r are i n th e p ro ce ss o f b e i n g ad o p te d C an ad a) m ay
b e n e fi t fro m fam i ly re u n i o n p ro ce d u re s S e e fo r th e
case o f F ran ce , th e d i stri b u ti o n o f p e rso n s wh o h ave
b e n e fi te d fro m fa m i ly re u n i o n a cco rd i n g to th e i r
fa m i l y ti e s i n T a b le I I . 4 . ) A u st ra li a a lso a l lo ws i n
ste p ch i ld re n .
1 7
G e n e ra lly sp e a k i n g, fa m i ly re u n i o n co n ce rn s
th e a p p li can t s u n m a rri e d ch i ld re n , u n d e r th e a g e
o f 1 8, o r wh o d o n o t li ve i n d e p e n d e n tly o f th e i r p ar-
e n ts S p ai n ) , b u t th e age li m i t vari e s fro m co u n try to
co u n try: 1 6 ye ars o f age i n G e rm an y rai se d to 1 8 i n
th e case o f th e ch i ld re n o f re fu ge e s) ; 1 8 i n B e lgi u m ,
B u lg a ri a , F i n la n d , F ra n ce , I t a ly, t h e N e th e rla n d s,
S lo vaki a, S p ai n , S wi tze rlan d an d th e U n i te d S tate s;
an d 1 9 i n C an ad a. T h e age li m i t i s 21 fo r th e ch i ld re n
o f n a ti o n a ls o f a co u n try th a t wa s si g n a to ry to th e
E u ro p e a n S o ci a l C h a rte r o f 1 8 O cto b e r 1 9 6 1 .
1 8
I n
Au strali a th e age li m i t i s 25 i f th e ch i ld i s a fu ll-ti m e
stu d e n t o r d i sa b le d p e rso n . S o m e co u n tri e s, li k e
th e C ze ch R e p u b li c, h ave n o age li m i t fo r ch i ld re n .
T h e ri gh t to fam i ly re u n i o n i s o fte n e xte n d e d to
ch i ld re n wh o a re d e p e n d e n t o n th e a p p l i ca n t s
sp o u se , a n d wh o m u st o b v i o u sly m e e t th e sa m e
e n t ry re q u i re m e n t s a s t h e a p p l i ca n t s ch i l d re n
Au strali a, C an ad a, th e C ze ch R e p u b li c, F i n lan d as
lo n g a s th e y a rri v e wi th th e fo re i g n e r s sp o u se ) ,
F ra n c e , I t a l y , G e rm a n y , t h e N e t h e rl a n d s a n d
S wi tze rla n d ) . S p e ci fi c co n d i t i o n s a re so m e t i m e s
attach e d : fo r e xam p le , i n G e rm an y, fam i ly re u n i o n i s
a n e n ti tle m e n t fo r ch i ld re n b o th o f wh o se p a re n ts
li ve le gally i n th e co u n try, wh i le th e re u n i o n o f ch i l-
d re n age d o ve r 1 6 i s at th e d i scre ti o n o f th e re le van t
au th o ri ti e s; i n B u lgari a, th e ch i ld re n o f B u lgari an ci ti -
ze n s a n d o f p e rm a n e n t re si d e n t s a re i n cl u d e d
u n d e r fam i ly re u n i o n p ro ce d u re s, alth o u gh ad o p te d
ch i ld re n age d o ve r 1 8 are e xclu d e d .
I n F ran ce , fam i ly re u n i o n also co n ce rn s ch i ld re n
u n d e r th e age o f 1 8 i n C an ad a, u n d e r th e age o f 1 9)
1 1 3
O E C D 2000
o f an e arli e r m arri age o f th e ap p li can t o r h i s sp o u se ,
wh e th e r th e i r re lati o n sh i p h a s b e e n e stab li sh e d i n
th a t p are n t s n am e o r th e o th e r p a re n t h a s d i e d o r
h a s n o lo n g e r a n y cla i m to h i s p a re n ta l ri g h ts i n
F ra n ce , th i s also i n clu d e s p o ly ga m o u s p e o p le ) . I n
S wi tze rlan d , fam i ly re u n i o n ri gh ts are o p e n to ch i l-
d re n u n d e r 2 0 o f n a ti o n a ls o f P o rtu g a l, S p a i n a n d
I t a ly. H o we v e r, i f th e p a re n ts a n d ch i ld re n h a v e
b e e n l i v i n g se p a ra te l y fo r m a n y y e a rs a n d o n l y
co m e to ge th e r a s th e ch i ld re n re a ch th e i r m a jo ri ty,
re q u e sts fo r fam i ly re u n i o n a re tu rn e d d o wn o n th e
gro u n d s o f su sp e cte d frau d . I n th e C ze ch R e p u b li c,
all ch i ld re n q u ali fy fo r fam i ly re u n i o n , wh e th e r th e y
are th e ch i ld re n o f th e co u p le o r ju st o n e o f th e p ar-
e n ts, an d wh e th e r th e y are d e p e n d e n t o n th e se p ar-
e n ts o r are i n d e p e n d e n t.
I n so m e co u n tri e s, o ld e r ch i ld re n a lso q u a li fy
fo r fa m i ly re u n i o n i f th e y a re d e p e n d e n t o n th e i r
p a re n t s a n d /o r h a v e a d i sa b i l i t y : t h e y i n cl u d e
B e lg i u m , B u lg a ri a , C a n a d a , t h e C ze ch R e p u b li c,
F i n lan d , G e rm an y, I taly wh e n re u n i o n i s re q u e ste d
b y a n I t a l i a n ci t i z e n , h i s ch i l d re n a n d t h o s e
o f h i s s p o u s e wh o a re o v e r t h e a g e o f 1 8 a n d
i n d e p e n d e n t m ay also b e n e fi t) , th e N e th e rlan d s,
S p ai n an d S wi tze rlan d . Au strali a allo ws ch i ld re n wh o
a re o v e r th e a g e o f 1 8 a n d a re n o t d e p e n d e n t o n
th e i r p are n ts to ap p ly fo r a ski lle d wo rke rs vi sa, an d
n o t o n e th a t co v e rs fa m i ly i m m i gra ti o n . G e n e ra lly
sp e ak i n g, th e b re ak-u p o f a m arri age m ake s n o d i f-
fe re n ce to th e ch i ld re n s le av e to re m ai n , alth o u g h
th e N e th e rla n d s i n si sts th a t th e ch i ld sh o u ld h av e
re si d e d i n th e co u n try fo r at le ast a ye ar.
c) Relatives in the ascending line
R e l a t i v e s i n t h e a sce n d i n g l i n e , o r e l d e rl y
d e p e n d a n t s , a re o ft e n e x c l u d e d fro m fa m i l y
re u n i o n , e xce p t i n u n u su al ci rcu m stan ce s wh e re th e
g o v e rn m e n t h a s d i scre ti o n a ry p o we rs. I n th i s co n -
te xt, so m e co u n tri e s d raw a d i sti n cti o n b e twe e n th e
p a re n t s o f fo re i g n n a t i o n a ls wh o h a v e n o ri g h t to
fam i ly re u n i o n , an d th e p are n ts o f th e i r o wn n ati o n -
a ls wh o d o q u a li fy : th e y i n clu d e B e lg i u m , B u lg ari a
n e w B u lgari an le gi slati o n re stri cts th e ri gh t to fam i ly
re u n i o n to th e p are n ts o f B u lg ari a n ci ti ze n s; i n th e
p ast, i t h ad also b e e n gran te d to th e p are n ts o f p e r-
m a n e n t re si d e n ts) , th e U n i te d S ta te s i t i s m u ch
m o re d i ffi cu lt fo r th e fo re i g n p a re n ts o f a fo re i g n e r
li v i n g i n th e U n i te d S tate s th an fo r th e fo re i gn p ar-
e n ts o f a n A m e ri ca n ci ti ze n to o b ta i n a v i sa ) a n d
S wi tze rlan d .
I n G e rm a n y, fa m i ly re u n i o n o f a n i m m i g ra n t s
p a re n t s i s n o rm a l l y n o t a l l o we d e xc e p t wh e re
re fu sa l co u l d h a v e se ri o u s co n se q u e n ce s, wh e n
th e fo re i g n e r re q u e sti n g fa m i ly re u n i o n i s u n d e r
1 8 ye a rs o f a g e , a n d wh e n th e d e ci si o n i s ju sti fi e d
b y h u m a n i t a ri a n c o n s i d e ra t i o n s. I n A u s t ra l i a ,
th e re a re n o p ro v i si o n s sp e ci fi ca l ly d e a li n g wi th
p a re n ts a n d g ra n d p a re n ts, a lt h o u g h th e y m a y b e
p e rm i t te d to e n te r th e co u n try a s fa m i ly m e m -
b e rs d e p e n d e n t o n t h e fo re i g n e r o r n a t i o n a l .
T h e y q u a li fy fo r a sp e ci a l v i sa i ssu e d u n d e r fa m i ly
i m m i g ra ti o n ru le s, b u t i t m a y o n ly b e re q u e ste d i f
th e sp o n so r h a s b e e n e sta b li sh e d i n Au stra li a
fo r two y e ars.
Tab le I I . 4. Family reunification by type of relationship with the applicant, France, 1992-1998
T h o u san d s
Source: M i grati o n ye arb o o ks, O M I S TAT S , O ffi ce d e s m i grati o n s i n te rn ati o n ale s.
1 992 1 993 1 994 1 995 1 996 1 997 1 998
Related to a French national 23.0 24.3 16.1 16.5 15.6 14.4 15.6
Related to a permanent resident 32.7 32.4 20.6 14.4 13.9 15.5 21.7
B y typ e o f i m m i grati o n
E n try o f fam i ly m e m b e rs 26. 5 25.2 1 5.7 1 2. 4 1 2.0 1 3.2 1 5. 2
R e gu lari sati o n o f fam i ly m e m b e rs 6. 1 7.2 5.0 1 . 9 1 .9 2.4 6. 5
B y re lati o n sh i p wi th th e ap p li can t
H u sb an d 3. 7 3.5 2.2 1 . 5 1 .5 1 .9 1 . 8
Wi fe 1 1 . 4 1 1 .3 7.5 5. 8 5.8 6.6 7. 0
C h i ld 1 6. 7 1 6.7 1 0.7 7. 1 6.6 7.1 1 2. 8
O th e r 0. 8 0.9 0.1
Family members of refugees or stateless persons 1.1 1.2 0.8 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.0
Total 56.8 58.0 37.5 31.6 30.4 31.1 38.3
To tal % o f to tal i n flo ws) 50.6 61.6 58.5 62.6 65.1 66.3 70.6
1 1 4
O E C D 2000
C a n a d a a n d F i n l a n d p e rm i t fa m i l y re u n i o n
wh e re th e b e n e fi ci a ri e s a re p a re n ts. C a n ad a e ve n
allo ws re u n i o n fo r gran d p are n ts wh e n th e re q u e st i s
m a d e b y a C an ad i an n a ti o n a l o r a p e rm a n e n t re si -
d e n t age d 1 9 o r o ve r. I n F ran ce , th e e ld e rly d e p e n -
d a n t s o f a fo re i g n n a t i o n a l m a y n o t u se fa m i l y
re u n i o n p ro ce d u re s, an d m ay o n ly e n te r th e co u n try
as vi si to rs i f th e y can sh o w th at th e y h ave su ffi ci e n t
m e an s to li ve an d p ay fo r h e alth i n su ran ce . A state -
m e n t th at th e i r ch i ld re n li v i n g i n F ra n ce wi ll se e to
th e i r n e e d s m ay b e take n i n to acco u n t i n d e te rm i n i n g
fi n an ci al co n tri b u ti o n .
S p ai n a llo ws th e fam i ly re u n i o n o f a fo re i gn e r s
e ld e rly d e p e n d an ts o n co n d i ti o n th at th e y are fi n an -
ci ally d e p e n d e n t o n th e fo re i gn e r an d th e re are re a-
so n s ju sti fy i n g th e i r co n ti n u e d sta y i n S p ai n . I taly,
th e N e th e rla n d s, S we d e n an d th e C ze ch R e p u b li c
allo w fa m i ly re u n i o n o f p are n ts a n d g ra n d p are n ts;
th e la tte r co u n try a lso a llo ws th e re u n i o n o f clo se
fam i ly m e m b e rs an d , fo r h u m an i tari an re aso n s, e ld -
e rly p e rso n s an d p e o p le li vi n g alo n e . T h e p are n ts o f
a ch i ld u n d e r 1 8 y e a rs o f a g e q u a l i fy fo r fa m i l y
re u n i o n ri gh ts i n S lo vaki a.
d) Brothers and sisters
M o st co u n t ri e s e xclu d e b ro t h e rs a n d si ste rs
fro m fam i ly re u n i o n : th e y i n clu d e B e lgi u m e xce p t
u n d e r te rm s se t o u t i n a n a g re e m e n t) ;
1 9
F i n l a n d
a l t h o u g h th e cl o se re l a ti v e o f a fo re i g n e r m a y
e xce p ti o n ally b e a llo we d to e n te r F i n la n d i f h e i s
e n ti re ly d e p e n d e n t o n th e fo re i gn e r li v i n g th e re ) ;
F ra n ce ; G e rm a n y; S lo v a ki a; a n d S wi tze rla n d . H o w-
e v e r, ce rta i n co u n tri e s d o a d m i t b ro th e rs an d si s-
t e rs: i n A u st ra l i a , fo r i n st a n ce , t h e c a t e g o ry o f
b ro th e rs an d si ste rs i s large r th an th at o f re m ai n i n g
re lati v e s a n d care rs . T h i s latte r g ro u p co n si sts o f
p e o p le wh o wi sh to , an d are ab le to , gi ve su b stan ti al
assi stan ce to a fam i ly m e m b e r, o r to an Au strali an i f
h e h as a se ri o u s h an d i ca p th at wo u ld d i sab le h i m /
h e r fo r at le ast two ye ars. H o we ve r, th e re m u st b e n o
Au strali an p e rso n o r o rg an i sati o n a b le to co ve r th i s
co st . T h e fa m i ly o f a fo re i g n e r s fi a n c e ) i s a lso
allo we d to e n te r.
C a n a d a p ro v i d e s fo r t h e fa m i l y re u n i o n o f
b ro th e rs a n d si ste rs, o f a n e p h e w o r a n i e ce , an d o f
gra n d ch i ld re n i f th e y are o rp h a n s, si n g le an d u n d e r
1 9 ye ars o f ag e . I t also allo ws fam i ly re u n i o n fo r th e
ap p li ca n t s fi a n c e )
20
an d fo r a n yo n e e lse re late d
to th e a p p li ca n t i f h e h a s n o re l a ti v e s, wh e th e r
C an a d i an s o r p e rm an e n t re si d e n ts. I ta ly also o ffe rs
t h i s o p t i o n t o fa m i l y m e m b e rs u p t o t h e t h i rd
d e g re e o f co n sa n g u i n i ty p ro v i d i n g th a t th e a p p li -
ca n t ta k e s re sp o n si b i li ty fo r h i m th i s co n d i ti o n i s
n o t re q u i re d o f I t a li a n ci ti ze n s re q u e sti n g fa m i ly
re u n i o n ) , a n d , a s p re scri b e d b y I ta li a n la w, to fam -
i ly m e m b e rs wi th d i sab i li ti e s. T h e N e th e rlan d s an d
th e C ze ch R e p u b li c a lso a llo w th e fam i ly re u n i o n o f
b ro th e rs a n d si st e rs: i f th e a p p l i ca n t i s a C ze ch
n ati o n al, h e m ay also a sk fo r h i s u n cle s, a u n ts an d
co u si n s to jo i n h i m a s we ll.
2. The families of students
Wi d e ran ge s o f so lu ti o n s are ad o p te d acco rd i n g
to th e co u n try. S o m e co u n tri e s d e n y stu d e n ts th e
ri g h t to fa m i l y re u n i o n ; th i s i s th e ca se i n S p a i n
a n d S wi tze rla n d . O th e rs a llo w i t, o r o n ly d o so i n
ce rta i n ci rcu m st a n ce s: th e U n i te d S t a te s a n d th e
N e th e rla n d s a llo w a st u d e n t s fa m i ly to e n te r th e
co u n try a s lo n g a s th e y d o n o t wo rk . I n C a n a d a ,
wh e re fa m i ly re u n i o n m a i n ly co n ce rn s p e rm a n e n t
i m m i gran ts, a stu d e n t s sp o u se m ay wo rk. I n F ran ce ,
stu d e n ts n o rm a lly h a v e a ri g h t to fa m i ly re u n i o n
si n ce th e C o n sti tu ti o n al C o u rt q u a sh e d th e L aw o f
24 Au gu st 1 99 3 th e y we re d e n i e d u n d e r th i s latte r
le g i sl a t i o n ) ,
2 1
b u t i n p ra ct i ce th e y ra re l y q u a l i fy
b e cau se th e y are u n ab le to sh o w th at th e y h ave su f-
fi ci e n t fi n a n ci a l re so u rce s. I n I ta ly, o n l y stu d e n ts
wi th re si d e n ce p e rm i ts q u ali fy.
L i ke B e lgi u m , G e rm an y gi ve s n o ri gh t o f fam i ly
re u n i o n to th e sp o u se s o f fo re i gn stu d e n ts, b u t d o e s
n o t ru le o u t th e p o ssi b i li ty e i th e r.
2 2
U n d e r B e lg i an
la w, re u n i o n o f a stu d e n t s fam i ly i s co n d i ti o n a l o n
th e stu d e n t h a vi n g su ffi ci e n t m e an s to li ve an d sat-
i sfacto ry acco m m o d ati o n . I n F i n lan d , stu d e n ts o n ly
h av e e n ti tle m e n t to fa m i ly re u n i o n i f th e i r stu d i e s
e xte n d o v e r a p e ri o d o f se v e ra l ye ars, a n d i f th e y
h ave p e rm an e n t le ave to re m ai n .
3. The families of refugees and asylum seekers
T h e co n d i ti o n s g o ve rn i n g th e fam i ly re u n i o n o f
re fu g e e s are u su ally se t o u t i n m o re fle xi b le te rm s
th an i n co m m o n law. I n G e rm an y, a re fu ge e s sp o u se
a n d fa m i l y m e m b e rs h a v e a fu l l e n t i t l e m e n t t o
fam i ly re u n i o n .
I n o t h e r co u n t ri e s, fa m i l y re u n i o n m a y b e
g ran te d to re fu g e e s m o re e asi ly th an to o th e r fo r-
e i gn e rs: i n B u lgari a, th i s ap p li e s to re fu ge e s, fo re i gn -
e rs wi th h u m a n i ta ri a n sta tu s, a n d a sylu m -se e k e rs
p ro vi d i n g th e y h ave acq u i re d th i s statu s; i n F i n lan d ,
fam i ly re u n i o n i s o p e n to re fu ge e s an d p e o p le wh o
h ave b e e n gi ve n a p e rm i t fo r h u m an i tari an re aso n s,
o r b e cau se th e y are i n n e e d o f p ro te cti o n , an d wh o
1 1 5
O E C D 2000
h ave p e rm an e n t le ave to re m ai n . I n th e N e th e rlan d s,
a re fu g e e s ch i l d re n u n d e r th e a g e o f 1 8 a n d h i s
sp o u se q u a li fy fo r fam i ly re u n i o n wi th o u t h avi n g to
m e e t co n d i ti o n s re lati n g to i n co m e a n d a cco m m o -
d ati o n , i f th e y h ave th e sam e n ati o n ali ty as th e re fu -
ge e an d aske d to e n te r th e N e th e rlan d s as th e sam e
ti m e as h i m /h e r, o r h ave th e sam e n ati o n ali ty as th e
re fu ge e a n d h ave fo llo we d h i m to th e N e th e rla n d s
fro m th e i r co u n try o f o ri gi n o r a th i rd co u n try wi th i n
a sh o rt sp ace o f ti m e .
S o m e co u n tri e s i ssu e re si d e n ce p e rm i ts wi th -
o u t m a k i n g th e re fu g e e s p a ss th ro u g h th e fa m i ly
re u n i o n p ro ce d u re ; th e se i n cl u d e B e lg i u m a n d
F ra n ce . I n B e lg i u m , th e fa m i ly m e m b e rs o f a fo r-
e i g n e r wh o h a s a sk e d fo r re fu g e e sta tu s re ce i v e a
state m e n t o f re gi strati o n th at h as th e sam e d u rati o n
a s th e fo re i g n e r s re si d e n ce p e rm i t. I n F ra n ce , th e
fa m i l i e s o f re fu g e e s a re n o t co v e re d b y fa m i l y
re u n i o n p ro vi si o n s, b u t b y Arti cle 1 5 1 0) o f th e O rd i -
n an ce o f 1 94 5. T h i s law gra n ts a fu ll re si d e n t s card ,
e xce p t wh e re th e re i s a th re at to p u b li c o rd e r, to a
re fu g e e re co g n i se d a s su ch b y th e O F P R A Office
franais de protection des rfugis et apatrides , t o h i s
sp o u se , to ch i ld re n wh o are u n d e r th e ag e o f 1 8 o r
wi ll ce le b ra te th e i r 1 8 th b i rth d a y i n th e fo llo wi n g
ye ar, wh e n th e m arri age h as take n p lace p ri o r to th i s
re co gn i ti o n a s a re fu g e e . I f th e m a rri ag e h a s tak e n
p lace su b se q u e n tly, th e re si d e n t s p e rm i t i s i ssu e d
u n d e r th e co n d i ti o n s th at wo u ld ap p ly to th e fo re i gn
sp o u se o f a F re n ch p e rso n , th e m a rri age m u st h a ve
tak e n p la ce a t le ast a ye a r b e fo re , an d th e co u p le
m u st e ffe cti v e ly b e li vi n g to g e th e r. T h e y m u st also
o b tai n a te m p o rary re si d e n ce p e rm i t d u ri n g th e fi rst
ye ar o f th e i r m arri age .
I n th e C ze ch R e p u b li c, a re fu ge e s sp o u se q u ali -
fi e s fo r re u n i o n , a n d b o th h e re a n d i n S l o v a k i a ,
re u n i o n m ay b e au th o ri se d fo r re aso n s li n ke d to th e
i n te re sts o f fo re i gn p o li cy.
T h e d e fi n i ti o n o f fam i ly re u n i o n b e n e fi ci ary var-
i e s co n si d e rab ly fro m o n e co u n try to th e n e xt, b u t
th e re i s an i n cre asi n g co n ve rge n ce o f p racti ce o n th e
co n d i ti o n s.
D. THE CONDITIONS FOR FAMILY REUNION
Alth o u gh th e co n d i ti o n s fo r fam i ly re u n i o n vary
fro m co u n try to co u n try, th e y sh are ce rtai n fe atu re s
wi th re ga rd to th e b asi c co n d i ti o n s an d p ro ce d u re .
T h e se co n d i ti o n s d o n o t ap p ly to m e m b e rs o f th e
fam i li e s o f E C n ati o n als e xe rci si n g th e i r ri gh t o f fre e -
d o m o f m o v e m e n t: th e y a re co v e re d b y th e sa m e
p ro vi si o n s as E C n ati o n als.
1. The basic conditions
T h e b asi c co n d i ti o n s n e e d e d fo r fam i ly re u n i o n
co ve r b o th th e i m m i gran t an d h i s fam i ly m e m b e rs.
a) Conditions that must be met by an immigrant
requesting family reunion
T h e fo re i gn ap p li can t, wh o i s kn o wn i n Au strali a
a n d C an ad a a s th e sp o n so r , i s n o rm ally re q u i re d
to fu lfi l th e fo llo wi n g th re e co n d i ti o n s : th e y re late to
le n gth o f stay, m e an s o f su b si ste n ce an d acco m m o -
d a ti o n se e T a b le I I . 5 ) . H o we v e r, i n S lo v a ki a , o n ly
fo re i g n e rs o f S lo v a k o ri g i n , re fu g e e s, m e m b e rs o f
th e d i p lo m ati c co rp s an d re p re se n tati ve s o f i n te rn a-
ti o n a l g o v e rn m e n t o rg a n i sa ti o n s m a y h a v e th e i r
fam i li e s jo i n th e m .
Length of stay
A m i n i m u m p e ri o d o f stay i s n o rm ally re q u i re d
b e fo re a fo re i gn e r can b e jo i n e d b y h i s fam i ly e xce p t
i n S lo vaki a) . T h i s o fte n i n vo lve s ap p lyi n g fo r a p arti c-
u lar re si d e n ce p e rm i t th at i s n o t o b tai n ab le u n ti l afte r
a ce rtai n p e ri o d o f stay: fo r e xam p le , i n G e rm an y, th e
sp o u se s e n try an d re si d e n ce are p ro te cte d b y law i f
th e fi rst-ge n e rati o n i m m i g ra n t h o ld s e i th e r a re si -
d e n t s card o b tai n ab le afte r a stay o f se ve n ye ars) o r
a si m p le p e rm i t to sta y i f h e wa s m arri e d wh e n h e
e n te re d th e co u n try. An e xce p ti o n i s m ad e i n re sp e ct
o f m i gran ts wh o are allo we d to co m e i n to G e rm an y
fo r h u m an i tari an re aso n s an d wh o h ave e xce p ti o n al
le ave to re m ai n : i n su ch case s, fam i ly re u n i o n m ay b e
g ra n te d i f i t i s n o t p o ssi b le i n th e co u n try o f o ri gi n
Arti cle 31 o f th e Auslnder Gesetz.
H o we ve r, fam i ly re u n i o n i s n o t o p e n to fo re i gn -
e rs wh o h av e re ce i v e d th e co u rt s to le ran ce Dul-
dung o r h ave b e e n fo u n d gu i lty o f a cri m i n al o ffe n ce .
S e co n d -ge n e rati o n fo re i gn e rs m u st b e o ve r th e age
o f 1 8 , th e y m u st h a v e li v e d i n G e rm a n y fo r e i g h t
y e a rs, a n d t h e y m u st h a v e i n d e fi n i t e l e a v e t o
re m ai n ; th i s p e rm i t i s o n ly i ssu e d afte r fi ve ye ars o f
li vi n g i n a re gu lar si tu ati o n . I n Au strali a an d C an ad a,
th e sp o n so r
23
i s a n ati o n al o r a fo re i gn e r wi th re si -
d e n t sta tu s i.e. so m e o n e wh o h a s a v i sa e n ti tli n g
h i m li v e i n th e co u n try o n a re g u la r b a si s) . F o r a
fo re i gn e r to b e jo i n e d b y h i s fam i ly i n B e lg i u m , h e
m u st h a v e b e e n g i v e n au th o ri sa ti o n e i th e r to stay
fo r o v e r th re e m o n th s o r to se tt le . F a m i ly m e m -
b e rs m ay sta y, b u t th e y m u st m e e t th e sa m e co n -
d i t i o n s a s o t h e r fo re i g n e rs, t h a t i s t o sa y t h e y
m u s t h a v e p e rm i s s i o n t o s t a y fo r o v e r t h re e
m o n th s o r p e rm i ssi o n to se ttle .
1 1 6
O E C D 2000
I n C an ad a an d Au strali a, o n ly n ati o n als an d th e
h o ld e rs o f a p e rm an e n t re si d e n ce p e rm i t m ay act as
sp o n so r. I n B u l g a ri a , S p a i n , I t a ly a n d th e C ze ch
R e p u b li c, fo re i g n e rs m u st h a v e p e rm a n e n t le a v e
to re m a i n ; th i s m e a n s th a t th e y h av e a lre a d y b e e n
i n t h e co u n t ry fo r a ce rt a i n t i m e . T o o b t a i n t h e
Tab le I I . 5. Conditions required of applicants for family immigration in some OECD countries
I .n . a. m e an s i n fo rm ati o n n o t avai lab le .
X: F i n an ci n g/H o u si n g co n d i ti o n s re q u i re d .
1 . P e rm an e n t statu s re fe rs to th re e ki n d s o f p e rso n s: fam i ly, ski lle d wo rke rs, re fu ge e s.
R e q u i re d re si d e n ce statu s/
p e rm i t
M i n i m u m d u rati o n o f stay F i n an ci n g co n d i ti o n s H o u si n g co n d i ti o n s
Au strali a P e rm an e n t vi sa
S tu d e n ts are th e re fo re
e xclu d e d
A p e rm an e n t vi sa
o fte n gran te d o n arri val)
su ffi ce s e xce p t fo r th e
ad m i ttan ce o f ce rtai n
cate go ri e s o f fam i ly
m e m b e r fo r wh o m
an ad d i ti o n al 2 ye ars
o f re si d e n ce i s re q u i re d
X X
B e lgi u m 3-m o n th au th o ri sati o n
o f stay
I . n .a.
B u lgari a P e rm an e n t re si d e n ce
p e rm i t
I . n .a.
C an ad a P e rm an e n t vi sa
1
S tu d e n ts are th e re fo re
e xclu d e d
su ffi ce s
P ro o f o f th e sp o n so rs
ab i li ty to su p p o rt i n co m i n g
fam i ly m e m b e rs
X
C ze ch R e p . P e rm an e n t re si d e n ce
p e rm i t
I . n .a. X X
F i n lan d I .n .a. I . n .a.
F ran ce 1 -ye ar te m p o rary
re si d e n ce p e rm i t
o r p e rm an e n t re si d e n ce
p e rm i t 1 0 ye ars)
T h e o b te n ti o n
o f a te m p o rary re si d e n ce
p e rm i t i s su ffi ci e n t fo r th e
p ro ce d u re s to b e gi n
X X
G e rm an y P e rm an e n t re si d e n ce
p e rm i t
R e si d e n t p e rm i ts m ay o n ly
b e o b tai n e d u p o n 8 ye ars
le gal re si d e n ce
X X
I taly P e rm an e n t re si d e n ce
p e rm i t o r 1 -ye ar re si d e n ce
p e rm i t p e rm i t o b tai n e d
fo r re aso n s o f wo rk)
5 ye ars X X
N e th e rlan d s R e si d e n ce p e rm i t vali d
fo r m o re th an 1 ye ar
I . n .a. X X
S lo vak R e p . F o re i gn e rs o f S lo vak
e xtracti o n , re fu ge e s,
d i p lo m ats
I . n .a. X
S p ai n P e rm an e n t re si d e n ce
p e rm i t S tu d e n ts are
th e re fo re e xclu d e d )
6 ye ars X
S wi tze rlan d P e rm an e n t re si d e n ce
p e rm i t S tu d e n ts are
th e re fo re e xclu d e d )
1 0 ye ars 5 ye ars i n so m e
e xce p ti o n al case s)
X X
U n i te d S tate s P e rm an e n t vi sa
gre e n card )
su ffi ce s
X
1 1 7
O E C D 2000
d o cu m e n t a t i o n , th e y m u st h a ve sp e n t a t le a st si x
m o n th s i n S p ai n , an d fi ve ye ars
24
i n I taly. I n I taly, fo r-
e i g n e rs m a y a lso h o l d p e rm i ts a ll o wi n g th e m to
sp e n d at le ast a ye ar i n th e co u n try fo r th e p u rp o se
o f taki n g e m p lo ym e n t o r wo rki n g i n se lf-e m p lo ym e n t,
o r o th e r d o cu m e n tati o n gi vi n g th e m asylu m sta tu s,
a llo wi n g t h e m stu d y, a n d g ra n t i n g t h e m e n try fo r
re li gi o u s re aso n s.
I n F i n l a n d a n d th e N e th e rl a n d s, fo re i g n e rs
m u st h av e p e rm a n e n t le ave to re m ai n fo r at le ast a
y e a r. T h e sa m e ru le a p p li e s i n F ra n ce wh e re t h e
ap p li can t m u st h a ve li ve d th e re le ga lly an d h a d at
le ast a o n e -y e a r p e rm i t
25
i.e. le av e to re m a i n o r a
re si d e n t s ca rd ) . I n S wi tze rlan d , a fo re i gn e r h as n o
e n ti tl e m e n t to fa m i l y re u n i o n u n le ss h e h o ld s a
p e rm i ssi o n to se ttle : th i s p e rm i t i s o n l y i ssu e d
a fte r a sta y o f t e n y e a rs fi v e y e a rs i n th e ca se o f
so m e fo re i g n e rs) .
Financial resources
F am i ly m e m b e rs m u st n o t b e a ch a rge o n th e
p u b li c p u rse o f th e re ce i vi n g co u n try. F o r th i s re a -
so n , th e ap p li can t m u st p ro vi d e e vi d e n ce o f re gu lar
a n d su ffi ci e n t p e rso n a l fi n an ci a l re so u rce s to ca te r
fo r h i s fam i ly s n e e d s: i n m o st ca se s th i s m e a n s h e
m u st h a ve a jo b a n d b e co v e re d b y a so ci al i n su r-
an ce sch e m e . T h i s i s a n o rm al co n d i ti o n fo r p e rm a-
n e n t o r lo n g-te rm le ave to re m ai n . T h e se p ro vi si o n s
also ap p ly i n G e rm an y an d th e N e th e rlan d s wh e re
th e ri g h t to fam i ly re u n i o n i s wi th h e ld fro m p e o p le
wh o are i n re ce i p t o f b e n e fi ts an d so ci al assi stan ce .
I n Au strali a, th e sp o n so r h as to m ake an u n d e r-
tak i n g to p a y fo r h i s fa m i ly m e m b e rs n e e d s fo r a t
le a st two ye ars, an d p o ssi b ly ta ke o u t an i n su ran ce
p o l i c y a g a i n st h a v i n g t o re l y o n s o ci a l a i d . I n
C a n a d a , a l t h o u g h s t a t e a i d ca n b e t a k e n i n t o
acco u n t, th e sp o n so r n o rm a lly h as to p ro ve th at h e
h ad e n o u gh m o n e y d u ri n g th e twe lve m o n th s p re -
ce d i n g th e ap p li cati o n , an d p ro m i se to cate r fo r h i s
fa m i ly s n e e d s fo r a p e ri o d o f te n y e ars. F a i lu re to
co m p ly wi th th i s u n d e rtaki n g m ay p re ve n t h i m fro m
stan d i n g agai n as a sp o n so r.
I n S wi tze rlan d an d th e C ze ch R e p u b li c, i t i s n e c-
e ssary fo r an ap p li can t to p ro vi d e e vi d e n ce o f su ffi -
ci e n t fi n an ci al re so u rce s accru i n g fro m h i s go o d s o r
h i s sp o u se s jo b , o r e lse se t o u t i n a b an k state m e n t
th at h e h as th e e q u i vale n t o f th e m o n th ly m i n i m u m
wage e ach m o n th fo r a ye ar. I n S lo vaki a, th e p e rso n
re ce i v i n g fa m i ly m e m b e rs m u st a lso p a y fo r th e i r
e xp e n se s.
N o co n d i ti o n attach e d to m o n e y o r h avi n g a jo b
i s i m p o se d i n B e lgi u m fam i ly m e m b e rs are n o t co v-
e re d b y Arti cle 3 1 ) o f th e L aw o f 1 5 D e ce m b e r 1 980
wh e re b y, to e n te r th e co u n try, a fo re i g n e r m u st
m an ife stly h ave m e an s o f su b si ste n ce ) an d i n B u lgaria.
I n F i n la n d , m e a n s-te sti n g i s ap p li e d , b u t th e re
i s n o o b li gati o n to h ave a jo b . M e a n s-te sti n g i s n o t
re q u i re d o f re fu ge e s, p e o p le wh o are i n n e e d o f p ro -
te cti o n , o r th o se wh o h a v e b e e n g ran te d e n try fo r
h u m an i tari an re aso n s.
I n F ran ce , an e n tran t s fi n an ci al re so u rce s m u st
b e n o le ss th an th e S M I C
26
an d th e se a re a sse sse d
i n d e p e n d e n tl y fro m a n y fa m i ly co n tri b u ti o n s h e
m a y re ce i v e . A re gu lar so u rce o f i n co m e i s th e so le
co n d i ti o n d e m an d e d o f E C n ati o n als.
I n I taly, wi th th e e xce p ti o n o f re fu ge e s, fo re i gn -
e rs wh o se e k fam i ly re u n i o n m u st sh o w e vi d e n ce o f
a le gal i n co m e o f n o le ss th an th e F am i ly Assi stan ce
B e n e fi t i.e. F R F 1 5 0 0 p e r m o n th ) i f th e y wa n t t o
b ri n g i n o n ly o n e fa m i ly m e m b e r; th i s m i n i m u m i s
d o u b le d fo r two o r th re e p e o p le , an d tri p le d fo r fo u r
o r m o re . To ta l i n co m e i s ca lcu late d o n th e b a si s o f
t h e i n co m e s o f a ll th e p e o p le li v i n g wi th th e fo r-
e i g n e r, b u t th i s co n d i ti o n d o e s n o t ap p ly to I tali a n
ci ti ze n s wh o re q u e st re u n i o n .
T h e N e th e rla n d s sa y th a t a fo re i g n e r wh o h a s
wo rke d u n i n te rru p te d ly fo r th re e ye ars, an d e arn e d
th e m i n i m u m wag e se t b y la w, i s d e e m e d to h a v e
su ffi ci e n t m e an s o f su b si ste n ce
27
as lo n g as th e p ay-
m e n t o f th i s m i n i m u m wa g e i s g u a ra n te e d fo r si x
m o n th s. C o m p e n sati o n p aym e n ts re ce i ve d fo r sh o rt
p e ri o d s o f u n e m p l o y m e n t a re c o u n t e d a s
e m p lo ym e n t i n co m e .
S p e ci al co n d i ti o n s ap p ly to fo u r p arti cu lar typ e s
o f ap p li can t: D u tch n ati o n als, re fu ge e s, re fu ge e s wi th
le ave to re m ai n statu s C ) , an d p e o p le wi th p e rm a-
n e n t le ave to re m ai n . F u rth e rm o re , th e m e an s-te sti n g
co n d i ti o n i s wai ve d i n re sp e ct o f so m e p e o p le : p e o -
p le age d 57 an d o ve r, a p are n t li vi n g alo n e wi th o n e
o r m o re ch i ld re n age d u n d e r 5, p e o p le wi th a to tal,
p e rm a n e n t d i sa b i li ty, an d so m e case s o f lo n g-te rm
u n e m p lo ym e n t. T h e se e xce p ti o n s o n ly ap p ly to th e
fam i ly re u n i o n o f th e sp o u se an d ch i ld re n o f a co u p le
b e lo n gi n g to th e fo u r afo re m e n ti o n e d cate go ri e s.
28
Accommodation
I n A u s t ra l i a , C a n a d a , G e rm a n y a n d t h e
N e th e rlan d s, th e a p p li can t m u st sh o w e vi d e n ce o f
a d e q u a te a cco m m o d a t i o n i n wh i ch to h o u se h i s
fam i ly wh e n h e m ake s th e ap p li cati o n .
1 1 8
O E C D 2000
T h i s co n d i ti o n i s wa i ve d i n th e N e th e rla n d s i n
th e ca se o f p e o p le wi th D u tch n ati o n ali ty, re fu ge e s
an d th o se wh o h ave b e e n gran te d asylu m ; th e sam e
co n d i ti o n i s re q u i re d i n F ran ce wh e re th e ap p li can t
m u st , wh e n th e fa m i ly re u n i o n ta k e s e ffe ct, h a v e
acco m m o d ati o n d e e m e d to b e n o rm al fo r a si m i larly
co n sti tu te d fa m i ly li v i n g i n F ra n ce . I n I taly, a p p li -
ca n t s m u st h a v e su i t a b l e a cc o m m o d a t i o n t h a t
m e e ts sta tu to ry re q u i re m e n ts. T h e co n se n t o f th e
o wn e r o f th e a cco m m o d a ti o n i s n e ce ssa ry i n th e
case o f fam i ly re u n i o n affe cti n g ch i ld re n u n d e r th e
a g e o f 1 4 , a l t h o u g h t h i s co n d i t i o n i s wa i v e d fo r
I ta li a n ci t i ze n s se e k i n g re u n i o n ; re fu g e e s a re n o t
co v e re d b y th i s ru le . S i m i larly, i n S wi tze rla n d , su i t-
ab le acco m m o d a ti o n an d ch i ld -care arran g e m e n ts
are co m p u lso ry.
I n th e C ze ch R e p u b li c, th e ap p li can t m u st o wn
th e p ro p e rty, an d b e ab le to p re se n t th e ti tle d e e d
o r le ase . T h i s acco m m o d a ti o n te st i s n o t ap p li e d i n
B e lgi u m , B u lgari a, S p ai n , th e U n i te d S tate s, F i n lan d
o r S lo vaki a.
b) Conditions that must be met by family members
who come in under a family reunion scheme
No threat to public order
I n n o co u n try m ay fam i ly m e m b e rs co n sti tu te a
th re a t to p u b li c o rd e r, p u b li c se cu ri ty o r n a ti o n a l
se cu ri ty se e T a b le I I . 6 ) . I n F ra n ce , th e y m u st n o t
h ave b e e n e xp e lle d fro m a co u n try o r b an n e d fro m
e n te ri n g a n o th e r, a n d i n C a n ad a , F i n la n d a n d th e
C ze ch R e p u b l i c t h e y m u st n o t h a v e a cri m i n a l
re co rd . I n I taly, fam i ly m e m b e rs m u st n o t b e a th re at
to p u b li c o rd e r e i th e r i n I ta ly o r i n an o th e r co u n try
th a t i m p le m e n ts th e S ch e n g e n a gre e m e n ts. I n th e
N e t h e rla n d s, fa m i ly m e m b e rs o v e r t h e a g e o f 1 8
m u st h an d i n a si g n e d sta te m e n t th a t th e y d o n o t
h ave a cri m i n al re co rd ; i m p ri so n m e n t fo r a cri m i n al
o ffe n ce wi th n o p o ssi b i l i t y o f re m i ssi o n m a y b e
g ro u n d s fo r re fu si n g re u n i o n . M o re l e n i e n t ru le s
ap p ly to a D u tch p e rso n s fam i ly m e m b e rs, re fu ge e s
an d th o se wh o h ave b e e n gi ve n asylu m . I n S lo vaki a,
a fam i ly m e m b e r m u st n o t h ave co m m i tte d a se ri o u s
o ffe n ce o r wo rke d i n th e co u n try i lle gally.
Thehealth test
I n so m e co u n tri e s, p e o p le co v e re d b y a fam i ly
re u n i o n p ro ce d u re m u st n o t h ave an i lln e ss o r co n d i -
ti o n th at e n d an ge rs p u b li c h e alth , p u b lic o rd e r o r p u b -
l i c s e cu ri t y. I n C a n a d a , S p a i n , F ra n ce a n d t h e
N e th e rlan d s, th e y m u st p ro d u ce a vali d m e d i cal ce rti f-
i cate . I n C an ad a, th e m e d i cal ce rti fi cate m u st b e vali d
at th e tim e o f lan d i n g. T h i s co n d i ti o n is n o t e n fo rce d in
o th e r co u n tri e s.
O n ce -an d -fo r-all reunion and cascade reunion
O n ly so m e co u n tri e s h ave re gu lati o n s co ve ri n g
th i s. A u st ra li a li m i t s sp o n so ri n g th e re u n i o n o f a
sp o u se , fi a n c e ) o r h o m o se xu a l p a rtn e r to two
o cca si o n s wi th i n a sp ace o f fi ve ye a rs. M o re o v e r, a
sp o u se , fi a n c e ) o r h o m o se xu a l p a rtn e r wh o h a s
b e e n sp o n so re d m ay n o t act as a sp o n so r fo r an o th e r
fi ve ye ars. T h e re are a fe w e xce p ti o n s to th i s ru le i n
th e ca se o f d e a t h a n d i n th e e v e n t o f se p a ra ti o n
wh e re th e re are ch i ld re n .
S i n ce th e law o f 1 9 8 4, B e lg i a n la w h as b a n n e d
cascad e re u n i o n e xce p t wh e re a tre aty state s to th e
co n t ra ry.
2 9
T h e re fo re , wh e n a fo re i g n e r h a s b e e n
g i ve n p e rm i ssi o n to sta y u n d e r p ro v i si o n s re lati n g
Tab le I I .6. Conditions to be fulfilled by family members seeking to be accepted under family reunification procedure
N o t kn o wn to b e a th re at to
p u b li c o rd e r
Ab se n ce o f cri m i n al re co rd H e alth co n d i ti o n s P o ssi b i li ty o f ch an gi n g statu s
Au strali a X X X
B e lgi u m X X
B u lgari a X
C an ad a X X X
C ze ch R e p . X X
F i n lan d X X X
F ran ce X X X
G e rm an y X i n so m e e xce p ti o n al case s
I taly X X
N e th e rlan d s X X X X o n ly re fu ge e s)
S lo vak R e p . X X
S p ai n X X
S wi tze rlan d X
U n i te d S tate s X
1 1 9
O E C D 2000
to fam i ly re u n i o n , h e i s n o t allo we d to b e n e fi t fro m
th i s p ro ce d u re agai n . M o re o ve r, wh e n fam i ly re u n i o n
h as b e e n re q u e ste d i n re sp e ct o f so m e fam i ly m e m -
b e rs, th e re u n i o n o f o t h e r m e m b e rs m a y n o t b e
re q u e ste d d u ri n g th a t ye ar o r i n th e ye ar fo llo wi n g
th e i n i ti al re u n i o n .
T h e L a w o f 1 9 9 3 i n F ra n ce st a t e s th a t fa m i ly
re u n i o n m a y b e re q u e ste d i n re sp e ct o f a ll fa m i ly
m e m b e rs, b u t la wm a k e rs i n cl u d e d a n e xce p t i o n
wh e n th e y d e ci d e d th e fa m i ly re u n i o n co u l d b e
gran te d fo r re aso n s li n ke d to th e ch i ld s i n te re sts. T h e
law p ro vi d e s fo r P re fe cts to h ave wi d e p o we rs o f d i s-
cre ti o n i n th i s re gard ; th e se p ro vi si o n s d o n o t ap p ly
to Alge ri an s. I n th e N e th e rlan d s, fam i ly m e m b e rs wh o
h ave e n te re d th e co u n try u n d e r fam i ly re u n i o n p ro -
ce d u re s si n ce 1 7 S e p te m b e r 1 993 can n o t th e m se lve s
ap p ly fo r fam i ly re u n i o n fo r an o th e r th re e ye ars.
Regularisation of family members already in thecountry
F a m i ly m e m b e rs fre q u e n tl y n e e d n o t h a v e
l i v e d i n t h e co u n t ry i n o rd e r t o u se t h e fa m i l y
re u n i o n p ro ce d u re , b u t t h i s ri g h t i s su b j e ct t o
a m e n d m e n t i n ce rta i n co u n tri e s; i t i s e v e n a b o l-
i sh e d wh e n th e law p ro vi d e s fo r p o ssi b le re gu lari sa-
ti o n . I n G e rm an y, re gu lari sati o n ve ry ra re ly a p p li e s
i n th e e v e n t o f a m a rri a g e th a t ta k e s p la ce a fte r
i m m i grati o n an d wh e n a ch i ld i s b o rn i n th e co u n try;
h o we ve r, re gu lari sati o n i s o u t o f th e q u e sti o n i f th e
fam i ly m e m b e r h o ld s an o rd i n ary to u ri st vi sa.
I n F ra n ce , n o re g u lari sa ti o n i s p o ssi b le u n d e r
fa m i ly re u n i o n ru le s fo r fo re i gn e rs a lre ad y li v i n g i n
th e co u n try; h o we ve r, th e C i rcu lar o f 25 Ju n e 1 997 o n
th e re gu lari sati o n o f ce rtai n fo re i gn e rs p ro v i d e s fo r
th e re gu lari sati o n o f ch i ld re n u n d e r 1 6 wh o e n te re d
F ran ce i n b re ach o f th e fam i ly re u n i o n p ro ce d u re .
30
T h e p ri n ci p le o f n o n -re gu la ri sa ti o n h a s ap p li e d i n
th e N e th e rlan d s si n ce th e L aw o f 1 1 D e ce m b e r 1 998
wh e re b y fo re i gn e rs h ave to re q u e st a lo n g-stay vi sa
fro m th e i r co u n try o f o ri gi n . E xce p ti o n s are m ad e i n
th e ca se o f re fu g e e s. R e g u la ri sa ti o n i s o ffi ci a ll y
i m p o ssi b le i n S wi tze rlan d .
B y co n trast, so m e co u n tri e s allo w th e re gu lari -
sa t i o n o f fa m i ly m e m b e rs wh o a re a lre a d y i n th e
co u n try. F o r e xam p le , Au strali a allo ws th e m to ap p ly
fo r a p e rm a n e n t v i sa wh e n t h e y a re a l re a d y i n
Au strali a. I n B e lgi u m , a ch e ck i s m ad e to e n su re th at
e n try i n to th e co u n try wa s re g u la r, b u t a fo re i g n e r
wh o p re se n ts p a p e rs p ro v i n g th at h e fa lls i n to o n e
o f th e ca te go ri e s co n tai n e d i n Arti cle 1 0 o f th e L aw
o f 1 980 m u st b e li ste d o n th e re gi ste r o f fo re i gn e rs.
T h e lo cal au th o ri ty i n fo rm s th e M i n i ste r an d ge ts h i s
agre e m e n t; th i s m e an s th at th e fo re i gn e rs p re se n ce
i n th e co u n try i s n o t an o b stacle to fam i ly re u n i o n .
I n F i n lan d , re gu lari sati o n i s p o ssi b le i f a re fu sal
wo u ld b e u n re a so n a b le . T h i s i s a lso tru e i n I t a ly
wh e re a v ali d p e rm i t to stay m a y b e tu rn e d i n to a
p e rm i t to stay i ssu e d fo r fam i ly re aso n s, alth o u gh i t
d o e s n o t ap p ly to m e m b e rs o f an I tali an s fam i ly wh o
h o ld a re si d e n ce card an d th e re fo re h ave an e n ti tle -
m e n t to li ve i n I taly. B u lgari a an d S lo vaki a d i sp e n se
wi th th i s li m i tati o n .
2. The procedure
I n m o st co u n tri e s, th e go ve rn m e n t h as wi d e d i s-
cre ti o n ary p o we rs to allo w o r re je ct fam i ly re u n i o n ,
a lth o u g h th e re a re ca se s wh e re re u n i o n i s a ri g h t
G e rm a n y ) o r wh e re th e g o v e rn m e n t ca n n o t tu rn
d o wn an ap p li cati o n fo r re u n i o n i f th e co n d i ti o n s are
m e t B e lgi u m an d F ran ce ) . T h e p ro ce d u re s v ary : i n
so m e co u n tri e s th e y are o p e rate d b y sp e ci al o rgan i -
sati o n s; i n o th e rs th e i m m i grati o n au th o ri ti e s co n tro l
t h e m . T h e l a t t e r s y s t e m a p p l i e s i n A u s t ra l i a ,
B e lgi u m an d C an ad a.
a) The competent authorities and the processing
of requests
C o m p e te n ce to d e ci d e o n fa m i ly re u n i o n li e s
wi th th e F e d e ra l go ve rn m e n ts F o re i gn M i n i stri e s) ,
F o re i g n e rs O ffi ce s i n th e Lnder, a n d a u th o ri ti e s
sp e ci ali si n g i n th e statu s o f fo re i gn e rs i n ce rtai n ci t-
i e s. T h e ap p li cati o n i s m a d e to th e d e p artm e n t at
th e M a y o r s O ffi ce i n th e m a i n to wn i n th e re g i o n
wi th re sp o n si b i li ty fo r fo re i g n e rs. T h e a p p li ca n t
m u st p ro vi d e all n e ce ssary d o cu m e n ta ry e vi d e n ce .
B e cau se o f th e wi d e p o we rs o f d i scre ti o n ava i lab le
to th e go ve rn m e n t, fai lu re to m e e t th e se co n d i ti o n s
d o e s n o t n e ce ssari ly m e an th a t th e ap p li cati o n wi ll
b e tu rn e d d o wn .
I n Au strali a, th e D e p artm e n t o f I m m i grati o n an d
M u lti cu ltu ra l Affai rs h a s au th o ri ty to gran t i m m i gra-
ti o n p a p e rs a n d i ssu e p e rm a n e n t e n try v i sa s. I n
B e lgi u m , th e n o rm al p ro ce d u re fo r fo re i gn e rs e n te r-
i n g th e co u n try i s u se d . A fo re i g n e r wi th le a v e to
re m a i n o n l y h a s to p ro v i d e th e g o v e rn m e n t wi th
p ro o f th at h e falls i n to o n e o f th e cate go ri e s li ste d i n
Arti cle 1 0 o f th e L aw, an d i n p a rti cu lar p aragrap h 4.
H e i s gi ve n fu ll le ave to re m ai n i f h e m e e ts th e se co n -
d i ti o n s, th e go ve rn m e n t s ro le b e i n g si m p ly to ch e ck
th at th e co n d i ti o n s a re m e t. An i n i ti a l e xa m i n a ti o n
p h ase lo o ki n g at th e ad m i ssi b i li ty o f th e ap p li cati o n
t o re m a i n i s th e ta sk o f lo ca l a u th o ri t y ; a se co n d
1 20
O E C D 2000
p h ase th at fo cu se s o n th e co ge n cy o f th e re q u e st i s
th e re sp o n si b i li ty o f th e F o re i gn e rs O ffi ce .
I n B u lgari a, th e ap p li cati o n i s ad d re sse d to th e
M i n i stry o f th e I n te ri o r, th e n a ti o n a l law-an d -o rd e r
e n fo rce m e n t d e p artm e n t wi th au th o ri ty to i ssu e vi sas
an d p assp o rts. I n F i n lan d , th e D i re cto r o f I m m i grati o n
M i n i stry o f th e I n te ri o r h as au th o ri ty to allo w fam i ly
re u n i o n ; h e take s ad vi ce fro m th e F o re i gn E m b assy
an d lo cal law-an d -o rd e r age n ci e s. I n C an ad a, fam i ly
m e m b e rs are gi ve n p e rm i ssi o n to e n te r th e co u n try
b y th e i m m i grati o n au th o ri ti e s o r b y th e i m m i grati o n
se rvi ce s i n Q u e b e c fo r p e o p le wi sh i n g to se ttle th e re .
I f th e re i s a cri m e o r se cu ri ty i ssu e , re sp o n si b i li ty i s
p asse d to th e R o yal C an ad i a n M o u n te d P o li ce a n d
th e Canadian Security IntelligenceService.
I n F ra n ce , a re q u e st fo r fa m i ly re u n i o n i s su b -
m i tte d to th e D D AS S Direction dpartementaledelaction
sanitaire et sociale, wh i ch e xam i n e s ad m i ssi b i li ty. I f th e
ap p li can t m e e ts th e co n d i ti o n s re lati n g to stay a n d
p e ri o d o f stay, an d fam i ly m e m b e rs m e e t co n d i ti o n s
se t o u t i n A rti cle 2 9 o f th e O rd i n a n ce o f 1 9 4 5 , th e
D D AS S i ssu e s th e ap p li can t wi th a state m e n t i n su p -
p o rt an d se n d s a co p y o f th e fi le to th e P re fe ctu re ,
a n d to th e O M I Office des Migrations Internationales
wh i ch o ve rse e s co n d i ti o n s re lati n g to th e ap p li can t s
a cco m m o d a ti o n
3 1
a n d fi n a n ce s. T h e P re fe ctu re i s
th e n co n ta cte d to ch e ck th a t fa m i ly m e m b e rs a re
n o t a th re at to p u b li c o rd e r.
I n I taly, th e C o m m i ssi o n e r o f P o li ce gra n ts p e r-
m i ssi o n i n th e a p p li ca n t s to wn o f re si d e n ce ; th e
ap p li can t m ay ap p e al agai n st re fu sal to th e co u rt i n
th e are a wh e re h e li ve s. I f th e ap p li can t i s an I tali an
ci ti ze n , th e vi sa i s i ssu e d b y th e I tali an e m b assy o r
co n su late a b ro a d . I n th e N e th e rlan d s, th e co m p e -
te n t au th o ri ti e s a re th e D e p a rtm e n t o f I m m i gra ti o n
an d N atu rali sati o n at n ati o n al le ve l) , wh i ch co m e s
u n d e r th e M i n i stry o f Ju sti ce , a n d th e F o re i g n e rs
P o li ce at lo ca l le ve l) . I n S wi tze rlan d , a u th o ri ty li e s
wi th can to n al go ve rn m e n ts.
I n S lo v a k i a , t h e re sp o n si b i li ty re sts wi th th e
M i n i st ry o f F o re i g n A ffa i rs, a s fa r a s p e o p l e o f
S lo vak i an o ri gi n are co n ce rn e d , an d th e M i n i stry o f
th e I n te ri o r fo r th e o th e rs. S i m i la rly, i n th e C ze ch
R e p u b li c, i t i s a m atte r fo r th e M i n i stry o f th e I n te -
ri o rs D e p a rtm e n t o f F o re i gn e rs an d B o rd e r P o li ce .
T h e re q u e st i s su b m i tt e d i n t h e fi rst i n sta n ce to
re p re se n tati ve s o f th e d i stri ct.
b) The decision
I n g e n e ra l te rm s, th e re i s h i e ra rch i ca l a n d /o r
a d m i n i stra ti v e , a n d so m e ti m e s le g a l, re co u rse to
d e ci si o n s b lo cki n g fam i ly re u n i o n . F i n lan d i s th e o n ly
e xce p ti o n . I n G e rm an y, re aso n e d d e ci si o n s are take n
b y th e lo cal o r re gio n al go ve rn m e n t to wh i ch th e ap p li -
cati o n was m ad e ; a re fu sal, o r th e ab se n ce o f a re p ly
afte r a p e ri o d o f th re e m o n th s, b rin gs th e m atte r to th e
atte n tio n o f th e Ad m i n i strati ve Tri b u n al. T h i s ch alle n ge
m u st b e p re ce d e d b y a h i e rarch i cal ap p ro ach , an d i t i s
n o t p o ssib le if th e ap p li can t i s ab ro ad .
I f a v i sa a p p li ca ti o n i s re fu se d i n A u st ra l i a ,
ap p li cati o n can b e m ad e fo r re vi e w b y th e Migration
Internal ReviewOffice (MIRO) a n d fo r a p p e a l to t h e
Immigration ReviewTribunal (IRT). I n B e lgi u m , th e d e ci -
si o n i s tak e n b y th e co m p e te n t M i n i ste r wi th i n o n e
y e a r; th i s p e ri o d m a y b e e xte n d e d o n ce b y th re e
m o n th s; th e fo re i gn e r s n a m e i s th e n li ste d o n th e
lo ca l a u th o ri t y s re g i st e r o f fo re i g n e rs. R e fu sa l t o
gran t p e rm i ssi o n tri gge rs a h i e ra rch i cal re co u rse i n
law b y way o f a re vi e w b e fo re th e M i n i ste r; th e latte r
m u st se e k a n o p i n i o n fro m th e C o n su lta ti v e C o m -
m i ssi o n o f F o re i gn e rs, an d p o ssi b ly se e k an n u lm e n t
b e fo re th e C o u n ci l o f S tate .
I n B u lg a ri a , th e p e rso n wh o i s re fu se d fa m i ly
re u n i o n m a y ta k e h i s ca se to th e R e g i o n a l C o u rt
wi th i n 7 d ays o f b e i n g n o ti fi e d o f th e d e ci si o n , o r to
th e S u p re m e A d m i n i stra ti v e C o u rt wi th i n 1 4 d a ys,
d e p e n d i n g o n th e d e p artm e n t th at to o k th e d e ci si o n .
I n C a n a d a , t h e p e rs o n wh o se sp o n so rs h i p
a p p li ca ti o n fo r fa m i ly re u n i o n h a s b e e n re fu se d
m a y a p p e a l to th e Immigration Appeal Division of the
Immigration and Refugee Board I R B ) . T h e Immigration
Appeal Division se n d s th e d e ci si o n a n d re a so n s fo r
re fu sal to th e go ve rn m e n t d e p artm e n t re sp o n si b le
fo r vi sas.
I n F ran ce , th e P re fe ct m ay, wi th i n si x m o n th s o f
th e i n i ti al ap p li cati o n b e i n g su b m i tte d , d e ci d e i n a
re a so n e d a rg u m e n t to p e rm i t fam i ly re u n i o n i f th e
co n d i ti o n s are m e t. Ap p e als agai n st p o ssi b le re fu s-
als are h e ard b y th e M i n i stry o f th e I n te ri o r Direction
des liberts publiques et des affaires juridiques, o r DLPAJ ,
th e M i n i stry o f S o ci al Affai rs Direction dela Population
et des Migrations, o r DPM , d e p e n d i n g o n th e co m p e -
te n ce o f e ach o f i ts d e p a rtm e n ts. Acti o n s ultravires
m ay b e b ro u gh t b e fo re Ad m i n i strati ve T ri b u n als at a
late r d ate .
I n I taly, ap p e als agai n st a d e ci si o n to re fu se fam -
i ly re u n i o n are h e ard b y th e re gi o n al ad m i n i strati ve
tri b u n a l o f th e fo re i g n e r s le g a l h o m e to wn . I n th e
N e th e rla n d s, a n a d m i n i stra ti v e ch a lle n g e m a y b e
m ad e to th e M i n i stry o f Ju sti ce s D e p artm e n t o f I m m i -
grati o n an d N atu rali sati o n s; th e case m ay th e n go o n
to th e d i stri ct tri b u n al sp e ci ali si n g i n i m m i grati o n law.
1 21
O E C D 2000
I n S wi t ze rla n d , ca n to n a l d e ci si o n s th a t a re a lso
ad m i n i stra ti ve d e ci si o n s m a y b e ch alle n g e d u n d e r
e a ch ca n to n s p ro ce d u ra l la w. Wh e re th e fe d e ra l
au th o ri ti e s h ave co m p e te n ce , a ch alle n g e i s p o ssi -
b le u n d e r fe d e ra l p ro ce d u ra l ru le s. L a stly, wh e n a
fo re i gn e r h as a p e rm i t to stay, h e ca n ta ke h i s ca se
to th e F e d e ral Tri b u n al.
I n S l o v a k i a , a d e ci si o n m u st b e t a k e n wi th i n
6 0 d a y s o f th e a p p li ca ti o n b e i n g m a d e ; o rd i n a ry
a d m i n i stra ti ve p ro ce d u re s m a y b e i n v o ke d i n th e
e v e n t o f re fu sa l. I n th e C ze ch R e p u b li c, th e ap p li -
ca n t m a y a p p e a l a g a i n st th e d i st ri ct a u th o ri ti e s
d e ci si o n to th e M i n i ste r o f th e I n te ri o rs D e p artm e n t
o f th e F o re i gn e rs an d F ro n ti e r P o li ce ; th e i r d e ci si o n
i s fi n al. I n F i n la n d , th e re i s n o wa y o f a p p e a li n g a
re fu sal to g ran t e n try. D ra ft le g i slati o n p ro vi d e s fo r
th e p o ssi b i li ty o f an ap p e al, b u t i t h as n o t ye t b e e n
v o t e d o n ; h o we v e r, t h e fa m i l y m e m b e r wh o i s
alre ad y i n th e co u n try m ay go to th e ad m i n i strati ve
tri b u n als to ap p e al agai n st a d e ci si o n to re fu se .
E. THE EFFECTS OF FAMILY REUNION
T h e g ran ti n g o f fa m i ly re u n i o n b ri n g s wi th i t a
n u m b e r o f ri gh ts: th e y i n clu d e le ave to re m ai n , th e
ri gh t to wo rk, so ci al p ro te cti o n , an d p ro te cti o n fro m
b e i n g re m o ve d fro m th e co u n try. T h e si tu ati o n var-
i e s c o n si d e ra b l y fro m c o u n t ry t o co u n t ry s e e
Tab le I I . 7) .
1. The granting of a permit to stay
G e n e ra l l y s p e a k i n g , fa m i l y m e m b e rs a re
gran te d th e sam e p e rm i t to stay as th e p e rso n th e y
h a ve co m e to jo i n ; i t m a y b e te m p o ra ry o r p e rm a -
n e n t, alth o u g h th e re a re so m e ti m e s e xce p ti o n s. I n
G e rm an y, fo r e xam p le , wh e n th e fo re i gn e r h as a p e r-
m i t th at h as li m i tati o n s o f ti m e o r sp ace Aufenthalt-
besichtigung , fa m i ly m e m b e rs a re o n ly e n ti tle d to
l i m i t e d l e a v e t o re m a i n re n e wa b l e e v e ry y e a r
Aufenthalterlaubnis . H e m a y b e i ssu e d wi t h a n
Aufenthaltbewilligung Auslnder Gesetz, A rti cle 2 9 ) , a
te m p o rary re si d e n ce p e rm i t fo r a m a xi m u m o f two
ye ars i f th e i n i ti ato r o f fam i ly re u n i o n i s o n m i ssi o n
o r h as a sp e ci fi c acti vi ty to co n d u ct i n G e rm an y fo r a
li m i te d p e ri o d e.g. a co u rse o f stu d i e s) , o r a sp e ci al
p e rm i t fo r fam i ly re u n i o n Familienzusammenfhrung .
T h e sp o u se o r o th e r fam i ly m e m b e rs are e n ti tle d to
an i n d e fi n i te re si d e n ce p e rm i t o n ce th e y h ave li ve d
i n th e co u n try fo r fi ve ye ars wi th a te m p o rary p e rm i t,
p ro vi d e d th at th e y sp e a k su ffi ci e n t G e rm a n , m e e t
th e re le van t acco m m o d ati o n cri te ri a, h ave su ffi ci e n t
m e a n s a n d a re n o t l i k e l y t o b e d e p o rt e d . Wi t h
re g a rd to t h e fo re i g n m e m b e rs o f th e fa m i ly o f a
G e rm an ci ti ze n li vi n g i n G e rm an y, th e y are gi ve n an
i n d e fi n i te p e rm i t afte r th re e y e ars re si d e n ce , p ro -
v i d e d th at th e y sp e ak su ffi ci e n t G e rm a n a n d h av e
n o t co m m i tte d b re a ch e s o f th e p e a ce . C h i l d re n
a l l o we d i n t o t h e c o u n t ry o n g ro u n d s o f fa m i l y
re u n i o n a re e n ti tle d to an u n li m i te d re si d e n ce p e r-
m i t i f, o n th e i r si xte e n th b i rth d ay, th e y h ave h e ld a
te m p o rary re si d e n ce p e rm i t fo r e i gh t ye ars.
A o n e -ye a r p e rm i t i s i ssu e d i n m o st co u n tri e s,
b u t a p e rm a n e n t v i sa i s i ssu e d i n A u stra li a a n d
C an ad a. I n Au stra li a , th i s i s i ssu e d wi th i n th e li m i ts
o f th e q u o ta ap p ly i n g to sp e ci fi c ca te g o ri e s o f fo r-
e i gn e rs an d i t e n ti tle s th e h o ld e r to li ve i n th e co u n -
try fo r a n i n d e fi n i te p e ri o d . I n C a n a d a , th e h o ld e r
m ay take o u t C an ad i an ci ti ze n sh i p afte r a p e rm an e n t
stay o f th re e ye ars.
I n B e l g i u m , l i k e o rd i n a ry fo re i g n e rs, fa m i l y
m e m b e rs m ay ask to b e li ste d i n th e re gi ste r o f fo r-
e i gn e rs wh e n th e y re ce i ve a p e rm i t to stay; th i s p e r-
m i ssi o n i s g ran te d fo r a n u n li m i te d p e ri o d , b u t th e
le a ve to re m ai n th at g ave th e i n i ti al e n ti tle m e n t i s
v a li d fo r o n ly o n e y e a r. T h e a p p li ca n t m u st se e k
e xte n si o n o r re n e wal fro m th e lo cal au th o ri ty fo r h i s
p la ce o f re si d e n ce . F a m i ly m e m b e rs q u a li fy fo r a
se ttle m e n t p e rm i t i f th e fo re i gn e r fo r wh o se b e n e fi t
th e fam i ly re u n i o n h a s ta ke n p la ce a lso h as o n e . I n
S p ai n th e fi rst re si d e n ce p e rm i t i s vali d fo r o n e ye ar
a n d re n e wa b le fo r two fu rth e r y e a rs. T h e o rd i n ary
p e rm i t i s v a li d fo r th re e y e a rs. A p e rm a n e n t re si -
d e n ce p e rm i t i s i ssu e d to fo re i g n e rs afte r si x ye ars
i n th e co u n try as a le gal re si d e n t. I n F i n lan d , fam i ly
m e m b e rs re ce i v e th e sam e ki n d o f le ave to re m ai n
a s fo re i g n e rs, b u t fo r a m axi m u m o f o n e y e ar. T h e
sp o u se o f a F i n n i sh ci ti ze n re ce i v e s p e rm a n e n t
le a ve to re m ai n th a t i s b a se d o n th e m a rri ag e ; th e
p e rm i t i s vali d fo r o n e ye ar an d i s re n e wab le .
I n F ran ce , fam i ly m e m b e rs re ce i ve a o n e -y e a r,
u n co n d i t i o n a l t e m p o ra ry p e rm i t to sta y
32
fa m i ly
m e m b e r ru l e s ) o r a t e n -y e a r re s i d e n t s c a rd ,
d e p e n d i n g o n th e ci rcu m sta n ce s. Wh e n th e P re fe ct
ru le s i n favo u r o f fam i ly re u n i o n , th e O M I i s h an d e d
th e ta sk o f b ri n gi n g th e fam i ly i n to th e co u n try. T h e
P re fe ct also m ake s a sm all ch arge . T h e p e rm i t i s re n -
d e re d n u ll a n d vo i d i f re u n i o n d o e s n o t take p lace
wi th i n si x m o n th s o f th e P re fe ct a n n o u n ci n g h i s
favo u rab le d e ci si o n .
I n th e N e th e rl a n d s, th e p e rm i t to st a y se ts
o u t t h e p u rp o s e o f t h e s t a y e.g. m a rri a g e o r
co -h ab i tati o n ) ; i t i s vali d fo r o n e ye ar a n d i s re n e w-
ab le . A re fu ge e s sp o u se an d ch i ld re n are e n ti tle d to
1 22
O E C D 2000
Tab le I I .7. The rights accorded to those entering under family reunification procedures
1 . T h e ri gh t to take u p e m p lo ym e n t i s gran te d i m m e d i ate ly to th e sp o u se s o f F i n n s, to re fu ge e s an d to o th e r p e rso n s wh o h ave b e e n p e rm i tte d to e n te r fo r
h u m an i tari an re aso n s.
2. T h o se fam i ly m e m b e rs wh o arri ve wi th th e sp o n so r are h o we ve r n o t p e rm i tte d to wo rk.
3. T h e p o ssi b i li ty to clai m th at e xp u lsi o n wo u ld cau se p arti cu lar h ard sh i p to th e fam i ly i s le ft o p e n .
Au th o ri sati o n o f stay gran te d
Acce ss to th e lab o u r
m arke t
S o ci al
se cu ri ty
P ro te cti o n
agai n st
e xp u lsi o n
R e e xam i n ati o n o f fam i ly re u n i fi cati o n
i n th e case o f:
P e rm an e n t Te m p o rary
D e ath
o f th e sp o n so r
D i vo rce
Au strali a Afte r 2 ye ars
o f stay
2-ye ar vi sa
q u o ta)
9-m o n th vi sa
q u o ta) fo r
fi an c e )
X U su ally afte r
2 ye ars
B e lgi u m 1 ye ar X X X X
I f i t o ccu rs
wi th i n 1 ye ar
B u lgari a 5 ye ars X X
I f i t o ccu rs
wi th i n 5 ye ars
C an ad a P e rm an e n t vi sa
C an ad i an
ci ti ze n sh i p m ay
b e o b tai n e d
afte r 3 ye ars
o f re si d e n ce )
X X
sam e ri gh ts
as o th e r
cate go ri e s
o f p e rm an e n t
re si d e n ts)
X
sam e ri gh ts
as o th e r
cate go ri e s
o f p e rm an e n t
re si d e n ts)
C ze ch R e p . 5 ye ars X
F i n lan d I f th e sp o n so r
h as th i s statu s
1 ye ar X
1
X
I f i t o ccu rs
wi th i n 2 ye ars
F ran ce 1 0-ye ar p e rm i t i f
th e sp o n so r h as
th i s statu s
1 ye ar, i f th e
sp o n so r h o ld s
th i s ki n d
o f p e rm i t
X
2
X X C ase s are
tre ate d
o n th e i r m e ri ts,
sym p ath e ti cally
X
I f i t o ccu rs
wi th i n 1 ye ar
G e rm an y 1 ye ar 3 ye ars
fo r th e fam i ly
m e m b e rs
o f a n ati o n al)
O n e ye ar to o b tai n a
Betugnis; 4 ye ars to
o b tai n a
Aufenthalterlaubnis;
6 ye ars to h ave
u n re stri cte d acce ss
to th e lab o u r m arke t
X X X
I f i t o ccu rs
wi th i n 4 ye ars
I taly I f th e sp o n so r
h as th i s statu s
I f th e sp o n so r
h o ld s th i s ki n d
o f p e rm i t
X
E xce p t fo r p are n ts
X
N e th e rlan d s 1 ye ar X X X
I f i t o ccu rs
wi th i n 3 ye ars
S lo vak R e p . 1 ye ar X D e ath i s tre ate d
i n th e sam e way
as d i vo rce
X
S p ai n I . n . a. I . n . a. X X
S wi tze rlan d 2 ye ars
p e rm an e n t
p e rm i t) o r 1 ye ar
i f th e ap p li can t
h o ld s a
te m p o rary
re si d e n ce p e rm i t
X D e ath i s tre ate d
i n th e sam e way
as d i vo rce
X
U n i te d S tate s I . n . a. I . n . a. D e p e n d s o n th e ki n d
o f vi sa
P arti al X
3
1 23
O E C D 2000
a d e ri ve d re fu ge e statu s wi th th e ri gh t to p e rm an e n t
stay. Afte r fi ve ye ars as a le gal re si d e n t, th e sp o u se
o r co -h ab i te e m ay ap p ly fo r a p e rm an e n t se ttle m e n t
p e rm i t, p ro vi d e d th at th e fa m i ly h a s a n ad e q u a te ,
stab le i n co m e an d th at n o se ri o u s o ffe n ce h as b e e n
co m m i tte d . T h e ch i ld re n o b tai n a se ttle m e n t p e rm i t
o n th e i r e i g h te e n th b i rth d ay, wi th n o co n d i ti o n s i n
re s p e c t o f re so u rc e s , i f t h e y h a v e b e e n l e g a l
re si d e n ts i n th e co u n try fo r fi ve ye ars.
I n th e U n i te d K i n gd o m , i f th e p e rso n at th e o ri -
gi n o f fam i ly re u n i o n i s a B ri ti sh n ati o n al o r h as p e r-
m a n e n t l e a v e t o re m a i n i n t h e co u n t ry, fa m i l y
m e m b e rs wi ll b e g i ve n u n li m i te d le a ve to re m a i n .
O th e rwi se , th e fam i ly m e m b e rs wi ll b e gi ve n te m p o -
rary le ave to re m ai n an d wi ll o n ly b e ab le to o b tai n
u n li m i te d le a v e to re m a i n a ft e r fo u r y e a rs i n th e
co u n try.
I n S lo vaki a, th e stay i s n o rm ally p e rm an e n t, b u t
th e p e rm i t i s i ssu e d fo r o n e ye ar re n e wab le . I n I taly,
th e vali d i ty o f a p e rm i t to stay i ssu e d fo r fam i ly re a-
so n s i s co p i e d fro m th e fo re i gn e rs le ave to re m ai n ,
an d i s re n e wab le a t th e sa m e ti m e . I f th e ap p li can t
i s an I tali an ci ti ze n , th e au th o ri sati o n gi ve n to fam i ly
m e m b e rs tak e s th e fo rm o f a p e rm an e n t re si d e n t s
c a rd u n l e s s t h e y c o m m i t c e rt a i n o f f e n c e s
A rt i cle s 3 8 0 & 3 8 1 o f th e I ta li a n C ri m i n a l C o d e ) .
U n d e r le g i slati o n ap p lyi n g th e S trasb o u rg C o n ve n -
ti o n o f 5 F e b ru ary 1 99 2 o n th e P a rti ci p ati o n o f F o r-
e i gn e rs i n P u b li c L i fe at L o cal L e ve l, th i s card allo ws
th e h o ld e r to e n te r th e co u n try wi th o u t a vi sa, tak e
a n y jo b i n I ta ly, m a k e u se o f p u b li c se rv i ce s, a n d
e xe rci se th e ri gh t to vo te .
In S witze rlan d , a sp o u se wh o jo i n s a fo re i gn e r with
se ttle m e n t p ap e rs h as a ri gh t to th e sam e e n ti tle m e n t
as lo n g as th e co u p le li ve s to ge th e r; th e se ttle m e n t
p e rm i t allo ws p e rm an e n t stay, b u t i s re n e wab le afte r
two ye ars. Afte r a re gu lar an d u n i n te rru p te d stay o f five
ye ars, th e sp o u se h as a p e rso n al ri gh t to a se ttle m e n t
p e rm i t. I f th e fo re i gn e r o n ly h as p e rm i ssi o n to stay, h i s
fam i ly m e m b e rs are o n ly e n ti tle d to a p e rm i t to stay
fo r o n e ye ar re n e wab le as lo n g as re u n i o n co n d i ti o n s
are co m p li e d wi th . T h e sam e o n e -ye ar p e rm it is i ssu e d
to th e fo re i gn sp o u se o f a S wi ss ci ti ze n , alth o u gh h e
h as a ri gh t to a se ttle m e n t p e rm i t afte r h e h as li ve d in
th e co u n try fo r fi ve ye ars. T h e law m ake s n o p ro vi si o n
fo r a S wi ss ci ti ze n s fo re i gn , si n gle ch i ld re n u n d e r th e
age o f 1 8. An alo go u sly, case law co n tai n s le gi slati o n
co ve ri n g th e ch ild re n o f fo re ign e rs wh o h ave se ttle d in
S wi tze rlan d su b je ct to ke e p in g p u b li c o rd e r an d ab u se
o f ri g h ts. A ch i ld q u a li fi e s fo r a se ttle m e n t p e rm i t,
alth o u gh i n ce rtai n circu m stan ce s h e m ay o n ly re ce i ve
a p e rm i t fo r o n e ye ar re n e wab le .
I n B u lg ari a , th e re are fo re i gn e rs i d e n ti ty card s
vali d fo r fi ve ye ars, p e rm a n e n t re si d e n ts card s an d
re fu g e e c a rd s. T ra v e l d o cu m e n t s a re g i v e n t o
re fu ge e s an d state le ss p e rso n s.
2. The right to work
I n th i s a re a , th e re i s a d i ffe re n ce i n ap p ro a ch
b e twe e n co u n tri e s t h a t a llo w fa m i ly m e m b e rs t o
wo rk, a n d th o se th at d e n y th e m th i s ri g h t o r a p p ly
m o re o r le ss stri n ge n t co n d i ti o n s.
a) Countries that allow family members to work
I n m a n y co u n tri e s, fa m i ly m e m b e rs h a v e th e
ri gh t to wo rk as so o n as th e y arri ve i n th e co u n try. A
d i st i n c t i o n i s so m e t i m e s d ra wn d e p e n d i n g o n
wh e th e r fam i ly m e m b e rs co m e to jo i n a fo re i gn e r, a
n a ti o n a l o r a re fu g e e . I n B e lg i u m , Wo rk P e rm i t A ,
wh i ch gi v e s u n li m i te d le ave to re m ai n , i s i ssu e d to
th e sp o u se an d ch i ld re n o f fo re i g n e rs wh o a lre ad y
h o l d th a t P e rm i t. I n B u lg a ri a , fo re i g n e rs wi th a n
i d e n ti ty card m ay p e rfo rm a n y jo b e xce p t o n e th at
fo re i gn e rs are b an n e d fro m taki n g u n d e r th e C o n sti -
tu ti o n . I n b o th C an ad a an d Au strali a, a fo re i gn e r m ay
wo rk as so o n as h e h as a p e rm an e n t re si d e n t s vi sa.
S p a i n a l l o ws fa m i l y m e m b e rs t o wo rk a n d
p lace s n o o b stacle s i n th e i r way. I n F i n lan d , th e ri gh t
t o wo rk i m m e d i a te ly i s o n ly e xte n d e d t o p e o p le
wh o h a ve re fu ge e statu s, a re i n n e e d o f p ro te cti o n ,
o r a re th e sp o u se o f a F i n n i sh ci ti ze n . I n F ra n ce ,
b o th th e te m p o rary p e rm i t to stay an d th e re si d e n t s
ca rd g i v e th e h o ld e r th e ri g h t to ta k e a n y k i n d o f
e m p lo y m e n t p e rm i tt e d b y cu rre n t le g i sla ti o n . I n
I ta ly, a p e rso n wi th le av e to re m ai n fo r fa m i ly re a -
s o n s i s a l l o we d t o s t a rt wo rk i m m e d i a t e l y i n
e m p lo ym e n t o r se lf-e m p lo ym e n t.
T h e N e th e rlan d s allo ws fam i ly m e m b e rs to start
wo rk i m m e d i a t e l y ; t h e sa m e ri g h t a p p li e s to th e
fam i ly m e m b e rs o f re fu g e e s, o f p e o p le wi th D u tch
n ati o n ali ty, o f fo re i gn e rs wi th p e rm an e n t o r o n e -ye ar
le ave to re m ai n wi th n o re stri cti o n s, an d o f fo re i gn e rs
wi th li m i te d le av e to re m a i n . H o we v e r, a stu d e n t s
fam i ly i s n o t allo we d to wo rk.
I n th e U n i te d K i n gd o m , th e ri gh t to wo rk ste m s
fro m th e ri gh t to re m ai n an d , as so o n as fam i ly m e m -
b e rs h ave b e e n au th o ri se d to stay, th e y m ay take u p
e m p lo y m e n t. I n S lo v a k i a , fo re i g n e rs o f S lo v a k i a n
o ri g i n wh o h a v e a ri g h t to st a y m a y ta k e e m p lo y -
m e n t wi th o u t a wo rk p e rm i t; th e sam e ap p li e s to re f-
u g e e s. O th e rwi se , o n ly lo n g -te rm p e rm i t s g i v e a
ri gh t to wo rk, b u t o n ly i f th e y h av e b e e n i ssu e d fo r
th a t p u rp o se . B o th S we d e n a n d N o rwa y re q u i re
1 24
O E C D 2000
fam i ly m e m b e rs to h o ld wo rk p e rm i ts i f th e y are to
b e au th o ri se d to wo rk, u n le ss th e y h ave se ttle m e n t
p e rm i ts. I n S wi tze rla n d , a p e rm i t to sta y i n clu d e s
th e ri g h t to st a rt wo rk i m m e d i a t e ly. I n th e C ze ch
R e p u b l i c, a fo re i g n e r wi t h p e rm a n e n t l e a v e t o
re m a i n i s d e e m e d to b e a C ze ch ci ti ze n e xce p t i n
re sp e ct o f th e ri gh t to vo te an d co n scri p ti o n .
b) Countries that do not allow family members to work
T h e re are ve ry fe w co u n tri e s i n th i s cate go ry. I n
fa ct , o n l y i n G e rm a n y a re fa m i l y m e m b e rs n o t
a llo we d to e n te r t h e la b o u r m a rk e t i m m e d i a te ly.
H o ld e rs o f a n Aufenthalterlaubnis m u st wa i t fo r fo u r
y e a rs, wh e re a s t h o se wi t h a p e rm i t sp e ci fi ca l l y
li n k e d t o fa m i ly re u n i o n Betugnis m a y e n t e r th e
lab o u r m arke t afte r o n e ye ar. T h e e m p lo ym e n t si tu -
ati o n i s u n e ve n as far as th e y are co n ce rn e d : o n th e
o n e h an d , fam i ly m e m b e rs m ay o n ly o b tai n a wo rk
p e rm i t wi th o u t re stri cti o n afte r b e i n g i n th e co u n try
le ga lly fo r si x ye ars.
33
O n th e o th e r h an d , a fo re i gn
fa m i ly m e m b e r o f a G e rm a n p e rso n wh o li v e s i n
G e rm a n y a n d h o ld s a n Arbeitsberechtigung fa ce s n o
re stri cti o n s to lab o u r m arke t acce ss. A si m i lar si tu a-
ti o n i s fo u n d i n S wi tze rla n d wh e re fa m i ly m e m b e rs
can n o t e n te r th e lab o u r m a rk e t i m m e d i ate ly. T h e y
h av e to wa i t fo r a wo rk p e rm i t to b e i ssu e d b y th e
can to n al au th o ri ti e s. H o we ve r, th e re i s n o m i n i m u m
wai ti n g p e ri o d b e fo re th e p e rm i t i s gran te d .
G e n e ra lly sp e a k i n g , i n th e U n i te d S tate s, th e
fam i ly m e m b e rs o f n o n -i m m i gran ts are n o t allo we d
to wo rk. S o m e d i sti n cti o n s n e e d to b e d rawn acco rd -
i n g to th e d i ffe re n t vi sas th at fam i ly m e m b e rs h o ld .
T h e fo llo wi n g fam i ly m e m b e rs m ay n o t wo rk: te m p o -
ra ry wo rk e rs h o l d i n g a n H -4 v i sa , e m p lo y e e s o n
i n te r-co m p a n y tra n sfe rs L -1 v i sa ) , i n v e sto rs a n d
b u si n e ssm e n wi th e n ti tle m e n ts u n d e r a tre aty E -1
a n d E -2 v i sa s) , fo re i g n e rs wi th e xce p ti o n a l sk i lls,
ath le te s an d p e rfo rm e rs O -3 a n d P -4 vi sa s) , re p re -
se n tati ve s o f th e i n fo rm ati o n se cto r an d n e ws m e d i a
I v i sa ) , st u d e n t s F -1 a n d M -1 v i sa s) , re l i g i o u s
R -2 vi sa) , an d e xch an ge vi si to rs i.e. re se arch e rs an d
u n i v e rsi t y te a ch e rs) J-2 v i sa ) ; th e la tte r m a y b e
allo we d to wo rk i n ce rtai n ci rcu m stan ce s. T h e sam e
p ro ce d u re i s a p p li e d o n a ca se -b y -case b asi s, a n d ,
su b je ct to re ci p ro ca l a rra n g e m e n ts, to th e fa m i ly
m e m b e rs o f a fo re i g n d i p lo m at v i sa s A-1 a n d A -2 )
an d th e fam i li e s o f fo re i gn re p re se n tati ve s o f i n te r-
n a ti o n a l o rg a n i sa ti o n s v i sa s G -1 a n d G -4 ) . T h o se
h o ld i n g vi sas G -2 an d G -3 m ay n o t wo rk.
I n F ra n ce , th e a cco m p a n y i n g fa m i ly
34
a d m i t-
t e d fo r e xc e p t i o n a l re a s o n s wi t h a t e m p o ra ry
wo rk e r p a rti cu la rly a n e xe cu ti v e o n se co n d m e n t)
m a y n o t wo rk .
3. Entitlement to social protection
F o re i g n wo rk e rs i n B e lg i u m , F ra n ce , G e rm a n y,
I taly, th e N e th e rlan d s an d S p ai n n o rm ally q u ali fy fo r
th e sam e so ci al p ro te cti o n as n ati o n als; th i s p ro te c-
ti o n i s e xte n d e d to fam i ly m e m b e rs wh o li ve le gally
i n th e co u n try, p arti cu larly wi th re gard to so ci al b e n -
e fi ts. H o we v e r, th e re are d i ffe re n ce s i n th e k i n d o f
p ro te cti o n so u gh t. I n Au strali a, so ci al p ro te cti o n i s
o n ly m ad e avai lab le afte r a p e ri o d o f two ye ars start-
i n g fro m th e d a te o f a rri v al i n th e co u n try, o r fro m
t h e i s s u e o f a p e rm a n e n t v i s a . I n t h e U n i t e d
K i n g d o m , e n ti tle m e n t to so ci a l p ro te cti o n v a ri e s
acco rd i n g to th e ca te go ry o f le a ve to sta y. F u rth e r-
m o re , th e si tu ati o n re gard i n g acce ss to so ci al se cu ri ty
an d so ci al assi stan ce i s h i gh ly co m p le x.
4. Protection against being removed
from the country
N o t a ll co u n tri e s h a v e a sy ste m o f p ro te cti n g
fam i ly m e m b e rs fro m re m o v al, b u t su ch p ro te cti o n
i s re la ti ve a s i t o n ly m a ke s re m o va l m o re d i ffi cu lt,
an d d o e s n o t ru le i t o u t alto g e th e r. T h e fau lt o fte n
l i e s wi th th e k i n d o f p e rm i t . I n G e rm a n y, i n th e
e ve n t o f re m o val, Arti cle 45 2) o f th e L aw o n fo re i gn -
e rs o b li ge s th e g o ve rn m e n t to ta ke a cco u n t o f th e
fo re i g n e r s p e ri o d o f sta y, p a rti cu la rly a n y fa m i ly
li n ks h e m ay h ave wi th th e co u n try, a n d th e co n se -
q u e n ce s th a t e xcl u si o n m a y h a v e fo r th e fa m i l y
m e m b e rs wi th wh o m h e li ve s le gally i n G e rm an y.
I n B e lg i u m , th e h u sb a n d o r wi fe o f a B e lg i a n ,
fo re i gn e rs li vi n g i n B e lgi u m le gally an d u n i n te rru p t-
e d l y fo r a t l e a st te n y e a rs, fo re i g n e rs se tt l e d i n
B e lgi u m b u t h ave b e co m e i n cap ab le o f wo rki n g, an d
fo re i g n e rs p e rm a n e n tly i n ca p a b le o f wo rk i n g a re
p ro t e cte d a g a i n st re m o v a l o r e xp u l si o n e xce p t
wh e re th e re i s a th re a t to p u b l i c o rd e r o r p u b li c
se cu ri ty Arti cle 2 1 o f th e L aw o f 1 9 80) . S i m i larly, i n
F ran ce , Arti cle 25 o f th e O rd i n an ce o f 1 945 e xp re ssly
p ro v i d e s fo r th o se a ffe cte d to b e a cco m p a n i e d to
th e fro n ti e r, an d fo r e xp u lsi o n n e ve r to b e u se d i n
th e case o f th e fo llo wi n g: a ch i ld u n d e r th e age o f 1 8,
a fo re i gn e r wh o ca n sh o w h e h a s li ve d n o rm a lly i n
F ra n ce si n ce th e a ge o f 1 0 a t th e m o st o r a t le ast
1 5 ye ars) , th e sp o u se o f a F re n ch p e rso n wh e re th e y
a re sti ll l i v i n g to g e th e r a n d th e sp o u se st i ll h a s
F re n ch n a ti o n a li ty, th e fo re i gn m o th e r o r fath e r o f a
F re n ch ch i ld , o r a fo re i gn e r i n re ce i p t o f an o ccu p a-
ti o n al a cci d e n t o r i lln e ss p e n si o n p a i d b y a F re n ch
1 25
O E C D 2000
o rgan i sati o n , o r wh o h as a p e rm an e n t d i sab i li ty o f at
le ast 20% .
T h e re i s n o q u e sti o n o f ab so lu te p ro te cti o n as
co m m i tti n g a cri m e th at re su lts i n a n u n su sp e n d e d
se n te n ce o f fi ve ye ars i m p ri so n m e n t le ad s to a lo ss
o f i m m u n i ty e xce p t i n th e ca se o f ch i ld re n u n d e r
th e age o f 1 8) , an d to e xp u lsi o n b e cau se o f th e n e e d
to e n su re th e safe ty o f th e state o r p u b li c se cu ri ty.
35
I n th i s co n te xt, i t i s i m p o rtan t to re fe r to th e p ro te c-
ti o n gi ve n i n E u ro p e a n co u n tri e s u n d e r Arti cle 8 o f
th e E u ro p e a n C o n v e n ti o n o f H u m a n R i g h ts: i t h a s
b e e n fre q u e n tly u se d to p la ce re stri cti o n s o n th e
re m o val o f fam i ly m e m b e rs.
I n C an ad a, o n ce m i gran ts h ave o b tai n e d th e sta-
tu s o f p e rm an e n t re si d e n t, th e co n d i tio n s u n d e r wh i ch
th e y are p ro te cte d agai n st re m o val fro m th e co u n try
are th e sa m e , re g ard le ss o f th e i r statu s u p o n e n try
wi th th e e xce p tio n o f C o n ve n ti o n re fu ge e s) .
I n th e U n i te d S ta te s, fa m i ly m e m b e rs ca n n o t
a vo i d e xp u lsi o n , b u t, i n se e k i n g to h av e th e i m m i -
grati o n ju d ge s d e ci si o n o ve rtu rn e d , th e y m ay p o i n t
to th e p a rt i cu la r h a rd sh i p th a t th e m e a su re i s
cau si n g to fam i ly li fe . I n S p ai n , th e re m o val o f fam i ly
m e m b e rs afte r two ye ars le gal re si d e n ce i s su b je ct
to re stri cti o n s. I n p arti cu lar, th e fam i ly m e m b e rs o f a
m i gran t wi th a p e rm an e n t re si d e n ce p e rm i t m ay n o t
b e re m o v e d . T h e sa m e ap p li e s i f th e m i g ra n t wa s
p re v i o u sly S p a n i sh o r wa s b o rn i n S p a i n a n d h a s
li ve d th e re fo r fi ve ye ars, o r i f h e re ce i ve s a p e n si o n
i n re sp e ct o f an o ccu p ati o n al d i se ase o r acci d e n t.
36
I n N o rway, se ttle m e n t p e rm i t h o ld e rs a re p ro -
te cte d agai n st e xp u lsi o n , u n le ss th e y h ave co m m i t-
t e d s e ri o u s o ffe n c e s
3 7
a n d p ro v i d e d t h a t t h e
san cti o n i s n o t d i sp ro p o rti o n ate wi th th e fam i ly li fe
o f th e p e rso n co n ce rn e d . I n th e N e th e rlan d s, ch i l-
d re n age d u n d e r 1 8 li vi n g wi th a p are n t m ay n o t b e
re m o ve d , n o r can fo re i gn e rs b o rn i n th e N e th e rlan d s
o r allo we d i n b e fo re th e age o f te n i f th e y h ave li ve d
i n th e co u n try fo r a t le a st 1 5 y e a rs. Afte r 1 0 y e a rs
re si d e n ce , re m o v a l i s o n ly p o ssi b le i f th e p e rso n
h as b e e n co n vi cte d o f a m ajo r d ru g-d e ali n g o ffe n ce .
I n S we d e n , th o se wh o h a v e sp e n t m o re th a n
fo u r y e a rs i n th e K i n g d o m wi ll o n ly b e su b je ct to
e xp u lsi o n u n d e r e xce p ti o n al ci rcu m stan ce s. E xp u l-
si o n i s n o t p o ssi b l e fo r fo re i g n e rs wh o e n te re d
S we d e n b e fo re th e a g e o f 1 5 a n d h a v e li v e d th e re
fo r o ve r fi ve ye ars.
F. CONCLUSIONS
T h i s co m p a rati v e stu d y o f fa m i ly re u n i o n h i gh -
li gh ts ce rtai n li n e s o f co n ve rge n ce : th e re ce n t i n tro -
d u cti o n o f le g i sla ti o n co v e ri n g fa m i ly re u n i o n , th e
e xclu si o n o f te m p o ra ry wo rk e rs fro m e n ti tle m e n t,
th e m o re fa v o u ra b le sta tu s gi v e n to re fu g e e s, th e
re je cti o n o f p o lygam y, th e o b li gati o n to co h ab i t, an d
th e ri gh t o f fam i ly m e m b e rs to h ave a jo b . T h e re are
a lso g re at si m i la ri ti e s i n th e re q u i re m e n ts th a t th e
a p p l i c a n t m u st m e e t wi t h re sp e ct t o fi n a n ci a l
re so u rce s an d acco m m o d a ti o n , a n d th e ab se n ce o f
a n y th re a t to p u b li c o rd e r b y th e i n co m i n g fa m i ly
m e m b e rs. G o ve rn m e n ts p lay a ke y ro le i n allo wi n g
re u n i o n , an d th e i r d e ci si o n s are u su ally ap p e alab le
b e fo re th e co u rts. Ap p e als agai n st re fu sals to i ssu e a
vi sa stan d li ttle ch an ce o f su cce ss.
T h i s si m i la ri ty th a t m a rk s fa m i ly re u n i o n la w
d o e s n o t m e an th at, fo r e xam p le , th e re are n o d i ve r-
g e n ce s a ffe cti n g th e d e fi n i ti o n o f fam i ly m e m b e rs:
t h e re i s wi d e sp re a d a g re e m e n t t h a t t h i s t e rm
i n clu d e s th e sp o u se a n d ch i ld re n o f a fo re i g n e r o r
e v e n a n a ti o n a l, b u t a wi d e r ran g e i s a ch i e v e d b y
e x t e n d i n g t h e fa m i l y , fo r e x a m p l e t o i n c l u d e
co -h a b i te e s, e ld e rly d e p e n d an ts, b ro th e rs a n d si s-
te rs. T h e co n ce p t o f th e a cco m p a n yi n g fa m i ly, to o ,
tri gg e rs d i ffe re n ce s. T h e re i s a lso d i sag re e m e n t i n
re sp e ct o f th e le n g th o f sta y g i vi n g e n ti tle m e n t to
fam i ly re u n i o n , th e p o ssi b i li ty fo r fa m i ly m e m b e rs
alre ad y i n th e co u n try to b e le gali se d b y p ro ce d u re s
o th e r th an th o se go ve rn i n g fam i ly re u n i o n , an d th e
ki n d s o f p e rm i t i ssu e d to fam i ly m e m b e rs.
T h i s stu d y h a s n o t p ro v i d e d sco p e to lo o k i n
d e p th a t th e so ci a l p ro t e cti o n a ffo rd e d to fa m i ly
m e m b e rs. F u rth e rm o re , th e co n ce p t o f th e fa m i ly
n e e d s to b e m o re cle a rly d e fi n e d . T h i s i s b e ca u se
th e re wo u ld a p p e a r to b e a n u m b e r o f si tu a ti o n s
th at d o n o t n e ce ssari ly re q u i re th e sam e so lu ti o n s:
T h e i m m i gran t s fam i ly, co n si sti n g o f n o m o re
t h a n th e sp o u se a n d ch i ld re n , m a y a lre a d y
e xi st wh e n th e i m m i gran t arri ve s. T h i s le ave s
u s wi th two sce n a ri o s: e i th e r th e i m m i g ra n t
a rri v e s wi th h i s fa m i l y, a n d we a re d e a li n g
wi th an acco m p an yi n g fam i ly, o r h e le ave s h i s
fam i ly i n h i s co u n try o f o ri gi n an d se e ks fam i ly
re u n i o n as so o n as h e se ttle s i n th e re ce i vi n g
co u n try.
T h e i m m i gran t se ttle s h i s fam i ly i n th e re ce i v-
i n g co u n try, an d th i s i n tu rn gi ve s ri se to th re e
si tu a t i o n s: e i th e r th e i m m i g ra n t m a rri e s a
n a ti o n al o f th e re ce i v i n g co u n try, o r h e m ar-
ri e s so m e o n e wh o h a s th e sa m e n a ti o n a li ty
b u t wh o li v e s i n th e re ce i v i n g co u n try, o r h e
re tu rn s to h i s co u n try te m p o rari ly i n o rd e r to
m a rry so m e o n e wi th h i s n ati o n ali ty. All th re e
1 26
O E C D 2000
p o ssi b i li ti e s co u ld gi ve ri se to q u i te d i ffe re n t
le gal ap p ro ach e s.
A sp o n so re d fam i ly avo i d s th i s d i ch o to m y, as
u lti m ate ly th i s i s a p u re ly fi n an ci al m atte r.
D e p e n d i n g o n h o w th e law an d re gu lati o n s d e al
wi th th e se vari o u s si tu ati o n s, th e e co n o m i c i m p a ct
wi ll alway s va ry, p a rti cu la rly as fa r a s a cce ss to th e
lab o u r m arke t an d so ci a l p ro te cti o n are co n ce rn e d .
C o n si d e ra t i o n m i g h t a lso b e g i v e n to h o w m u ch
a cco u n t i s ta k e n o f t h e sta tu s o f th e fa m i ly i n th e
co u n try o f o ri g i n , a s th i s wo u l d re su l t i n a m o re
accu rate p i ctu re o f th e sta tu s o f le gally co n sti tu te d
p o lygam o u s fam i li e s i n co u n tri e s o f o ri gi n .
Notes
1 27
O E C D 2000
NOTES
1 . T h i s p art was wri tte n b y M rs N i co le G u i m e zan e s, P ro -
fe sso r at th e F a cu lty o f L aw o f P ari s-S a i n t-M a u r, U n i -
v e rsi t d e P a ri s XI I . T h i s stu d y i s b a se d o n ce rta i n
l a ws a n d o n re p l i e s t o a q u e s t i o n n a i re s e n t t o
n ati o n al re p re se n tati ve s.
2. Art. 9. : 1 . P arti e s sh all e n su re th at a ch i ld sh all n o t b e
se p a rate d fro m h i s o r h e r p a re n ts ag ai n st h i s o r h e r
wi ll 2. P arti e s sh all re sp e ct th e ri gh t o f th e ch i ld wh o
i s se p a ra te d fro m o n e o r b o th p a re n ts to m a i n ta i n
p e rso n al re lati o n s an d d i re ct co n tact wi th b o th p are n ts
o n a re gu lar b asi s.
3. O . d e S ch u tte r, L e d ro i t au re gro u p e m e n t fam i li al au
cro i se m e n t d e s o rd re s ju ri d i q u e s e u ro p e n s, R e v. d r.
d e s tran ge rs, 1 996, p . 531 .
4. T h e C o n sti tu ti o n al C o u n ci l h as ackn o wle d ge d th at th e
ri gh t to h ave a n o rm al fam i ly li fe i s i n co rp o rate d i n to
th e fu n d a m e n ta l co n sti tu ti o n a l fre e d o m s an d ri gh ts
acco rd e d to all wh o li ve i n th e co u n try an d e n jo y th e
p ro te cti o n o f th e p ro v i si o n s o f p u b li c o rd e r: D i scu s-
si o n N o . 9 3-3 2 5 D C , 1 3 Au g u st 1 9 9 3: O J o f 1 8 A u gu st
1 993; JC P 1 993, E d . G I I I , 66372.
5. T h e am e n d m e n ts m ad e to th e M i grati o n R e gu la-
ti o n s i n 1 9 9 9 re stru ctu re d a n d si m p li fi e d th e v i sa
cate go ri e s fo r fam i ly m e m b e rs.
6. U S C o u rt o f Ap p e als, 9th C i rcu i t, 1 982, 673 F. 2d 1 036.
7. L aw N o . 99-944, 1 5 N o ve m b e r 1 999, p u b li sh e d i n th e
Journal Officiel o f 1 6 N o ve m b e r 1 999.
8. I n th e N e th e rlan d s, th e re le van t le gi slati o n i s at
A rt i c l e 4 7 o f t h e D e c re e o n f o re i g n e rs o f
1 9 S e p te m b e r 1 966, an d Arti cle 24 o f th e P re scri p ti o n
o n fo re i gn e rs o f 22 S e p te m b e r 1 966.
9. T h i s li m i tati o n o n th e re u n i o n o f p o lygam o u s fam i li e s
i s e xp re ssly co ve re d i n G e rm an y Arti cle 1 7 o f th e L aw
o f 1 99 0, Ad m i n i strati v e C o u rt o f L o we r S axo n y 6 Ju ly
1 992, I n fAu slI R 1 992) ; B e lgi u m C o u n ci l o f S tate 9 Ju ly
1 986, R e v, d r. tr 1 986, N o . 40, p . 1 1 4) ; C an ad a, S p ai n
Arti cle 54. 6 o f th e I m p le m e n tati o n R e gu lati o n o f th e
L aw o f 1 985 o n fo re i gn e rs th i s le gi slati o n state s th at
a re si d e n ce p e rm i t m a y o n l y b e i ss u e d t o o n e
sp o u se ) ; F ra n ce A rt i cl e 3 0 o f t h e O rd i n a n ce o f
2 N o ve m b e r 1 945) ; I taly, th e N e th e rlan d s, S wi tze rlan d
an d th e C ze ch R e p u b li c wh e re fo re i gn e rs m ay o n ly
b e jo i n e d b y o n e sp o u se , a lth o u gh th e p ro b le m h as
n o t re ally ari se n ye t i n p racti ce ) .
1 0. C o u n ci l o f S tate , 1 1 Ju ly 1 980.
1 1 . T h i s b an was b acke d u p b y a d u al san cti o n : o n th e
o n e h a n d , a p o ly g am o u s h u sb a n d wh o b ri n g s m o re
th an o n e wi fe i n to th e co u n try wi ll h ave h i s re si d e n ce
p e rm i t wi th d rawn wh e th e r i t i s a te m p o rary au th o ri sa-
ti o n o r a re si d e n t s card ; o n th e o th e r h an d , th e re si -
d e n t s p e rm i t wi ll b e re fu se d , o r e ve n wi th d rawn , i f i t
h as b e e n i ssu e d to th e se co n d wi fe . O n ly re si d e n t s
p e rm i ts i ssu e d afte r th e 1 993 Act cam e i n to fo rce m ay
b e wi th d rawn . T h e P re fe ct h as a li n ke d co m p e te n ce i n
th i s m a tte r a s lo n g a s th e co n d i ti o n s le ga lly asso ci -
ate d wi th th e wi th d rawal are m e t. H o we ve r, atte n ti o n
sh o u ld also b e d rawn to an e xce p ti o n i n th at Alge ri an s
a re n o t co ve re d b y th e 1 94 5 O rd i n a n ce , b u t b y th e
F ra n co -Alg e ri a n A cco rd o f 2 7 D e ce m b e r 1 9 6 8 . T h e
M a rse i lle A d m i n i stra ti v e T ri b u n a l d e te rm i n e d th a t
th e b a n o n p o ly g a m y d i d n o t o n ly a p p ly to th e m :
28 M arch 1 997, M r. D ri zi , N o . 95-6277.
1 2. Arti cle 1 0.4 o f th e law o f 1 5 D e ce m b e r 1 980. C o u n ci l o f
S tate , 20 O cto b e r 1 989 an d 24 N o ve m b e r 1 989.
1 3. Arti cle 1 2bis o f th e L aw o f 1 5 D e ce m b e r 1 980, as
i n co rp o rate d b y th e L aw o f Au gu st 1 993.
1 4. R e q u e sti n g a re si d e n ce p e rm i t wh e n th e m arri age i s
o n e o f co n ve n i e n ce i s an o ffe n ce p u n i sh ab le b y u p to
a ye ars i m p ri so n m e n t o r a fi n e .
1 5. C o u n ci l o f S tate 1 6 Ju n e 1 995. I t h as b e e n d e ci d e d
th a t, wh e re fam i ly re u n i o n h a s b e e n a u th o ri se d fo r
th e b e n e fi t o f a fo re i gn e r re si d i n g i n F ran ce , th e ai m i s
to m a k e i t p o ssi b le fo r th e co u p le to li v e to g e th e r.
H o we ve r, i f th e y ce ase to li ve to ge th e r b e twe e n th e
p o i n t at wh i ch th e sp o u se e n te rs th e co u n try an d th e
d ate wh e n th e go ve rn m e n t d e ci d e s o n th e re q u e st fo r
a re si d e n ce p e rm i t, th e co n d i ti o n s fo r fam i ly re u n i o n
are n o lo n ge r m e t o n th at d ate .
1 6. S .H . L e go m sky, Immigration and Refugee Lawand Policy,
F o u n d ati o n P re ss 1 997, p . 1 46.
1 7. T h at i s wh y th e re i s an e xce p ti o n i n F ran ce th at i s
e n s h ri n e d i n t h e F ra n c o -A l g e ri a n A c c o rd o f
2 7 D e ce m b e r 1 9 6 8 , a s a m e n d e d o n 2 2 D e ce m b e r
1 9 8 5 ; th i s re la te s t o ch i ld re n u n d e r t h e a g e o f 1 8
wh o se ap p li can t h as le gal re sp o n si b i li ty ari si n g o u t o f
a d e ci si o n h an d e d d o wn b y an Alge ri an co u rt. I t i s se t
o u t i n a j u d g e m e n t C i rcu l a r o f 1 4 M a rch 1 9 8 6 )
san cti o n i n g a ch i ld s le gal ad o p ti o n kafala ) .
1 8. T h i s co n ve n ti o n co ve rs C yp ru s, I ce lan d , M alta,
N o rwa y a n d T u rk e y i n a d d i ti o n to m e m b e rs o f th e
E u ro p e an U n i o n .
1 9. U n d e r th e te rm s o f an agre e m e n t b e twe e n B e lgi u m
an d T u rke y re lati n g to th e jo b s o f T u rki sh wo rk e rs i n
B e lgi u m , Tu rki sh wo rke rs q u ali fy fo r th e ri gh t to h ave
e l d e rl y d e p e n d a n ts j o i n t h e m C o u n ci l o f S t a t e
29 N o ve m b e r 1 991 ) .
1 28
O E C D 2000
20. T h e p ro p o rti o n o f fi an c e ) s e n te ri n g C an ad a was
5. 72% i n 1 996, 5. 1 4% i n 1 997 an d 3.77% i n 1 998.
21 . C o n stitu tio n al C o u rt 1 3 Au gu st 1 993, D e c. N o . 93-325 D C .
22. Arti cle 1 0 fi n al p aragrap h ) o f th e L aw o f 1 5 D e ce m b e r
1 980: th i s p ro vi si o n d o e s n o t o u tlaw fam i ly re u n i o n ; i t
re q u i re s th e a u th o ri sa ti o n o f th e M i n i ste r o f Ju sti ce
A rti cle 1 0 bis . T h e F e d e ra l C o n sti tu ti o n a l C o u rt i n
G e rm an y h as d e ci d e d th a t a fo re i g n e r wh o wan ts to
b e jo i n e d b y h i s sp o u se wh i le p u rsu i n g h i s stu d i e s i n
G e rm an y m ay b e re fu se d .
23. T h e sam e i d e a i s to b e fo u n d i n I tali an le gi slati o n
o f 1 998 wh i ch ap p o i n ts a G aran te to sp o n so r fo re i gn
ci ti ze n s wi sh i n g to co m e i n to I taly to fi n d wo rk.
24. I n th i s case , th e ap p li can t asks fo r p e rm i ts to b e
i ssu e d d i re ctly fo r h i s fam i ly m e m b e rs.
25. T h e p e rio d o f o n e ye ar i s waive d i n th e case o f Alge ri an s
wi th a o n e -ye ar o r te n -ye ar ce rti fi cate o f re si d e n ce .
26. T h e m o n th ly S M I C S alai re m i n i m u m i n te rp ro fe ssi o n -
n e l d e cro i ssa n ce ) h a s sto o d a t F R F 6 7 9 7 . 1 8 si n ce
1 Ju ly 1 998.
27. T h e fo llo wi n g m o n e y i s d e e m e d to b e i n co m e :
i n co m e fro m e m p lo y m e n t o r se lf-e m p lo ym e n t; p ay -
m e n ts th a t re p la ce i n co m e wh e n li a b le fo r d e d u c-
ti o n s, i n co m e fo r wo rk carri e d o u t u n d e r th e ae gi s o f
th e L aw o n so ci al wo rk, i n co m e fro m cap i tal wh e re i t
h a s e n a b l e d t h e fo re i g n e r t o l i v e fo r a y e a r wi t h
e n o u gh le ft o ve r fo r an o th e r ye ar.
28. P e o p le u n d e r th e age o f 23 are also d e e m e d to h ave
e n o u gh m o n e y i f th e y can sh o w e vi d e n ce o f re ce i vi n g
a salary fo r a jo b lasti n g at le ast 32 h o u rs a we e k, i rre -
sp e cti ve o f th e si ze o f th e sa la ry. As fo r th o se ag e d
o v e r 2 3 , a sa l a ry o f 7 0 % o f th e m i n i m u m wa g e i s
d e e m e d to b e e n o u gh i f i t h as b e e n e arn e d o ve r th e
co u rse o f at le ast a ye ar.
29. C o u n ci l o f S tate 1 5 Ju ly 1 992: th e e n ti tle m e n t to fam i ly
re u n i o n u n d e r t h e te rm s o f t h e B e l g o -M o ro cca n
a gre e m e n t i s b ro a d e r th a n th a t p ro v i d e d fo r u n d e r
th e L aw o f 1 5 D e ce m b e r 1 980; i t d o e s n o t b an cascad e
re u n i o n .
30. E xce p ti o n al re gu lari sati o n m e asu re s we re i n tro -
d u ce d fro m 28 Ju ly 1 9 89 to co v e r A lg e ri a n n ati o n a ls
wh o we re u n d e r th e a g e o f 1 8 wh e n th e y e n te re d
F ran ce b e fo re 2 2 D e ce m b e r 1 98 5 i n b re ach o f fam i ly
re u n i o n p ro ce d u re s.
31 . O M I staff carry o u t o n -th e -sp o t ch e cks to e n su re th at
acco m m o d a ti o n co n d i ti o n s are co m p li e d wi th : th e y
m ay o n ly e n te r th e p re m i se s wi th th e o ccu p an t s co n -
se n t i n wri ti n g ; i f th e o ccu p a n t re fu se s e n try, th e
acco m m o d ati o n co n d i ti o n s are d e e m e d n o t to h a ve
b e e n m e t.
32. Arti cle 1 2bis o f th e O rd i n an ce o f 1 945, as am e n d e d b y
th e L a w o f 1 1 M a y 1 99 8 , p ro vi d e s fo r u n co n d i ti o n a l
te m p o rary le ave to re m ai n to b e gran te d b o th to fo r-
e i g n e rs u n d e r th e ag e o f 1 8, o r i n th e ye ar fo llo wi n g
th e i r 1 8th b i rth d ay, i f at le ast o n e p are n t h as te m p o rary
le av e to re m a i n an d a s lo n g as th e re i s n o th re at to
p u b li c o rd e r, an d to a fo re i gn e r wh o e n te rs th e co u n try
le gally an d wh o se sp o u se h o ld s th e sam e p e rm i t.
33. Arti cle 27 o f th e L aw o n fo re i gn e rs, 1 990.
34. T h e re i s d raft E C le gi slati o n 1 991 ) d e si gn e d to re gu -
late th e statu s o f th e jo i n i n g fam i ly i n a m o re re stri cti ve
m an n e r.
35. Arti cle 26 o f th e O rd i n an ce o f 2 N o ve m b e r 1 945.
36. Arti cle 99 4) o f R o yal D e cre e 1 55/1 996.
37. Arti cle 1 2 2) o f th e I m m i grati o n Act.
129
OECD 2000
Part III
(COUNTRY NOTES)
This Section is comprised of detailed notes on the trends in migration flows and policies in each of the
countries studied. The characteristics of each country are presented as follows:
Trends in migration movements.
Structure and changes in the foreign population.
Migration and the labour market.
Policy developments.
New Zealand, which has just joined the SOPEMI network, is the subject of a detailed report which is to be
found at the end of this Section.
Australia
Introduction
Numerous changes to Australias migration policy have recently been implemented. Some initiatives are
aimed at promoting the countrys economic development, and others at giving the government some leeway
to pursue its goals. Many of the visas issued every year are accorded to skilled workers, and the government
plans to appreciably increase the number of Working Holiday Maker visas made available between 1998
and 2000.
A series of measures have been taken to reduce the volume of new immigrants in certain categories or to
exert greater control over their access to the labour market. Thus, students must now have begun their studies
before they can take up employment. Entry conditions have been slightly relaxed for elderly people and
dependent parents, in particular to overcome the slowness of the procedure.
The Australian economy grew at a rate of 4.5% in 1998/99. Sustained employment growth continued and
unemployment fell to its lowest level since 1990, averaging 7.6% in 1998/99.
Inflows and outflows of foreign-born persons
Permanent and long-term migration
Net mi gration during 1998/99 was an estimated at 96 500, namel y 84 100 permanent entries,
35 200 definitive departures, 187 800 long-term entries (12 months or more) and 140 300 long-term departures.

AUSTRALIA

130
OECD 2000
The increase of almost 9% in the number of permanent entries was mainly due to a 27% increase in the
number of permanent entries from New Zealand (24 700 in 1998/99 compared with 19 500 in 1997/98). Almost
51% of the definitive departures involved permanent residents. The number of such departures is almost 10%
up on the previous year, and the highest figure since 1973/74.
In 1998/99, net long-term movements (12 months or more) totalled 47 500 (see Chart III.1). A period of
strong economic growth in Australia is generally accompanied by a rise in the number of long-term entries.
In 1998/99 ten countries (United Kingdom, United States, New Zealand, Indonesia, Japan, Singapore, Malaysia,
China, India and Korea) each accounted for between 4 and 16% of long-term entries. For the third consecutive
year, United Kingdom nationals formed the largest group, with over 20 000 entries.
Chart I II.1.
160
60
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
50
40
30
20
10
0
1983 85 87 89 91 93 95 97
1983 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 1983 85 87 89 91 93 95 97
Chart III.1. Flows of permanent and long-term residents,
1
Australia
Fiscal years 1982/83-1997/98
Thousands
A. Net migration gain B. Inflows of permanent residents by entry class
C. Inflows of permanent residents
by main country or region of origin
1. The classification into permanent, long and short term is based on the
purpose of travel as stated by the traveller on arrival to or departure
from Australia. Permanent movement consists of persons arriving with
the stated intention to settle permanently in Australia and of Australian
residents departing with the stated intention to reside abroad permanently.
Long-term movement consists of the arrival and the departure of persons
with the stated intention to stay (in Australia or abroad, respectively) for
12 months or more. The net effect of persons whose travel intentions
change (category jumping) is not included.
2. Including accompagnying dependents.
3. Including non-visaed entry class (mainly New Zealand citizens).
4. China, Chinese Taipei, Hong Kong (China), India, Philippines, Malaysia
and Sri Lanka.
Source: Department of Immigration, Local Government and Ethnic Affairs.
New Zealand United Kingdom Asia
4
Permanent and
long-term flows
Permanent
flows
Long-term
flows Total
3
Family Skill
2
Humanitarian
2
160
60
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
50
40
30
20
10
0
1983 85 87 89 91 93 95 97
1983 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 1983 85 87 89 91 93 95 97
1
Australia
Fiscal years 1982/83-1997/98
Thousands
and Sri Lanka.
4
Permanent and
long-term flows
Permanent
flows
Long-term
flows Total
3
Family Skill
2
Humanitarian
2
160
60
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
50
40
30
20
10
0
1983 85 87 89 91 93 95 97
1983 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 1983 85 87 89 91 93 95 97
1
Australia
Fiscal years 1982/83-1997/98
Thousands
and Sri Lanka.
4
Permanent and
long-term flows
Permanent
flows
Long-term
flows Total
3
Family Skill
2
Humanitarian
2
Australia
131
OECD 2000
Under the Permanent Migration Programme, which systematically targets skilled migrants, just under
68 000 people obtained entry visas in 1998/99, and the government is planning to grant 70 000 in 1999/2000
(see Table III.1).
Tabl e III. 1.
Temporary migration
Under Australias Temporary Resident Programme (which excludes students), the number of visas granted
off-shore and on-shore rose from 125 700 in 1997/98 to 136 200 in 1998/99, an increase of 8.4% (see Table III.1).
Under the Working Holiday Maker Programme, some 65 000 visas were issued in 1998/99, 62 600 of them
off-shore, compared with a total of 57 000 in 1997/98. There are plans to award 78 000 such visas for 1999/2000.
The Skilled Temporary Resident Programme covers entries of business people (holders of Temporary
Business Entry Long-Stay visas), people in the medical profession and academics. The number of Temporary
Business Entry Long-Stay visas fell slightly to 33 200 in 1998/99, from 33 600 in 1997/98. One-third of these
visas are issued to managers and administrators. Business Visitor visas were down again in 1998/99
from 218 000 in 1997/98 to 210 000, as a result of new criteria introduced in 1997, of the impact of the Asian
crisis and of the number of such visas accorded for multiple entry.
Also granted were 6 000 Business Skills visas under the Business Skills Migration Programme, the aim of
which is to attract managers, entrepreneurs and investors and to provide assistance for business people who
Table III.1. Permanent and temporary migration programme outcomes, 1996-1999
1
and planning levels
for permanent settlers for 2000 and 2001, by category, Australia
Thousands
1. Data refer to fiscal years (July to June of the given year).
2. Figures include persons who change status (temporary to permanent).
3. Certain family members (brothers and sisters, nephews and nieces, children and parents of working age) can be sponsored by the Australian relatives or by
permanent residents. In order to be eligible, they must meet certain conditions, regarding professional qualifications and linguistic aptitudes.
4. Including Long Stay Temporary Business Programme.
5. Comprises only those applications made outside Australia.
Actual Planned
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
Migration Programme
2
(excluding the Humanitarian Programme) 82.5 73.9 67.1 67.9 70.0 76.0
Family 56.7 44.6 31.3 32.0 32.0 32.4
Preferential family 48.7 37.2 31.3 32.0 32.0 32.4
Concessional family 8.0 7.3
Skill 24.1 27.5 34.7 35.0 35.0 40.0
Employer nomination/labour agreements 4.6 5.6 6.0 5.6 6.0 . .
Business skills 4.9 5.8 5.4 6.1 6.0 . .
Special talents 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 . .
Independents 10.6 15.0 13.3 13.6 14.3 . .
Skilled Australian linked
3
. . . . 9.5 9.3 8.4 . .
Other 3.8 1.0 0.4 0.2 0.1 . .
Special eligibility 1.7 1.7 1.1 0.9 3.0 1.6
Humanitarian Programme
2
15.1 11.9 12.1 11.4 12.8 . .
Refugees and special humanitarian 8.2 5.9 8.6 8.3 . . . .
Special assistance 6.9 3.7 1.8 1.1 . . . .
Other 2.3 1.6 1.8 . . . .
Temporary Resident Programme
4
. . 118.9 125.7 136.2 . . . .
Economic programme . . 31.7 37.3 37.0 . . . .
Social/cultural programme . . 16.5 17.2 20.0 . . . .
International relations programme . . 70.7 71.2 79.2 . . . .
of which: Working Holiday Maker (WHM)
5
40.3 50.0 55.6 62.6 . . . .
Student Programme
5
63.1 68.6 63.6 67.1 . . . .
132
OECD 2000
have started up companies in Australia. The criteria for issuing visas to business people were revised in 1998
and 1999 and forwarded to the Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs in November 1999. This
has made it possible to envisage ways of adjusting policies to improve results.
Just over 67 000 off-shore visas were issued to students in 1998/99, up 5% on 1997/98. The main source
countries were Indonesia, Japan, the United States, Korea, Malaysia, India, Singapore and China. New legisla-
tion covering the entry of immigrant students has been in force since 1 December 1998. This prevents stu-
dents from taking up employment until they have begun their studies in Australia and, for a maximum of
twelve months, from enrolling in an educational institution other than that to which they were enrolled when
applying for a visa, except under exceptional circumstances.
Visitors
Some 2.9 million visitor visas were granted in 1998/99, 1.4% up on 1997/98. A sharp rise was noted in the
number of visas issued in some countries, particularly the United Kingdom (up from 309 000 in 1996/97 to
almost 490 000 in 1998/99) and the United States (up from 210 000 in 1996/97 to 307 000 in 1998/99). The overall
rise in the number of visitor visas is all the more noticeable given the decrease in visas issued for some of the
countries hit by the Asian crisis (down from 217 000 in 1996/97 to 85 000 in 1998/99 for Korean nationals, and
from 717 000 to 673 000 for the Japanese, for instance). The decline has also affected Indonesian and Thai
nationals. However, the number of visas issued to applicants from the Philippines has gradually risen over the
past three years, from 26 500 in 1996/97 to 30 000 in 1998/99.
Illegal immigration
The bulk of illegal immigration is made up of visitors, temporary residents and students who entered the
country legally and then remained after the date allowed by their visa (overstayers). Their number was esti-
mated at over 53 000 on 30 June 1999 (i.e. 5% more than in June 1998). According to the information available
on immigrants who have unduly extended their stay, over 25% are believed to have been in the country for
less than a year and over 50% for more than four years.
Until recently, very few people could in theory enter Australia without identity papers because of the
universal visa system and the fact that Australia has no land borders. However, the number of people
refused entry for that very reason has continued to increase, from 485 in 1994/95 to over 2 000 in 1998/99. The
number of illegal entries by boat is also on the rise (2 100 in 1998/99 compared with 1 000 in 1994/95).
Refugees and asylum seekers
In 1998/99, just over 11 300 visas were granted under the Humanitarian Programme, some 9 500 off-shore
and the remainder on-shore. Most of them went to nationals of the former Yugoslavia (over 4 600 in 1998/99),
followed by countries in the Middle East (in particular Iran, Iraq and Afghanistan) and Africa (Sudan, Somalia,
Ethiopia and Eritrea).
The number of asylum applications came to some 8 200 in 1998/99, slightly up on 1997/98. As in the previ-
ous year, applications from Indonesia, the Philippines and China accounted for some 40% of the total. Applica-
tions from Philippine nationals have steadily decreased from 1 700 in 1996/97 to just over 400 in 1998/99. That
the percentage of visas issued has been stable for the past two years is probably due to the administrative
changes implemented in 1997/98 to shorten overall processing time and discourage unfounded applications.
Just over 7 100 applications were accepted in 1998/99, compared with 11 300 in 1997/98 and 13 6000 in 1996/97.
Nearly 1 800 protection visas were granted to asylum seekers in 1998/99.
2. Structure and changes in the foreign-born population
Numerical trends
The 1996 census provided quite a detailed account of the overseas-born population (see Table III.2).
Apart from the United Kingdom, no single country of origin stands out from the rest. This is due to the fact that
since the post-war period there have been waves of immigration from a wide range of countries. Today over
Australia
133
OECD 2000
20% of Australias population are people born overseas, principally in New Zealand, Europe (Italy, the former
Yugoslavia, Greece) and Asia (Vietnam, China, Philippines).
Tabl e III. 2.
Naturalisation
The number of people acquiring Australian citizenship fell from almost 112 400 in 1997/98 to 76 400
in 1998/99. In August 1998, the government established an Australian Citizenship Council to consider issues
Table III.2. Socio-demographic characteristics of the native and foreign-born population, Australia, 1996 Census
Source: 1996 Census, Australian Bureau of Statistics.
Born in Australia Foreign-born
Thousands Per cent Thousands Per cent
Total 14 614.4 100.0 3 908.3 100.0
Country of birth
United Kingdom 1 072.5 27.4
New Zealand 291.4 7.5
Italy 238.2 6.1
Former Yugoslavia 175.5 4.5
Vietnam 151.1 3.9
Age
0-14 3 452.7 26.1 226.1 5.8
15-24 2 097.9 15.9 385.8 9.9
25-49 4 718.4 35.7 1 824.9 46.7
50-64 1 540.0 11.6 850.6 21.8
65+ 1 418.9 10.7 620.9 15.9
Sex ratio: Males per 100 females 97.4 99.7
Nature of occupancy
Owner/purchaser 9 107.0 72.0 2 579.9 69.5
Tenant 3 426.3 27.1 1 100.1 29.6
Other 113.9 0.9 31.1 0.8
Highest qualification
Degree/Diploma 1 579.2 16.2 705.6 19.2
Skilled/Basic vocational 1 382.4 14.1 481.5 13.1
English proficiency
Uses English only 12 309.5 94.1 2 027.1 52.5
Speaks English very well/well 638.7 5.2 1 401.2 36.3
Speaks English not well/at all 94.2 0.7 435.2 11.3
Main language spoken at home
1. English 13 781.4 94.3 2 028.4 51.9
2. Italian 175.4 1.2 215.0 5.5
3. Greek 146.1 1.0 164.1 4.2
Labour force status
Employed 5 691.0 91.4 1 870.4 89.3
Unemployed 535.7 8.6 225.1 10.7
Not in labour force 3 466.6 35.8 1 545.7 42.5
Occupation (skill level)
Managers/Admin./Prof. 1 507.0 27.2 499.7 27.5
Technician/Assoc. Prof. 639.0 11.5 215.5 11.9
High skill-trade clerical 994.5 17.9 318.7 17.5
Intermediate skill 1 408.1 25.4 456.3 25.1
Low skill-clerk labourer 1 001.1 18.0 326.0 18.0
Individual income
Less than $300 per week 4 659.8 49.8 1 861.5 52.8
$800 per week or more 1 020.8 10.9 379.8 10.8
134
OECD 2000
such as citizenship rights and appropriate policies in this field. In 1999, the Council distributed Contemporary
Australian Citizenship, an issue paper calling for submissions from the community. These will be the subject
of a report to the government.
Programmes to promote migrant integration
There are plans to provide English language tuition for adult migrants, together with a 24-hour Translating
and Interpreting Service by telephone. A network of 30 Migrant Resource Centres, including the four Migrant
Service Agencies added in 1999, offers all kinds of assistance, including multilingual information, legal advice,
educational, social and cultural activities and other specialist services.
3. Migration and the labour market
Migration for employment and work permits
In August 1999, overseas-born workers accounted for nearly a quarter of the total labour force; almost 56%
came from non-English-speaking countries. The participation rate of those born overseas is 57% (52% for
nationals of non-English-speaking countries and 65% for those of English-speaking countries) compared with
66% for persons born in Australia.
For a wide variety of reasons, such as knowledge of English, age, skills, type of migration and length of resi-
dence in Australia, unemployment tends to be higher among foreigners than among Australian nationals. In
August 1999, overall unemployment stood at 7%: 7.7% for those born overseas and 6.7% for people born in Australia.
Unemployment is lower among nationals of English-speaking countries (6.5%) than of other countries (8.7%).
4. Policy developments
New legislation on admission and residence
A number of changes have been made to Australias migration policy, largely to give the government more
flexibility in meeting its economic and social objectives on migration.
For the year 1999-2000, the government introduced an extra quota of 5 000 places, in addition to the
Migration Programme and confined to skilled migrants. These will be available once the 35 000 Skill Stream
places have been filled.
Box III.1. Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Australia
The findings of the Survey of Immigrants to Australia, launched in March 1994 using information collected
from 5 000 foreign households in Australia for 6, 18 or 42 months, are now available. They show, for instance, that
unemployment among foreigners varies substantially across visa classes (ranging from 81% in the humanitarian
class after six months in the country to 36% in the independent class) but also that, on average, unemployment
falls from 38% after six months in the country to 15% after 42 months. The average labour-market participation rate
after the same periods of time rises from 57% to 65%.
A further survey, commissioned by the Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs (DIMA), will be
conducted among some 3 000 migrants and their families who entered the country between 1 September 1999
and 31 August 2000. The main aim of the survey is to provide the Commonwealth and other institutions with reli-
able data to enhance immigration and settlement policies, but also to analyse policy changes made since 1996.
Australia
135
OECD 2000
On 1 November 1999, changes were made to the arrangements regarding migrants family members. Step-
children may now, like natural or adopted children, apply for visas or be included with family members for
other classes of visa. Children aged 18 or over and other dependent adults in the family unit will be subject to
closer scrutiny, with the exception of the family members of an applicant for refugee status or a humanitarian
visa. Furthermore, children aged 18 or over who apply for visas must be under 25 and full-time students,
unless they are disabled.
In April 1998, the government announced a series of reforms concerning the entry of and support for par-
ents and elderly relatives of people residing in Australia, to take effect as from 1 November 1998. The changes
were aimed at ensuring that these people, and their relatives residing in Australia, could afford the cost of
such support. However, these reforms were disallowed by the Senate in March 1999.
Two measures have since been adopted. In November 1999, new visas were introduced for applications
from parents that had not been processed by the date on which the Senate voted to disallow the new classes.
The new regulation applies solely to those who had undecided applications for one of the disallowed classes
on 31 March 1999. It allows them to apply for a Designated Parent visa and gives them priority in the process-
ing queue. The second measure, viewed as a short-term solution, introduces more flexible arrangements for
parents who have applied for permanent residence. Parents who have to undergo a long wait can come to
Australia as temporary visitors until their application is reviewed.
New measures were adopted in December 1998 to replace the Special Need Relative visa class, where
abuses had been observed. The new measures, carer provisions, allow a foreigner to provide continuing assis-
tance to an Australian relative or member of their family who has a medical condition causing impairment of
their ability to attend to the practical aspects of daily life. The need for assistance must be likely to continue
and cannot be obtained from any other relative in Australia. The person requiring care must undergo a
medical assessment by Health Services Australia (HSA).
On 1 November 1999, the Family Stream visa class was restructured to cover fewer categories, and is now
easier to understand. The system had been criticised by civil society and decision-makers for being too
complex and making it too difficult to choose which visa class was applicable.
The government also facilitated the permanent settlement of skilled foreign students who had successfully
completed their studies in Australia.
Finally, the government pursued the introduction of measures aimed at allowing state and territory gov-
ernments to play a fuller part in selecting skilled migrants and to foster a more balanced distribution of such
migrants across the country. On 1 July 1999, the government introduced the Skill Matching visa, allowing
skilled foreigners to apply for highly specialised job vacancies or jobs for which there were labour shortages in
some parts of the country. This new type of visa is very similar to the State/Territory Nominated Independent
scheme (STNI) but is aimed mainly at supplementing the reform of Skill Stream selection which entered into
force on the same date.
The new visa enables state and territory governments and employers to designate skilled people to
enter Australia. It is not subject to the points test system and initially costs AUD 150. The professional and
personal profile of applicants, who must meet the minimum criteria based on age, skills and knowledge of
English, are recorded in an electronic database disseminated to all state and territory governments and some
regional development agencies. State and territory governments and employers may designate applicants
using this database.
Stronger measures to prevent illegal migration and the employment of illegal immigrants
Given the rise in illegal entries (see above), together with the spread of people smuggling and the
employment of illegal immigrants, the government decided to take steps to enhance the prevention of such
activities. On 3 November 1999, the Minister for Immigration and Multicultural Affairs announced the creation
of a high-profile Reference Group to advise on Australias effectiveness in combating people smuggling. A law
to tighten up border controls has gone before Parliament. One provision allows DIMA and customs officers to
intercept boats in international waters if suspected of involvement in people smuggling. In June 1999, changes
136
OECD 2000
were made to the 1958 Migration Act to include a new offence of knowingly organising the illegal entry of
groups of five or more people. This offence carries a 20-year jail penalty and a fine of up to AUD 220 000.
The Minister for Immigration and Multicultural Affairs recently accepted the recommendations of a
study on illegal workers, announced on 1 March 1999. These include the introduction of a fair and reason-
able system of penalties for employers, to discourage both employers and workers from breaking the immi-
gration laws. Furthermore, steps are to be taken to make it easier for employers to check the immigration
status of prospective workers.
Australia has signed bilateral agreements on re-admission with several countries, including Papua New
Guinea in 1994 and Canada in July 1999. Agreements are being negotiated with neighbouring and European
countries.
Humanitarian Programme
The government has introduced a Temporary Safe Haven visa class enabling Australia to respond rapidly
and usefully to humanitarian crises by according protection for as long as necessary. This new visa class dem-
onstrates the Australian governments awareness that return to the country of origin, as soon as possible and
under the requisite conditions of safety and dignity, is the preferred long-term solution. In 1998/99 the new
system was used for the first time in response to the UNHCRs call to help evacuate the Kosovars from
Macedonia, and a special visa was introduced. Some 4 000 Kosovars were given temporary safe haven in
Australia. In September 1999 nearly 2 000 similar visas were also granted to refugees from East Timor.
New agreements have been drawn up to guarantee that the full quota of these safe haven visas is granted,
and to give the government more flexibility in responding to humanitarian crises. Some of the arrangements
stipulate that any safe haven visas not granted by the end of the year may be carried forward to the following
year. In 1999/2000, the agreements added 840 such visas to the 12 000 already planned for the year.
Austria
Introduction
In spite of turbulence from the crisis on global financial markets, economic growth proved to be stronger
than expected in 1998 (3.3%). This excellent performance enabled the country to become a founder member
of Economic and Monetary Union on 1 January 1999. Membership should benefit the labour market, particu-
larly in terms of part-time work which is more popular with women, the service sector and industries with low
labour costs. The total number of people in employment rose by 0.6% in 1998 and demand for foreign labour
increased. Social security data show a 1.7% increase in labour force participation by foreign workers, mostly to
the benefit of EEA nationals. However, the total labour supply (nationals plus foreigners) was not fully
absorbed by demand and unemployment rose by 1.9%.
Among the Member countries of the OECD, Austria has one of the lowest rates of population growth. Over
recent years, the rate of natural growth has declined sharply, passing from 1.0 per 1 000 inhabitants in 1996
to 0.4 in 1998. With a positive migration balance and a rate of natural growth considerably higher than those of
nationals, foreigners are making a positive contribution to population growth (see Table III.3 and Chart III.2).
Emigration and return of nationals
As the Austrian labour market is well integrated with that of its neighbours (in particular Germany and
Switzerland), flows are particularly strong between these countries. More Austrians are leaving to work abroad,
a trend reflected in the migration loss recorded since the early 1980s and gathering speed since 1998.

AUSTRIA

A
u
s
t
r
i
a

1
3
7

O
E
C
D

2
0
0
0
Table III.3. Current figures on the components of total population change, on flows and stocks of foreign population and labour force in Austria
All figures in thousands unless otherwise indicated
1. Calculations are based on the 1991 census. The naturalisations refer to persons residing in Austria.
2. Annual average. Employment of foreigners based on social security data records.
3. Data given as an annual average. The data exclude the unemployed and self-employed and citizens of the European Economic Area (EEA).
Several types of permits are issued:
Short term permits: granted to an enterprise for a maximum duration of one year (renewable) and for a specific activity. Data include persons entering the labour market for the first time, seasonal workers, those who are changing jobs or
taking up activity after a period of unemployment of at least six months and holders of provisional permits (when the application process takes more than four weeks). Extensions of permits are also included.
Work entitlements: granted for a maximum duration of two years (renewable). May be obtained after one year of work in Austria.
Permanent licences: granted after five years of work and valid for five years (renewable).
4. Data are based on the unemployment register.
5. Data as of June for Germany, August for Switzerland.
Sources: Central Alien Register; Central Statistical Office; Ministry of the Interior; Ministry of Labour, Health and Social Affairs; Social Security database on labour force.

1995 1996 1997 1998 1995 1996 1997 1998
Components of population change
1
Stocks of foreign workers, by nationality
2
300.3 300.4 298.8 298.6
Total population Former Yugoslavia (%) 49.2 49.3 49.3 49.7
Population (annual average) 8 046.5 8 059.4 8 072.2 8 078.4 Turkey (%) 18.2 17.8 17.7 18.2
Population increase 14.9 13.0 7.6 7.4 EU (%) 7.0 7.8 8.3 9.0
of which: Other (%) 25.6 25.0 24.6 23.0
Natural increase 7.5 8.0 4.6 2.9 Share of foreign employment in total employment (%) 9.8 9.9 9.8 9.7
Net migration 7.4 5.0 3.0 4.5
Total of employed workers, by category of permit
3
269.7 257.2 247.3 240.5
Austrians Short-term work permits 58.8 43.7 36.6 28.9
Population (annual average) 7 323.1 7 331.2 7 339.5 7 341.2 Work entitlements 109.1 92.3 67.3 45.5
Population increase 9.5 8.4 4.1 1.9 Permanent permits 101.9 121.2 143.4 166.1
of which:
Natural increase 2.8 2.2 4.7 6.1 Work permits issued to foreigners, by category 131.7 127.5 119.5 110.3
Net migration 2.0 5.0 7.0 9.8 Initial permits issued 56.1 51.9 52.7 47.7
Naturalisations 14.4 15.6 15.8 17.8 Extensions issued 48.6 35.8 24.3 20.9
Permanent licences issued 27.0 39.8 42.5 41.7
Foreigners
Population (annual average) 723.5 728.2 732.7 737.3 Unemployment rate, total
4
6.6 7.0 7.1 7.2
Population increase 5.4 4.6 3.5 5.5 Unemployment rate, foreigners 7.7 8.4 8.4 8.7
of which:
Natural increase 10.3 10.2 9.3 9.0 Employment of Austrians abroad
5
Net migration 9.4 10.0 10.0 14.3 Austrian employees in Federal Republic of Germany 83.6 79.4 74.8 72.2
Naturalisations 14.4 15.6 15.8 17.8 Austrian employees in Switzerland 14.4 13.7 12.8 11.5
Asylum seekers and refugees Legal measures taken against foreigners
Asylum seekers 5.9 7.0 6.7 13.8 Total rejections at border 134.7 134.0 80.7 25.5
Outflows of refugees 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.7 Removals to home country 3.9 3.5 4.8 6.6
Refusals of residence 12.7 12.9 13.3 12.0
Expulsions from Austria 17.9 22.0 18.9 15.5
Total 169.2 172.4 117.7 59.6
138
OECD 2000
In August 1999, there were over 26 000 Austrian workers in Switzerland, just under 60% held permanent
residence status, almost 30% were cross-border workers or held one-year permits. The significant labour sur-
plus in Germany, particularly of highly skilled Germans from the new federal states, may have reduced the
openings for Austrian workers.
Inflows and outflows of foreigners
In 1999, Austrias population numbered just under 8.1 million, a little over 10% of whom were foreigners.
The Austrian authorities divide migration flows into four broad categories, namely foreign workers, family
members, students and refugees. Various annual quotas are applied, depending on status, by the governors
of the federal states, in collaboration with the Ministry of Domestic Affairs and the Ministry of Labour.
Inflows of foreign workers are broken down by type of work permit. Work permits are compulsory for all
foreign citizens (except EEA nationals) entering the labour market for the first time (Erstantrag) or re-entering
after at least six months unemployment or a change in the place of work (Neuantrag). The procedure begins
with an initial permit issued to the employer. After one year, the permit is transferred to the foreign worker
who, five years later, is entitled to permanent status giving full mobility anywhere in Austria.
Excluding permanent entitlements, nearly 48 000 work permits were issued in 1998, a fall of almost 10%
on 1997 due to a decrease in new entries (Neuantrag), in particular of non-EEA nationals. After five years in
Austria, foreigners must have their residence permit extended but this will depend on openings in the labour
market. However, the extension is not required for the foreign spouses of Austrian nationals or for
second-generation foreigners.
Over one-quarter of all short-term permits are issued to Turks, followed by nationals of the former
Yugoslavia. The Balkans account for almost 50% of all such permits.
100
80
60
40
20
0
-20
20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
1983 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 1983 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98
Chart III.2. Components of population change,
1
1983-1998, Austria
Thousands
A. Net migration and total change
in population
B. Natural increase and naturalisations
1. Components of national and foreign population change are: natural increase, net migration and naturalisations.
Source: Austrian Central Statistical Office.
Total change
(Foreigners)
Net migration
(Foreigners)
Net migration
(Austrians)
Total change
(Austrians)
Natural increase
(Austrians)
Natural increase
(Foreigners)
Acquisition
of Austrian nationality
100
80
60
40
20
0
-20
20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
1983 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 1983 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98
1
1983-1998, Austria
Thousands
in population
Total change
(Foreigners)
Net migration
(Foreigners)
Net migration
(Austrians)
Total change
(Austrians)
Natural increase
(Austrians)
Natural increase
(Foreigners)
Acquisition
100
80
60
40
20
0
-20
20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
1983 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 1983 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98
1
1983-1998, Austria
Thousands
in population
Total change
(Foreigners)
Net migration
(Foreigners)
Net migration
(Austrians)
Total change
(Austrians)
Natural increase
(Austrians)
Natural increase
(Foreigners)
Acquisition
Austria
139
OECD 2000
Illegal immigration
Between January and May 1999, just under 3 000 foreigners were deported from Austria, most of them for
illegal residence and only 2% for being illegally employed. Over 10 000 people were refused entry to Austria
and fewer than 5 000 failed to obtain a residence permit, mainly on grounds of inadequate financial resources.
After peaking in 1991 at over 27 000, the number of asylum applications dropped considerably (to between
5 000 to 8 000 applications a year from1993 to 1997) when the Act on Refugee Status was amended in 1992. The
conflict in the Balkans radically altered the situation, generating some 14 000 applications in 1998. In 1999, the
Balkans accounted for 40% of the overall applicants, Asia 35% and Africa 9%. For the period January to
October 1999, the acceptance rate stood at 40%. Some refugees have joined the labour market. By June 1999, for
instance, over 40 000 Bosnians had found work and over 50% had been granted permanent status.
Family reunion
The flow of non-EEA immigrants settling in Austria amounted to some 5 000 in the first six months of 1999,
with two-thirds entering as family members. But foreigners entering Austria on those grounds represent only a
small proportion of the waiting list. There is at least a one-year wait before entering the country on the
grounds of family reunion.
2. Structure and changes in the foreign population
Naturalisation
The naturalisation procedure varies in length depending on where the application is filed. In Vienna a
work permit valid for 4 or 5 years used to suffice to apply for naturalisation, whereas other parts of the country
required almost 10 years residence. Since 1993, Vienna has toughened its stance on citizenship. Yet the num-
ber of naturalisations is higher than in 1991, reflecting the growing difficulty for foreigners (particularly non-
EEA nationals) to obtain work permits. Instead they prefer to apply for Austrian citizenship. Almost 18 000
were accepted in 1998 and just under 25 000 in 1999. Turks and nationals of the former Yugoslavia head the
list, followed by Romanians.
Mixed marriages
The number of marriages has remained stable over time. There has been a decline in the share of mar-
riages between Austrian nationals (70% of the total) and a corresponding rise in marriages between foreigners
(18%) and mixed marriages (12%).
There are two types of permit. One gives the holder permanent status (after at least 5 years residence)
and allows free access to the labour market anywhere in Austria, while the other is a work permit (transferred
from employer to worker after one year), confining the right to work to the region in which the worker lives.
Over 166 000 foreigners held permanent status in 1998, 16% more than the previous year, and two-thirds were
men (see Table III.3). The number of work-permit holders has been declining since 1995 as they become eligi-
ble for permanent status, and as the policy on labour market access for foreigners has been tightened (see
Chart III.3). Nationals of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia are the most numerous, ahead of the Turks, Croats
and Bosnians.
140
OECD 2000
Labour market integration
In 1998, social security figures show that some 300 000 foreigners were in employment, roughly the same
number as the previous year. They account for just under 10% of the total population in work, but it is interest-
ing to note how the situation varies depending on their country of origin. Those who benefit most are EEA
nationals (9% of all foreigners on the labour market), whose numbers have been increasing by an average of
2 000 a year. Conversely, the number of workers from outside the EEA fell by 2 000 in 1998. Moreover, some
have acquired Austrian citizenship but are still counted as foreigners, owing to the time it takes to alter the
administrative files.
Foreign workers are mainly employed in the primary sector (25% in July 1999), boosting the labour supply
in an industry suffering from a shortage of Austrian workers. The construction sector comes second (with 18%),
ahead of domestic and business services. It is worth noting that construction now employs fewer foreigners,
particularly non-EEA workers, than in the past.
With regard to total unemployment, the share of jobless foreigners has remained unchanged for a number
of years, at around 12%. A study of the unemployment structure by nationality and type of activity shows, first,
that the Turkish community is still traditionally the hardest hit and, second, that the unemployment rate for
foreigners is generally higher than for Austrian nationals, except in seasonal employment, domestic service
and the textile industry, i.e. sectors with a less skilled, more mobile workforce. In 1998, the number of
unemployed foreigners rose by 3% (compared with 1.7% for Austrians).
The integration of foreign workers is expected to improve over the coming years. The two major reasons
are institutional factors and a better economic outlook.
1980
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998
Chart III.3. Stocks of foreigners holding a work permit
1
in Austria, 1980-1998
Thousands
Initial permits issued Extensions issued
Permanent licences Work entitlements
Total foreign employment
2
1. Data on work permits are given as an annual average (except for short-term permits which relate to the number of permits issued in the given year).
Figures exclude the self-employed and from 1994 on, citizens of the European Economic Area.
2. Figures are given as an annual average and are based on Social Security records.
Source: Ministry of Labour; Social Security Department; Labour Market Service.
1980
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998
1
Thousands
2
1980
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998
1
Thousands
2
The Baltic States
141
OECD 2000
The institutional factors, while somewhat ambiguous, take the form of a new law on the settlement and
residence of foreigners which came into force in 1997. Designed to promote the integration of foreigners who
have spent several years in the country as legal residents, it places the emphasis on a more accessible labour
market for families who entered Austria prior to 1992. Furthermore, checks have been stepped up on hiring
practices involving non-EEA foreigners. To obtain an initial work permit for a foreign national, firms must now
prove that they have already turned down at least four unemployed applicants with suitable profiles. This lim-
its the chances of employment for foreigners who have never worked in Austria but facilitate the integration of
those already living there.
The economic outlook has improved and the forecasts suggest, given the declining labour supply of
Austrian nationals (many of whom are retiring) and the growth in demand, that this will herald a more liberal
approach to immigration and a more accessible labour market.
The Baltic St at es
Introduction
The available migration statistics presented and analysed below are solely of reported long-term (or per-
manent) movements. It is understood that unreported entries and exits, clandestine entries and the overstay-
ing of visas are very high. Judicious estimates of their extent are, however, unavailable. Data relating to these
long-term movements come from two sources: population censuses and current migration statistics. The most
recent censuses were conducted in 1989; the next will be in 2000-2001. For this reason, the present report is
based solely on current migration statistics.
The scale of population movements in the Baltic States has been declining over recent years. Immigration
flows, having begun to decline in the late 1980s fell sharply in the early 1990s since which time they have stabi-
lised at a low level. In 1998, slightly more than 3 100 immigrants registered in Latvia, just over 2 700 in Lithuania,
and almost 1 600 in Estonia. Emigration flows peaked in 1992. Data for 1998 indicate the continuation of the
downward trend. Just under 3 300 left Latvia (a decline of two thirds on the 1997 figure), just over 3 000 Estonia (a
fall of one quarter on the 1997 figure) and just over 2 100 Lithuania (a fall of almost 15% on 1997). Net migration,
after more than 30 years of being positive, became negative for all three countries the first time in 1990 (see
Chart III.4). It was increasingly so in Latvia and Lithuania until 1993 and in Estonia until 1994. Although the migra-
tion balance remains negative in Latvia (3 200) and in Estonia (1 500), Lithuanias migration balance became
positive once more in 1997 though it was less than 100; in 1998 it was almost 600.
Chart III .2.
Emigration and return migration
The return migration of the so called Russian speaking population Russians, Belarussians, Ukrainians
though diminishing, remains the dominant component of emigration flows from the Baltic States. In the case of
Latvia, the proportion declined from 80 to 70% in 1998 and in the case of Lithuania, from almost 60% to less
than 55%. Data on the ethnic composition of Estonias emigration flows have not been available since 1996
when the proportion was almost 80%.
Emigration flows to the West, although they are not increasing in absolute terms are increasing in propor-
tion. In 1990 they accounted for 11% of the total from Estonia, 14% from Latvia and 12% from Lithuania. The
most recent available figures are 22% (1997), 33% (1998) and 38% (1998) respectively. With the exception of
Poland, which used to be a major destination for emigrants from Lithuania, the main destination countries

THE BALTIC STATES

142
OECD 2000
remain unchanged: Finland, Germany and the United States for Estonia; the United States, Germany and
Israel for Latvia and Lithuania.
Immigration and return migration
Whereas the visa requirements for the temporary stay of nationals of countries other than the Common-
wealth of Independent States have become less strict, all three countries retain restrictive policies with regard
to entry for permanent settlement. Such entry is essentially limited to three categories of person: returning
nationals (i.e. those of Estonian, Latvian or Lithuanian ethnic affiliation), family reunion and business-linked
migration (which is still not numerous). This policy, which to a considerable extent promotes or blocks the
arrival of certain categories of migrants, has the effect of shaping the ethnic structure of migration flows.
Hence, in 1998 80% of the immigration flow to Latvia and nearly 85% of that to Lithuania was comprised of the
relatives of past-migrants (most notably Russians, Belarussians and Ukrainians) or of persons whose ethnic
affiliation was to their country of destination (the proportion of this latter group is steadily increasing). (Data
on the ethnic origin of Estonias immigrants have not been made available since 1996 when the corresponding
figure was over 80%.) Migrants from Western countries, the majority of whom come from Germany, the United
States and, in the case of Estonia, Finland, are still few in number.
50
20
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
1989 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 98 97 1989 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 98 97 1989 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 98 97
1989 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 98 97 1989 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 98 97 1989 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 98 97
Chart III.4. Migration flows
1
to the Baltic States, 1989-1998
Thousands and per 1 000 inhabitants
Net migration Inflows
Estonia
Thousands Thousands
Latvia Lithuania
1. Data on immigration refer to the flows of migrants who hold a residence permit and who had been registered during the year. Emigrants are counted
if they declare their departure to a country where they wish to settle.
Sources: Demographic Yearbooks of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, 1998.
Per 1 000 inhabitants Per 1 000 inhabitants
50
20
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
1989 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 98 97 1989 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 98 97 1989 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 98 97
1989 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 98 97 1989 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 98 97 1989 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 98 97
1
Estonia
Thousands Thousands
Latvia Lithuania
50
20
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
1989 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 98 97 1989 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 98 97 1989 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 98 97
1989 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 98 97 1989 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 98 97 1989 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 98 97
1
Estonia
Thousands Thousands
Latvia Lithuania
The Baltic States
143
OECD 2000
Illegal migration
The emergence of illegal (transit) migration and migrant trafficking in the Baltic States and its gradual
increase can be understood only in the context of its development in a broader area, mainly the former Soviet
Union. During the Soviet period any kind of illegal foreign migration (immigration, emigration, transit migra-
tion) within the Baltic States as well as all over the former Soviet Union was practically impossible. With sol-
diers as border guards, and pursuing a closed door immigration/emigration policy, the Soviet Union (and the
Baltic States as part of it) was neither an easily accessible nor attractive country for migrants. Such a migration
policy had a lot of negative consequences, but it also resulted in practically non-existent illegal migration.
Following the collapse of the Soviet Union the situation changed.
The phenomenon of illegal migration and illegal transit migration in the Baltic States first manifested
itself in Estonia. However, due in large part to the strong support from the Nordic countries this illegal flow
was reduced to a very low level by the mid-1990s. Since this time the phenomenon has mainly concerned
Lithuania which is the only one of the Baltic States sharing an overland border with the West (Germany via
Poland). This country has in turn, with the support of the international community, improved its border con-
trols and implemented additional measures to combat traffickers. That the number of illegal immigrants
detected in Lithuania has fallen from 1 500 in 1997 to 550 in 1998 and to 320 for the first 11 months of 1999
would indicate that the increased efforts are enjoying some success. The majority of those apprehended were
from Afghanistan, Pakistan, Vietnam and Bangladesh.
It is the view, however, of the border police of both Lithuania and Belarus (through which the majority of
illegal migrants enter Lithuania) that the decrease in illegal migration through the Baltic States is due mainly
to the illegal migrants and traffickers having altered their routes; any diminution in the efforts made to combat
these flows is likely to be met by an increase in the phenomenon.
Although during 1997-99 Lithuania succeeded in returning nearly 2 000 illegal migrants (predominantly to
Bangladesh, China, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka), all three Baltic States continue to be concerned by the
problem of returning of illegal immigrants to their countries of origin or of transit. Though they have signed
readmission agreements with the countries of Western Europe they have, with the exception of that with
Ukraine, been unable to secure agreements with the principal source countries. The reluctance of Belarus and
Russia in this regard is a particular source of concern.
By the middle of 1997 all three Baltic States had passed special laws on refugees and asylum seekers and
had ratified the relevant Geneva Convention and Protocol. Nevertheless, real implementation of these laws,
i.e. consideration of claims for refugee status could start no earlier than the establishment of refugee reception
centres and the introduction of a computerised system for data collection, processing and transmission. There-
fore, until mid-1998 only that part of these laws which is related to the creation of the infrastructure for accepting
refugees was in force. With very limited support from the governments of the three Baltic States, this work is
mainly dependent on outside financial contributions (from the UNHCR, the IOM and the Nordic countries).
Applications remain few in number and are mostly made by Afghans, Pakistanis, Somalis and Vietnamese.
These applications typically follow apprehension as an illegal immigrant: by applying for asylum the person
can remain in the Baltic States under better conditions than those for illegal migrants. For all three countries
combined, the total numbers of applications were 240 in 1998 and 122 in 1999, of which, mirroring its position
as the country the most affected by illegal immigration, two thirds were made in Lithuania.
During the Soviet period, the proportion of Russians, Belarussians and Ukrainians steadily increased in all
three Baltic States; following the reversal in migration flows in early 1990s it has been diminishing (see
Table III.4 and Chart III.5).
Tabl e III. 3.
Chart III .3.
Foreigners (including stateless persons) account for less than 2% of Lithuanias total adult population. By
contrast, in Latvia and Estonia up to 30% of permanent residents are foreigners or stateless persons. This
144
OECD 2000
difference will in all likelihood persist in the future since, according to various sociological surveys, over 50% of
Russian non-citizens do not intend to apply for local citizenship. Quantitative differences in the sizes of the
foreign populations have led to certain qualitative differences in the manner in which their residence status
has been resolved. Whilst Lithuania could afford to use traditional methods (i.e. the way those problems are
solved in most European countries), Estonia and Latvia had to seek a new solution. Therefore, special laws
Table III.4. Components of total population change in the Baltic States, 1995-1998
Sources: Demographic Yearbooks.
1995 1996 1997 1998
Lithuania
Population (annual average) 3 714.8 3 709.5 3 705.6 3 702.4
Population increase (per 1 000 inhabitants) 1.6 1.2 0.9 0.9
of which:
Natural increase (per 1 000 inhabitants) 1.1 1.0 0.9 1.0
Net migration (per 1 000 inhabitants) 0.5 0.2 0.1
Immigration (thousands) 2.0 3.0 2.5 2.7
Russians 0.8 1.1 0.9 0.9
Lithuanians 0.5 1.0 0.9 0.9
Belarussians 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2
Other 0.5 0.7 0.6 0.7
Emigration (thousands) 3.8 3.9 2.5 2.1
Russians 1.9 1.8 1.1 0.8
Lithuanians 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3
Other 1.2 1.5 0.9 0.8
Estonia
of which:
Net migration (per 1 000 inhabitants) 5.5 3.9 1.9 1.0
Russians 0.8 0.8 . . . .
Estonians 0.4 0.4 . . . .
Ukrainians 0.1 0.1 . . . .
Other 0.3 0.3 . . . .
Russians 6.5 4.8 . . . .
Estonians 0.6 0.6 . . . .
Ukrainians 1.0 0.6 . . . .
Belarussians 0.4 0.3 . . . .
Other 1.3 0.9 . . . .
Latvia
of which:
Net migration (per 1 000 inhabitants) 4.2 2.9 2.7 1.3
Russians 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.3
Latvians 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.9
Ukrainians 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2
Other 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5
Russians 8.4 6.3 5.6 3.4
Latvians 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.5
Ukrainians 1.5 0.9 1.1 0.5
Other
1.8 1.6 1.5 1.4
The Baltic States
145
OECD 2000
specifically governing the rights, obligations and legal status of aliens (former USSR citizens) were adopted.
These were outlined in the 1999 edition of this report.
In all three Baltic States, the general approach towards migration related policy was established in the
early 1990s. The various changes in migration policy introduced since then have for the most part been made
in conformity with the established approach or, as has been the case most recently, with the primary aim of
bringing their laws and regulations into line with those prevailing in the European Union.
Combating illegal immigration
Aware that actions taken to combat irregular migration should be taken on the basis of national and inter-
national laws and should not violate international conventions providing for basic and fundamental human
rights (which rules out a previous practice of detaining illegal immigrants on the sole basis of Ministerial
instructions, for example), the Baltic States modified their relevant pieces of legislation in 1998 and 1999 in
order to bring them into line with the requirements of the European Union.
In Estonia, the Obligation to Leave and Entry Ban Act passed in October 1998, which set out the legal
basis and rules concerning the detention of illegal migrants and their return or deportation, came into force in
1959 1989 1997
%
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
%
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
%
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
%
1. Data not available.
Source: National Demographic Yearbooks.
Chart III.5. National composition of the population based on declared ethnic origin, Baltic States, 1959, 1989, 1997
Percentages
Lithuania
Latvia
Estonia
No declared foreign origin Russian declared origin
Lithuania
Latvia
Estonia
Polish declared origin
Lithuania
Latvia
Estonia
1
Belarussian or Ukrainian declared origin
Lithuania
Latvia
Estonia
1959 1989 1997
%
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
%
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
%
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
%
Percentages
Lithuania
Latvia
Estonia
Lithuania
Latvia
Estonia
Lithuania
Latvia
Estonia
1
Lithuania
Latvia
Estonia
1959 1989 1997
%
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
%
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
%
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
%
Percentages
Lithuania
Latvia
Estonia
Lithuania
Latvia
Estonia
Lithuania
Latvia
Estonia
1
Lithuania
Latvia
Estonia
146
OECD 2000
April 1999 at the same time as the amendments passed in February 1999 to the Aliens Act which set out the sanc-
tions which may be imposed on aliens staying in Estonia unlawfully. On the basis of this latter Act, persons who
facilitate illegal immigration through providing employment or accommodation are also liable to punishment.
The Lithuanian Ministry of Internal Affairs started implementing active measures against illegal migration
in January 1997 with the establishment of the Foreigners Registration Centre in Pabrade which accommodates
all apprehended illegal foreign nationals. At the beginning of 1998, the Regulations for the Return of Foreign-
ers were passed. At the same time, the administration of the Border Police was reorganised and the personnel
redistributed in order to tighten the control of the border with Belarus. Moreover, in view of the extensive
involvement of traffickers in the illegal migration process, the Criminal Code was amended to increase the
maximum punishment for migrant traffickers to 15 years imprisonment along with the forfeiture of their prop-
erty (the most severe punishment for trafficking in Europe). This legislative change has been accompanied by
increased efforts on the part of the police to apprehend them.
Asylum seekers and refugees
Lithuania has prepared a new Refugee Act, a draft of which is expected to be submitted to parliament at
the beginning of 2000. Most significantly, it will provide the legal basis for the temporary detention of asylum
applicants, introduces an accelerated examination procedure for asylum applications, sets out new appeal
procedures and deals with family reunion matters.
Amendments to the Estonian Refugees Act passed in February 1999 came into force in September of the
same year. Responsibility for decisions on asylum applications was thereby transferred to the Citizenship and
Migration Department, an initial reception centre closer to the capital was created and a state register for asy-
lum seekers and refugees was established. An amendment to the Aliens Act passed in February 1999 and
which came into force in October of the same year rendered persons who have been refused refugee status
but who cannot be sent back to their countries of origin eligible to apply for an Estonian residence permit.
Social integration
The issue of social integration in the Baltic states concerns two aspects in particular: the integration of for-
eigners who seek asylum and who are either declared refugees, deemed humanitarian cases or are rejected
but cannot return to their countries of origin; and, the integration of non-citizens, predominantly of Russian
origin. The latter mostly concern Latvia and Estonia.
Estonia
In Estonia there are over half a million persons of non-Estonian origin (about 35% of the population of
1 476 000) of whom only one quarter are Estonian citizens (by naturalisation or through transitional measures).
The issue of their social integration has received the attention of both of the Government and of international
donors. The Ministry of Internal Affairs established the Non-Estonian Integration Foundation in March 1998. It
is responsible for drawing-up government programmes on integration and for launching and facilitating vari-
ous projects including language and vocational training. The UNDP is active in social integration issues
through language training, and in collaboration with the Nordic countries is implementing an Integration of
non-Estonians into Estonian Society Project which includes activities in formal education system develop-
ment, adult training, youth affairs, cultural exchanges, regional development, and public awareness cam-
paigns. The EU PHARE programme earmarked funds in 1999 for social integration issues in Estonia, which
included an Estonian Language Training Programme. The IOM has been active in this field since 1997: a joint
IOM/OSCE project (supported by the United States) on integration through training is assisting the most
vulnerable non-Estonian women, including the widows of former Soviet military personnel.
Latvia
In Latvia, issues concerning the social integration of former migrant groups who are now termed non-
citizens are under the responsibility of the Naturalisation Board within the Ministry of Justice. Non-citizens
are understood to number approximately 640 000, equivalent to 28% of the total population.
Belgium
147
OECD 2000
The Naturalisation Board was established in 1994 and began work in 1995. It reviews the applications of
stateless persons and non-citizens who wish to gain citizenship through naturalisation. It operates through a
headquarters and 12 regional branches and has some 160 employees. Support is provided through the Coun-
cil of Europe, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, Denmark, Finland, Switzerland and the United States.
Applications for citizenship through naturalisation have increased threefold to 1200-1300 per month since
November 1998 when, following a referendum, amendments to Latvian Citizenship Law were passed.
The Naturalisation Board, through the Cabinet of Ministers, put forward for public discussion in
September 1998 a framework document for a National Programme on Social Integration: The Integration of
Society in Latvia. The programmes priority areas include Latvian language training; acculturation, citizenship
and naturalisation; and, migration, collaboration with Latvians abroad and repatriation (one of the goals is to
promote the voluntary return of non-Latvians to their ethnic homelands). Public discussion of the programme
began in March 1999; its implementation is expected to commence in early 2000. With financial support from
the United States and assistance from the IOM, non-citizens of Russian origin who have not succeeded in inte-
grating or who are unwilling to do so are being offered help to return to their countries of origin. It is expected
that approximately 1 000 such people will be assisted.
Lithuania
In Lithuania, the Russian 8% of the population was automatically granted citizenship in 1999. The issue of
social integration is therefore deemed to be of less importance than in Estonia and Latvia. The main bodies
dealing with integration issues include the Ministry of Social Security and Labour and the Council of Refugee
Affairs.
The Ministry of Social Security also deals with the issue of returning deportees, i.e. those persons who
were deported from Lithuania during the 1940s and 1950s. The process of reintegrating the deportees which
began in 1992 is nearing completion: even by 1992 the number of returning deportees had fallen to 4 000 from
the 1989 figure of 7 000. The social integration programme established in 1992 includes assistance in obtaining
accommodation and employment and language training. Until 1997 such activities were financed by the state
budget; since then the funds, mostly for housing, have been provided by the European Unions Social
Development Foundation.
Belgium
Introduction
The Belgian economy, which began to experience an upturn in 1996, grew by 1.9% in 1999. GDP is
expected to grow by 2.5% in 2000. This recovery, combined with lower wage costs, has led to net employment
growth. The Ministry of Employment and Labour estimated that between June 1998 and June 1999 some
40 000 jobs had been created, primarily in the retail sector while some 10 000 jobs had been lost, mainly in
agriculture and industry. The unemployment rate, which has been falling since 1998, stood at 9% in 1999.
Emigration and the return of nationals
Net migration was negative for Belgian nationals (4 400) in 1998. In all, slightly over 16 000 Belgians left
the country, to which must be added immigrants returning to their country of origin, who were mainly French,
Dutch and United States nationals (see Chart III.6).

BELGIUM

148
OECD 2000
Inflows of foreigners
The 1990s were characterised by substantial net
migration gains, which averaged slightly over 19 800
between 1989 and 1998 (see Table III.5). The influx
of forei gners was l argel y due to the arri val of
EU nationals. This type of flow is largely attributable
to Brussels role as a host to European institutions.
On the whole, French and Dutch nationals were the
largest groups in total inflows, followed by Moroc-
cans. Turkish nationals accounted for 13% of net
migration flows.
The number of asylum applications filed in
Belgium increased between 1988 and 1993, peaking
at just over 26 400 at the end of this period. However,
over the next four years the annual average was lower
(12 500 applications). There appeared to be a fresh
upt ur n i n 1998 wi t h sl i ght l y mor e t han
22 000 applications filed. For refugees to be admit-
ted, their application must first be ruled admissible
by the Office for Foreign Nationals, following which
their case is examined closely in conformity with the
Geneva Convention. Since 1995, nationals of the
Republics of the former Yugoslavia have constituted
the largest group of applicants (35% in 1998 and 15%
in 1999). Nationals of Zaire are the next largest group,
followed by applicants from Romania, Albania and
Rwanda. More than 90% of applications were filed
inside Belgium.
Numerical trends
At 31 December 1998, Belgium had a popula-
tion of just over 10 million, of which slightly less
than 900 000 were foreigners, or 8.7% of the total
population, a figure that has been stable since 1990.
Between 1985 and 1998, twel ve nat i onal i ti es
accounted for more than 85% of the foreign popula-
t i on r es i dent i n Bel gi um. Some 60% wer e
EU nationals, predominantly from Italy, France, the
Netherlands and Germany (see Table III.5). The larg-
est non-EU communi ti es were the Moroccans
(125 000) and Turks (71 000).
In 1998, some 48% of the foreign resident popu-
lation were women, which was four points lower than
the percentage of women in the Belgian population.
The annual average increase in the total population
over the last ten years has been 0.2%.
70
30
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
25
20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
1983 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 98 97
1983 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 98 97
Chart III.6. Changes in the populations by component,
1983-1998, Belgium
A. Naturalisations and total change in population
Belgians and foreigners
Acquisitions of Belgian nationality
1
Total change
2
(Belgians)
Total change (foreigners)
Thousands Thousands
Note: Data are from population registers.
1. Peaks in 1985 and 1992 can be explain by changes in nationality laws.
2. Peak in 1988 can be explained by changes in calculation
methods.
3. Figures include some asylum seekers up to 1995.
Source: Population registers, Institut national de la statistique.
B. Natural increase and net migration
Natural increase (Belgians)
Natural increase (foreigners)
Net migration (Belgians)
Thousands Thousands
Net migration
3
(foreigners)
70
30
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
25
20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
1983 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 98 97
1983 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 98 97
1983-1998, Belgium
1
Total change
2
(Belgians)
Thousands Thousands
methods.
Thousands Thousands
Net migration
3
(foreigners)
70
30
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
25
20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
1983 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 98 97
1983 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 98 97
1983-1998, Belgium
1
Total change
2
(Belgians)
Thousands Thousands
methods.
Thousands Thousands
Net migration
3
(foreigners)
B
e
l
g
i
u
m

1
4
9

O
E
C
D

2
0
0
0
T
a
b
le
III.4
.
Table III.5. Current figures on the components of total population change, on flows and stocks of foreign population and labour force in Belgium
Note: Figures on European Union include the 15 members of the Union.
1. The decrease in 1995 can be explained by the removal from the register of almost 11 000 asylum seekers awaiting a decision.
2. Work permits are issued either for unlimited periods (A permits) or for limited periods (B permits). EU citizens do not need a work permit.
3. Data refer to the population on the 30 June of the years indicated (except the data on the self-employed from 1995 on which refer to the 31 December).
Source: Institut national de la statistique and Registre national de la population; Ministre de lEmploi et du Travail; Office national de lemploi, Commissariat gnral aux rfugis et apatrides; Institut national dassurances sociales pour tra-
vailleurs indpendants (INASTI).

1995 1996 1997 1998 1995 1996 1997 1998
Components of population change Total work permits issued (Initial and renewed) by nationality
2
Total population United States 1.1 1.3 1.2 1.7
Population (on 31 December) 10 143.0 10 170.2 10 192.3 10 213.8 Former Yugoslavia 0.2 0.3 0.3 1.2
Population increase from beginning to end of year 12.5 27.2 22.1 21.5 Japan 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.9
of which: Morocco 2.8 0.7 0.7 0.8
Natural increase 9.6 11.1 12.1 9.7 Other 7.2 5.4 5.9 7.3
Net migration 13.4 12.7 6.0 6.7 Total 12.3 8.7 9.0 11.8
Statistical adjustment 10.5 3.4 4.0 5.1 of which: Initial work permits 8.5 4.6 5.2 7.3
Nationals Migration flows of cross-border workers by country of origin/destination
Population (on 31 December) 9 233.3 9 258.3 9 289.1 9 321.8 Inflows by country of origin 16.0 17.6 18.6 20.5
Population increase from beginning to end of year 25.0 25.0 30.8 32.6 of which:
of which: France 11.2 12.0 12.7 14.1
Natural increase 5.4 7.2 8.2 7.5 Netherlands 4.3 4.8 5.2 5.5
Net migration 6.6 6.7 8.6 7.7 Outflows by country of destination 44.8 46.7 48.5 51.6
Acquisitions of nationality 26.1 24.6 31.6 33.9 of which:
Statistical adjustment 0.1 0.2 0.3 Luxembourg 17.2 18.3 19.4 21.0
Netherlands 13.3 13.5 14.2 15.1
Foreigners France 5.8 5.9 5.8 5.9
Population (on 31 December)
1
909.8 911.9 903.1 892.0
Population increase from beginning to end of year 12.6 2.2 8.8 11.1 Labour force by group of nationality
3
of which: Nationals
Natural increase 4.2 3.9 3.9 3.2 Employed 3 418.8 3 433.5 3 453.1 3 498.8
Net migration 20.0 19.5 14.7 14.4 Unemployed 463.2 451.4 445.7 413.9
Acquisitions of nationality 26.1 24.6 31.6 33.9 Participation rate (%) 51.4 51.2 51.2 51.2
Statistical adjustment 10.7 3.4 4.1 5.3 Unemployment rate (%) 11.9 11.6 11.4 10.6
Foreigners
Inflows of foreigners by group of nationality 53.1 51.9 49.2 50.7 Employed 271.3 276.2 285.3 289.6
EU 26.6 28.7 27.6 27.4 Unemployed 92.0 93.5 94.9 91.4
Other European countries 6.9 3.4 5.2 6.4 Participation rate (%) 48.1 48.8 49.9 50.4
Africa 7.4 7.7 7.1 7.8 Unemployment rate (%) 25.3 25.3 25.0 24.0
America 4.9 4.9 5.0 4.7 Total (nationals and foreigners)
Asia 6.6 6.7 4.0 4.1 Employed 3 690.1 3 709.7 3 738.4 3 788.5
Oceania 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2 Unemployed 555.3 544.9 540.6 505.3
Region not specified 0.6 0.3 0.1 0.1 Participation rate (%) 51.1 51.0 51.1 51.2
Unemployment rate (%) 13.1 12.8 12.6 11.8
Asylum seekers 11.4 12.4 11.8 22.1
Mixed marriages 6.3 6.2 6.0 6.4
% of total marriages 12.2 12.3 12.5 14.4
Marriages with an EU citizen 3.4 3.3 3.0 3.1
150
OECD 2000
In this respect, the foreign population makes an important contribution in three areas: the natural
increase in foreigners (which accounts for 38% of the total natural increase), positive net migration and the
number of naturalisations.
Naturalisation
In 1998, 70% of those naturalised came from ten countries. Of the 116 430 foreigners naturalised
between 1995 and 1998, more than one-third were Moroccan, 23% Turkish and 6% Italian.
Two categories of work permit are issued: A permits, of unlimited duration and which are valid for all paid
occupations, and B permits, which are only valid for a maximum of twelve months and are limited to a single
employer. For the past five years, the proportion of B permits granted has been increasing, accounting for 80%
of total permits granted to new immigrants in 1997. Approximately 2 500 permits were issued in 1997. In that
same year, the largest number of permits were issued to nationals of the United States, followed by Poland,
Japan, Morocco and Turkey.
At 30 June 1998, the total labour force was estimated at slightly less than 4 300 000, of whom 381 000 were
foreign, accounting for 9% of the total. Between 1989 and 1998, the Belgian labour force increased by 3.5%, as
compared with 28.9% for the foreign labour force (see Table III.6). The overall participation rate in 1998 was
approximately 50%. More than two-thirds of foreign workers were from EU countries, the largest groups being
the Italians (27%) and French (15%). Among non-EU nationals, Moroccan workers were the largest group (12%).
The disaggregation by nationality of those in salaried employment closely mirrored these proportions.
In 1998, there were more than 2 800 000 Belgian wage-earners and 236 000 foreign wage-earners (62% of the
foreign labour force). However, the breakdown for self-employment was different: the Italians, Dutch and
French were the main groups of self-employed workers. The Moroccans, who were the largest non-EU community,
only ranked seventh among the non-EU self-employed workers.
Table I II. 5.
Of the slightly more than 500 000 people who were unemployed at 30 June 1998, nearly 82% were Belgian
nationals. The proportion of foreigners unemployed has risen by two percentage points over the last ten
years. Foreigners have the highest unemployment rate, standing at 24% in 1998 as compared with 11% for
nationals. The Italians (26%), Moroccans (21%) and Turks (13%) were the communities hardest hit by unemployment
(see Table III.6).
The new government formed in July 1999 has focused in particular on three aspects concerning the
residence of foreigners.
Firstly, it intends to change the procedures for acquiring Belgian nationality through naturalisation, which
is in its view an important factor for integration. The naturalisation procedure will be free of charge, and appli-
cants will be required to promise to respect Belgiums Constitution and laws. A number of administrative
formalities have also been changed in order to facilitate the process.
Next, the government wishes to develop a realistic and humane asylum policy. It has begun to prepare a
consistent new temporary and renewable status for persons displaced by war. Procedures will be shortened,
improved and simplified, while upholding the rights of applicants. With regard to persons residing illegally in
Belgium, an independent body will decide on a case-by-case basis whether individuals should be regularised
this on the basis of whether or not they fall into one of the four categories below:
Persons who having applied for asylum and passed through to the final stage of the procedure have
been waiting for the final decision for more than four years (three years for families with children of
school age). In addition, they should not represent a threat to law and order and have not provided
clearly fraudulent documents or information.
Persons who, for reasons beyond their control, cannot return to their country of origin.
B
e
l
g
i
u
m

1
5
1

O
E
C
D

2
0
0
0
Table III.6. Labour force in Belgium, by nationality, 1990, 1995 and 1998
1

1. Data refer to the stock on the 30 June of the years indicated.
2. The number of self-employed in 1995 is that on 31 December 1995.
3. The number of self-employed on 30 June 1998 is estimated by averaging the data for 31 December 1997 and 31 December 1998.
Sources: Ministre de lEmploi et du Travail; Office national de lemploi; Institut national dassurances sociales pour travailleurs indpendants.
Nationality
1990 1995
2
1998
3
Salaried
workers
Self-
employed
Unemployed Total
Salaried
workers
Self-
employed
Unemployed Total
Salaried
workers
Self-
employed
Unemployed Total
Belgium 2 894 674 610 139 305 210 3 810 023 2 791 744 627 034 463 213 3 881 991 2 870 337 628 503 413 916 3 912 756
Italy 63 332 12 194 20 835 96 361 62 912 12 279 26 976 102 167 66 271 12 721 23 534 102 526
France 30 262 7 645 6 246 44 153 34 414 7 494 9 858 51 766 40 304 7 775 9 558 57 637
Morocco 21 124 . . 10 254 31 378 23 986 1 844 18 708 44 538 23 662 1 899 18 924 44 485
Netherlands 16 025 5 882 1 504 23 411 18 633 9 032 2 943 30 608 20 867 10 519 2 234 33 620
Turkey 13 039 . . 7 700 20 739 16 442 1 620 12 332 30 394 16 208 1 742 11 994 29 944
Spain 17 249 1 301 3 336 21 886 16 735 1 783 4 330 22 848 17 469 1 989 3 779 23 237
Portugal 3 953 1 092 641 5 686 7 355 1 678 1 579 10 612 8 448 1 748 1 825 12 021
Germany 4 898 1 330 831 7 059 5 289 1 839 1 314 8 442 5 880 2 057 1 116 9 053
United Kingdom 4 814 1 489 343 6 646 5 446 2 105 805 8 356 5 796 2 176 657 8 629
Greece 3 744 1 073 1 505 6 322 3 744 1 433 1 778 6 955 3 916 1 499 1 625 7 040
Zaire 1 268 . . 282 1 550 2 303 273 1 030 3 606 2 373 345 1 606 4 324
Algeria 1 579 . . 972 2 551 1 717 226 1 468 3 411 1 674 233 1 385 3 292
Tunisia 1 266 . . 490 1 756 1 319 283 751 2 353 1 241 253 654 2 148
Luxembourg 926 388 167 1 481 876 366 278 1 520 901 364 219 1 484
Other nationalities 10 796 7 465 4 380 22 641 20 287 7 605 7 889 35 781 21 374 7 932 12 256 41 562
All foreigners 194 275 39 859 59 486 293 620 221 458 49 860 92 039 363 357 236 382 53 252 91 366 381 000
of which: EU 142 046 33 427 35 456 210 929 157 473 42 695 50 023 250 191 172 200 46 851 44 745 263 796
Total 3 088 949 649 998 364 696 4 103 643 3 013 202 676 894 555 252 4 245 348 3 106 719 681 755 505 282 4 293 756
152
OECD 2000
Persons who are seriously ill.
Persons who can invoke humanitarian circumstances and who have built up enduring social ties in Belgium.
Those who are being sent back to their country of origin and who have resided in Belgium for a considerable
time may be granted an interest-free loan in order to facilitate their resettlement.
Lastly, to combat racism and intolerance, the government has committed itself to evaluating the effective-
ness of the current legislation against racism and revisionism and to adapting it where necessary. To this end,
new general anti-discrimination legislation, which in particular prohibits discrimination on grounds of sexual
orientation,will be put before Parliament.
Since September 1999, the new immigration and asylum policy has been focusing on six areas:
Radically simplifying the asylum procedure with the aim of making it possible to reach decisions within
a month of the application being filed (in the most complex cases, within one year). An application will
be deemed unacceptable if applicants: have previously requested asylum in another signatory country
to the Dublin Convention; have provided clearly fraudulent documents or information about their iden-
tity or nationality; have been ordered to return to their country or deported within the past ten years;
have resided in a third country for longer than three months; lack serious proof; or, present their case on
grounds that fall outside the Geneva Convention.
A procedure of forced departure for immigrants in an illegal situation or to whom asylum has been
denied will be encouraged by providing psychological support, with special provisions for minors (par-
ticularly with regard to school). Deportation procedures for those who refuse to leave and for
delinquents will be reinforced.
A case-by-case regularisation procedure.
The creation of a supervisory board, an advisory body that will make recommendations to government.
An increase in the capacity to receive candidates for refugee status, together with improvements in the
quality of this reception.
The replacement of monetary assistance to refugees with material assistance (lodging, meals, medical
care and guidance).
The new legislative measures concern five main themes:
The Act of 27 January 1999 grants nationals of EU Member States the right to vote in local elections.
On 9 April 1999, the Council of Ministers decided to grant Kosovo refugees special status (freedom to
settle in the commune of their choice, work permits, residence permits renewable every six months)
and BEF 200 million in humanitarian aid. This status was rescinded for Kosovars who entered Belgium
after 3 September 1999, but remained in force for the remainder until 2 March 2000.
The Act of 30 April 1999 and the Royal Decree of 9 June 1999 fundamentally revised the earlier legisla-
tion on the employment of foreign workers, in particular as regards the responsibility of regions for
issuing employment authorisations and work permits.
In September 1999, a bill was tabled amending the Nationality Code in such a way as to simplify and
relax the procedures for acquiring Belgian nationality. Nationality could be acquired by the person con-
cerned making a formal declaration, provided he/she met one of the three following conditions: have
been born in Belgium, have a Belgian parent or have resided continuously in Belgium for seven years.
Through a procedure guaranteed free of charge, foreigners who have resided in the country for three
years would be eligible to apply for naturalisation. The bill also proposes that the verification of
applicants desire to be integrated cease.
On 22 December 1999, Parliament approved a government project for regularising the status of some
categories of foreigners provided that they meet the criteria mentioned above (impossibility of return-
ing to their country of origin, serious illness, humanitarian circumstances or failure to grant refugee
status after four years of procedure). On 2 February 2000, the Ministry of the Interior announced that
33 000 applications for regularisation had been filed.
Bulgaria
153
OECD 2000
Bulgaria
Introduction
The Bulgarian economy has entered a phase of gradual return to broad-based balance. While GDP is still
below the level of ten years ago, the growth rate was close to 2.5% in 1999, and projections for 2000 are more
optimistic (3.9%). After spiking to very high levels between 1995 and 1997, the inflation rate has dropped
sharply, to an average rate of less than 0.5% in 1999. Despite relatively low wage costs, the unemployment rate
has continued to rise, climbing to approximately 16% in 1999, versus 12% the year before. This trend has
extended into early 2000, since a record jobless rate (19%) was recorded in April. It is difficult to assess the
employment situation very precisely, however, because the informal economy is flourishing, and also because
official statistics fail to include some of the jobless due to low unemployment benefits and inadequate active
labour market policies.
In this context migration flows, which have been stable since the mid-1990s, do not pose any major policy
problems at this time because of the small numbers involved. Even so, the Bulgarian authorities have under-
taken to step up the fight against illegal migration and to harmonise the relevant legislation, in particular the
laws governing the entry, residence and employment of foreigners in Bulgaria, in order to bring them gradually
into line with European Union norms.
Emigration
The National Statistics Institute estimates that in recent years emigration has levelled off to an annual
rate of some 35 000 to 40 000 people. The country has not experienced any new wave of emigration since the
massive outflows of ethnic Turkish Bulgarians in 1989 and 1990. Since 1996, and more particularly in 1997
and 1998, officially recorded emigrants have gone primarily to Central European countries, in particular to the
Czech Republic and Hungary. It is difficult to gauge the magnitude of emigration flows precisely, since the
National Statistics Institute bases its figures on a survey conducted in 1996 and since then has merely
provided estimates based on statistics on foreign travel and information gathered in destination countries.
Since 1994, the number of foreign trips by Bulgarian residents has declined by roughly two-thirds, from
over 4 400 000 to approximately 2 600 000 in 1998. While tourism still explains the bulk of such travel, it has
declined sharply, and there has been an increase in trips for family-related reasons (primarily to Turkey) and
to pursue studies abroad [in the United States and certain European Union countries (Germany, Austria,
France, the United Kingdom and Greece)]. The large volume of cross-border traffic with the former Yugoslavia
and with Romania stems largely from bilateral agreements instituting very liberal visa requirements.
Official statistics on temporary outflows of Bulgarian workers hired on the basis of bilateral agreements
confirm the sharp downward trend of several years, which has brought the number of people concerned to
fewer than 1 500 (as compared with more than 2 700 in 1996). Moreover, the number of applications for asylum
filed by Bulgarians abroad has dropped sharply, to fewer than 1 500 in 1998, as compared with more than 3 000
in 1997.
Illegal immigration
The number of foreigners living in Bulgaria illegally (which some estimates put at 10 000) is believed to
be relatively low compared with the situation in other European countries. Most illegal immigrants overstay a
visa, cross the border illegally, hold false papers or residence permits or attempt to stay in Bulgaria rather
than board a connecting flight. It is the intention of most illegal immigrants to enter other Central European or
European Union countries (Greece, Austria, Germany) from Bulgaria.

BULGARIA

154
OECD 2000
Refugees and asylum-seekers
By the end of 1998, a total of 460 persons had obtained refugee status in Bulgaria. Among the
2 000 recorded applicants for that year, most were nationals of Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Armenia or Ethiopia.
Many of these people had been students in Bulgaria who for various reasons did not want to return to their
home countries.
Persons with official refugee status have the same rights as Bulgarian citizens, except that they may not
vote, hold certain positions in the civil service, enlist in the Bulgarian army or own land or forests. Refugees
are entitled to travel documents and may be joined by close relatives. Members of a refugees family have the
same rights and obligations as the refugee. Refugees may apply for Bulgarian citizenship after three years.
Training for refugees constitutes an important aspect of integration policies, and the government has set up
apprenticeship and loan programmes to enable refugees to create their own businesses. The financial burden
of assisting refugees is shared between the Bulgarian government and the UNHCR. In 1998, two transit centres
for asylum seekers were created with support from the European PHARE programme.
Numerical trends
Apart from censuses (the latest data available being from 1992), the National Statistics Institute does not
collect data on Bulgarias foreign population. Immigration flows are therefore estimated on the basis of the num-
ber of residence and work permits issued, and the number of people obtaining refugee status or applying for
asylum. In addition, the National Statistics Institute publishes data on visits to Bulgaria by foreign residents.
For the first time since 1989, there are now data on Bulgarias foreign population that can be broken down
into two categories: permanent residents (a status generally obtained after ten years, or after marriage to a
Bulgarian national) and residents holding a so-called long-term residence permit (valid for periods of
between three months and one year, and renewable) (see Table III.7).
Table I II. 6.
The number of permanent residents, which has increased slightly since 1991, was approximately 40 000
in 1998, representing a very small proportion of the total population (less than 0.5%). Most permanent resi-
dents came originally from the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) or other former socialist countries.
Traditional economic ties between Bulgaria and the regions other countries have underpinned expansion of
joint business ventures and fostered mixed marriages. People from the Middle East, Africa and Arab countries
together account for approximately 10% of all foreign permanent residents in Bulgaria. In 1998, a slight
increase was recorded in the presence of nationals of Moldova, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia
and Turkey, most of whom were of Bulgarian extraction. The number of permanent residents from Central
Europe also rose in 1998 following the issuance of such residence permits to Poles, Czechs and Hungarians
in most cases following their marriage to a Bulgarian.
Holders of long-term residence permits are entitled to stay in the country for one year, but most get their
permits renewed regularly. Over the past eight years, the number of these long-term residents has more than
doubled, from approximately 22 000 in 1991 to nearly 52 000 in 1998. In 1998, the number of permits issued to
European Union and CIS nationals was up sharply on 1997.
Nationals of European Union countries (a majority of whom are Greek) account for over a quarter of long-
term residence permit-holders, followed by Turks, Syrians, Armenians, Russians, nationals of the former
Yugoslavia, Ukrainians and citizens of the United States. Most of these people are self-employed, heads of
business enterprises or associates of Bulgarians in joint ventures.
Naturalisations
One of the requirements for obtaining Bulgarian nationality is a minimum residency period of several
(normally five) years. The law does provide for a number of exceptions, however, for ethnic Bulgarians, for for-
eigners who marry Bulgarian citizens and for foreigners who have performed particular services for Bulgaria.
In 1998, Bulgarian citizenship was granted to more than 2 300 foreigners (more than double the 1997 figure).
Bulgaria
155
OECD 2000
Most of the applications were filed by ethnic Bulgarians coming mainly from Ukraine, Greece, Turkey and
Moldova, as well as by foreign spouses of Bulgarians.
In 1991 and 1992, Bulgaria concluded a number of bilateral agreements with Germany concerning the
employment of Bulgarians (mainly employees seconded from Bulgarian businesses and workers in the hotel
and restaurant trade) and their vocational and language training. Fewer than 2 000 Bulgarian workers bene-
fited from these agreements in 1997 and 1998, and the number of people taking advantage of them has been
falling continuously.
In 1995, Bulgaria and Switzerland signed a bilateral agreement on the exchange of apprentices, but to
date only a tiny number of Bulgarian apprentices have benefited from it. Bilateral agreements on the
exchange of specialists have been under negotiation for several years now inter alia with France, Greece
and Italy. The ratification and entry into force of the recently signed bilateral agreement with Greece to
facilitate the seasonal employment of Bulgarian workers can be expected to result in a normalisation of
emigration flows to Greece. Work on a draft worker-exchange treaty between Bulgaria and the Czech
Republic has been in progress since 1994. It is expected to cover, i nter al ia, social benefits, travel
expenses and the legal and occupational requirements for prospective beneficiaries. The conclusion of
such an agreement would have a positive impact on the regulation of migration flows and would help to
reduce illegal migration.
Statistics on the employment of foreigners in Bulgaria cover only work permits issued, while the number
of foreign self-employed persons, who constitute the largest group of people obtaining long-term residence
permits (see above), is not monitored. A majority of the work permits issued by the national employment
Table III.7. Current figures on the stocks of foreign population in Bulgaria
Thousands
Sources: National Employment Service, National Statistical Institute and UNHCR.
1995 1996 1997 1998
Stock of foreign citizens
Permanent residents
CIS 26.7 27.2 28.8 28.9
Central Europe 2.3 2.4 2.4 2.5
EU 1.5 1.6 1.8 1.9
Other Europe 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0
Middle East 1.5 1.6 1.4 1.7
Africa 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3
America 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4
Asia 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
Stateless 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.8
Other 0.9 1.5 1.4 1.3
Total 37.3 38.8 40.6 41.1
Long-term residents
EU 12.4 10.4 11.9 13.6
Central Europe 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1
Other Europe 4.5 4.3 5.5 6.5
Middle East 9.3 8.3 8.8 6.4
CIS 2.7 3.3 4.7 6.2
Africa 4.9 4.8 5.0 5.1
Asia 3.2 3.0 3.4 4.1
America 2.4 2.3 2.4 2.6
Other 4.4 3.4 5.2 5.7
Total 43.7 40.0 45.4 51.7
Asylum seekers 0.1 1.4 0.4 0.2
Naturalisations 2.2 3.0 1.1 2.3
156
OECD 2000
authorities have been for managers working for multinational enterprises. Most of the workers come from
European Union countries or the United States. Over the past two years, the number of Greek, Turkish and
Romanian workers has risen due to the volume of foreign direct investment flows in Bulgaria and Bulgarias
cross-border activities with these three neighbouring countries.
Three new laws on immigration, asylum and nationality were adopted in 1997 and 1998, not only to repeal
regulations from the previous regime, but also to establish legislative provisions fully compatible with Euro-
pean Union norms, with a view to Bulgarias accession to the EU. The August 1999 Refugee Act (as amended in
November 1999) lays down a coherent set of measures covering the entire process of granting refugee status
and tightens the requirements for the admission, residence and settlement of asylum-seekers. The three main
objectives of the Act are to create a refugee agency, establish procedures for granting refugee status and
accelerate the review of applications.
The Bulgarian Nationality Act has replaced the 1968 Act. For the first time, it sets out comprehensive
and straightforward naturalisation criteria, including requirements for residency (over five years), income,
employment and linguistic ability. Also for the first time, it allows Bulgarian nationals to have multiple citi-
zenship, and it lays down the principles of a policy to integrate Bulgarians living abroad in order to promote
their economic and social ties with Bulgaria. Like the 1968 Act, the new Act automatically grants Bulgarian
citizenship to any foreign spouse of a Bulgarian national, but it also institutes restrictions to combat mar-
riages of convenience. Preferential treatment is granted to refugees, foreigners born in Bulgaria, and the
spouses and children of Bulgarian citizens. The Act lays down simple and transparent procedures for acquir-
ing citizenship, the aim of which is to prevent fraud. Lastly, the Act abolished the principle under which
Bulgarian emigrants lost their citizenship by leaving the country, and it enabled Bulgaria to sign the Euro-
pean Convention on Nationality.
The Foreigners Act replaced the 1972 Residence of Foreigners Act. Enacted in December 1998 and in
force since 1 January 2000, it governs the admission and residence of foreigners and stateless persons, and
provides for several different types of permits and visas: transit visas (for journeys by air or other modes of
transport), and short-term (up to 90 days) and long-term (12 months) residence permits. Long-term permits
are granted for highly specific reasons, such as possession of a work permit, managing a business, pursuing
studies, marriage to a Bulgarian national, being the relative of a permanent resident foreigner, or health
considerations. These permits may be renewed. The Act requires carriers to check the travel documents of
their passengers and imposes sanctions on them if they transport foreigners who lack the necessary papers.
Finally, the Act lays down specific criteria for denying the extension of a residence permit and increases the
penalties to be imposed on foreigners who are in the country illegally.
In 1997, a specialised border control service (frontier police) was created within the Ministry of the Inte-
rior. Since March 1997, visas have no longer been required for nationals of European Union countries, Iceland,
Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland, who are granted a 30-day right of stay.
Canada
157
OECD 2000
Canada
Introduction
The downward trend in permanent immigration has continued, and has indeed become much more
marked. In 1998, 42 000 fewer entries were recorded than in 1997, a reduction of some 19.4%. Despite the
buoyant performance of Canadas economy (3% growth between 1997 and 1998, and a fall in unemployment
from 9.1 to 8.3% over the same period), the bulk of the decline is attributable to lower immigration by skilled
workers and business persons (down by 30 000).
The revision of the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act, launched in 1996 and designed to modernise
immigration law and practice, should swiftly lead to a clearer selection policy more tailored to the needs of
the labour market.
Inflows and outflows of foreign-born persons
In 1998, 174 100 permanent residence permits (see box) were issued. The figure, a decline of 19.4%
on 1997, is well below the lower range anticipated by Citizenship and Immigration Canada (CIC), which had
expected to attract between 200 000 and 225 000 immigrants.
A little under a third of permanent immigrants entered on the basis of family reunion (50 900 people: min-
imum expected 53 500, shortfall 4.9%), 54.5% in the skilled worker and business classes (94 900 people: mini-
mum expected 115 900, shortfall 18.1%) and 13% as refugees (22 650 people: minimum expected 24 100,
shortfall 6%) (see Chart III.7).
Chart III .4.
The targets for 1999 are the same as for the previous year. Projections in October based on permits issued
by then indicate that the 1998 trends, while not gaining momentum, will continue (estimate for 1999:
180 000 immigrants, including 21 900 refugees).
Between 1997 and 1998, unlike in the preceding period, the greatest decline occurred with the skilled
worker and business class (down 23.1%, and 30.9%, respectively, including dependants) although family
reunion immigrants continue to fall (down 15.2% between 1997 and 1998) (see Chart III.8).

CANADA

Other
Chart III.7. Immigration landings
1
by type, Canada, 1998
1. A landing corresponds to a person obtaining the right of permanent residence, either within Canada or from abroad.
Source: Citizenship and Immigration Canada.
Family
Economic
immigration
Refugees
Skilled
workers
Skilled workers,
accompanying
dependents
Business
accompanying
dependents
Business
Other
1
Family
Economic
immigration
Refugees
Skilled
workers
Skilled workers,
accompanying
dependents
Business
accompanying
dependents
Business
Other
1
Family
Economic
immigration
Refugees
Skilled
workers
Skilled workers,
accompanying
dependents
Business
accompanying
dependents
Business
158
OECD 2000
Chart I II.5.
In 1998, 48.3% of immigrants were from the Asia-Pacific area (54.2% in 1997) and 22.1% were from Europe
(17.9% in 1997). Once again, immigration from Hong Kong, China declined (1996: 30 000; 1997: 22 200; 1998:
8 000). It is now only the fourth largest source of immigration to Canada (see Table III.8).
Table I II. 7.
In 1998 China ranked first (19 750), followed by India (15 300) and the Philippines (8 200). More broadly,
the trend is for immigration sources to diversify, the share of the ten leading countries having fallen from 54.7%
in 1997 to 50.2% in 1998. With regard to immigration from OECD countries, there was a marked increase in
entries from France (1997: 2 900; 1998: 3 900), though Korea (4 900), the United States (4 800) and the United
Kingdom (3 900) continued to dominate the inflow in 1998.
As in the past, the majority of residence permits issued in 1998 were for Ontario (53.2%), followed by
British Columbia (20.6%) and then Quebec (15.1%), the latter showing a significant proportional rise over the
previous year (see Map III.1).
Map III .1.
The demographic characteristics of immigration are relatively stable: three-quarters of those entering
Canada were aged between 15 and 64, with women slightly over-represented (approximately 105 women per
100 men in 1998). Due to the selection criteria, immigrants have relatively high levels of education, with 53% of
them having a post-secondary qualification.
Economic immigration
As noted above, immigration by skilled workers and business persons and their dependants fell consid-
erably in 1998 after an upward trend in the previous years (1995-96: +19.2%; 1996-97: +4.3%; 1997-98: 24.4%).
The slowdown in 1997 could be attributed in part to stricter eligibility criteria for foreign investors, while the
trend reversal in 1998 could be due to the economic crisis in Asia.
With regard to immigration by skilled workers, the most significant change over 1997 is the fall of around
70% in immigration from Hong Kong, China (1997: 5 400; 1998: 1 700). But with the exception of China (+15.6%),
immigration of skilled workers from Asia systematically and significantly declined: 51.5% for Chinese Taipei,
140
1980
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 1980 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Chart III.8. Inflows of permanent settlers by entry class and region of origin,
Canada, 1980-1998
Thousands
Family
1
Humanitarian Economic
Asia and the Pacific Europe
A. Main entry classes B. Main regions of origin
Africa and the Middle East America
Note: Except for the family class, counts include both principal applicants and their accompanying dependents, if any. Figures include backlog clearance.
1. Immigrants sponsored by Canadian residents (spouses, dependent children, parents and persons in their charge).
140
1980
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 1980 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Canada, 1980-1998
Thousands
Family
1
140
1980
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 1980 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Canada, 1980-1998
Thousands
Family
1
Canada
159
OECD 2000
49.3% for the Philippines, 38% for Pakistan and 39.4% for India. Among the movements showing increases,
the main features were the inflows of workers from France (+51.5%) and Russia (+22.2%). Quebec was the prov-
ince to benefit most from this trend, since in 1998 it took in 13.3% of skilled foreign workers, as compared to
just 8.7% in 1997.
The inflow of investors and entrepreneurs (business persons), followed a similar pattern, both in terms of
numbers and structure. Immigration from Asia was down (57.4% for Hong Kong, China, for example) every-
where except for China (+43.9%). Here again the provincial breakdown was markedly to the advantage of
Quebec, which was more or less alone in having an increase in business persons in 1998 (+7.5%). By comparison,
this component of immigration declined by 42.4% in Ontario between 1997 and 1998.
Each year, in line with its humanitarian traditions and international commitments, Canada takes in
between 20 000 and 30 000 refugees and displaced persons. In 1998, 22 650 refugees obtained permanent res-
ident status. The number of refugees has nevertheless been falling steadily (1996: 28 350; 1997: 24 100; 1998:
22 650). The trend is apparent in all categories (see Table III.9) but in 1998 the decline was appreciably more
Table III.8. Immigrant landings
1
by type and by country of birth, 1993 and 1998, Canada
Top ten countries of origin in 1998
Thousands
Skilled workers
Principal applicants
Business
Principal applicants
1993 1998 1993 1998
Thousands Rank Thousands Rank Thousands Rank Thousands Rank
Total 34.0 35.9 Total 8.3 3.8
China 0.8 10 5.9 1 Hong Kong, China 3.5 1 0.8 1
Pakistan . . . . 2.1 2 Chinese Taipei 1.8 2 0.6 2
India 1.0 7 2.0 3 Korea 0.6 3 0.6 3
France 2.2 4 2.1 4 China 0.1 15 0.4 4
Hong Kong, China 3.0 2 1.7 5 Iran 0.1 16 0.2 5
Iran . . . . 1.6 6 Germany 0.1 5 0.1 6
Chinese Taipei 0.2 29 1.6 7 France . . . . 0.1 7
Russian Federation . . . . 1.2 8 United Kingdom 0.1 7 0.1 8
Philippines 5.3 1 1.1 9 Pakistan . . . . 0.1 9
United Kingdom 1.8 5 1.1 10 Netherlands . . . . 0.1 10
Top ten (% of total) 42.0 56.8 Top ten (% of total) 75.5 82.8
Family members
Total immigrants
Principal applicants and dependents
1993 1998 1993 1998
Thousands Rank Thousands Rank Thousands Rank Thousands Rank
Total 112.1 50.9 Total 255.8 174.1
India 17.3 1 10.0 1 China 9.5 5 19.8 1
China 7.2 4 5.1 2 India 20.5 2 15.3 2
Philippines 8.1 3 3.3 3 Philippines 19.8 3 8.2 3
United States 4.8 8 2.6 4 Hong Kong, China 36.6 1 8.1 4
Jamaica 5.0 6 1.8 5 Pakistan 4.2 14 8.1 5
Hong Kong, China 9.3 2 1.8 6 Chinese Taipei 9.9 4 7.2 6
Pakistan . . . . 1.6 7 Iran . . . . 6.8 7
Vietnam 5.6 5 1.5 8 Korea . . . . 4.9 8
United Kingdom 2.7 11 1.3 9 United States 8.0 8 4.8 9
Haiti . . . . 1.0 10 Russian Federation . . . . 4.3 10
Top ten (% of total) 53.5 58.9 Top ten (% of total) 42.4 50.3
160
OECD 2000
marked for privately sponsored refugees (17.5%). That may be due to the tighter conditions for family spon-
sorship which came into force in April 1997 (see Box III.2). A little over half of all refugees were selected over-
seas, while the remainder claimed asylum on arriving in Canada and had their claim accepted by the
Immigration and Refugee Board.
Table I II. 8.
Nationals of Bosnia-Herzegovina accounted for 15.8% of all refugees, followed by Sri Lankans (9.4%) and
Iranians (6.5%). The number of those from Somalia and Croatia showed the only substantial increases on the
1997 figures (+65.1% and +28.8% respectively). It should be noted that the vast majority of Somalis,
Sri Lankans, Algerian and Iranians obtained refugee status as asylum seekers.
In 1998, 5 100 people who did not receive refugee status were removed from Canada, accounting for 63%
of all removals, 6% up on 1997 (and 100% up on 1996).
In spring 1999, in close conjunction with the UNHCR, the IOM, the International Red Cross and European
countries, Canada took in a substantial number of Kosovar refugees: a total of 7 000 people including special
needs and family reunion cases.
Family reunion
Immigration under family reunion arrangements is the second largest category. In 1998, 50 900 people
obtained permanent residence permits via this channel, a little over 29% of the total.
While this component of immigration has been falling steadily since 1993 (see Figure), the 1998 fall was
less sharp than the fall in total immigration. Accordingly, family reunions share of total immigration rose
slightly (from 27.8% in 1997 to 29.2% in 1998).
Map III. 1. Permanent immigration to Canada by provinces in 1998
Note: Figures on the map indicate the number of immigrants (including the accompanying dependents).
Quebec
26 220
Yukon Territory
60 Northwest Territories
70
Newfoundland
420
Saskatchewan
1 600
British Columbia
35 900
Ontario
92 620
Manitoba
3 000
Alberta
11 200
NewBrunswick
760
Nova Scotia
2 100
Prince Edward Island
130
Inflows
0.7 to 1.1
1.1 to 2.3
2.3 to 4.2
4.2 to 9.8
Quebec
26 220
Yukon Territory
70
Newfoundland
420
Saskatchewan
1 600
British Columbia
35 900
Ontario
92 620
Manitoba
3 000
Alberta
11 200
NewBrunswick
760
Nova Scotia
2 100
130
Inflows
0.7 to 1.1
1.1 to 2.3
2.3 to 4.2
4.2 to 9.8
Quebec
26 220
Yukon Territory
70
Newfoundland
420
Saskatchewan
1 600
British Columbia
35 900
Ontario
92 620
Manitoba
3 000
Alberta
11 200
NewBrunswick
760
Nova Scotia
2 100
130
Inflows
0.7 to 1.1
1.1 to 2.3
2.3 to 4.2
4.2 to 9.8
Quebec
26 220
Yukon Territory
70
Newfoundland
420
Saskatchewan
1 600
British Columbia
35 900
Ontario
92 620
Manitoba
3 000
Alberta
11 200
NewBrunswick
760
Nova Scotia
2 100
130
Inflows
0.7 to 1.1
1.1 to 2.3
2.3 to 4.2
4.2 to 9.8
Quebec
26 220
Yukon Territory
70
Newfoundland
420
Saskatchewan
1 600
British Columbia
35 900
Ontario
92 620
Manitoba
3 000
Alberta
11 200
NewBrunswick
760
Nova Scotia
2 100
130
Inflows
0.7 to 1.1
1.1 to 2.3
2.3 to 4.2
4.2 to 9.8
Canada
161
OECD 2000
India continues to be the leading source of family reunion immigrants, though the numbers declined by
17% between 1996 and 1997 and by 11% between 1997 and 1998. In the latter year the only increases were in
the numbers from Pakistan (+14.8%), the United States (+4.1%) and China (+2.5%).
The 1996 census put Canadas total population at 28.5 million. The number of immigrants (i.e. persons
born abroad who have been granted permanent resident status) was 5 million, 18% of the total, and rose by
27% between the 1986 and 1996 censuses. Immigrants from Europe were still the largest group (2.3 million)
in 1996, but for the first time this century they accounted for less than half of all immigrants. Although the
numbers of immigrants from other parts of the world increased strongly over those ten years, only immigrants
from Asia formed particularly significant groups in 1996 (Asia: 1 562 800; Africa: 229 300; Central and
South America: 553 700).
In 1996 new immigrants, i.e. those who had arrived since 1991, had a higher level of education than the
native-born population. More than one-third of the new immigrants aged 25 to 44 had completed university
education, compared with 19% of the Canadian-born. Within the total immigrant population, 77.7% spoke
English only, against 64.8% of the non-immigrant population.
Table III.9. Immigrant landings
1
by type, 1995-1998, Canada
Thousands
1. A landing corresponds to a person obtaining the right of permanent residence, either within Canada or from abroad. Including accompanying dependents
for economic and humanitarian categories.
2. Figures include the Independent class and the Assisted Relatives class. Selection criteria are only applied to the principal applicants.
3. Including persons in designated classes, who do not strictly satisfy the United Nations convention on refugees criteria but are resettled for humanitarian
reasons.
4. Asylum seekers who have been granted refugee status and also dependants (of a refugee landed in Canada) who live abroad.
5. Program for child care workers and assistants for elderly people in private households.
6. Mainly Deferred Removal Order Class but may include Post-Determination Refugee Class and Provincial/Territorial Nominees.
1995 1996 1997 1998
Family 77.2 68.3 60.0 50.9
Skilled workers
2
81.5 97.8 105.6 81.1
Principal applicants 34.6 42.1 44.9 35.9
Accompanying dependents 46.9 55.7 60.7 45.3
Business 19.5 22.5 19.9 13.8
Refugees 27.8 28.3 24.1 22.6
Government assisted
3
8.2 7.9 7.7 7.4
Privately sponsored
3
3.2 3.1 2.6 2.1
Recognised refugees
4
16.3 17.4 13.8 13.1
Live-in-Caregiver
5
5.5 4.8 2.7 2.9
Retirees 0.3 0.1
Other
6
0.5 4.0 3.4 2.5
Backlog 0.7 0.3 0.3 0.3
Immigrant landings, total 212.9 226.1 216.0 174.1
of which, by nationality:
Hong Kong, China 31.8 30.0 22.2 8.1
India 16.3 21.3 19.6 15.3
China 13.3 17.5 18.5 19.7
Chinese Taipei 7.7 13.2 13.3 7.2
162
OECD 2000
Table 1.
Box III.2. An overview of the structure and approach of Canadas immigration programme
There are two main mechanisms through which foreigners may legally enter Canada for periods longer than
allowed under short-term tourist and business-travel arrangements: i) with permanent residence status through
the permanent immigration programme, and ii) on a temporary basis as students, refugee claimants or for tempo-
rary employment. Because it is possible to transfer from temporary to permanent resident status, total issues of
permanent residence (often referred to as landed immigrants) include many who have been in the country for
some length of time as temporary residents. About 15% of applications for permanent residence are processed in
Canada; the remainder are processed overseas.
Permanent immigration
Acquisition of permanent residence status is possible under three main classes of entry: i) the family class
who enter on the basis of having close relatives in Canada; ii) those entering for employment and business reasons,
the skilled worker and business classes; iii) those entering as refugees. The system works through a highly devel-
oped set of rules for each class of entry. There are no numerical limits, or other mechanisms for capping the number
of permanent immigrants, the source of control being solely through the rules of entry. As a result, there is no mech-
anism for effecting immediate and precise determination of the numbers granted permanent residence status (in
contrast to the system used in Australia). By 1 November of each year, the Minister responsible for Citizenship and
Immigration Canada issues a statement on the planned migration intake for the following year, which is based on
an assessment of the numbers who are likely to enter under the existing set of regulations. Note that the Canadian
authorities often refer to issues of permanent residence as immigrant landings.
Entry under the family class is based on sponsorship by a Canadian citizen or permanent resident. There
must be evidence of the sponsor having a bone fide relationship with the applicant. In addition, the sponsor must
demonstrate an ability to provide financial support for those sponsored.
Entry under the skilled worker class is based on a selection test consisting of criteria against which points are
awarded to determine whether persons can become successfully established in Canada. The mix of specific
selection criteria and their weighting pattern are designed to reflect what is needed to succeed in Canadas
labour market. Only the principal applicant is assessed.
Entry under the business class is based on a requirement to make a minimum investment in a Canadian
business (or business investment fund) or a requirement to establish, purchase or invest in a designated busi-
ness that will create employment opportunities for others. The business class comprises investors, entrepreneurs
and self-employed.
Refugee status is granted both to Geneva Convention refugees and those who do not quite satisfy the
conventional refugee requirements but are nonetheless admitted for humanitarian reasons. There are three
major sub-groups of refugees: government-assisted refugees selected abroad; privately sponsored refugees
selected abroad; and asylum seekers who come to Canada and claim refugee status and who subsequently
receive a positive determination on their claim. Asylum seekers are issued an employment authorisation for a
period of nine months once certain requirements are met such as a credible basis for their claim and a medical
examination.
Temporary immigration
Temporary immigration to Canada is tracked through data on employment authorisations (by law, no per-
sons other than a Canadian citizen or permanent resident is permitted to be employed in Canada without an
employment authorisation). The motivation for issuing temporary employment authorisations is both humani-
tarian and economic. Some authorisations have to be validated, i.e. Human Resources Development Canada
ensures that there is no Canadian citizen or permanent resident available to fill the position. However, the
majority of authorisations are exempt from validation. Those exemptions include a wide variety of applicants
such as persons awaiting results of an application for permanent residence within Canada and applicants for
refugee status.
The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) allows for temporary entry to Canada by citizens of the
United States or Mexico under four categories of employment: trader and investor, business visitor, profes-
sional and inter-company transferee. Most of the entries under NAFTA are in the professional category where
entry is based on an agreed list of specific professions.
Canada
163
OECD 2000
Data from the 1996 census show that immigrants account for approximately 19% of Canadas labour force.
In aggregate terms, their labour market participation, as illustrated by employment and unemployment rates,
is very similar to that of native-born Canadians: the employment rate is slightly lower (60.7% against 66.9%),
but unemployment rates are virtually the same (10.5% against 9.9%). But, probably as the result of the signifi-
cant recession that Canada faced in the early 90s, the statistics for new immigrants are markedly less satisfac-
tory. According to the 1996 census, the employment rate of new immigrants is 59.1%, and 18.6% of them are
seeking employment.
By law, no person other than a Canadian citizen or resident is permitted to be employed in Canada with-
out a specific authorisation. The Canadian authorities do issue temporary work permits to asylum seekers
whose applications have provisionally been determined to be acceptable, and to people with special skills
lacking on the labour market, as well as to United States, Mexican and Chilean citizens eligible under free
trade agreements (NAFTA and the Canada-Chile Free Trade Agreement).
In 1998, 65 150 people held temporary work permits (asylum seekers not included). Their number has
been rising for several years (1996-1997: +3.9%; 1997-98: +4.5%) but the breakdown by country of origin has
remained relatively stable. The bulk of temporary work permits are issued to nationals of OECD countries:
United States 24 000, United Kingdom 5 100, Japan 4 500, France 4 050, Australia 3 700, Germany 2 100 and
Mexico 1 800. In all these cases, temporary immigration is on a larger scale than the permanent inflows. The
reverse is generally true for other countries. For instance, just 927 people from China received temporary work
permits in 1998, as against 19 750 permanent immigrants, of whom 5 930 were skilled workers.
Admission and residence of foreigners
In December 1996, the Immigration Department established a three-person legislative advisory group
to prepare the revision of current legislation governing immigration and refugees, in order to put forward
recommendations to enable Canada to achieve its immigration objectives. The group submitted its findings
to the Ministry on 31 December 1997 (Not Just Numbers: A Canadian Framework for Future Immigration). The report
covers all aspects of immigration in Canada and proposes substantial changes in virtually every area. In
January 1999 the Minister responsible for citizenship and immigration outlined the governments main
approaches in modernising policy and legislation on immigration and refugee protection. Revising the law
should assist family reunion while enforcing strict rules on sponsorship, modernise the system for selecting
skilled workers and business persons wishing to enter as immigrants, and facilitate the temporary admis-
sion of highly skilled workers. In April 2000, the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act was placed before
the House of Commons. The Citizenship of Canada Act is also in a process that should result in significant
revisions, for the first time in twenty years.
Under the 1976 Immigration Act, Citizenship and Immigration Canada (CIC) has recently signed agree-
ments with provincial governments regarding immigration. The agreements on nominees, for instance,
enable the provinces to introduce active recruitment policies: agreements of this kind were concluded in
March 1998 with Saskatchewan, in May 1998 wi th British Col umbia, in June 1998 with Manitoba, in
February 1999 with New Brunswick and in September 1999 with Newfoundland and Labrador. Settlement
services agreements, designed to simplify the administrative procedures relating to settlement, were con-
cluded with Manitoba in June 1998 and with British Colombia in May of that year. Following an earlier spe-
cial agreement, Quebec now has sole responsibility for the selection of independent immigrants and
refugees from abroad and administers federally funded integration services. CIC continues to set national
standards for Canadas immigration programs.
From its inception, the immigrant investor programme has been the subject of regular discussion with
the provinces (although Quebec has conducted its own programme since 1991). A new programme was
introduced in April 1999, simplifying administrative procedures and cutting the potential for abuse, while
increasing decentralised benefits. The new programme requires candidates to invest at least CAD 400 000
164
OECD 2000
and to hold liquid assets of CAD 800 000. Nine business immigration centres were established in June 1998,
in Beijing, Berlin, Buffalo, Damascus, Hong Kong (China), London, Paris, Seoul and Singapore.
Mention may also be made of Integration-net, the National Clearinghouse on Settlement, for information
exchange among agencies involved in settlement, including federal and provincial government, service pro-
viders and the immigrants themselves. Preliminary work was carried out in 1997/98, with operational start-up
scheduled for the last quarter of the 1999/2000 fiscal year.
Refugees and asylum
Refugee status is granted to Geneva Convention refugees and to eligible persons who apply for it for
humanitarian reasons.
In 1999 Citizenship and Immigration Canada revised the list of countries for which asylum seeker status
may be granted on humanitarian grounds (Humanitarian Designated Classes: the Country of Asylum Class and
the Source Country Class). The earlier list was revised to include Bosnia-Herzegovina, Colombia, Croatia, the
Democratic Republic of Congo, El Salvador, Guatemala and Sudan.
Czech Republic
Introduction
The economic recession experienced by the Czech Republic since 1995 is drawing to a close. Since the
second quarter of 1999 there has been a slight recovery, and a growth rate of around 1.5% is forecast for 2000.
However, unemployment is still rising and had reached nearly 10% at the beginning of 2000. As a result, the
number of new work permits issued to immigrant workers has been falling since 1997. However, the Czech
Republic is still an immigration country, mainly attracting nationals from the Slovak Republic and Ukraine. In
all, foreign residents account for some 2.3% of the population, as compared with 1% in 1994. Asylum applica-
tions, which have been steadily rising since 1994, numbered just over 4 000 in 1998. This trend was confirmed
in 1999 with 8 600 applications. Illegal immigration persists. In 1998, there was a considerable increase in the
number of undocumented foreigners intercepted at the border (over 45 000, as compared with 29 500 in 1997).
The same trend was seen in banning orders against undocumented people already in the country.
Table I II. 9.
In 1998, there was a fall in the number of immigrants applying for permanent residence permits (to
around 10 800, from 13 000 in 1997) (see Table III.10). Whereas at the beginning of the 1990s, immigrants from
European countries accounted for almost the entire inflow of permanent residents (94% in 1990), their relative
share has since then declined markedly and now barely exceeds 70%. Conversely, there has been a marked
increase in the proportion of Asian nationals (18% in 1997, as compared with 2% in 1990). The fall in migration
from European countries is largely attributable to diminishing inflows from the Slovak Republic. The Slovak
Republic remains nevertheless the principal source country of immigrants to the Czech Republic, followed by
nationals of the former Soviet Union (mainly Ukrainians and Russians), Vietnam (two-thirds of all Asian
immigrants) and the former Yugoslavia. As for inflows of new permanent residents from the European Union,
Germans predominate, even though their numbers have been declining since 1993 (some 900 entries in 1997
compared with 1 390 in 1993).
Changes in the breakdown by origin country of immigrants to the Czech Republic have been accompa-
nied by an increase in the relative share of male immigrants and a very clear improvement in their level of

CZECH REPUBLIC

C
z
e
c
h

R
e
p
u
b
l
i
c

1
6
5

O
E
C
D

2
0
0
0
Table III.10. Current figures on flows and stocks of migrants in Czech Republic
Thousands
1. Population on the 31 December of the given year.
2. Permanent residents who had their change of address registered.
3. Czech and foreign citizens leaving the Czech Republic permanently are supposed to report their departure to the authorities. Figures represent the total number of registered departures.
4. The data are issued by the Slovak Statistical Office until 1997 and refer to the registrations of permanent residence in the Slovak Republic. Data for 1998 are provided by the Czech Statistical Office.
5. Up to 1 January 1993, Czechoslovak permanent residents were registered in the National Population Register. Since the split of the Czech and Slovak Republics, Slovak citizens residing in the Czech Republic are subject to the same rules
as any other foreign resident and they are therefore registered in the Central Register of Foreigners.
6. A foreigner can be employed only as the holder of a residence permit and an work permit. A written offer by the employer is needed to apply for a work permit. These rules do not apply to Slovak citizens.
7. Under the Treaty on Mutual Employment of Citizens signed by the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic in October 1992, nationals of the two Republics have free access to both labour markets. The estimates of the number of Slovak
citizens are made by the local labour offices.
Sources: Statistical Yearbook of the Czech Republic (Czech Statistical Office); Ministry of the Interior; Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs.
1995 1996 1997 1998 1995 1996 1997 1998
Total population
1
10 321 10 309 10 299 10 290 Registered foreign workers by nationality
6
Total population change from beginning to end of year 9 10 9 10 Ukraine 26.7 42.1 25.2 19.3
Natural increase 21 22 21 19 Poland 12.1 12.8 13.7 9.9
Net migration 10 10 12 9 Bulgaria 0.8 2.8 3.3 2.7
Belarus 0.3 0.9 2.5 2.0
Inflows
2
10.5 10.9 12.9 10.7 Moldavia . . . . 2.0 2.0
Arrivals (excluding those from Slovak Republic) 6.7 7.4 9.8 7.8 Germany 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.6
Arrivals from Slovak Republic 3.8 3.5 3.1 2.9 United States 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.4
Other 9.3 9.3 11.3 11.0
Outflows
3
1.9 1.5 1.4 1.3 Total 52.5 71.0 61.0 49.9
Departures (excluding those to Slovak Republic) 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.9
Departures to Slovak Republic
4
1.5 1.0 0.9 0.4 Slovak workers
7
59.3 72.2 69.7 61.3
Inflows of asylum seekers 1.4 2.2 2.1 4.1 Holders of a business authorisation by nationality
Vietnam 7.7 17.0 24.7 15.5
Stocks of foreign residents by type of permits and nationality Ukraine 0.8 2.7 8.7 9.9
Holders of a permanent residence permit Slovak Republic 2.9 5.9 7.6 6.2
Slovak Republic
5
6.5 9.9 12.7 14.1 Germany 0.6 1.2 1.5 0.9
Poland 12.1 12.1 11.9 12.0 Other 24.9 18.7 21.0 12.5
Vietnam 1.5 2.5 5.1 6.8 Total 37.0 45.5 63.5 45.0
Ukraine 2.1 2.8 4.6 6.2
Russia 1.7 2.0 2.5 2.9 Czech workers employed in Germany
Bulgaria 2.7 1.8 2.4 2.3 Contract workers 2.5 2.3 1.4 1.1
Other 11.9 14.7 17.1 19.6 Seasonal workers 3.7 3.4 2.3 1.8
Total 38.6 45.8 56.3 63.9
Illegal migrants caught at the border 19.2 23.7 29.3 44.7
Holders of a long-term residence permit
Ukraine 26.0 43.5 38.8 46.4
Slovak Republic 33.2 40.3 39.5 35.5
Vietnam 12.7 15.1 15.8 16.1
Poland 11.0 12.4 13.1 10.1
Russian federation 2.7 4.7 6.5 7.2
China 4.2 4.7 4.4 4.1
Bulgaria 1.6 2.5 4.2 3.6
Other 28.6 29.6 31.2 32.8
Total 120.1 152.8 153.5 155.8
166
OECD 2000
education. At the same time, the proportion of immigrants of working age has risen from 73% in 1990 to 82%
in 1997.
The downward trend in the return migration flow of Czech emigrants was confirmed in 1997 (2 900, as
compared with 3 500 in 1996).
The first asylum applications were submitted in 1990, as soon as the borders opened. From then until the
end of 1998, some 18 000 people sought asylum in the Czech Republic, but only 10% obtained refugee status.
This relatively low acceptance rate can be partly explained by the fact that many asylum seekers had left the
reception centres before the Czech authorities could rule on their applications. In 1998, 4 000 applications
were submitted, the most numerous being those from nationals of Afghanistan, followed by the former
Yugoslavia, Sri Lanka and Iraq.
In April 1999, the Czech Republic decided to grant temporary protection to refugees from Kosovo. By the
end of June 1999, some 750 had been granted this status.
Illegal migration
In 1998, 44 700 people were intercepted trying to cross the border illegally, over 50% more than the
previous year.
The flow of illegal immigrants has grown continually since 1994. Most of them intend merely to pass
through the country, as shown by the large number of migrants arrested trying to leave Czech territory and
enter Germany (85% of all arrests). Of all those intercepted, nationals of the former Yugoslavia are the most
numerous, followed by Afghans and Romanians. In 1997, measures were introduced to strengthen border con-
trols. Their impact can be gauged from the increase in the number of persons apprehended whilst attempting
to cross the frontier (44 700 in 1998 as compared to 29 300 in 1997).
Trends in the stock of foreign residents
The number of foreigners in the country continues to grow. In 1997 and 1998, the number of persons pos-
sessing a permanent residence permit (generally granted following marriage to a Czech national, on family
reunion or humanitarian grounds or for reasons of State) rose faster than that of holders of long-term permits
(generally granted for employment or studies, valid initially for a maximum of one year but renewable).
In 1999, some 67 000 immigrants obtained permanent permits and 162 000 long-term permits. The overall
number of permits issued has been rising steadily since the early 1990s and the number of foreign residents is
just under 230 000.
In 1998, for the first time, Ukrainian nationals (some 53 000) outnumbered Slovaks (50 000), followed by
Vietnamese, Polish and Russian nationals. Of all those holding permanent residence permits, however,
Slovaks are still the most numerous (see Table III.10).
Naturalisations
Of the foreigners residing in the Czech Republic, 1 130 acquired Czech nationality in 1998, as compared to
5 600 in 1997. Naturalisation is generally obtained after five years of permanent residence in the country, but
this restriction does not apply to those granted special status (former Czechoslovak nationals, people born in the
Czech Republic, and the adopted children and spouses of Czech citizens). The prevailing legislation makes no
provision for dual citizenship. In 1998, Ukrainian and Bulgarian nationals were the largest groups obtaining
Czech citizenship, followed by the Vietnamese and the Romanians.
Czech Republic
167
OECD 2000
From 1993 to the end of 1996, the number of foreign workers rose from 52 000 to 143 000. In 1997, their
number began to decline and the trend was confirmed in 1998 (111 000) (see Table III.10). The fall was
largely due to the poor economic climate and rising unemployment. The Czech authorities have made it
more difficult for foreigners to obtain work permits. Tighter requirements governing labour market access
have been combined with tougher penalties for employers illegally recruiting foreigners. Inspections under-
taken by the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs and the Ministry of the Interior have revealed an upsurge
in the employment of foreigners without residence and/or work permits. This would indicate that the lower
official figures for foreign workers do not necessarily signify a replacement of migrant labour by natives or
permanent residents.
Most foreign workers are Slovaks, Ukrainians and Poles. Slovaks, unlike the nationals of other countries,
do not have to apply for a work permit to take up employment in the Czech Republic. Since 1996, their number
has declined, from over 70 000 to around 55 000 in 1999. The trend is the same for Ukrainians and Poles.
The relatively liberal Czech legislation on commercial activities has made it easier for foreign business-
people and entrepreneurs to settle on Czech territory by obtaining a business licence from the Ministry of
Commerce and Industry. The business licence acts as a residence permit and remains valid for as long as a
commercial activity is conducted in the country. The Vietnamese are the largest community to hold such
licences, followed by the Ukrainians and the Slovaks. Included under the heading of foreign workers, the num-
ber of such persons rose between 1994 and 1997 but since then, in line with the trend in residence permits for
other categories of foreign workers, the number of business licences has declined, with 45 000 issued in 1998
as compared with 63 500 in 1997.
Employment of Czechs nationals abroad
The Czech Republic has signed bilateral agreements, in particular with its neighbours Germany and
Austria, on the admission of a fixed quota of workers. Since 1994, there has been a marked decrease in
outflows of Czech workers, owing primarily to the restrictive measures adopted in most European Union
Member States, but also to the reduction in wage differentials between the Czech Republic and EU countries.
Most Czech workers employed abroad live in Germany. In addition, according to official estimates, Germany
employs some 10 000 Czech border workers. The number of seasonal workers has sharply declined, from
almost 11 000 in 1993 to just over 2 000 in 1998. There has also been a decline in the number of Czech workers
taking part in exchange schemes to upgrade their vocational and language skills (320 in 1998 as compared
with 1 300 in 1993).
Entry and residence of foreigners
Amendments to the Czech Republics regulations governing the entry and residence of foreigners came
into force on 1 January 2000. In particular, Czech consulates abroad have been made largely responsible for
issuing visas, and the requirements for obtaining a visa on Czech territory have been tightened. Furthermore,
any application for a visa with a view to obtaining a long-term permit must be accompanied by a supporting
document (for example, an employment contract). The validity of short-stay visas has been shortened
from 180 to 90 days.
In parallel to this, amendments to the legislation concerning asylum also came into force on 1 January
2000. The principal objective of these amendments is to accelerate the processing of asylum applications and
to improve the legal protection granted to refugees in such a way as to bring it into line with the principles of
the Geneva Convention.
168
OECD 2000
Issuance of work permits
New permits are now being issues only when no worker residing on Czech territory and seeking employ-
ment is in a position to carry out the work for which the application has been made. Furthermore, the work
permit is linked to a specific activity and is initially granted for a period of no more than one year (renewable).
When foreign workers lose the post for which their residence permits were issued, they must find another job
and inform the Employment Office; otherwise they must leave the country.
Visa restrictions
As Czech migration policy is being brought into line with the legislation prevailing in the European Union,
the Czech authorities have decided to make visas compulsory for nationals from Russia, the Ukraine and
Belarus. Similar arrangements are being planned for the other new republics of the former Soviet Union.
Denmark
Introduction
As a result of the strong and sustained growth in output that took place between 1993 and 1998, unem-
ployment declined steadily over the period from 10 to 5.2%. Although a tightening of fiscal policy in 1999 was
accompanied by a modest deceleration in output growth, from 2.5% to 1.6%, the rate of unemployment held
constant.
The number of foreign citizens in Denmark rose from 256 300 at the end of 1998 to 259 400 at the end
of 1999. They account for 4.9% of the total population. The immigrant population (persons born abroad of par-
ents who either had foreign citizenship or who themselves were also born abroad) numbered 297 000,
accounting for almost 5.6% of the total population. The rate of growth in their numbers approached 11%
in 1995, due largely to the granting of refugee status, and thereby permanent residence permits, to asylum
applicants from the former Yugoslavia. It has since fallen back to the rates of 4.5 to 6% recorded earlier in the
decade. Despite the recent improvement in the labour market situation and the consequent increases in their
employment, the average rate of unemployment of the immigrant population remains almost three times
higher than that of the total population. It is particularly high among the recently arrived refugee communities,
a problem which the authorities are actively seeking to address.
Only those who have lived in the country for a full year and, in the case of citizens of non-Nordic countries,
have in addition acquired a permanent residence permit are recorded as long-term immigrants. The long-term
immigration statistics that became available in 1999 relate therefore to 1997. Given the requirement of a perma-
nent residence permit, these figures for new long-term entrants include persons who have resided in the country
for over two years. This is notably the case of refugees admitted on a temporary basis and asylum seekers; they
do not receive a permanent residence permit until they have been granted permanent refugee status.
Migration flows of Danish citizens
Since 1990, the long-term immigration flow of Danish citizens has fluctuated between 11 100 and 13 400
per year. In 1997, they numbered just under 12 200, corresponding to 37% of the total long-term inflow for that
year. This inflow may be divided into two streams: that of those coming from Greenland and the Faeroe
Islands, which are part of the Kingdom of Denmark, and the much greater numbers of returning expatriate
workers, NGO volunteers, civil servants and accompanying family members.

DENMARK

Denmark
169
OECD 2000
Having comprised in 1989 approximately 76% of the total annual outflow, the proportion of Danish citizens
among the long-term emigrants has since then followed a declining medium-term trend. Although in 1997 they
numbered just under 14 000, an increase for the fifth consecutive year, they accounted for 68% of the total outflow.
The net migration flow of Danish nationals, having approached 6 000 in 1988 and 1989, increased almost
continuously through to 1994 in which year the figure was positive for the first time in over a decade. Since
then the trend has reversed with immigration declining and emigration increasing, both however only slightly
(see Table III.11).
Migration flows of foreigners
The long-term immigration flow of foreigners, having been broadly stable between 1985 and 1994 (at
approximately 15 000 on average) rose sharply in 1995 due largely to the granting of refugee status, and
thereby permanent residence permits, to asylum applicants from the former Yugoslavia. The figure fell back to
24 700 in 1996 and to 20 400 in 1997. It is likely to have since increased due to the granting of refugee status to
persons from Kosovo.
Tabl e III. 10.
Although the annual long-term outflow of foreigners has been increasing steadily since 1992 it remains
much lower than the corresponding inflow. The figure in 1997 was 6 700, an increase of slightly under 13%
on 1996 and almost 50% more than the 1990 figure. The majority of foreign emigrants are nationals of OECD
Member countries.
Asylum seekers
Applications for asylum can be made in two ways: by delivering an application to a Danish Embassy or
Consulate or by travelling to Denmark and applying for asylum after arrival. These persons are categorised as
spontaneous asylum seekers.
Applications for asylum delivered abroad fluctuated considerably during the first half of the decade and
seldom resulted in approvals. It is understood that these fluctuations were the result of rumours concerning
the likelihood of obtaining asylum in Denmark. Since the 1995 amendment to the Aliens Act, which inter alia
restricted asylum applications from countries that Denmark considers to be safe, the number of such applications
has declined sharply. Having numbered almost 5 000 in 1995 they fell to 1 500 in 1996 and to 350 in 1998.
Since 1994, the total number of spontaneous asylum applications has remained within the range of 5 and
6 000 per year; the 12% increase to 5 700 recorded in 1998 brought the figure to a level comparable with that
of 1996. Within this overall stability three trends in particular can be observed since 1995: first, whilst applica-
tions from the other countries of the former Yugoslavia have declined from 700 to 600 per year, those from
Croatia have increased from less than 50 to almost 300; second, applications from Africa, almost three quarters
of which have been made each year by Somalis, have declined by one half; and, finally, applications from
Asian citizens have almost doubled to over 3 000, an increase which is largely due to applications from Iraqis
which numbered over 1 900 in 1998 (see Table III.11).
Refugees
The statistics on refugees distinguish between two groups:
Persons granted a residence permit with refugee status. They are either given convention status or
de facto status. Quota refugees are also given de facto status in accordance with agreements signed with
the UNHCR.
Persons granted a humanitarian residence permit or a temporary residence permit on other special
grounds. These are unaccompanied minors or asylum seekers who have had their application for refu-
gee status rejected but are not in a position to return to their country of origin. In general, few persons
are granted a residence permit on these bases. 1996 and 1997 were exceptional in this regard in that
large numbers of Bosnians and nationals of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (2 100 and 1 500 in 1996
T
r
e
n
d
s

i
n

I
n
t
e
r
n
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

M
i
g
r
a
t
i
o
n

1
7
0

O
E
C
D

2
0
0
0
Table III.11. Current figures on flows and stocks of foreign population and labour force in Denmark
Figures in thousands unless otherwise indicated
1. A long-term immigrant/emigrant is defined as a person who has lived in/out of the country for over one year.

2. Data include figures from Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden.

3. Including former Yougoslavs who have been recognised as refugees after 2 years of temporary residence in Denmark.

4. All foreigners (except Nordic countries citizens) who want to reside for more than 3 months in Denmark need a residence permit. The duration of the permit depends on the reasons for granting it but it
generally does not exceed two years.

5. An immigrant is defined as a person born abroad by parents who have either foreign citizenship or are also born abroad. A descendant is a person born in Denmark with parents who are either immigrants
or descendants of immigrants.

Source: Danmarks Statistik.
1995 1996 1997 1998 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
Long-term immigration by group of nationality
1
45.9 37.1 32.6 . . Acquisition of Danish nationality, by region of origin 5.3 7.3 5.5 10.3 12.4
Denmark 12.9 12.4 12.2 . . Nordic countries
2
0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.3
Other Nordic countries
2
3.2 3.3 3.2 . . Other European countries 0.2 0.3 0.3 2.8 4.7
Other European countries 22.2
3
11.7 8.4 . . Asia 2.2 3.1 2.0 4.5 4.8
Asia 3.8 4.5 4.6 Africa 0.3 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.9
Africa 2.3 3.6 2.8 . . America 1.5 2.1 1.7 0.2 0.2
Other 1.4 1.6 1.5 . . Other 0.7 1.0 0.9 1.6 1.5
Long-term emigration by group of nationality
1
18.0 19.8 20.7 . . Stock of foreigners
5
222.7 237.7 249.6 256.3 259.4
Denmark 12.7 13.8 14.0 . . Nordic countries
2
27.1 28.7 29.9 30.6 31.3
Other Nordic countries
2
1.4 1.6 1.9 . . Other European countries 110.5 118.8 123.9 127.2 12.8
Other European countries 2.2 2.4 2.9 . . Asia 48.9 50.5 53.2 54.8 56.1
Asia 0.7 0.9 0.8 . . Africa 15.7 19.2 22.1 23.9 25.4
Africa 0.3 0.4 0.4 . . America 9.1 9.3 9.6 9.8 10.2
Other 0.7 0.8 0.7 . . Oceania 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2
Other 10.5 10.2 9.9 8.7 7.7
Grants of residence permits, by category
4
37.9 32.3 29.5 30.9
Family reunification 6.3 8.7 7.7 9.7 Immigrants by region of origin 249.9 265.8 276.8 287.7 296.9
EU provisions 3.8 5.9 5.9 6.1 Nordic countries
2
31.8 33.0 33.8 34.2 34.5
Refugee 20.3
3
8.7 5.9 4.8 Other European countries 117.3 125.1 129.3 133.0 135.6
Employment 2.2 2.8 3.1 3.3 Asia 68.6 72.0 75.3 80.1 84.5
Other 5.2 6.3 6.9 7.0 Africa 18.2 21.5 23.8 25.5 26.8
America 11.7 11.9 12.2 12.6 13.0
Asylum seekers by region of origin 5.1 5.9 5.1 5.7 Oceania 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.3
Europe 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.4 Other 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.3
of which: Former Yugoslavia 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.9
Asia 1.5 1.9 1.8 3.0 Descendants by region of origin 58.8 64.5 70.3 75.7 81.2
of which: Iraq 0.5 0.7 0.8 1.9 Nordic countries 4.4 4.6 4.6 4.7 4.7
Africa 1.7 1.7 1.5 0.9 Other European countries 27.2 29.4 31.5 33.5 35.3
of which: Somalia 1.2 1.4 1.2 0.6 Asia 20.5 23.0 25.4 27.8 30.2
Other regions 0.6 1.0 0.5 0.4 Africa 5.0 5.8 6.9 7.9 9.1
America 1.4 1.2 1.5 1.5 1.5
Oceania 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Other 0.2 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.3
Labour force and unemployment rates among immigrants
and their descendants
1996 1997
Immigrants
Participation rate . . 55
Unemployment rate 20 17
Descendants
Participation rate . . 68
Unemployment rate 10 8
Denmark
171
OECD 2000
and 1997 respectively) who had had their application for refugee status rejected were considered as not
being in a position to return.
As was noted above, the long-term inflow of those refugees admitted on a temporary basis and asylum
seekers are not included in long-term immigration statistics until they have been granted permanent refugee
status and hence a permanent residence permit. This being the case, persons granted such a permit appear in
the long-term inflow figures some two to three years after their initial arrival in the country. Since 1993, nationals
of Iraq, Somalia and the former Yugoslavia have comprised the majority of asylum seekers accorded a perma-
nent residence permit, indeed, since 1995 they have each year accounted for over 70% of the total. The large
inflow of asylum seekers from the former Yugoslavia which took place mainly in 1992 and 1993 did not begin to
appear in the figures for long-term immigration until 1995 when 16 700 of them were granted a permanent resi-
dence permit; a further 4 300 were given a permit the following year. The number of Iraqi nationals accorded a
permanent residence permit has been rising steadily since the mid-1990s, the figure in 1998 being almost 1 800,
an increase of almost 50% on the preceding year. Having gone through a similarly rising trend, the number of
Somali nationals granted a permanent residence permit declined by almost 50% in 1998 to 950. Given the recent
trends in asylum applications from these two countries, outlined above, this pattern is set to continue.
Change in stocks
The broadest measure of the immigrant population (persons born abroad of parents who either had for-
eign citizenship or who themselves were also born abroad together with their descendants), has increased by
67% to 378 165 from the beginning of 1991 to the end of 1999. During the same period, the number of persons
holding foreign citizenship and possessing a permanent residence permit has risen by 61.5%. These foreign
citizens, who number 259 400, account for 4.9% of the total population. The annual rate of growth in their num-
bers, having been quite stable at approximately 5% between 1990 and 1994 and as high as 13% in 1995 (due
largely to the granting of refugee status, and thereby permanent residence permits, to asylum applicants from
the former Yugoslavia), has decelerated over the past four years, the rates of increase in 1998 and 1999 being
2.7 and 1.2% respectively.
Turkish citizens, who numbered 37 000 at the end of 1999, an increase of almost one quarter since the
beginning of 1991, continue to constitute the largest group of foreign citizens. They are followed by citizens of
the former Yugoslavia whose numbers have risen from just over 10 000 to 35 500 over the same period. This
follows the large grants of refugee status between 1995 and 1999. For the same reason, the number of
recorded Somali citizens has risen from 600 in 1991 to 14 300 in 1999 and that of Iraqis from 2 800 to 12 700. For
employment-related reasons the four other most important national groups, the Swedes, of whom there are
10 800, the British, the Germans and the Norwegians, which each number between 12 600 and 12 700, have
increased by between one quarter and one half over the same period.
Naturalisations
Between the beginning of 1991 and the end of 1999, just under 63 000 persons took Danish citizenship.
From 1991 to 1995, the number fluctuated at between 5 and 6 000 per year; in 1999, there were slightly less
than 12 500 naturalisations (see Table III.11). This increase was due mainly to a high number of naturalisations
of Asian citizens, in particular of Iraqis, Iranians and Lebanese, to an increase from 700 to 1 500 in the number
of previously stateless citizens acquiring Danish citizenship and finally to a considerable rise in the naturalisa-
tions of Turkish citizens.
The proportions of foreign nationals taking up Danish citizenship varies considerably by country of origin.
Approximately 50% of those from Asia and South America have changed citizenship during their stay in Den-
mark. On the other hand, less than 20% of immigrants from Turkey and from the former Yugoslavia have done
so. The low proportion of Turks who have applied for citizenship reflects the disincentives that existed prior to
the 1995 amendment of the Turkish law on nationality. This amendment enabled those who take up foreign
citizenship to retain their rights and property in Turkey. The number of Turks choosing to take up Danish citi-
zenship, having registered modest increases between 1996 and 1998, increased almost threefold in 1999 to
172
OECD 2000
3 150. That at present only a small proportion of nationals of the former Yugoslavia have applied for citizen-
ship is due to the fact that once granted refugee status they must then reside in the country for a further
six years before becoming eligible.
Labour force participation
The working-age population totalled 3.6 million on 1 January 1998 (latest year available). Of these 243 200
(6.8%) were immigrants and their descendants. The labour force participation rate of this group was 56% as
compared to 79% for the remainder of the population. For males it was 63% as compared to 83% and for
females 49% as compared to 75%.
The participation rate of immigrants from European Union countries and their descendants was 68% (73%
for males, 62% for women) and from Turkey 60% (71% for males, 49% for females). Reflecting in large part their
relatively recent arrival in the country, predominantly as refugees, the participation rates of those from
Somalia, Iraq and the former Yugoslavia were 14, 27 and 43% respectively.
Employment
On 1 January 1998, the total number of persons in employment was 2.69 million, the same as at the begin-
ning of the previous year. Of these, 114 000 (4.3%) were immigrants and their descendants. In 1996, total
employment had increased by approximately 30 000 (1.1%); during this year, employment among immigrants
and their descendants increased by 10 000 (10%).
The majority of immigrants in employment, 87%, work as salaried employees, 12% are self-employed (as
compared to 8% among the rest of the population) and the remaining 1% assist their spouse.
Almost one third of immigrant workers are employed in public and personal services, 22% are employed
in commerce, clerical work, and catering, and 20% are employed in industry (see Table III.12). Compared with
the rest of the population, immigrants are under-represented in agriculture, building, and public and personal
services, and are particularly over-represented in commerce, clerical work, catering and industry. No significant
shifts in the employment distribution of immigrants have taken place over the last five years.
Table I II. 11.
Unemployment
Particularly susceptible to long-term unemployment, the average rate of unemployment of the immigrant
population remains three times higher than that of non-immigrants. Their unemployment rates do vary con-
siderably however according to national group which in turn is strongly linked to the original reason for enter-
ing Denmark (for example, labour migration, as a refugee or seeking asylum, or for family reunion). Together
with their level of education and the duration of their stay in Denmark this would explain why immigrants from
Turkey and the former Yugoslavia have unemployment rates of 27 and 23% respectively whereas those of
immigrants from Norway, the European Union and North America are similar to that of the non-immigrant pop-
ulation: the Turks, who originally entered as labour migrants and were subsequently joined by their families,
are predominantly employed in low-skilled occupations which are diminishing in number; the nationals of the
former Yugoslavia are a new immigrant group which having completed the initial social integration process are
only now beginning to integrate themselves into the Danish labour market.
On 26 June 1998, the Danish Parliament passed its first law on integration; it came into effect on 1 January
1999. The purpose of this law is to promote the integration of immigrants and refugees into Danish society.
The integration programme focuses essentially on newly arrived immigrants, who are helped to adjust to the
requirements of the Danish labour market. Where such adjustment does not seem to be immediately
possible, education or vocational training is offered.
Finland
173
OECD 2000
As a result of the entry into force of the Treaty of Amsterdam on 1 May 1999, the European Community
now possesses considerable powers regarding the right to asylum, immigration and external border controls.
Once the European parliament has been consulted, the Community regulations will be adopted by the Coun-
cil unanimously. Thereafter, these issues will come within the jurisdiction of the Court of Justice. However, by
virtue of a Protocol concerning it contained in an Annex to the Treaty, Denmark will be able to decide on a
case-by-case basis whether or not to adopt measures which develop the Acquis Schengen.
Finland
Introduction
In 1998, Finlands economy continued to grow steadily, with GDP rising by some 5.6%. It was the fifth con-
secutive year of strong growth. Employment naturally benefited from the healthy economic conditions and
unemployment fell back by more than a percentage point, though it is still over 11% ( i.e. comparable to the
levels in Germany and France).
Trends in migration in 1998 show increases in both immigration and emigration. The rise in the latter was
more marked, however, so that the net migration gain fell slightly between 1997 (3 700) and 1998 (3 370). Over
eight years, the foreign population in Finland has risen threefold and more.

FINLAND

Table III.12. Employed immigrants,
1
by main occupation and country of origin, 1 January 1999, Denmark
Thousands
1. Immigrants are defined as persons born abroad by parents who have either foreign citizenship or are also born abroad.
Source: Danmarks Statistik.
Agriculture,
fishing,
mining and
quarrying
Manufacturing
Energy
and
water supply
Construction
Trade,
hotel
and
restaurant
Transport
and
telecom.
Finance
Public
administration
and other
services
Unknown Total
Total 3.2 23.1 0.3 3.1 25.2 8.2 16.7 35.2 1.6 116.6
EU 1.4 5.5 0.1 1.5 6.1 2.3 4.7 12.6 0.4 34.5
of which:
Germany 0.3 2.1 0.1 0.5 1.7 0.7 1.3 4.0 0.2 10.8
Sweden 0.1 0.8 0.2 1.0 0.6 1.0 3.0 0.1 6.9
United Kingdom 0.2 1.1 0.4 1.1 0.4 1.0 2.1 0.1 6.4
Other European countries 1.1 9.6 0.1 1.0 8.5 2.8 5.8 11.5 0.5 40.8
of which:
Turkey 0.2 2.9 0.1 4.0 0.8 1.5 2.4 0.3 12.2
Former Yugoslavia 0.1 3.7 0.3 1.5 0.9 1.6 2.0 10.2
Norway 0.1 0.7 0.2 0.9 0.4 0.8 2.8 0.1 6.0
Africa 0.1 1.0 0.1 1.4 0.6 1.6 2.2 0.1 7.1
America 0.1 0.7 0.2 0.8 0.4 1.0 1.3 0.1 5.5
Asia 0.4 6.2 0.4 8.1 2.3 3.5 6.3 0.5 27.7
of which:
Iran 0.5 0.1 1.4 0.3 0.5 1.3 0.1 4.0
Vietnam 0.1 1.3 0.9 1.2 0.1 0.2 0.4 3.6
Other 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.9
174
OECD 2000
As mentioned above, emigrati on had a signifi cant impact on mi gration trends in 1998. Some
10 800 people left Finland, 9.7% more than in the previous year. Of these emigrants, 9 100 were Finns and
1 700 other nationals.
Although the numbers of Finns returning increased (1997: 5 400; 1998: 5 850), the net migration loss in this
group is still considerable and is rising in absolute numbers.
During the 1990s, Finns moved chiefly to Sweden (over 2 500 a year, or between 30 and 50% of depar-
tures). In 1998, 2 900 emigrated to Sweden (+5% over 1997), 1 300 to Norway (+35%), 670 to Spain (+27%) and
660 to the United Kingdom (+25%). Other destinations include Germany, the United States, Denmark and
Belgium, though the figures are much lower. Over 78% of Finnish emigrants went to other Nordic countries and
the European Union. Movements to Belgium may reflect the mobility of managers following Finlands
EU accession, while movements to Spain appear largely to concern retired people.
Inflows and outflows of foreigners and foreign-born persons
Immigration increased in 1998, but at a more moderate pace than in earlier years. Entries totalled 8 340,
an increase of 2.4% between 1997 and 1998 (+8% between 1996 and 1997). Except for 1996, outflows of foreign-
ers have been relatively stable since the start of the decade. They rose slightly in 1998 since 1 700 foreigners
left Finland (+7% over 1997). The migration gain for the foreign population rose marginally between 1997
(6 565) and 1998 (6 650) (see Table III.13).
Table I II. 12.
According to Statistics Finland, immigration is estimated to have risen by 2% in the first six months of 1999
over the previous year, while emigration rose by 28%.
As was the case in the previous four years, the largest inflows were from Russia (1998: 2 500), followed by
Sweden and Estonia. These three groups alone represented 47.5% of total immigration (45.3% in 1997). Around
25% of foreigners who officially left Finland in 1998 were Swedes, reflecting the recent upturn in the Swedish
economy. In 1998, outflows of Russian, United States and United Kingdom nationals fell appreciably, while
slightly more Estonians left Finland.
Asylum seekers
The number of asylum applications in Finland has fluctuated substantially over the last ten years. Prior
to 1990, there were at most a few dozen claims each year. Between 1990 and 1993, some 2 000 applications
were filed a year, the number then falling back to under 1 000. In 1998, asylum applications again rose, to 1 270
against 970 in 1997.
In the first half of 1999, the number of applications was 700 greater than for the whole of 1998. The reason
lies in an exceptional inflow of Slovak asylum seekers (1 208 in the first six months of 1999).
In 1998, the largest number of applications were from nationals of the former Yugoslavia, followed by
Somalis. A little under 100 asylum seekers were from Turkey and Iraq. The Ministry of the Interior issued
rulings on 866 applications, of which 27.7% were rejected. The proportion of refusals was down by nearly 10%
on the previous year.
The Finnish Parliament establishes a quota every year for the attribution of refugee status. It was set at
600 in 1998 (650 in 1999). However, only 124 people were admitted to Finland on these grounds in 1998 and
307 additional refugees were accepted on family reunion grounds. In all, 958 people obtained refugee status,
some 32% down on 1997 and one of the lowest levels this decade. Virtually all refugees in 1998 were from
Africa (349) or the Middle East (482). The main nationalities are Iraqis (323), Somalis (256), Iranians (142) and
Yugoslavs (55).
Finland
175
OECD 2000
Foreign or immigrant population
At 31 December 1998, some 85 000 foreigners were resident in Finland, an increase of nearly 6%, or 4 500, over
the previous year. The proportion of foreigners in the total population is still extremely small, however, at just 1.6%.
Detailed analysis of trends in the foreign population between 1997 and 1998 shows 8 340 new immigrants,
some 1 700 emigrants, 1 340 children born to parents of foreign origin, some 300 deaths and 4 000 naturalisations.
But the breakdown conceals substantial differences by nationality. While a total of over 5 000 Somalis have been
born in Finland, fewer than 500 obtained Finnish nationality. Conversely, 550 Vietnamese were naturalised, whereas
there have been just 450 children born to parents of Vietnamese origin.
The largest group of foreigners in 1998 was certainly the Russians, followed by the Estonian and Swedish
communities. These three nationalities represent 47% of the total foreign population (the same as their propor-
tion of total immigration in 1998) (see Table III.13). The number of European Union nationals settling in Finland
increased by some 6%, in the same proportion as the total number of foreigners between 1997 and 1998.
Naturalisations
In 1998, a little over 4 000 people obtained Finnish citizenship (only 25 of them were born in Finland).
Since 1997, when fewer than 1 500 applications were accepted, naturalisations have thus risen almost
Table III.13. Current figures on flows and stocks of the foreign population in Finland
1. A great part of the Russians and of the Estonians have Finnish origins.
2. Data are from population registers and refer to the population on 30 September of the years indicated.
Source: Statistics Finland.
1995 1996 1997 1998
Inflows by main nationality 12.2 13.3 13.6 14.2
Nationals 4.9 5.8 5.4 5.9
Foreigners 7.3 7.5 8.1 8.3
of which:
Former USSR
1
2.0 2.0 2.4 2.5
Estonia
1
1.0 0.7 0.6 0.7
Sweden 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.8
Net migration by main nationality 3.3 2.7 3.7 3.4
Nationals 2.6 1.8 2.9 3.3
Foreigners 5.8 4.5 6.6 6.7
of which:
Former USSR 1.7 1.6 2.3 2.4
Estonia 0.8 0.4 0.5 0.5
Sweden 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.8
Foreign population by main nationality
2
68.6 73.8 80.6 85.0
Former USSR
1
15.9 17.0 19.0 20.5
Estonia
1
8.4 9.0 9.7 10.3
Sweden 7.0 7.3 7.5 7.8
Somalia 4.0 4.6 5.2 5.4
Acquisition of nationality by former nationality 0.7 1.0 1.4 4.0
Former USSR 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.8
Somalia 0.5
Vietnam 0.1 0.2 0.4
Other countries 0.6 0.7 0.9 2.3
% of total marriages 8.8 . . . . . .
176
OECD 2000
threefold. Nationals of the former Soviet Union still accounted for the largest share of naturalisations (20%),
followed by Somalis (11.8%) and Vietnamese (9.5%) (see Table III.13). Between 1995 and 1998, the proportion
of European nationals in all naturalisations has fallen substantially, from 50 to 31%.
Foreigners migrate to Finland as refugees and asylum seekers rather than to find work. This explains to
some extent the high rate of unemployment among foreigners from countries other than the United States,
Canada or European Union members.
At the end of 1998, people of working age accounted for 73% of the foreign population, compared with 67%
for nationals. The most recent data on labour force participation rates date back to 1997, when the participation
rate for foreigners was 56%, compared with 71% for nationals.
In December 1998, 13 800 foreigners were seeking jobs, an unemployment rate close on 40% (1996: 45.6%;
1997: 42.1%). At the same time, around 10% of Finns were without work. The breakdown by nationality under-
scores the scale of the problem for some ethnic groups, such as Iraqis, Vietnamese, nationals of Bosnia-Herze-
govina and Iranians. Over 70% of the members of these communities were unemployed at the end of 1998. The
position has in fact worsened markedly since 1996 for Iraqis, who are virtually all unemployed. But the largest
numbers of unemployed are among Russians and Estonians, 4 600 and 1 690 respectively in 1998.
The particularly stark picture which has just been drawn of foreign employment in Finland needs to be quali-
fied, however. There is a requirement for refugees to register as job-seekers in order to receive training and certain
benefits. They are not capable of holding down a job in Finland, however, since they do not speak Finnish.
There are no reliable statistics on foreigners in temporary employment in Finland, with the exception of
trainees. In practice there are few temporary workers, and most of them are employed by foreign firms estab-
lished in Finland. Estonians and Russians are employed to harvest the raspberry crop, on a seasonal basis.
Unemployment in Finland is still too high, in any case, to warrant intensive recourse to outside labour.
The Finnish Government approved a programme relating to its policy on immigration and refugees in
October 1997. The Ministry of the Interior is responsible for immigration controls and security, together with
the issue of residence permits, while the Ministry of Labour, in co-operation with the Ministry of Education,
has responsibility for preventing all forms of racism and ethnic discrimination.
New measures concerning integration
New legislation on integration and asylum came into effect in May 1999. The aim is to assist the integra-
tion of immigrants and to promote equal opportunity and freedom of choice through the acquisition of
knowledge and skills. The Act further guarantees minimum support and access to health care.
The asylum procedure has not been significantly amended, however. The most significant change
concerns the regulatory procedure, which is now defined by law rather than by government order.
Development, monitoring and co-ordination of immigrant integration is now to be overseen by the Minis-
try of Labour. At regional level, the employment and economic development centres are responsible for inte-
grating immigrants into society and the labour market. At local level, municipal authorities are bound to draw
up individualised integration programmes in conjunction with the relevant government bodies. All immigrants
resident in Finland must be covered by an integration programme.
To qualify for an integration programme, immigrants must be looking for work or receiving benefit.
Eligibility runs for three years from the start of residence in the area.
During the integration programme, immigrants receive a subsistence allowance, which may be cut by 20%
if individuals refuse to take part in activities under the programme. In the event of persistent refusal, 40% of
the allowance may be withheld.
France
177
OECD 2000
France
Introduction
The analysis of recent migration movements and policies in France reveals that flow control and the inte-
gration of immigrants are still among the key objectives of migration policy. It is still too early to assess the
impact, in terms of flows and stocks or on migration policy, of the major legislative changes which took place
in 1998. These concerned, on the one hand, the conditions for entry and residence and the right to asylum
(Law of 11 May 1998) and, on the other, the conditions for acquiring French nationality (Law of 16 March 1998).
The substantial increase in the number of foreigners entering in 1999 may be regarded as due largely to the
initial outcome of the regularisation programme which was run from 1997 to June 1998.
Permanent immigration
Permanent immigration (i.e. for which residence permits valid for one year or over are issued) is com-
posed mainly of family immigration (see below), visitors, and workers (see Section 3, Migration and the labour
market).
The downward trend in permanent entries observed since 1994 had been reversed in 1997 (see
Table III.14). In 1998, permanent immigrants totalled 138 000, including 24 500 nationals of the European
Economic Area (EEA) and 113 500 nationals of other countries (compared with 78 000 in 1997, of whom 19 000
were regularised), an increase of 45%. These figures mark a new stage in the rise in entries, consecutive to that
of 1997 and in contrast with the falls observed between 1993 and 1996. The number of entries for 1998 was the
highest since 1990 (when the method of calculating entries was altered) and concerns nationals of non-EEA
countries alone; since 1995, inflows of EEA nationals have remained steady at between 24 000 and 25 000.
Tabl e III. 13.
The substantial increase in the number of entries in 1998 primarily reflects the impact of the review of the
situation of certain categories of foreigners who lack the required residence documents. Among the non-EEA
nationals, some 51 000 were regularised under the programme approved in June 1997. According to the data
from the International Organisation for Migration (IOM) following medical examinations, around 69 800 people
were regularised between the start of the review programme in June 1997 and 31 December 1998, this figure
being the total of those counted individually and those included as family members. For 1998, the
45 800 people counted individually share several significant characteristics, similar to those for 1997. Family
members predominate within this group, as follows naturally from the criteria set out in the Ministerial Circular
of 24 June 1997 dealing with the regularisation programme (cf. Trends in International Migration 1999, p. 139).
Regions of origin are unevenly represented, with Africa accounting for 72% of the overall flow, Asia for 20% and
the other continents 8%. Last, just five nationalities account for half the flow recorded in 1998 (Algerian,
Moroccan, Chinese, Malian and former Zaire).
The disaggregation by main reasons for admission shows that, more than ever before, family reunion is
the chief reason for immigration, and that employment is becoming less and less significant, now systemati-
cally less than the arrival of visitors. The visitors category, which was redefined in 1997, consists of persons
who have been granted a temporary residence card (valid for a one-year period and renewable) as research-
ers or university teachers, members of artistic or cultural professions, or for reasons related to private and fam-
ily life. Around 30% of foreigners in the visitor category are spouses of French citizens, and hence are in fact
entries of family members. Entries under the visitor category totalled nearly 17 000 in 1998. African nationals
accounted for 51% of visitors, Asian nationals 19%, nationals of the Americas 15% and nationals of non-EU
Europe (including the former Soviet Union) 14%.

FRANCE

T
r
e
n
d
s

i
n

I
n
t
e
r
n
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

M
i
g
r
a
t
i
o
n

1
7
8

O
E
C
D

2
0
0
0
Table III.14. Current figures on flows and stocks of foreign population and labour force, France
1. Estimates made by the Ministry of the Interior on the basis of residence permits issued.
2. Provisional work permits (APT) are granted for a 9 month period and are renewable.
3. Readmissions undertaken within the framework of international agreements.
4. In the absence of a population register, the only available data on the departures of foreigners are those which are due to administrative decisions and judicial orders concerning expulsions, removals of
illegal immigrants to the border and voluntary departures assisted by the State.
5. The others are accompanying dependents of workers involved in an assisted departure procedure.
6. People born in France to foreign parents who declared their intention to become French in accordance with the legislation of 22 July 1993.
7. In March of the year indicated.
Sources: Office des migrations internationales (OMI); Office franais de protection des rfugis et apatrides (OFPRA); Ministry of the Interior; Labour Force Survey.
1995 1996 1997 1998 1995 1996 1997 1998
Permanent immigration Readmissions
3
. . . . 3.7 12.5
Registered flows by category Registered outflows of foreigners
4
Family reunification (broadly defined) 31.6 30.4 31.1 38.3 Expulsions 1.0 1.2 0.9 0.7
Family members of French nationals 16.5 15.6 14.4 15.6 Actual removals to the borders 10.1 11.6 9.2 7.2
Family members of foreigners 14.4 13.9 15.5 21.7 Assisted departures 1.6 1.6 1.0 1.7
Family members of refugees 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.0
Workers 14.1 11.9 11.7 11.6 Foreigners involved in an assisted departure procedure by category
Wage earners 13.1 11.5 11.0 10.3 (Cumulated figures since 1984) . . . . 73.4 73.6
Self-employed 1.0 0.5 0.7 1.3 of which: Workers
5
. . . . 32.7 32.9
Visitors 6.4 8.9 15.1 16.9
Refugees 4.7 4.3 4.1 4.3 Acquisition of French nationality
Regularisation of foreigners in an irregular situation 18.9 45.8 Legal procedures 40.9 58.1 60.5 58.1
Total 56.7 55.6 62.0 116.9 of which: Naturalisation 24.7 34.7 35.7 34.7
of which: EEA 7.9 7.2 6.4 6.2 Declarations 21.0 21.9 23.2 23.8
of which: Decision following a wedding 16.7 19.1 20.8 22.1
Estimated flows by main category
1
Declaration of becoming French
6
30.5 29.8 32.5 25.5
Visitors 2.4 7.5 7.8 8.2 Total 92.4 109.8 116.2 122.3
Family members of foreigners 4.3 6.5 8.5 8.0
Other 5.0 4.4 5.2 5.0 Mixed marriages 23.8 24.0 . . . .
Total 11.6 18.4 21.5 21.2 % of total marriages 9.4 9.6 . . . .
of which: EEA 8.2 15.4 17.9 18.4
Stocks of foreigners aged 15 and over according to work status
7
Total registered and estimated flows 68.3 74.0 83.5 138.1 Total foreign population 2 803 2 836 2 818 2 875
Labour force 1 573 1 605 1 570 1 587
Temporary immigration by category of which: employment 1 232 1 217 1 205 1 211
Asylum seekers 20.4 17.4 21.4 22.4 Participation rate (%) 56.1 56.6 55.7 55.2
Students 15.1 16.0 19.2 23.5 Unemployment rate (%) 21.7 24.2 23.2 23.7
Holders of a provisional work permit
2
4.5 4.8 4.7 4.3
Trainees 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.5
Total
40.4 38.7 45.8 50.7
France
179
OECD 2000
Temporary immigration and seasonal immigration
Temporary entries mainly consist of foreigners who are granted an initial residence card valid for less than
a year, and students. Since the mid-1990s, the category of provisional work permit holders (APT permits, valid
for a maximum of nine months and renewable) includes, between 10 and 15% depending on the year, Brazilian
gold panners living in Guyana. For metropolitan France, the annual numbers of APT holders have ranged
between 4 000 and 4 800 a year since 1994 (4 300 in 1998). This workforce has high skill levels, as a rule, and is
around 30% female. Most of these permit holders come from North America, Europe (Poland and Russia), and
then from Africa (in particular the Maghreb countries) and Asia (China, Japan).
The previous years rise in the number of students continued in 1998, from all areas of origin. Nearly
23 500 students from non-EU countries entered France in that year. At the same time, between 14 and 15 000 res-
idence cards are issued every year to EEA students, mostly German and British, followed by Spanish and Italian
students. Women regularly account for over 50% of foreign students, but the proportion for 1998 was slightly
down on the two earlier years (55%, as against 57 and 56%). These proportions vary substantially by continent of
origin: 66%, 64% and 60% respectively for Europe, the Americas and Asia, and 40% for Africa (37.5% for Morocco).
The number of seasonal workers has been falling steadily since 1992 and totalled 7 500 in 1998, down 8% on
the previous year. The fall concerns both agricultural employees and seasonal workers in industry and
commerce. It primarily concerns Polish nationals, who provide 34% of this workforce, and then Moroccans (54%).
Departures from France
In France, the only departures recorded are those prompted by administrative action, i.e. forced depar-
tures and assisted departures. All other types, termed spontaneous departures, go unrecorded since no pop-
ulation registers are kept. Therefore, no annual migration balance can be established, except very
approximately.
Forced departures cover expulsions, removals to the frontier and readmission under international con-
ventions. In 1998, the number of expulsions (900 in 1997) fell again by some 30% to 650. After the fall observed
in 1997 following the introduction of the regularisation programme, the number of removals ordered by courts
returned in 1998 to the average level observed since the start of the decade (around 44 000 a year). But the
number of actual removals to the frontier continued to decline (from 9 200 in 1997 to 7 200 in 1998), bringing
the actual enforcement rate to little over 27%. Last, a sharp increase brought the number of readmission
recorded in 1998 to over 12 500 (as against 3 700 in 1997), either under the Schengen Agreements or other
international conventions. Nearly all the readmission orders are enforced.
Illegal immigration
In June 1997, the French Government decided to implement a regularisation programme for foreigners
who did not possess the required papers. This operation was concluded at the end of 1998 and 74 000 of the
143 000 applications were accepted, according to data based on IOM medical examinations as available at
30 June 1999. A significant number of those accepted are family members in the broad sense (including
10 000 spouses of documented foreigners, 10 000 adult members of long-established foreign families and
19 000 parents of children born in France). It should also be noted that the bulk of applicants and of those
regularised were nationals of African countries.
The largest number of applicants were Moroccans, Algerians and Malians, followed by Congolese (nationals
of the Democratic Republic of the Congo) and Chinese, and then Tunisians, Turks, Senegalese and Congolese
(nationals of the Republic of the Congo), and lastly Sri Lankans, Filipinos and Pakistanis.
There are considerable disparities in the regularisation rates for each nationality. During the operation, it
came to light that most of the foreigners who were regularised belonged to the better-off social categories with
relatively high employment rates in their country of origin, rather than to the poorest classes of the
population. Moreover, most applicants for regularisation had entered France legally.
180
OECD 2000
After six years of steadily declining numbers of refugees (between 1992 and 1997), the 1998 figures show a
halt in the trend: over 4 300 people were granted refugee status, as against 4 100 in 1997, an increase of 4.9%.
Calculated on the number of decisions taken by the Office franais de protection des rfugis et apatrides (OFPRA)
and the appeals board, some 22 500 in 1998, the acceptance rate was slightly over 19%. This average figure can
vary by a factor of 4 (under 8% for Europe, 29% for Asia). It may be noted that appeals and reviews of applications
which occur outside the twelve-month period tend to push these figures up.
Of persons granted refugee status in 1998, 66% were of Asian origin (around 2 600), the bulk being nation-
als of Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam, and then Sri Lanka, Turkey and Iraq. Fewer than a thousand were from
Africa (23%). Europe (including the former Soviet Union) takes third place, having increased by 25% in 1998.
Last, Central and South America contribute under 2% to the total flow of certified refugees, with the majority
being Haitians.
The increase in the number of asylum applications which took place in 1997, reversing the trend observed
since 1990, continued in 1998: having received nearly 21 400 applications in 1997, OFPRA received over 22 400
in 1998. The overall increase in 1998 does not reflect substantial variations which have appreciably altered the
geographical breakdown. Europe and Africa show the greatest changes (down 28% and up 38% respectively).
Other regions of origin all show increases: Asia (China, Turkey and Sri Lanka), Central and South America
(Haiti) and the former Soviet Union. The ranking of areas of origin has thus changed significantly over 1997:
Asia is again in first place with 41% of the total, Europe (including the former Soviet Union) and Africa are on a
Box III.3. Assisted departures
Assisted departures take two main forms: government aid for the resettlement of certain wage-earners and
job-seekers, and aid for the resettlement of foreigners who are instructed to leave the country.
Government aid for the resettlement of workers and job-seekers plays an extremely modest role, confirmed
by the figures for 1998, the lowest to date. During the year, 21 conventions were signed (26% down on 1997) and
fewer than 200 people (including family members) left France, as against around 300 in 1997.
The resettlement of foreigners instructed to leave France is based on two schemes, one established in 1991
and still in force, and the other introduced in January 1998. Information on the application of the 1991 scheme, as
yet fragmentary for 1998, shows an attenuation of its effects: the number of people involved (887) was 12% down
on 1997. As in 1997, final rejection of applications for asylum triggers 85% of the requests for resettlement aid.
On similar lines to this general scheme, a further measure was introduced in January 1998. It is also based on
the policy of resettlement and co-development which France set out in that year. The policy rests on two distinct
schemes: resettlement aid, and a resettlement contract in the country of origin. Psychological help as well as
administrative, material and financial assistance are provided in France prior to departure. France also makes
available a resettlement subsidy and aid for small business start-up projects upon the migrants arrival in their
country of origin.
The resettlement aid is only for those who were unable to obtain the required papers under the 1997 regulari-
sation programme and are required to leave France. According to early information for 1998, the IOM received over
35 000 individual reports from prefectures and received 842 completed applications. Around 630 people, including
family members, have returned to their country of origin. They include 567 applicants for the supplementary
assisted resettlement programme, of whom 56% were nationals of African countries (chiefly Algeria and Mali).
The resettlement contract in the country of origin is currently offered to nationals of Mali, Morocco and Senegal
who are asked to leave France. This contract entitles them to training in France, followed by additional training in
their country of origin upon their return. The IOM has generally observed that six months after their return the
individuals have succeeded in resettling; such success may be followed by a recommendation from the IOM that
they be issued with a visa enabling them to travel between their country of origin and France.
France
181
OECD 2000
similar footing (28.5 to 29% of the total) and Central and South America have doubled their numbers, boosting
the already predominant role of Haitians, who account for over two-thirds of the applications from this region.
In 1998, OFPRA examined 25 000 applications, and the automatic refusal rate was 80.5%. It is over 90% for
applications from European nationals, and 78% for African nationals, the lowest figure for over ten years. Two
factors need to be borne in mind here: first, the revised refusal rate (after completion of the appeals proce-
dures) is always several percentage points lower than the automatic rate and, second, no allowance is made
for unsuccessful asylum applicants who subsequently obtain the papers required to remain in France.
Family reunion
Family reunion (in the broad meaning of the term under French law) is still the main reason for permanent
entry into France, well ahead of inflows of permanent workers, both wage-earners and self-employed. Total
inflows under this category were over 38 300 in 1998, as compared with 31 000 in 1997. Two-thirds of spouses
admitted on family reunion grounds or as members of a French family are of African origin, and 70% of those
joining a refugee or stateless person are of Asian origin.
The number of people admitted as family members of foreigners (family reunion in the strict meaning of
the term under French law) rose from 15 500 in 1997 to 21 700 in 1998. The regularisation programme was a key
factor in this sharp increase of over 40%: 80% of the increase in 1998 was comprised of people who had entered
the country in 1998. This particular circumstance doubled the rate of admission for residents, in other words
the proportion of family reunion entrants who did not come in from abroad (30% in 1998), but has very little
effect on the size of families measured on entry (1.56 persons per application in 1998 as against 1.53 in 1997).
Morocco, Algeria and the sub-Saharan countries strengthened the predominance of Africa (69% in 1998 as com-
pared with 60% in 1997). Asias share fell from 26 to 20%, this despite an increase in the number of spouses and
children. The share of those from the Americas and non-EU Europe (including the former Soviet Union) have
fallen (to respectively 7% and 4% of the total inflow).
The number of family members of French nationals entering France was 15 500 in 1998, as compared with
14 500 in 1997. Spouses were most numerous (over 80% of the total), followed by the parents of French chil-
dren (approximately 10%) and ascendants and children of French citizens. Algeria and Turkey account for the
bulk of the increase, and Africa continues to predominate with two-thirds of admissions.
The number of family members of refugees and stateless persons was less than 1 000 in 1998, of whom nearly
70% were spouses. Asia continues to be the main continent of origin, on account of the Turks and Sri Lankans.
Trends in the foreign population
France, as a whole, has a low rate of demographic growth, the principal component of which is the natural
increase. The foreign population accounts for less than 7% of the total population. Every year, naturalisations
reduce the foreign population and increase the French population correspondingly. In 1996, a total of just
under 735 000 births were recorded: of these, 6% were to two foreign parents and 5.8% to one foreign parent.
The proportion of foreign births in total births was higher in 1996 than the proportion of foreigners in the total
population (approximately one and a half times more). The net migration balance for that year (40 000)
accounted for nearly 17% of Frances total population growth.
Acquisition of French nationality
Taking all procedures together on the two statutory bases (Law of 22 July 1993 for the first eight months of
the year, then the Law of 16 March 1998), it is estimated that between 122 000 and 123 500 foreigners acquired
French nationality in 1998. Adding to these the grants of French nationality at birth to children born in France
of foreign parents, estimated at 5 500 in 1998, the number of persons who acquired or were granted French
nationality totalled around 128 000.
Approximately 58 000 of these acquisitions were made by decisions of the public authorities, including
51 000 naturalisations and 7 000 restorations of nationality by decree. Marriage to a French national gave rise
182
OECD 2000
to 35 000 acquisitions by declaration, and it is estimated that 11 000 13-18 year olds born and resident in
France made use of the acquisition procedure by way of declaration which came into effect on 1 September
1998. The formal statement procedure available under the 1993 Act (which ceased to have effect on 31 August
1998) was used by 25 500 people aged between 16 and 21. Finally, 4 000 acquisitions were granted automati-
cally under the transitional provisions of the 1998 Law; this was used by children born in France of foreign
parents who attained the age of majority between 1 September and 31 December 1998.
Over a ten-year period (1989-98), the proportion of women among those acquiring French nationality by
declaration has increased from 40 to 47%, indicating that increasing numbers of foreign spouses are women.
Over 85% of acquisitions by formal statement were from nationals of four countries: Morocco (36%), Portugal
(28%), Tunisia and Turkey. Moroccans, Tunisians and Turks are also the leading groups of those who obtain
French nationality by decree. Finally, declarations of nationality were mainly made by Algerians (17.5%) and
Moroccans (12%), followed by Portuguese and Tunisians.
Mixed marriages
After peaking during 1990-92 (an annual average of 31 500), the number of mixed marriages then fell sig-
nificantly, rising again from 1994 onwards (+3% on a cumulative basis between 1994 and 1996); there were
some 24 000 mixed marriages in 1996. This increase is largely one of marriages between French women and
foreign men. The disaggregation of foreign spouses by nationality has been relatively stable, and the number
of marriages between French citizens and nationals of African countries, particularly those of the Maghreb,
continues to grow.
Schooling of migrants children
The schooling of migrants children represents a key element in Frances integration policies. At the
beginning of the 1997 school year, some 11.9 million pupils were enrolled in the primary and secondary
schools of Metropolitan France, of whom 739 000 were of foreign nationality, i.e. 6.2% of the total (see
Table III.15). This is nearly 190 000 fewer than during the 1994-95 school year. This decline has occurred at all
levels of the system. By nationality, the number of pupils varies according to a number of factors, such as the
dominant trends of migration flows, birth rates, geographical patterns of departures and acquisitions of
nationality. In absolute terms, Moroccan pupils are still the largest group (slightly less than 200 000), followed
by Algerians (110 000), Portuguese (84 000), sub-Saharan Africans (80 000) and Turks (76 000).
Table I II. 14.
Table III.15. Foreign pupils attending public and private schools,
1
France
1. On the assumption that the pupils nationalities have been recorded on the same basis across all levels of the system and across the public and private
sectors.
Sources: Ministre de lducation nationale, DPD.
School year
Primary level Secondary level
Total
Pre-primary
and primary
Lower secondary Upper secondary Special education
1994-95 551.8 228.5 130.0 16.8 927.1
1996-97 . . 199.3 122.4 14.8 . .
1997-98 424.8 183.2 118.5 12.3 738.9
1998-99 395.0 . . . . . . . .
% of foreign pupils in all pupils
1994-95 8.4 7.0 6.0 15.3 7.6
1996-97 . . 6.2 5.6 12.6 . .
1997-98 6.7 5.7 5.4 11.6 6.2
1998-99 6.2 . . . . . . . .
France
183
OECD 2000
Labour migration and work permits
The inflow of permanent workers from non-EU countries totalled 5 400 in 1998 (a little over 4 100 wage-
earners and a little under 1 300 self-employed). The inflow of permanent wage-earners has never been so low.
Around two-thirds were regularised, the proportions vary appreciably from one continent or country to
another (37% for the Americas, 92% for Africa). Six countries accounted for nearly half: the United States,
Algeria, Morocco, Japan, Lebanon and Canada.
The proportion of women fell back after increasing in the two previous years (under 30% in 1998, as com-
pared with 31.5% in 1996 and 32.5% in 1997). The service sector accounted for over 80%, chiefly due to expan-
sion in the property, rentals and business services sector (over 32% in 1998, against 26% in 1997). The rising
level of qualifications of new wage-earners, who for example included 60% technicians, engineers or managers
in 1998 as compared with 50% in 1997, has had no effect on disparities in the skill levels by nationality. The vir-
tual doubling in one year of the number of self-employed has been almost identical in Metropolitan France
and some overseas dpartements such as Guadeloupe and Guyane, but no data is at present available on
occupational breakdown.
According to IOM data, a little over 6 100 permanent workers arrived from the EEA in 1998, a fall on the
previous two years. The further decline, of around 4%, primarily affects recruitment of Portuguese (16%) and
Italians (4%). Conversely, the number of nationals of the United Kingdom (+14%) and Spain (+9%) rose. The
proportion of women fell slightly in 1998, to average 37%.
At the same time, the continuing fall in the inflows of EEA nationals has not changed their economic profile,
either in relation to their distribution by sector of activity or in relation to occupational skills. These EEA nation-
als continue to work largely in the tertiary sector. Skill levels vary appreciably by nationality. For 1998, 36% of
incoming workers had little or no qualifications, the figure largely resulting from the make-up of Portuguese
labour: nearly 65% of Portuguese workers are unskilled, and Portuguese labour accounts for over 80% of hiring in
the farm and construction sectors, whereas it is little more than 15% in property and business services.
Foreign labour force
According to the January 1999 Labour Force Survey, the foreign labour force, in employment or not, num-
bers around 1.6 million, accounting for 6.2% of the total labour force (the percentage has been in decline over
the past twenty years). A little over three-quarters (77% in 1999) are in employment, and 365 000 are unem-
ployed. Of the employed, the numbers and proportions of wage-earners have fallen steadily since 1996, but
the most recent figures indicate a 3% rise in the number of wage-earners. Having previously increased, the
proportion of women remained constant in 1999: as in 1998 women accounted for 37% of the foreign labour
force, less than 36% of those in employment and over 41% of the unemployed.
The tertiary sector is the main employer of foreign wage-earners (62% of the total), followed by manufactur-
ing (21%), construction (15%) and agriculture. Women account for close to two-thirds, or more, in three sectors:
real estate activities (around 75%), personal services (67%) and education, health and social welfare (64%).
Unemployment of foreigners
The unemployment rate among foreigners has fallen slightly, from 23.7% in 1998 to a little under 22.9%
in 1999, while the overall unemployment rate held steady (11.8%) and unemployment among French citizens
was 11%. In 1999, unemployment was 10.4% for EU nationals and 30.3% for non-EU nationals. Foreign nationals
accounted for 12% of those unemployed in 1999 against 12.3% in 1998. In the category of unemployed who
have never been in employment, a substantial proportion are women: 69% of first-time foreign job-seekers are
women, whereas the figure is just 54% for French nationals.
184
OECD 2000
Major programmes for vocational training and for labour market access for young people and the unem-
ployed comprise the essential elements of the policies aimed at promoting migrants entry to the labour mar-
ket. The integration of immigrants in urban areas is also of concern to policymakers at local and national
levels. Significant measures have been taken in France over the past two years to improve housing and work-
ing conditions in certain distressed urban areas and to improve the quality of transport and the availability of
public services, which are key factors for urban development.
In 1997, foreigners accounted for 8.4% of the participants in training programmes for employment subsidy
schemes. The proportion of foreign women participating in these various schemes was almost the same as that
of foreign men, all nationalities combined, and was in fact higher in work experience and training schemes
(15% as against 12%). Discrepancies remain in the proportion of foreign participation according to the type of
aid measure: when a scheme prepares participants directly for employment (as in apprenticeships) it is
around 3%, while in ordinary training programmes it is over 12%.
The June 1997 regularisation programme: a provisional assessment
In June 1997 it was decided to carry out a programme to regularise certain categories of foreign nationals.
This programme ended in May 1998. The operation was aimed primarily at regularising the unlawful status,
with regard to their entry or residence, of people married to French citizens, of foreigners having entered
France legally outside the family reunion procedure, of the spouses of refugees, and of long-established for-
eign families. It also applied to certain categories of children who had entered France outside the family
reunion procedure and, under certain conditions, other clearly specified categories of foreigners (foreigners
with no family responsibilities, foreigners who were seriously ill, students pursuing higher-level studies and
people refused asylum). According to the most recent available information, around 143 000 applications were
received. Nearly 19 000 applications were approved in 1997, and nearly 51 000 in 1998. At 30 June 1999, the
IOM, following the medical examinations which it conducts, reported that over 74 000 had received residence
permits. Most of these permits (around 85%) were granted on family-related grounds.
International dimension of immigration policy
In March 1999, France ratified the Amsterdam Treaty amending the Treaty on European Union, signed on
2 October 1997. The Constitution first had to be revised, as the Constitutional Council had stated during its
review of the Treaty. In particular, the revision authorised France to transfer powers relating to the free move-
ment of persons and connected areas. The Amsterdam Treaty, ratified by all European Union Member States,
came into force on 1 May 1999 (see Overview of Migration Policies above).
In May 1999, a law was passed concerning the accession of Denmark, Finland and Sweden to the Conven-
tion applying the Schengen Agreements, and a further law on the co-operation Accord between Schengen
Member States and Iceland and Norway. The latter Accord was signed in June 1999 to take account of amend-
ments flowing from the Amsterdam Treaty, and in particular the clauses which provide for the integration of
the Schengen Agreements into European Union law.
Domestic dimension of immigration policy
The French Government, taking note of the existence and spread of discrimination against foreigners and
those of foreign origin, has decided to adopt measures to curb such discrimination, whether in everyday life or
in access to employment, and organised a broad public meeting, Assises de la citoyennet, in March 2000.
Germany
185
OECD 2000
Germany
Introduction
In 1998, for the first time since German reunification, the decline in the volume of employment halted. At
the same time unemployment fell back across Germany, in the old and new Lnder alike. Unemployment for
the whole country stood at 11.1%.
For the third consecutive year, inflows of foreigners slowed and the migration balance was negative, a new
feature since 1997 attributable to Bosnians returning home in large numbers. As a result, the proportion of
foreigners in the total population declined slightly.
With regard to migration policy, the government continues to place emphasis on the economic and cultural
integration of foreigners. From that standpoint the new Nationality Code, which came into effect on 1 January
2000, relaxes the procedure for the naturalisation of foreigners with a long period of residence in Germany.
German reunification and the opening of frontiers in Eastern Europe in 1989 led to a massive inflow of
ethnic Germans (Aussiedler). From 400 000 in 1990, the flows fell back quickly to 200 000 immigrants each year
between 1991 and 1995 and 103 000 in 1998. The very great majority come from the former Soviet Union.
For the second consecutive year and more significantly in 1998, the migration balance for the foreign pop-
ulation was negative, chiefly on account of Bosnians returning home (over 100 000 departures recorded
in 1998) (see Table III.16 and Chart III.9). Poles continue to form the chief group of immigrants, though their
number has trended downwards since 1995. Then come nationals of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
(including Kosovo), whose flows virtually doubled between 1997 and 1998, from 31 200 to 59 800.
Tabl e III. 15. Chart III .6.
Following government measures introduced in 1993, the number of applications fell fourfold between 1992
and 1994. Of the 98 650 claims filed in 1998, over 35% were by people from the former Yugoslavia (chiefly
Kosovars) and 12% by Turks (who, the previous year, had been the principal group of asylum seekers).
There exists in Germany moreover a humanitarian programme for the temporary reception of nationals
from countries in crisis (particularly in South-East Asia, South America and the former Yugoslavia). The major-
ity of Bosnians accepted by Germany under this programme have now returned home. When return becomes
possible, the Federal Government provides financial support to refugees and offers resettlement programmes
in their countries of origin. Bilateral agreements have already been signed with Turkey, Chile, Vietnam,
Slovenia, Croatia, Macedonia, Albania and the Palestine Authority.
Illegal immigration
The only data available on illegal immigration are the figures for foreigners arrested for illegal entry to
Germany. In 1998, 40 200 foreigners were intercepted, 14.2% more than the previous year. While illegal flows
have actually increased, stronger border controls have also helped to raise the figures. The largest numbers of
attempted entries are at the Czech and Austrian borders, followed by the border with Poland. The migrants
concerned, from a large number of Central and Eastern European countries, in particular the Federal Republic
of Yugoslavia (13%) and Romania (4%), but from Afghanistan (2.7%) as well, were in all probability largely being
taken to Western Europe by smuggling networks, often highly organised.

GERMANY

186
OECD 2000
Table III.16. Current figures on the components of total population change, on migration flows and stocks
of foreign population and labour force in Germany
1995 1996 1997 1998
Components of population changes
Total population (total change) 288.6 195.4 45.4 20.3
Natural increase 119.4 86.8 48.2 67.3
Net migration 408.0 282.2 93.7 47.1
Germans (total change)
1
288.1 256.5 245.5 163.1
Net migration 180.7 133.3 115.4 80.6
Acquisition of German nationality 313.6 302.8 271.8 236.1
Foreigners (total change) 0.6 61.1 200.0 183.3
Net migration 227.2 148.9 21.8 33.5
Acquisition of German nationality 313.6 302.8 271.8 236.1
Migration of foreigners
2
Inflows by nationality (Top 5 in 1998) 788.3 708.0 615.3 605.5
of which:
Poland 87.2 77.4 71.2 66.3
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia 54.1 42.9 31.2 59.9
Turkey 73.6 73.2 56.0 48.2
Italy 48.0 45.8 39.0 35.6
Russian Federation 33.0 31.9 24.8 28.4
Net migration by nationality (Top 5 in 1998) 227.2 148.9 21.8 33.5
of which:
Hungary 6.8 0.8 2.7 7.1
Poland 16.5 5.7 1.0 5.5
Romania 0.3 0.4 0.7 3.5
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia 13.8 8.6 13.3 1.4
Inflows of ethnic Germans from Central and Eastern Europe 217.9 177.8 134.4 103.1
of which:
Former USSR 109.4 172.2 131.9 101.6
Romania 6.5 4.3 1.8 1.0
Poland 1.7 1.2 0.7 0.5
Inflows of asylum seekers 127.9 116.4 104.4 98.6
of which:
Former Yugoslavia 26.2 18.1 14.8 35.0
Turkey 25.5 23.8 16.8 11.8
Iraq 6.9 10.8 14.1 7.4
Afghanistan 7.5 5.7 4.7 3.8
Stock of foreign population by duration of stay
(31 December of the year indicated)
2
7 173.9 7 314.0 7 365.8 7 319.6
Less than one year (%) . . 5.6 5.2 5.2
1 year to less than 4 years (%) . . 18.2 15.8 14.8
4 to less than 8 years (%) . . 22.0 22.9 21.0
8 to less than 10 years (%) . . 5.7 6.9 8.1
10 to less than 20 years (%) . . . . 19.2 19.9
20 years and more . . . . 30.0 31.1
Total (%) . . 100.0 100.0 100.0
Acquisition of German nationality
3
313.6 302.8 271.8 236.1
Germany
187
OECD 2000
Table III.16. Current figures on the components of total population change, on migration flows and stocks
of foreign population and labour force in Germany (cont.)
Note: The data cover Germany as a whole, unless otherwise indicated. Data for Former Yugoslavia cover Montenegro and Serbia.
1. Figures include ethnic Germans whose German origins have been recognised.
2. Data are from population registers.
3. Statistics include naturalisation claims, which concern essentially ethnic Germans.
4. Citizens of EU Members States are not included.
5. A general permit is only granted if no domestic worker is available. This is not the case for the issuance of a special permit. Activity of holders of a special
work permit is not restrictive.
6. Data are for 30 September of each year and include cross-border workers but not the self-employed.
7. Contract workers are recruited under bilateral agreements and quotas by country of origin are revised annually.
8. Seasonal workers are recruited under bilateral agreements and they are allowed to work 3 months per year.
Sources: Bundesanstalt fr Arbeit; Statistiches Bundesamt.
1995 1996 1997 1998
Issuance of work permits for a first employment
4
470.0 440.0 451.0 402.6
of which:
Asylum seekers 40.3 21.3 24.8 . .
Contract workers 76.6 54.5 54.8 . .
By duration of stay in Germany
Newly entered 270.8 262.5 285.4 275.5
of which: Polish workers 181.6 180.8 205.6 . .
Not newly entered 199.2 177.5 165.6 127.0
By kind of permit
5
General permit 374.7 346.3 352.4 . .
Special permit 95.3 93.4 98.5 . .
Stock of employed foreign workers by economic activity
(Western Germany)
6
2 155.9 2 084.7 2 017.9 . .
Agriculture 25.3 27.3 26.5 . .
Energy, mining 24.0 21.9 20.0 . .
Manufacturing industry 863.6 823.1 791.7 . .
Construction 203.9 196.1 174.5 . .
Commerce 215.1 217.3 213.6 . .
Transport and communication 100.2 103.4 102.6 . .
Intermediary services 22.7 22.6 22.9 . .
Non-profit organisations, private households 33.2 35.5 582.2 . .
Regional authorities, Social Security 49.0 48.9 36.4 . .
Other services 562.3 588.6 47.5 . .
Not specified 56.6 0.1 0.1 . .
Contract workers (annual average)
7
49.4 45.8 38.5 33.0
of which:
Poland 24.5 24.4 21.1 16.9
Hungary 9.2 9.0 5.8 5.0
Croatia 4.5 4.4 3.6 2.8
Czech Republic 2.2 1.9 1.4 1.1
Turkey 1.6 1.6 1.4 1.1
Seasonal workers by nationality
8
192.0 220.9 226.0 201.6
of which:
Poland 170.6 196.3 202.2 182.0
Croatia 5.6 5.7 5.8 3.9
Romania 3.9 5.0 5.0 5.6
Hungary 2.8 3.5 3.6 2.8
Czech Republic 3.7 3.4 2.3 1.8
Unemployment (national definition)
Total number of unemployed workers (Germany as a whole) 3 611.9 3 965.1 4 384.5 4 279.3
Total number of unemployed workers (western Germany) 2 564.9 2 796.2 3 020.9 . .
Unemployment rate (%) (western Germany) 9.3 10.1 11.0 . .
Total number of foreign unemployed workers (western Germany) 424.5 496.0 521.6 . .
Foreigners unemployment rate (%) (western Germany) 16.6 18.9 20.4 . .
188
OECD 2000
At 31 December 1998, there were 7 320 000 foreigners resident in Germany, as compared with 7 366 000
in 1997. For the first time since 1984, the proportion of foreigners in the total population fell, from 9% in 1997
to 8.9% in 1998.
Turks make up by far the largest foreign community (28.8%), followed by nationals of the former Yugoslavia
(16.2%) (even though many Bosnians went back in 1998) and Italians (8.4%). The numbers of foreigners from
some Central and Eastern European countries (Romania, Bulgaria, Czech Republic) have fallen.
Naturalisations
Between 1989 and 1995, the number of naturalisations rose continually, from 68 500 in 1989 to 313 600
in 1995. Since then the figure has been falling every year. In 1998, 236 150 persons acquired German nationality.
Of these, 35.4% were from Kazakhstan, 27.9% from the Russian Federation and 24.1% from Turkey.
The new Nationality Act came into effect on 1 January 2000 (see the Section below, Policy developments).
Mixed marriages
Since the early 1990s, the proportion of mixed marriages has risen steadily. Of the 422 800 marriages con-
tracted in 1997, 14.5% were between Germans and foreign nationals, as compared with 7.7% in 1990. Whereas
in the 1980s twice as many mixed marriages involved a foreign man and a German woman, the trend has grad-
ually reversed and in 1997 31 200 mixed marriages were between foreign women and German men, and 30 200
between foreign men and German women. Some 3% of marriages were between two foreigners.
700
600
500
400
300
200
-400
100
0
-100
-200
-300
700
600
500
400
300
200
-400
100
0
-100
-200
-300
1970 98 72 76 80 84 88 92 96 74 78 82 86 90 94 1970 98 72 76 80 84 88 92 96 74 78 82 86 90 94
Chart III.9. Components of German population change, 1970-1998
Nationals and foreigners
Thousands
Nationals
3
Foreigners
Note : The data cover western Germany up to 1990 and Germany as a whole from 1991 on.
1. Including naturalisations on the basis of a claim.
2. Net migration, natural increase and acquisition of nationality.
3. Aussiedler are considered as nationals in statistics on migration. They can reside in Germany and acquire German nationality as soon as their German
origins are recognised.
Source: Statistisches Bundesamt.
Net migration
Natural increase
1
Total change
2
700
600
500
400
300
200
-400
100
0
-100
-200
-300
700
600
500
400
300
200
-400
100
0
-100
-200
-300
1970 98 72 76 80 84 88 92 96 74 78 82 86 90 94 1970 98 72 76 80 84 88 92 96 74 78 82 86 90 94
Thousands
Nationals
3
Foreigners
Net migration
Natural increase
1
Total change
2
700
600
500
400
300
200
-400
100
0
-100
-200
-300
700
600
500
400
300
200
-400
100
0
-100
-200
-300
1970 98 72 76 80 84 88 92 96 74 78 82 86 90 94 1970 98 72 76 80 84 88 92 96 74 78 82 86 90 94
Thousands
Nationals
3
Foreigners
Net migration
Natural increase
1
Total change
2
Germany
189
OECD 2000
Since 1994, the number of foreign wage earners registered under the Social Security scheme has fallen.
In 1998, there were 2 030 300, or 3.4% fewer than the previous year. Nearly 98% of them are working in the western
part of Germany. In June 1998, foreigners represented 7.5% of all wage earners in the country (9% in the west-
ern part, 0.8% in the new Lnder).
As in the total foreign population, the largest communities of workers are Turks (28% of the foreign labour
force) followed by nationals of the former Yugoslavia (17.3%) and Italians (10%).
Foreigners work chiefly in hotels and catering (29.9%), the steel industry (19.9%) and cleaning (18.1%).
There have been marked declines in the last two sectors and in construction and agriculture. Compared
with 1997, the numbers of foreign workers rose in 1998 in services to households (+5%), financial intermediation,
transport and communications and other services (all +1%). In every other sector, and notably in construction and
mining, foreign employment fell back.
Salaried employment
Under the new legislation on the employment of foreigners which came into force on 1 January 1998,
nationals of the European Union or the European Economic Area, and nationals of other countries with unlim-
ited residence permits or entitled to permanent residence, do not have to obtain work permits. Unless so
exempted, foreigners must hold work permits in order to work in Germany. The majority of new permits,
known as ordinary permits, are subject to the rule of prior entitlement for German or foreign workers with
comparable status and are valid only for a specific activity. The remaining permits are special permits, which
give free access to the labour market. Agreements between the European Community and Turkey lay down
special conditions for Turkish nationals .
In 1998, 1 050 000 work permits were issued, 95% of them in the western part of Germany. The figure was
217 400 lower than for the previous year. Some 84.5% were ordinary permits.
Self-employment
An employment survey provides some information on the self-employed. In 1997, nearly 249 000 self-
employed foreigners were recorded (or some 7% of the total foreign labour force), employing 22 000 family
members.
Temporary employment of foreign labour
Although the recruitment of foreign workers ceased in November 1973, agreements with transition coun-
tries in Central and Eastern Europe allow a limited number of foreigners to work temporarily in Germany to
upgrade their occupational and linguistic skills and increase their chances of finding work in their home coun-
try or setting up their own business there. In 1998, nearly 33 000 foreign workers were hired in Germany as con-
tract labour. The figure has been declining since 1995. In addition, over 200 000 seasonal workers and
3 000 guest workers (Gastarbeiter) were engaged in 1998.
Under the green-card programme launched by the Federal Government, 20 000 information technology
specialists are to be recruited for a period of five years starting on 1 August 2000. The programme is designed
to remedy the staffing shortfall in this sector. The number of applications has in some cases, however, been
lower than the national quotas: fewer than 300 Indians have applied for the 1 800 posts allocated to that country.
Numerous countries are represented, including Bulgaria, Algeria, Ecuador, Hungary, the Russian Federation,
Turkey and Romania.
190
OECD 2000
Unemployment
The total number of unemployed in Germany fell back in 1998 (though it continued to rise in the new
Lnder). Among the foreign population, unemployment remains high (see Table III.16). The chief reason contin-
ues to be a lack of training. Skill levels are markedly lower among the foreign population than among the
native-born. According to the latest labour force survey, at 30 September 1998, 77.1% of unemployed foreign-
ers had no full occupational qualification (as compared with 38.6% among unemployed Germans). A little over
78% of unemployed foreigners are from outside the European Union. The breakdown of unemployment shows
considerable disparities depending on nationality: 24.2% of Turks were jobless at 31 December 1998, as
compared with 19.6% of Italians and 18.5% of Greeks.
There are also differences in the age structure of the unemployed: up to age 35, the proportion of unem-
ployed foreigners is greater than that of unemployed Germans, but the trend then reverses. It may also be
noted that, on average, foreigners remain without work for shorter periods than Germans (12.5 months, as
compared with 14.7).
Admission and residence (including integration measures)
The integration of foreigners is one of the key points in German policy. The government is seeking to
combat discrimination in hiring and to ensure that foreigners enjoy comparable standards of living to
Germans. Substantial budget funding is allocated for this purpose each year.
Integration measures include a social council for foreigners, language classes and assistance to improve
the employment prospects of young immigrants.
The Ministry of Labour has sought to conclude bilateral agreements for the joint funding of vocational
training for young foreigners living in Germany who are nationals of the other signatory country. Agreements of
this kind were concluded with Greece in 1988, Spain in 1991, Italy in 1992, Turkey in 1993 and Portugal in 1994.
The qualifications are recognised not solely by the two signatory countries but across the whole of the
European Union as well. Some 1 100 young people have already been assisted under these agreements. The
government also supports projects to encourage foreign firms to take on young trainees, which they do much
less commonly than German firms.
Despite active government measures, immigrants are still under-represented in vocational training pro-
grammes. The government is providing financial support for a campaign to better inform foreigners of the
opportunities in this area.
Last, the government supports projects to integrate foreign women and to combat xenophobia, again
backed by an information drive.
Naturalisation
The new Federal Government elected in September 1998 made the introduction of nationality legislation
one of its priorities. The new Act came into force on 1 January 2000.
The mandatory residence period preceding naturalisation has been shortened: adult foreigners may
acquire German nationality after eight years of legal residence (instead of the fifteen required under the
earlier law). Children born in Germany to at least one parent who has possessed an unlimited residence
entitlement for more than three years will be granted German nationality automatically. On reaching the age
of majority they must choose which nationality to take, dual nationality not being an option. Further, entitle-
ment to naturalisation is now conditional on previous compliance with German law and on adequate knowl-
edge of the German language. While the requirement to renounce previous nationality remains, it is not
enforced in complex cases (for example, elderly persons and where renouncing the current nationality
would incur a high financial cost). The Act also introduced administrative simplifications, meaning that
applications are handled more swiftly.
Greece
191
OECD 2000
Combating the illegal employment of foreigners
Despite the measures that have been implemented, the illegal employment of foreigners continues to be
a problem. A growing number of immigrants are being brought in by smugglers. The government is therefore
stepping up police training in order to detect forged identity papers, and is making expulsions. To this latter
end, it is negotiating re-admission procedures with neighbouring countries and with immigrants countries of
origin, under which the latter would accept the return of migrants who lack valid passports but whose national-
ity is beyond doubt.
On 22 April 1999, a code of conduct was adopted to enhance co-operation among EU governments to
counter illegal immigration, social security fraud and undeclared employment. It stems from a German initia-
tive, and one purpose is to enhance measures to combat the illegal employment of foreigners. The Federal
Government is negotiating bilateral agreements with several EU members to bring the code of conduct into
implementation.
Greece
Introduction
The number of individual migrants receiving residence permits declined significantly in 1998. On the
other hand, issuances of work permits, which are less than half as numerous, registered an increase. Applica-
tions for asylum fell markedly, due largely to a sharp decline in the number of applications made by citizens of
Iraq. In the context of their preparation for the complete application of the Schengen Agreements (which
began on 1 January 2000), the Greek authorities have increased their efforts to detect breaches of the immigra-
tion regulations. As a consequence, the number of foreigners deported, having declined in 1998, is understood
to have increased sharply in 1999.
The process by which refugee status is obtained has been clarified and the procedures whereby Greek
Pontians from Commonwealth of Independent State countries are naturalised have been tightened-up. The
development and implementation of policies likely to facilitate the integration of asylum seekers, political refu-
gees and minority ethnic group children remains at the forefront of immigration policy as does the integration of
return migrants and ethnic Greeks.
Of the 370 000 applicants to the initial phase of the regularisation programme (who thereby obtained a
white card of temporary validity) fewer than 60% proceeded to the second stage and submitted an applica-
tion for a renewable green card. As those who withdrew had on average a slightly lower level of education,
the educational disparity between the Greek population and the regularisation applicants reported following
the initial stage has moved further in the latters favour.
Greeces National Statistical Service ceased collecting data on emigration in 1977. Information has there-
fore to be obtained from the records of recipient countries. The once substantial emigration flows to the
United States, Canada and Australia are now almost negligible and are primarily linked to family reunion. Emi-
gration to Germany, the principal destination and the only country for which departure data are available, has
been slowly declining since 1996. At 16 000 the figure was 2% lower than in 1997. On the assumption that Greek
nationals leaving Germany, the number of whom declined by 7% in 1998, are returning to Greece then net
migration of Greek nationals between the two countries having become slightly positive in Greeces favour for
the first time in 1994 and having reached 5 300 in 1997 declined by over 20% to 4 200 in 1998.

GREECE

192
OECD 2000
Remittances
In 1998, remittances transmitted through official sources amounted to just over USD3 Billion, an increase
of 3.8% on the 1997 figure. The Bank of Greece attributes this rise to increases in net incomes in Germany and
the United States whence most of the remittances are transmitted.
Deportations
Having declined by over 6% in 1997, the number of foreigners deported fell by a further 34% in 1998 to
11 850. However, due to increased efforts on the part of the authorities to detect breaches of the immigration
regulations in the context of their preparation for Greeces complete application of the Schengen Agreements
(which began on 1 January 2000), the figure is understood to have soared in 1999 to 23 000, a figure for which a
detailed breakdown into national groups is not available. In 1998, 35% of those deported were Romanian;
Albanians accounted for a further 23% and Bulgarians 13%. The number of Romanians deported had declined
by over 40% and the number of Bulgarians by almost 60%. The number of Albanians had however increased by
over 140%; this is understood to be linked, on the one hand, to their larger numerical representation in the
undocumented foreign population and, on the other, to their greater propensity to engage in criminal activity
and thereby render themselves vulnerable to detection for having breached immigration regulations.
The aforementioned statistics, which relate to only those deportations which have followed an adminis-
trative or judicial decision, do not include removals to the frontier of neighbouring origin countries. Having
decreased by 30% to 132 000 in 1998, they increased by only slightly less than that proportion in 1999, bringing
the number to 169 000. These removals to the frontier, primarily that with Albania, were based on Police
co-operation Agreements. An agreement signed with Turkey is awaiting ratification.
Immigration
During 1998, slightly more than 63 400 individual migrants received residence permits, a reduction of 8.3%
on the 1997 figure of 69 200 (see Table III.17). Declines were noted for almost all countries with the significant
exception of Albania whose migration flow increased by 250%. Of the 15 100 people from Albania, 82% were
ethnic Greeks (Vorio-epirotes) as compared to the overall average of 40%. This increase and its composition is
linked to the fact that since April 1998 Greek Albanians have been eligible for Special Identity Cards, valid
for three years and renewable, granting them the right of residence and guaranteeing the same treatment as
Greek citizens in the labour market. The flow from the second most important origin country, Russia (11 000),
and the fourth, Georgia (3 300), also contained high proportions of ethnic Greeks: 56% and 84% respectively.

Males dominate the flow of those without Greek ancestry from the Middle East and the other Muslim
countries; females dominate those from Central and Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent
States. By contrast, the gender balance of the migration flow of ethnic Greeks is broadly equal and contains a
greater proportion of family units, a tendency which points to a greater likelihood of their intending to settle
permanently.
During 1998, Greece received just under 3 000 applications for asylum, a fall of almost one third on 1997.
This overall decline was largely due to the 43% reduction in the number of applications made by citizens of
Iraq. This country remains however the principal source country for asylum applicants (2 170). Applications
from Afghan and Turkish nationals increased substantially, by 50% and 80% respectively; at 200 and 310 their
numbers remain low however.
Although the number of applications decreased, the number accepted in 1998 increased from 130 to 156.
The number of those granted humanitarian status declined by almost 40% however to less than 400. That
these approval rates continues to be low reflects in all likelihood the general attitude of asylum seekers
towards Greeces as a country essentially of transit. In the course of 1998 almost 1 000 people, of whom an
unconfirmed but understood to be large proportion were asylum seekers and political refugees, were
Greece
193
OECD 2000
re-settled overseas. The overwhelming majority of these were Iraqis (892). Australia was the principal destination
country taking just over 600 of the total.
The number of persons registered with voluntary agencies for resettlement in overseas countries contin-
ues to decline. The 1998 figure of 3 470 marked a 13% fall on 1997 and was less than half the 1994 figure. This
probably reflects the overall success of the resettlement programme, the diminishing inflow of asylum seekers
and more effective border control policies and practices. Most of the persons registered for resettlement live
independently while a small number continue to be accommodated in the Government-funded centre in
Lavrion which has recently been reorganised.
The most recent available official data on the stock of foreign residents are those for October 1998. At this
time, the Ministry of Public Order estimated the total at just over 309 000, the same as at the end of 1997. Given,
however, that there is probably some overlap between this figure and the number of those who have applied for
regularisation through the Ministry of Labour (370 000), and assuming that approximately 200 000 foreigners in an
irregular situation did not register for regularisation and, further, that the inflow of undocumented foreigners has
continued after the expiration of the deadline for regularisation applications (30 April 1999) and taking into
account, moreover, expulsions and deportations then the number of foreign residents in Greece is likely to be
between 800 000 and 1 million, that is to say approximately 10% of the Greek population.
Regularisation programme
The number of applications to the initial phase of the regularisation programme has been corrected down-
wards from 375 000 to 370 000 (see Table III.18). Fewer than 60% of these carried through their application to the
second stage and submitted an application for a renewable green card valid initially for between one to three
Table III.17. Residence permits issued to foreigners,
1
by country of origin, 1995-1998, Greece
Thousands
1. Data refer to total number of permits issued. One person can be granted several work permits per year. However a large majority of the permits are delivered
for one year and only a small number of persons receive more than one permit. Data include ethnic Greeks.
Source: Greek Ministry of Public Order.
1995 1996 1997 1998
Of which: Women
1996 1997 1998
Albania 4.2 3.4 4.3 15.1 2.4 3.0 7.9
Russian Federation 17.3 13.9 11.8 11.0 8.2 7.9 6.3
Bulgaria 3.7 4.3 5.6 3.4 2.8 4.0 2.4
Georgia 2.9 5.3 2.3 3.3 2.8 1.1 1.9
Egypt 3.6 3.1 3.2 2.2 0.4 0.5 0.3
Romania 2.6 2.7 3.0 2.1 2.0 2.4 1.6
United States 2.8 2.4 2.4 1.6 1.3 1.3 0.9
Turkey 5.1 2.3 2.4 1.6 1.1 1.1 0.8
Former Yugoslavia 2.9 2.9 2.7 1.4 1.8 1.8 0.9
Ukraine 0.5 1.4 2.6 1.4 0.9 2.3 1.3
Cyprus 4.7 2.1 2.4 1.4 1.0 1.4 0.6
Poland 1.7 1.8 2.1 1.4 1.4 1.2 1.1
Germany 1.5 1.5 1.7 1.4 0.9 1.0 0.8
United Kingdom 3.1 2.7 2.1 1.3 1.5 1.6 0.8
Philippines 2.3 1.9 1.7 1.0 1.6 1.5 0.9
Syria 1.3 1.1 1.1 0.7 0.3 0.2 0.2
Lebanon 1.2 1.1 1.1 0.7 0.4 0.4 0.2
Italy 0.9 0.8 0.5 0.7 0.3 0.4 0.3
Other 15.9 15.7 16.2 11.7 8.9 10.2 6.5
Total 78.2 70.4 69.2 63.4 39.9 43.5 35.7
194
OECD 2000
years. By the end of February 2000, of these 211 500, 107 000 had had their application approved; it has been
estimated that approximately three quarters of the permits thereby issued were of only one years duration.
Table I II. 16.
It was reported last year that the average level of education was greater among regularisation applicants
than among the Greek population. Due to the fact, as is noted below, that those who withdrew had a slightly
lower level of education than those who applied for the second stage, the final outcome is a more marked
educational disparity.
Examination of the characteristics of those who did not carry their application through to the second stage
Their countries of origin differ little from those who applied for the second stage. Those who withdrew
had a slightly lower level of education. Across all age groups, women displayed a much greater tendency to
withdraw from the process, the highest proportion being 80% for those in the 15-19 years of age cohort, the
lowest being 36% for those aged between 45 and 64. This age pattern was almost the same for males, the
respective percentages being 76 and 30%, the key difference being that males aged 30-44 also had a very low
propensity withdraw, 31%, whereas for women of the same age the proportion was 46%. With the exception of
divorcees, marital status had little impact on the propensity to withdraw. Of the divorcees, three quarters of
whom were females, two out of three went through to the final stage.
Table III.18. Socio-economic characteristics of regularised migrants, 1998-1999, Greece
Note: Data are preliminary. The regulation programme occured in 2 steps : first, illegal migrants had to ask for a temporary white card before the end of May
1998. When they had obtained this document, they could apply for a green card"(valid for 3 years). At the end February 2000, 211 500 had asked
for a green card" and 107 000 of them had had their application approved.
Source: Employment and Manpower Organization (OAED), National Employment Observatory.
Holders
of a "white card"
Of which: Women
(%)
Of which: Migrants
who asked for
a green card (%)
Holders
of a "white card"
Of which: Women
(%)
Of which: Migrants
who asked for
a green card (%)
A. Characteristics by nationality and sex C. Characteristics by level of education and sex
Albania 239 931 17.0 54.4 Illeterate 6 605 18 52.7
Bulgaria 24 859 56.2 65.5 Primary 136 496 16.7 52.2
Romania 16 749 30.4 49.0 Secondary 182 882 28.4 58.6
Pakistan 10 794 0.5 84.1 Tertiary 32 865 45.5 60.1
Ukraine 9 786 78.7 59.8 Unspecified 10 781 23.8 90.9
Poland 8 615 43.1 61.1 Total 369 629 25.3 57.2
Georgia 7 530 61.7 48.7
India 6 385 1.6 68.6 D. Characteristics by marital status and sex
Egypte
Philippines
Moldova
Syria
Other
Total
6 196
5 378
4 362
3 426
25 618
369 629
5.6
81.0
72.1
4.6
36.6
25.3
83.5
67.4
63.3
71.6
44.4
57.2
Married 189 779 29.6 57.2
Single 159 607 16.1 55.4
Divorced 9 544 74.4 67.1
Widowed 3 700 84.2 59.2
Unspecified 6 999 19 84
Total 369 629 25.3 57.2
B. Characteristics by age group and sex
Married migrants according to the number
0-14 364 23.1 38.5
of dependent members
15-19 23 656 13.9 23.7
20-24 79 297 19.3 45.9
Of which: Migrants
Holders
25-29 84 585 21.5 60.1
who asked for
of a "white card"
30-44 142 045 28.6 64.9 a green card (%)
45-64 32 767 44.3 67.2
More than 65 544 35.3 49.3 1 37 680 54.2
Unspecified 6 371 20.5 63.1 2 47 836 57.8
Total 369 629 25.3 57.2 3 24 393 64.8
4 9 026 59.7
5 3 057 54.4
More than 5 1 950 53.4
Unspecified 65 837 55.6
Total 189 779 57.2
Greece
195
OECD 2000
Naturalisations
The annual figures for naturalisations fluctuate considerably. Over the period 1986-96, those of ethnic
Greeks moved within a range of between 100 and 2 700; in the case of non-ethnic Greeks between 200 and
1 800. This being the case, it would be hazardous to attribute to the 1997 relaxation of the regulations govern-
ing the naturalisations of foreigners married to Greeks the 160% and over 70% increases in naturalisations of
non-ethnic Greeks which took place in 1997 and 1998 respectively: the 1998 figure of 1 800 was well within the
established range. In the case of ethnic Greeks, the number of naturalisations almost halved in 1998 to 655.
This fall is in all likelihood due to the increased efforts made to prevent fraudulent hellenisations especially
among migrants from countries of the former Soviet Union. In 1998 and 2000, new legislation was introduced
pertaining to citizenship and naturalisation, see the section on policy developments below.
The maximum number of work permits granted each year to foreign migrants by country of citizenship,
occupation and duration of work and for the various regions of the country is determined by a joint decision of
the Ministers of Foreign Affairs, Labour and Public Order after consultation with the Manpower and Employment
Organisation and the representatives of trade unions and employers organisations
According to the Ministry of Labour, 25 000 work permits were granted in 1998, an increase of 6% on 1997.
Of these, 6 550 (13% fewer than in 1997) were granted to citizens of European Union countries. Over 90% of the
permits are of seven months duration or over. Males dominate this labour migration flow, especially that from
outside the European Union.
Integration of immigrant and minority ethnic group children
Following the waves of Greek return migration in the 1980s and the mass influx of economic migrants dur-
ing the 1990s, the Greek government responded with the creation of new educational institutions such as
reception classes, after-class tutorial sections and intercultural schools in order to facilitate the educational,
linguistic and social integration of the accompanying children. With the help of funds from the European Union
Second Community Framework Support Programme, the government has recently developed this policy and
extend it to minority ethnic group children. The measures implemented include the development of new cur-
riculum programmes and materials adapted to the needs and experiences of children from a bilingual and
bicultural environment. With particular regard to the children from the Gypsy minority, their nomadic lifestyle
has been taken into account by the creation of a mobile student registration card. Children from the Muslim
minority have been set aside a quota of higher education places which in 1999 was 0.5%.
Protection of the dependants of regularisation applicants from expulsion
In April 1999, a series of amendments were passed which protect the dependants (spouses and under
age children) of white and green card holders from expulsion. Children who attain majority during the
period of the cards validity cannot be expelled until they reach the age of 21. Moreover, the children of green
card holders may themselves submit an application for a green card when they reach majority (18 years of
age) and before they become 21 years of age.
Illegal immigration
The government has introduced a variety of measures, some of which in the context of the Schengen
Agreement, to control crime and illegal migration and to forestall racist and vigilante actions against foreign
residents. These include the establishment of a border guard to combat the illegal trafficking of migrants
(which became operational on in April 1999) and the increasing of car and foot patrols in cities. These mea-
sures are being supplemented by a policy of deporting migrants convicted of minor crimes and expelling non-
documented migrants to their countries of origin. It is hoped that attempts to regularise non-documented
196
OECD 2000
workers and the rationalisation of the temporary migration process through bilateral agreements will have an
ameliorative impact over the medium term.
In order to bring the countrys legal-institutional framework into line with its obligations under multilateral
agreements (for example, the Dublin Agreement), the government has over recent years introduced a series of
measures designed to clarify the process by which refugee status is obtained and to facilitate the temporary
as well as the more permanent integration of asylum seekers and political refugees.
In June 1998, an Executive Decree was issued in order to regulate the conditions for the employment of
recognised political refugees, applicants for asylum and those granted temporary humanitarian status. In
October 1998, within the context of the National Programme for Vulnerable Populations, a Decree was issued
in order to expedite the social integration of the above three categories of migrants and to facilitate their
access to medical treatment. In April 1999, the procedures were set out for i) the granting of political refugee
status and expulsion of unsuccessful asylum applicants using either normal or accelerated methods and ii) the
entry of the family dependants of recognised refugees. In October 1999, a Decree was issued providing for the
reorganisation of the Lavrion Centre: the Centre will henceforth accommodate those who have submitted an
application for asylum; once they have been granted political refugee status, which is accompanied by the
issuance of a five year residence and employment permit for themselves and for their dependants, they must
leave the Centre.
Citizenship and naturalisation
An Act passed in June 1998 abolished an anachronistic provision of a 1955 Act whereby the Minister of the
Interior had the power to withdraw Greek citizenship from Greek citizens of non-Greek ethnic background who
had left Greece with no intention to return or who lacked Greek consciousness. The Muslim minority is the
principal beneficiary of this new measure.
Prompted by the discovery of a clandestine network which was producing and distributing forged ver-
sions of documents required for naturalisation, an Act was passed in February 2000 to tighten-up and centra-
lise the procedure whereby Greek Pontians from the CIS countries are naturalised. This new law established
special committees both in the CIS countries and in Greece to review the applicants credentials. A first set of
special committees are located in the CIS countries and are supervised jointly by the Ministries of the Interior
and of Foreign Affairs. Having passed through his first committee, the applicants credentials are then
reviewed by a second committee which operates in Greece under the co-jurisdiction of the Ministries of the
Interior, of Foreign Affairs and of Public Order. This committee gives its opinion to the General Regional Secre-
tariat which possesses the ultimate authority to grant citizenship to those who claim ethnic Greek background.
The newly naturalised persons are not required to settle in Greece. This new law also enables the second
committee to review past decisions made on the basis of the 1993 Act.
Integration of return migrants and foreign migrants
In February 2000, legislation was passed transferring the competencies pertaining to the integration/re-
integration of Greek return migrants and ethnic Greeks (e.g. resettlement, employment, educational and cul-
tural integration etc.) from the General Secretariat for Greeks Abroad to the Ministry of the Interior, which also
has jurisdiction over matters pertaining to citizenship and naturalisation.
The Ministry of the Interior has been preparing draft legislation (first draft published in January 1999)
which, among other things, will lead to it taking over the competencies currently held by Ministry of Public
Order with regard to economic migrants in Greece. This draft legislation also contains provisions regarding the
integration into Greek society of both returning Greek migrants and of documented foreign migrants. As well
as containing a provision for the establishment of an Inter-ministerial Committee for Migration Policy, to be
presided over by the Minister of the Interior, the draft legislation also provides for the greater involvement of
the local government in the registration and integration of the foreign and return migrants.
Hungary
197
OECD 2000
Hungary
Introduction
Between 1997 and 1999, Hungarys GDP grew at an average rate of a little over 4.6%. Forecasts for 2000 indi-
cate an improving economic situation, with growth of 5.2%. Job creation has increased, with unemployment falling
to around 7% in 1999, (as compared with 10% in 1996 and 8% in 1998). Officially recorded migration has remained
stable and the number of foreign residents has increased only very slightly. However, undocumented immigra-
tion has increased considerably over the last three years.
In 1998, some 13 000 immigrants arrived in Hungary, of whom 81% were Europeans, mostly Romanians,
Ukrainians and nationals of the former Yugoslavia. Other immigrants came from Asia (13%), mainly from China.
The number of foreigners leaving Hungary continued to fall (see Table III.19). In 1998, only 670 foreigners left
the country, three times fewer than in the preceding year.
Tabl e III. 17.
Illegal migration
Over the last three years, the number of illegal immigrants stopped at the Hungarian border has
increased, and involved some 5 000 individuals in 1998. In addition, the number of undocumented migrants
intercepted when leaving Hungary was, in that same year, three times higher than the recorded number of ille-
gal entries. This shows the growing importance of transit flows through Hungary. The vast majority of the illegal
migrants apprehended entered the country by means of the East and South-East borders, from Romania and
the former Yugoslavia, whereas almost all of those stopped when trying to leave Hungary were intercepted at
the borders with Slovenia, the Slovak Republic and Austria.
There is an organised traffic in illegal migration, as demonstrated by the statistics on the number of traf-
fickers arrested over the last three years (an average of 700 a year). In 1998, some 16 600 foreigners were
expelled from Hungary as compared to 12 000 in 1996.
Since March 1998, when the law on refugees was codified, Hungary has admitted refugees from outside
Europe. As a result, foreigners who have travelled through Hungary to the countries of the European Union to
apply for refugee status can be sent back to Hungary. In such cases, it is up to the Hungarian authorities to pro-
cess the application. So far, this rule has only been applied on a large scale by Austria: during the second half
of 1998 some 2 500 individuals apprehended in Austria were sent back to Hungary, the country through which
they had transited.
The number of asylum seekers increased in 1998 to 7 500, as compared with 2 100 in 1997. Half of those
concerned came from a non-European country, and the others mostly from the former Yugoslavia. In 1998, only
360 applications for refugee status were granted, with a further 260 persons being granted exceptional leave to
remain either on humanitarian grounds or because they could not safely be returned. For many migrants, how-
ever, this latter status is not satisfactory as it is difficult for them to obtain permission to work and they are not
eligible for social assistance.

HUNGARY

T
r
e
n
d
s

i
n

I
n
t
e
r
n
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

M
i
g
r
a
t
i
o
n

1
9
8

O
E
C
D

2
0
0
0
Table III.19. Current figures on migration flows and stocks of foreign population, Hungary
1. Data are estimates.
2. Foreigners registering in the given year and holding a long-term permit. A long-term permit is usually granted after one year living in Hungary with a short-term permit which cannot be extended more than
one year. Therefore data on long-term immigrants cannot be fully considered as flow data.
3. All permits granted in the year.
4. Granted permits from the applications of the given year.
5. Valid work permits at the end of the year.
Sources: Registers of foreigners, Ministry of the Interior; Office for Migration and Refugees, Ministry of the Interior.
1995 1996 1997 1998
1
1995 1996 1997 1998
1
Registered long-term immigration by country of origin
2
Acquisition of the Hungarian nationality 10.0 12.3 8.7 6.4
Romania 4.7 4.0 4.3 4.6 of which, in per cent of total acquisitions:
Ukraine 1.2 1.3 1.9 1.9 Romania 70.4 69.7 60.4 59.7
Former Yugoslavia 1.6 1.0 1.3 1.4 Former Yugoslavia 11.3 16.3 18.6 16.5
EU countries 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.1 Former USSR 11.8 10.0 9.1 10.3
China 1.2 1.7 1.5 0.9
Russian Federation 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.3 Grants of work permits (excluding renewals),
Other 2.7 2.8 2.5 2.6 by country of origin
Total 13.2 12.8 13.4 12.8 Romania 8.9 6.8 9.0 10.5
of which: Women 5.7 5.6 6.3 6.3 Former USSR 2.0 2.2 3.3 2.8
Poland 1.8 1.0 1.1 0.9
Grants of residence permits by type of permit Other 5.7 4.4 6.4 8.3
Short-term permits (including renewals) 30.3 25.0 21.9 24.9 Total 18.4 14.4 19.7 22.6
Long-term permits (including renewals) 22.4 15.1 20.4 24.3
Permanent permits
3
3.9 4.5 4.8 . . Registered foreign workers, by country of origin
5
Permanent permits
4
2.2 2.8 2.7 . . Romania 9.8 8.5 9.5 10.6
Former USSR 2.6 2.2 3.1 2.8
Inflows of asylum seekers and refugees 5.9 1.3 2.1 . . China 0.9 0.5 0.7 1.1
Poland 1.4 1.0 1.1 1.0
Stocks of permanent residents 81.4 77.4 73.7 77.4 Former Yugoslavia 1.4 1.0 1.0 1.0
of which: Women 43.8 41.8 40.1 . . Other 4.8 5.5 5.1 6.0
Total 21.0 18.8 20.4 22.4
Stocks of foreign residents (long-term
and permanent residents), by country of origin
Romania 65.7 61.6 57.4 . . Number of deportations and expulsions 17.6 14.0 11.9 . .
Former USSR 16.1 17.0 18.6 . . of which:
Former Yugoslavia 16.8 16.4 16.0 . . Romanians 10.0 7.9 7.3 . .
Germany 7.8 8.3 8.4 . . Former Yugoslavs 3.0 2.3 2.5 . .
China 4.3 6.7 7.9 . .
Poland 4.5 4.3 4.5 . .
Slovak Republic 3.5 3.7 3.7 . .
Other 21.1 24.2 27.3 . .
Total 139.9 142.2 143.8 . .
of which: Women 65.6 66.1 66.7 . .
Hungary
199
OECD 2000
Numerical trends
At the end of 1998, some 77 400 foreigners were living legally in Hungary as permanent residents. Since
inflows and outflows of documented foreigners have not changed very much, the fall in the number of naturali-
sations recorded in 1998 probably explains the increase in the number of foreigners holding a permanent
residence permit.
Naturalisations
In spite of a moderate increase in the number of foreigners applying for Hungarian nationality, only
6 400 migrants were naturalised in 1998, 25% down on the 1997 figure and half that of 1996. As in previous
years, 60% were of Romanian origin, 18% were from the former Yugoslavia and 8% from Ukraine. Most appli-
cants were of Hungarian origin or were themselves once Hungarian citizens. Re-naturalisation requests
accounted for one-fifth of the total. A little over 70% of naturalisation applications were from descendants of
Hungarian citizens, and some 10% were from persons married to a Hungarian.
After a fall in 1996, due to a change in the regulations, the number of newly issued work permits has con-
tinued to rise: 22 600 in 1998 as compared with 19 700 in 1997 and 14 000 in 1996. In addition, 9 000 residence
permits were issued for practising gainful activities for which a work permit is not required.
The number of settled immigrants and refugees entitled to work without further permission was 61 000
in 1998. The number of registered foreigners legally present on the Hungarian labour market can be estimated
at 90 000-95 000.
Work permits are generally granted for professions in which there is a shortage of labour or for persons
who bring special knowledge and expertise. Almost half of work-permit holders were Romanian citizens, over
16% were from European Union countries and North America, 13% from countries of the former Soviet Union
(mainly Ukraine), and the rest from Poland, the former Yugoslavia and China. In fact, the proportion of foreign-
ers from the developed countries is probably higher than is indicated by the official figures since a significant
number of them are senior managers in foreign companies and as such do not require a work permit.
Undocumented foreign workers
The employment of undocumented foreign workers must be seen against the much wider background of
the informal sector and the undeclared labour market in Hungary. According to certain estimates, the informal
sector accounts for 30% of GDP and the participation of foreigners in this economy is understood to be wide-
ranging. Given that it is possible to enter Hungary without a visa from practically all European countries, the
majority of undocumented foreign workers enter as tourists and regularly or occasionally undertake a variety
of jobs. Their residence is made legal by leaving the country once a month to have an exit stamp put in their
passports because the visa regulations allow them to stay only under such conditions.
Many of these tourists from neighbouring countries work in the construction sector, have a seasonal job
in agriculture or occasionally take domestic service jobs. The participation of foreigners in retail activities of all
kinds is tending to grow, though from a low base.
The majority of undocumented labour migrants are from neighbouring countries, mainly Romania, but
also Ukraine and the former Yugoslavia. After some days, weeks or months of work, they return home before,
in some cases, returning again. Most are ethnic Hungarians who speak the language and have relatives or
other contacts in the country. Some of them use their annual leave to increase their income. These essentially
temporary migrants do not wish to settle permanently but working abroad is the only chance they have to
improve their living conditions.
200
OECD 2000
Another aspect of the situation regarding undocumented foreign workers is the growing number of foreign
companies European or American which have established themselves in Hungary. These international
companies recruit workers with good linguistic and computer skills, which leads many young foreigners from
these countries to take up undocumented employment, for example in language teaching, the media or com-
puter services. According to some estimates, undocumented foreign workers account for 5 to 10% of total
employment in Hungary.
Hungary is increasingly becoming a country of immigration, which is why, during the last three years, it has
amended its immigration legislation to bring it into line with the policies implemented in European Union
countries. These amendments relate mainly to the entry and residence of foreigners (including asylum
seekers and refugees), the acquisition of Hungarian nationality, measures to combat the employment of
undocumented foreigners and the signature of readmission agreements.
New legislation
Entry and residence of foreigners
In 1993 and 1994, two fundamental Acts were adopted, the first concerning Hungarian citizenship, and the
second the entry and residence of foreigners. To obtain a permanent residence permit, a foreigner must have
lived and worked legally in Hungary for three years.
One of the conditions for acquiring Hungarian nationality is a minimum residence requirement of at least
eight years.
In 1998, the last pillar of the legal regulation of migration issues, the Act on Refugees, came into force. It
contains, notably, a provision that only refugees from Europe may be granted asylum in Hungary.
Measures to combat the employment of undocumented foreigners
In November 1996, an Act on labour market access was adopted. Foreigners who travel to Hungary with
the purpose of working there must obtain a work permit or an income-earning activity visa before entering
Hungary, regardless of the length of their stay. A work permit is required for most jobs and may be issued only
if there is no locally available Hungarian resident available with the relevant qualifications to fill the post.
High unemployment in the locality also constitutes an obstacle to employing new foreign workers. Employers
are required to register their application for a permit 60 days before the beginning of the contract, or 30 days
in the case of seasonal or occasional employment.
The sanctions imposed on employers who recruit undocumented foreign workers have been rendered
more severe over recent years. Nevertheless, it is the workers who face the greatest penalties: if a foreigner is
caught working without a valid work permit, the employer must pay a fine equal to at least five times the
minimum wage whereas the worker can be banned from Hungary for between one and five years.
Adapting Hungarian legislation to European Union norms
Under the Association Agreement signed with the European Union, Hungary must bring its present and
future legislation into line with that of the European Union. Essentially, this means promoting the free move-
ment of persons within the European Union and strengthening border controls. Special provisions, with pref-
erential treatment for EU citizens, are under preparation, and some were recently introduced. As for
strengthening border controls, the necessary measures have still to be introduced.
Revision of the Readmission Agreement between Austria and Hungary
New provisions were introduced into the Readmission Agreement between Austria and Hungary in
February 1997. The Hungarian authorities are now required to accept any person presumed to have entered
Austria illegally via Hungary.
Ireland
201
OECD 2000
Ireland
Introduction
Reflecting the variable character of relative differences in domestic and overseas economic performance,
migration flows displayed considerable volatility during the 1980s and early 1990s. Thereafter Irelands economic
performance, both in relative and absolute terms, improved spectacularly with real GDP growth consistently
exceeding 7% since 1994. This degree of economic buoyancy has led to a steady decline in unemployment from
a peak of over 15% in 1993 to stand at 5.7% in April 1999. Despite sustained increases both in the working age
population and in labour force participation, labour shortages have appeared in many sectors. This, along with
other factors, has given rise to significant net population inflows. In the most recent twelve month period for
which up to date data are available, i.e. the year to April 1999, net inward migration was nearly 19 000, compared
with a situation of nil net migration in the mid-1990s (see Chart III.10).
Chart III .7.
While the favourable economic circumstances constitute the main reason attracting sizeable numbers of
both former emigrants and non-nationals to come to work in Ireland, the numbers have been further augmented

IRELAND

60
60
1
8
7
1
-
8
1 1988
50
40
30
20
10
0
40
20
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
1
8
8
1
-
9
1
1
8
9
1
-
1
9
0
1
1
9
0
1
-
1
1
1
1
-
2
6
2
6
-
3
6
3
6
-
4
6
4
6
-
5
1
5
1
-
6
1
6
1
-
7
1
7
1
-
8
1
8
1
-
9
1
9
1
-
9
6 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 99
9
6
-
9
9 98
Chart III.10. Trends and characteristics of migration, Ireland
A. Components of population change
1
Intercensal periods (Thousands)
Natural increase
Total change
Net migration
B. Migration flows,
2
1988-1999
Thousands
C. Age distribution of migrants,
2
1999
Percentages
Emigrants Immigrants
0-14 15-24 25-44 45-64 65 and over
Net migration Immigration Emigration
1. Annual average. Data for 1991-99 are estimates on the basis of the
1996 census results.
Sources: Commission on Emigration, Reports (1954); Census of population
of Ireland 1991, Volume 1, Population classified by area; Census of
population of Ireland 1996; Population and migration estimates,
April 1999. CSO, 1999.
CSO Annual series of Labour Force Surveys, 1983-1997. CSO (1999),
Quarterly National Household Survey, Second Quarter 1999. CSO
(1999), Popluation and Migration Estimates, April 1999.
60
60
1
8
7
1
-
8
1 1988
50
40
30
20
10
0
40
20
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
1
8
8
1
-
9
1
1
8
9
1
-
1
9
0
1
1
9
0
1
-
1
1
1
1
-
2
6
2
6
-
3
6
3
6
-
4
6
4
6
-
5
1
5
1
-
6
1
6
1
-
7
1
7
1
-
8
1
8
1
-
9
1
9
1
-
9
6 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 99
9
6
-
9
9 98
1
Natural increase
Total change
Net migration
B. Migration flows,
2
1988-1999
Thousands
2
1999
Percentages
0-14 15-24 25-44 45-64 65 and over
April 1999. CSO, 1999.
60
60
1
8
7
1
-
8
1 1988
50
40
30
20
10
0
40
20
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
1
8
8
1
-
9
1
1
8
9
1
-
1
9
0
1
1
9
0
1
-
1
1
1
1
-
2
6
2
6
-
3
6
3
6
-
4
6
4
6
-
5
1
5
1
-
6
1
6
1
-
7
1
7
1
-
8
1
8
1
-
9
1
9
1
-
9
6 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 99
9
6
-
9
9 98
1
Natural increase
Total change
Net migration
B. Migration flows,
2
1988-1999
Thousands
2
1999
Percentages
0-14 15-24 25-44 45-64 65 and over
April 1999. CSO, 1999.
202
OECD 2000
by an increasing inflow of asylum seekers. In response to this unexpected inflow, the government has recently
modified its legislation and introduced a number of measures in order to deal with it more effectively.
Having reached very high levels at the end of the 1980s (as high as 70 000 in 1989, a level similar to that
experienced during earlier periods of large-scale emigration), emigration flows have steadily declined since
that time. In the year to April 1999, the gross population outflow was estimated at approximately 30 000.
Ten years ago, nearly 70% of those who emigrated went to the United Kingdom, some 12% to the United
States, 6% to other European Union (EU) countries and about 14% to other destinations. By 1993 the United
Kingdom was no longer, after six decades, the destination of the majority of Irish emigrants. This trend towards
increasing diversity in destinations, though not sustained every year, has continued. In 1999, the proportion
going to the United Kingdom was 35% while that for the rest of the EU was 16%; the United States accounted
for just under 20% and all other countries taken in aggregate for slightly over 30%.
Irish emigration has predominantly been of young people (see Chart III.10), though when economic condi-
tions in Ireland are severely depressed it also tends to extend to the immediately older age groups. The most
recent estimates available show that some 53% of the gross outward movement in 1998/1999 related to per-
sons aged between 15 and 24 years, with the great majority of the remainder (about 40%) involving persons
aged between 25 and 44 years; other sources indicate that most emigrants in this latter age class are
between 25 and 34 years old.
With regard to gender differences, if Irish emigration flows are viewed over a long period, there is no
material difference in the balance between males and females. However, this balance can vary substantially
from time to time. The outflows in the 1980s, for example, involved a significant majority of males. However,
this differential has decreased greatly in the 1990s: the gross outflow of males between 1990 and 1999 was just
over 172 000, compared with 166 000 for women in the same period. The overall tendency towards lower
female emigration in recent decades has occurred primarily because the employment prospects for women in
the Irish labour market have been relatively more advantageous.
Irish emigrants, who were previously largely unskilled, or at best possessed rudimentary manual skills,
are now broadly representative of the social structure of Irish society. Indeed, there appears to be a tendency
towards disproportionately higher emigration among those with third level qualifications (advanced diplomas
or degrees). Irelands graduate labour force involves what might be described as an ongoing or even constant
migratory element, which exists to a significant degree even when the economy is buoyant. Indeed, published
data relating to recently qualified graduates indicate greatly reduced unemployment in the immediate post
graduation period throughout the 1990s but, interestingly, little change in the proportion that had taken up
employment abroad.
While relatively large numbers of those possessing diplomas or degrees (especially in technical areas)
initially emigrate, a high proportion also return at a later stage having acquired experience and enhanced
skills. Irish employers, especially when seeking qualified technical personnel, often favour applications from
emigrants rather than hire recently qualified graduates. However, due to the emergence of skill shortages the
possibilities for doing this have diminished greatly in recent years. Estimates based on 1991 Irish Census data
reveal that over 30% of the population aged over 40 years with third level qualifications had resided outside
the country for at least one year. The corresponding proportion for the adult population as a whole
(i.e. 25 years of age and over) was 10%. This represents a very high return rate (it is undoubtedly higher now)
for the most educated emigrants, and is important in dispelling fears of a brain drain.
Immigration
Inward migration (of both returning emigrants and non-nationals) has become a much more important
phenomenon in Ireland in recent years. The gross migration inflow increased from less than 30 000 in the
late 1980s to nearly 48 000 in 1999. At the beginning of the 1990s the proportion of non-nationals in the inward
Ireland
203
OECD 2000
flows was about 35%, but has now risen to approximately 50%. The non-national group is comprised largely of
persons coming to work (mainly in skilled activities but also notably in the catering trade), students coming to
attend third level institutions and dependants of persons in these groups.
A comparison of the educational level of incoming migrants, both Irish and non-Irish, with that of the resi-
dent population reveals their superior educational profile: currently nearly one half of them possess third
level qualifications, compared with less than 20% in the resident population.
The influx of asylum seekers or persons seeking refugee status has emerged as an important issue in
Ireland in recent years. Until the early 1990s the numbers of refugees and asylum seekers were very small;
since then they have risen sharply, from less than 40 in 1992 (not including the several hundred Bosnian pro-
gramme refugees, displaced from the former Yugoslavia, whom the Irish Government agreed to accept in that
year) to almost 7 800 in 1999. Possible reasons for the recent increase include increasing numbers of asylum
seekers generally, and the fact that other countries are adopting a more restrictive stance with regard to applica-
tions. A knowledge of the new application procedures in Ireland, of the welfare supports, and the fact that the
employment situation is favourable may also be contributing factors.
According to figures from the Department of Justice, Equality and Law Reform, during the first ten months
of 1999 over 30% of asylum seekers were of Romanian origin and 21% were from Nigeria. Among the remainder,
significant numbers were from Algeria, Kosovo, Moldova, Sierra Leone and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
The number of persons who have been granted official refugee status is relatively small (the total over the
period from the beginning of 1992 until October 1999 was 869). Over the same period the number of persons
whose applications for asylum were refused was just over 3 600. Notwithstanding the seven-fold increase since
mid-1997 in the number of staff assigned to deal with applications, the backlog of cases pending is now esti-
mated at approximately 7 000. Steps are now being taken to further increase the number of staff and to
relocate the reception centres to a larger and more suitable premises.
The total number of foreign residents in Ireland is relatively small when compared with other European
countries. However, data from the Labour Force Survey, which provides the only means of estimating the stock
of non-nationals in Ireland, show that this component of the Irish population has increased substantially over
recent years. The number rose from 83 000 in 1983 to just over 96 000 in 1995 and it increased again to 118 000
in 1996 since which time it has fallen-back slightly to 111 000 in 1998, in which year they accounted for 3% of
the total population (see Table III.20). While sampling variability in the survey estimates may be a contribu-
tory factor, the more recent population figures exhibit a trend that seems to run counter to other data which
indicate rising inward migration of non-nationals.
Tabl e III. 18.
Whilst the great majority of foreign residents are EU passport holders (approximately 85 000, of whom
66 000 are from the United Kingdom), the population of non-EU citizens (other than those from the United
States) has increased particularly rapidly: it numbered just 8 400 in 1983, and 15 700 in 1998.
Analysis of the data on the issue and renewal of work permits (which are required for all engagements for
financial gain, irrespective of duration) provides some indication of the trends in the numbers of non-EU
nationals entering the country in order to take up employment. The number of issues and renewals rose rap-
idly between 1989 and 1993, from 2 500 to just over 4 250. It did not vary greatly from this level until 1998 when
the figure rose to almost 5 650; the 1999 figure of over 6 200 marked a continuation of this upward trend.
Citizens of the United States and Canada are accounting for an increasing proportion of this non-EU
group, approximately 30% of the total in 1999. On the other hand, the proportion of permits issued to persons
from India and Pakistan, having been approximately one third during the first half of the 1990s fell-off sharply
204
OECD 2000
Table III.20. Current figures on migration flows and stocks of total population and labour force in Ireland
Note: Figures for the EU refer to the 15 member countries of the Union from 1997 on.
1. CSO estimates made on the basis of 1996 Census results.
2. Estimated from the annual Labour Force Survey. Fluctuations from year to year may be due to sampling error.
Sources: Central Statistical Office; Labour Force Survey.
1996 1997 1998 1999
Immigration by last country of residence
1
39.2 44.0 44.0 47.5
United Kingdom 17.6 20.0 21.1 21.6
Other European countries 7.2 8.1 8.7 10.0
United States 6.4 6.6 4.9 5.7
% of return Irish citizens 45.2 46.6 52.7 54.5
Emigration of both Irish and foreign people by country of destination
1
31.2 29.0 21.2 29.0
United Kingdom 14.1 12.9 8.5 10.2
Net migration of both Irish nationals and foreigners
1
8.0 15.0 22.8 18.5
United Kingdom 3.5 7.1 12.6 11.4
Total population
2
3 626.1 3 660.6 3 704.8 3 744.7
Irish nationals 3 508.3 3 546.2 3 593.8 . .
Total foreign population 117.8 113.9 110.9 . .
United Kingdom 71.3 64.4 66.2 . .
Other EU countries 15.4 16.4 19.0 . .
United States 12.7 11.3 10.0 . .
Other countries 18.1 21.8 15.7 . .
% of foreign population in total population 3.2 3.1 3.0 . .
Labour market
Work permits issued and renewed 3.8 4.5 5.6 6.2
By nationality
India and Pakistan 0.6 0.5 0.7 . .
United States and Canada 0.9 1.4 1.6 . .
By sector of activity
Agriculture 0.1 0.1 0.1 . .
Industry 0.4 0.6 0.7 . .
Services 3.3 3.8 4.9 . .
Employment by nationality
2
1 285.3 1 338.4 1 494.5 . .
Irish nationals 1 241.9 1 294.7 1 447.0 . .
Foreigners in employment 43.4 43.7 47.5 . .
United Kingdom 27.6 26.7 28.3 . .
Other EU countries 7.1 7.6 10.3 . .
United States 3.0 3.2 3.7 . .
Employment to total population ratio
Irish nationals (%) 35.4 36.5 40.3 . .
Foreigners (%) 36.8 38.4 42.8 . .
United Kingdom (%) 38.7 41.5 42.7 . .
Other EU countries (%) 46.1 46.3 54.2 . .
United States (%) 23.6 28.3 37.0 . .
Other countries (%) 31.5 28.4 33.1 . .
Ireland
205
OECD 2000
thereafter; together they now account for slightly over 10% of the total. Significant factors here have been
a) the imposition of more restrictive registration conditions governing eligibility to work as a medical practitio-
ner and b) a tightening of immigration procedures generally. However, there have also been in recent years
significant increases in the numbers entering employment from some other countries which had previously
been of relatively low importance. These include, for example, Australia, Malaysia, New Zealand, South Africa
and Switzerland.
The issuing of new permits relates overwhelmingly to the services area. Until recently many of the permits
issued under the services heading related to the medical sphere, but these have declined in recent years for the
reasons as outlined above. However this decrease has been more than offset by the rise in the number of permits
issued under the large service industries category which relates mainly to commercial and financial activities.
In 1998, according to the Quarterly National Household Survey, just under 3.3% of the total workforce were
non-nationals, of whom approximately 47 500 were at work and just over 6 000 were unemployed (see
Table III.20). This latter figure, which is surprisingly high, represented an unemployment rate of nearly 12%,
compared with 7.7% for the indigenous population. A closer inspection of the figures reveals that this differ-
ence can be attributed primarily to the relatively high unemployment among the United Kingdom nationals.
It should be borne in mind, however, that the number of non-Irish unemployed in the Irish labour force is
small and, therefore, the related survey estimates would be subject to a significant degree of sampling error.
The figures should, therefore, be interpreted with caution.
The basic legal framework covering foreign nationals in Ireland in regard to rights of entry, residence and
employment is the 1935 Aliens Act and the subsequent ministerial orders appended to it. In 1996, in response
to the rapid increase in the numbers of asylum seekers the Refugee Act was introduced to parliament with the
primary objective of codifying asylum procedures in law and rendering them more transparent. However, as
the view taken by the Justice Minister was that certain of the provisions of the Act were unworkable, it has only
been partially implemented. Nevertheless, as from 28 August 1997 that part of the Act which enables Ireland
to ratify the Dublin Convention has been brought into law.
In order to deal with the continuing inflow of asylum seekers new administrative procedures were put in
place under the existing legislation in early 1998. Under the new arrangements (which follow the principles of
the 1996 Act), Department of Justice officials adjudicate on asylum applications in the first instance. There is,
however, an independent appeals procedure presided over by practising lawyers. The system also includes
procedures (with provision for appeal) whereby what appear to be manifestly unfounded applications are
dealt with speedily.
Important issues associated with the refugee question that continue to be controversial include:
The right of asylum seekers to work. On 27 July 1999, as an exceptional measure, the government rescinded
the previous policy whereby only those officially recognised as refugees were allowed to work. Asylum
seekers who have been in the country for more than twelve months and who are still awaiting a determi-
nation of their application for refugee status were granted the right to obtain work permits. The new
rules also apply to those who sought asylum prior to 26 July 1999, as soon as they cross the twelve-
month threshold. However, the number of asylum seekers that have gained employment thus far as a
result of this measure is extremely small. While it is, perhaps, still too early to form a judgement, one
issue which has been emphasised is that the employer has in these circumstances to pay an on-going fee
(IEP 25 per month) in respect of each person so employed, a factor which can be said to discriminate
against those who could only expect to command a relatively low wage.
Support systems for asylum seekers. The government decided in October 1999 that the Minister for Justice,
Equality and Law Reform should complete plans for the introduction of direct provision (e.g. vouchers,
accommodation in special hostels or residential centres) as distinct from a totally cash-based system
to meet the principal needs of asylum seekers. The inter-departmental committee on immigration,
206
OECD 2000
asylum and related issues will commence work immediately on identifying the measures which would
need to be put in place by the appropriate departments/agencies in order to meet the needs of a direct
provision system. The fact that the United Kingdom (with which Ireland shares a Common Travel Area)
is introducing a direct provision system for asylum seekers is a relevant factor here.
Problems of residential concentration. Due to the very large increase in the number of persons seeking asylum
in recent months, and in view of the non-availability of further accommodation in the Dublin area, it has
been decided that arrangements should be made to accommodate significant numbers of asylum seek-
ers throughout the country. In this regard, local authorities and regional health boards will co-operate in
finding suitable accommodation and in providing the ancillary welfare and health needs of asylum
applicants.
The government still intends to review the question of the implementation of the 1996 Refugee Act in the
light of a) the conclusions of a comparative study of relevant legislation in Ireland and in other EU member
states (soon to be completed) and b) the experience gained in the Department of Justice in operating the
current procedures.
In the context of the wider problem of labour shortages, the government has announced its intention to
introduce the States first work-visa programme for people from non-EU countries. Plans have been drawn up
which involve a target of 5 000 work visas for the year 2000. It is hoped that the necessary legislation will be in
place to allow for the first visas to be issued by the spring of 2000. The measure would allow high skill and low
skill immigrants to take up jobs that employers are currently finding it impossible to fill. Questions are inevita-
bly being asked concerning the wisdom of following this course of action when there are already some
7 000 asylum seekers in the country, of which only a limited number are allowed to work. It is however unlikely,
given the range of skills required, that it would be possible to fill all of the vacancies from this source.
Italy
Introduction
In 1999, as in previous years, growth was relatively low in Italy, with GDP increasing by approximately
1.5%. However, economic activity has recovered in 2000; according to the available estimates, the growth rate
is likely to reach approximately 3%. The unemployment rate has also been falling since the end of 1998,
although it remains high (11.5% in 1999).
In 1998, immigration issues were a government priority and attracted considerable media attention. The
Immigration Act was revised, a new regularisation programme was implemented and Italy continued its effort
to take in refugees from the Balkans, in particular from Kosovo. Despite the relatively slow economic recovery,
immigration continued to increase in 1998 and 1999. Although Italy has considerably strengthened its border
controls, it is still experiencing a very large illegal immigration flow of persons entering through bordering
countries, as well as via the Adriatic from Albania and via the Mediterranean from Tunisia.
Some 111 000 new residence permits were granted in 1998, two-thirds of which were issued to women.
The largest migration flows were from Central and Eastern Europe and the Maghreb. The main nationalities
were respectively Albanians (11 200), Moroccans (7 300), Romanians (5 800) and nationals of the former
Yugoslavia (5 700). In 1998, 40% of the new residence permits were granted for family reunion, some 20% for
employment purposes, slightly over 10% to students, 8% to tourists and 7% to asylum applicants. Over half the

ITALY

Italy
207
OECD 2000
new immigrants settled in Northern Italy, while slightly over a quarter settled in the centre, 15% in the south
and the remainder (4%) in the islands.
Regularisation programme
In 1998, the Italian government launched a new regularisation programme, following those of 1986, 1990
and 1996 (see Table III.21). Initially, 38 000 permits were to be granted. However, due to the large number of
applications (over 400 000 were filed, of which 88 200 had been processed by December 1998), the authorities
decided that all eligible persons would benefit from this regularisation. The initial conditions were also
relaxed several times. In particular, the deadline was extended until 20 October 1999 to give applicants addi-
tional time to submit the required documents. The circular of 10 May 1999 stated that all persons who were living
in Italy before 28 March 1998 could potentially benefit from this programme. Nevertheless, the regularisation
programme is encountering major delays in processing: at July 2000, 91 000 cases were still pending.
Tabl e III. 19.
The vast majority of applicants were young men with a good level of education. Half of them were married
and had family members in Italy. Nearly 72% of applicants were working illegally when they filed their applica-
tion, most often in services (domestic jobs or catering) and construction. The geographical breakdown of the
current place of residence of regularisation applicants reflects the distribution of immigrants throughout Italy
quite closely.
The statistics by nationality, which cover only 70% of the applications received, show that 37% of the appli-
cations concerned nationals of Central and Eastern Europe (predominantly from Albania and Romania), 34%
from Africa (mostly from Morocco, Nigeria and Senegal), 24% from Asia (primarily from China and Bangladesh)
and slightly over 4% from the Americas (mainly from Ecuador). This geographical distribution is somewhat dif-
ferent from that observed during the 1995-96 regularisation programme, in which European nationals only
accounted for one quarter of the applications and African nationals accounted for over 40%.
Until recently, as it had few historical, geographical and cultural ties with the main sending countries, Italy
was not a popular destination for asylum seekers. Between 1952 and 1989 a total of 122 000 applications were
received. In 1991, because of the events in Albania, applications for asylum rose sharply, with a total of
26 500 applications for that year alone. From then until 1997, the number of applications for asylum fell signifi-
cantly, levelling off at between 1 000 and 2 000 per year. This relatively low number of asylum seekers was due
to several factors. Many asylum seekers from Somalia or the former Yugoslavia, for example were given
work permits on humanitarian grounds, which relieved them of the need to apply for refugee status. The
Table III.21. Regularisation requests of immigrants
in an illegal situation, three last regularisation
programmes, by region of residence, Italy
Thousands
Sources: Ministry of Labour; Ministry of the Interior.
1990 1997 1998
North 89.2 115.3 205.0
Centre 75.9 75.8 127.0
South 30.6 48.2 51.3
Islands 39.1 19.4 17.2
Total 234.8 258.8 400.6
208
OECD 2000
lengthy formalities involved tended to act as a deterrent, and periodic regularisation programmes legalised
certain situations and obviated the need to apply for refugee status.
In 1998, asylum applications reached a new peak, with nearly 7 700 applications filed. The vast majority of
applicants entered Italy illegally, the main points of entry being the Puglia coast and Rome and Milan airports.
They were comprised mainly of Kosovars, Iraqis and Kurds from Turkey. This upward trend became more
marked in 1999; by November, over 35 000 applications had been filed. However, the rate of refusal remained
high (nearly 75%). In 1998, 4 200 applications were examined, three times as many as in 1997. Just over 1 000
were approved.
Illegal immigration
On the basis of the statistics derived from the regularisation programme, the number of illegal immigrants
can be estimated indirectly; in all probability it is approximately 250 000, equivalent to 20% of the total foreign
population. The largest groups are from Morocco (25 000), Albania (19 000) and Romania (17 000). However,
the groups that have the highest proportion of illegal immigrants in relation to the number of legal immigrants
are the Romanians (37%), Poles (32%) and Brazilians (29%).
It is impossible to put a reliable figure on the extent of the illegal immigration flow, notably because of
the number of people immediately turned back at the border and those that escape detection, but in 1998,
official statistics showed that 47 800 persons were denied permission to enter Italy, of whom 29 500 were inter-
cepted at the border. They were mainly Albanians, Kosovars and Iraqis. The main points of entry were the
Salentine Peninsula and the ports of Bari and Brindisi (in Puglia), Pantelleria and Lampedusa (islands off
Sicily) and the coasts of Calabria. Other illegal immigrants crossed land borders, particularly Eastern Europeans
along the border between Tarvisio and Trieste and Filipinos and Sri Lankans via France or Switzerland.
According to Interior Ministry statistics, there were slightly over one million foreigners residing in Italy on
31 December 1998 (see Table III.22). However, these statistics are not directly comparable to those of the pre-
vious year because neither persons whose permit is being renewed nor minors are now included. According to
some estimates, this figure should be adjusted upwards by approximately 20%, which would bring the number
of foreigners officially resident in Italy to 1.25 million, a slight increase over 1997. Foreigners account for
approximately 2.1% of the total population, which is a relatively low percentage compared to the average for
EU countries (4.9%).
Table I II. 20.
Most legal immigrants living in Italy come from developing countries rather than the European Union
(171 600) or other developed countries (95 000). Nearly one quarter of the non-EU nationals come from Central
and Eastern Europe, 19% from North Africa, 10% from other African countries, 18% from Asia and just over 8%
from Latin America.
In 1998, nearly two-thirds of immigrants were aged between 19 and 40. This suggests very strongly that
immigration into Italy is essentially employment-related. Despite the lack of reliable statistical sources, it is
estimated that the number of foreign minors is increasing and amounted to 180 000 in 1998. Approximately
one thousand of them acquire Italian nationality each year through adoption procedures. The percentage of
minors varies considerably across nationalities, being relatively high among Russian nationals but low among
Filipinos.
The foreign population is heavily concentrated in northern and central Italy, particularly in Lombardy,
Lazio, Veneto and the cities of Rome and Milan.
Italys unemployment rate remains high in comparison with other European countries. Nevertheless, the
number of foreign workers has trebled since 1990. This situation is due to the expansion of the service sector
over recent years and the increase in the number of low-skilled foreigners taking up temporary contracts for
jobs shunned by Italian workers.
T
r
e
n
d
s

i
n

I
n
t
e
r
n
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

M
i
g
r
a
t
i
o
n

2
0
9

O
E
C
D

2
0
0
0
Table III.22. Current figures on foreign population in Italy
1. Data are from population registers and refer to the population on 31 December of the years indicated.
2. Including self-employed and unemployed.
3. Number of non-EU foreigners who hold a work permit. Excluding unemployed with a residence permit who are registered in the local employment Offices.
Sources: Ministry of the Interior; ISTAT.
1995 1996 1997 1998 1995 1996 1997 1998
Foreigners who hold a permit of residence
1
991.4 1 095.6 1 240.7 1 033.2 Characteristics of non-EU foreigners who newly obtained
By group of nationality a work permit 111.3 129.2 166.5 182.0
Europe 404.3 426.0 486.4 401.4 Level of education (%)
Africa 265.0 314.9 351.0 297.6 No diploma 76.7 78.3 82.2 . .
Asia 164.2 195.5 225.5 195.6 Primary level 19.6 18.2 14.9 . .
America 152.5 154.8 172.8 135.6 Secondary level 3.1 2.9 2.4 . .
Other 5.4 4.4 5.0 3.1 University 0.6 0.5 0.4 . .
By reason for presence Sector of activity (%)
Employment
2
544.2 685.4 782.3 588.7 Agriculture 18.5 21.9 22.6 23.5
Family reunification 185.2 204.4 243.4 251.9 Manufacturing 44.0 44.2 43.5 41.0
Studies 61.8 45.7 57.3 29.9 Domestic work 9.3 5.4 5.3 5.3
Religion 57.4 54.9 59.2 54.5 Other 28.2 28.5 28.6 30.2
Tourism (long-term) 48.6 30.0 44.5 9.5
Retirees 44.0 43.1 45.9 41.1 Stocks of foreign employment
3
332.2 . . 532.7 614.6
Asylum seekers/refugees 10.4 3.9 5.6 6.2
Other and not specified 39.8 28.4 2.5 51.6 Characteristics of registered foreign unemployed
By region of residence (excluding EU citizens) 98.4 146.9 177.9 206.0
North 507.6 . . 636.7 674.0 Length of registration (%)
Central 320.2 . . 378.4 367.7 Less than 3 months 34.6 35.9 . . 26.3
South 163.6 . . 225.6 208.5 3 months to 1 year 34.6 35.4 . . 36.2
More than 1 year 30.8 28.8 . . 37.3
Acquisition of Italian nationality 7.4 7.0 9.2 9.8 Age groups (%)
Less than 18 1.6 1.5 . . 1.7
Legal action taken against foreigners 19-24 14.2 15.0 . . 13.5
Foreigners for whom a penal action 25-29 25.4 24.6 . . 22.4
has been undertaken 57.2 71.6 61.0 125.6 30 and over 58.8 58.9 . . 62.3
Foreigners under arrest 22.2 24.3 24.2 33.4
Foreigners who are to be expelled 56.3 34.6 49.1 172.1
Expelled foreigners 7.5 5.1 8.4 45.7
210
OECD 2000
In 1998, over 614 600 foreigners held a valid residence permit granted for employment purposes, of which
42 000 were issued to self-employed workers. In all, 447 700 persons were actually working and some 100 000
were registered with unemployment offices.
The new Immigration Act states that foreign workers can enter Italy on the basis of a national quota nego-
tiated with their country of origin, or upon request from an Italian employer or through sponsorship by a per-
manent resident. The issuance of residence permits granted for economic reasons, whether seasonal or
permanent, is subject to a quota. For the first two years the quota was set at 58 000 permits, of which 3 500
were reserved for the self-employed. In 2000, it was initially planned to grant 63 000 permits, but under
pressure from employers in the North the authorities decided to increase the quota by 30 000.
In 1998, the number of permit applications filed from abroad rose for the first time, increasing from 20 700
in 1997 to 27 300. For several years, these applications have increasingly been made by nationals of Central
and Eastern European countries, primarily from Poland, the Czech Republic, the Slovak Republic and Romania,
rather than by Moroccan and Filipino nationals. In 1998, half of them worked in agriculture and services and
only some 2 900 people worked in the industrial sector. Newly hired foreign workers generally have low levels
of education and hold unskilled jobs under temporary contracts.
Some work permits have also been granted to foreign nationals under the ongoing regularisation pro-
gramme. By July 1998, over 218 000 applications for work permits had been filed, chiefly by Albanian,
Romanian, Moroccan, Chinese and Nigerian nationals. On the basis of the first 63 000 cases decided, the rate
of refusal was estimated at only 5.7%. In large cities, this rate was even slightly lower.
Admission and residence of foreigners (including integration measures)
Act No. 40 of 6 March 1998 replaces the legislation of 1990 and separates regulation of immigration from
that of asylum and other humanitarian treatment. However, the order implementing this law was not approved
by the Audit Court until 26 October 1999 and it was effectively implemented only as from 3 November of the
same year. In the interim the administrative authorities had to rely on internal circulars and directives of a
more or less provisional nature.
Act No. 40 has three main purposes: to regularise entries on the basis of annual quotas set by the govern-
ment; to implement sterner measures to combat illegal entry and the criminal exploitation of migrants; and, to
increase support for the integration of foreigners residing legally in Italy. The Act also brings Italian legislation
on border controls into line with the Schengen Agreements, which came into force in Italy in October 1997.
The new legislation introduces a system of official deportation and immediate escort to the border in
cases of illegal entry, ineligibility for a residence permit or threat to public order. Foreigners to whom a depor-
tation order has been issued will be sent to special centres and may be held there for 20 to 30 days at the
request of the competent authorities. The same legislation contains measures to promote and improve the
integration of foreigners residing in Italy. A permanent residence permit may be issued, subject to a
means-test, to persons who have been residing in Italy for at least five years.
Lastly, in November 1999, Italy published a report on the integration of immigrants. The Italian govern-
ment took a strong position on the integration of foreigners, considering immigration to be a structural trend
that would continue in the future and which is beneficial to the development of the country as a whole. In this
framework, the goal is to foster better relations between the national and immigrant populations and promote
equal opportunities in the labour market.
The legislative framework concerning refugees and asylum seekers is one of Italys least clear. A bill aimed
at solving this problem, which was prepared at the same time as the new Immigration Act, was published in
November 1998 by the Constitutional Affairs Committee of the Chamber of Deputies. It is expected to come
into effect in late 2000.
Japan
211
OECD 2000
The new legislation provides for specialised officials at Italys borders, who will receive asylum applica-
tions directly. The financial support granted to applicants, which is currently 17 Euros per day for the first
45 days, will be increased and the burden will be borne by local authorities.
Japan
Introduction
Accompanying the further slackening of labour demand the number of persons entering without any
restriction placed on their employment, having increased by almost 60% over the preceding two years, fell by
almost 30% in 1998. The 10% rise in the inflow of those with restricted permission to work, all of whom are clas-
sified as skilled, was largely due to the increase in the entries of entertainers who account for almost three
quarters of the total inflow under this category. Following three years of at or above double-digit growth, the
inflow of trainees rose by just 1% in 1998.
Following 1997s almost 50% rise to 7 100 in the number of people detected as having entered without
proper documentation, which led the Japanese authorities to introduce additional amendments to the Immi-
gration Act in order to further counter the criminal organisations involved in clandestine immigration, the
increase in 1998 was just 5%, a rate which corresponds to the medium term trend observed prior to 1997. The
number of persons deported fell by 2% in 1998, as did the total number of undocumented residents.
Following the approval by parliament in August 1999 of new measures to combat illegal immigration, in
October 1999 the duration of the initial visas accorded to all skilled workers with the exception of entertainers
was extended and the entry requirements for certain categories of skilled worker were the subject of a slight
relaxation. These policy developments would appear to form part of a long-term strategy whereby the authori-
ties are seeking to demonstrate their desire to tighten their control over the inflow of foreign nationals in
order facilitate the societys acceptance of greater numbers.
Only those staying for more than 90 days (the registration of whom is obligatory under the Alien Registra-
tion Law) are considered here. These entrants are assigned a residence status according to their economic
activity in Japan or their personal status as a foreigner eligible to enter and reside there.
The number of persons entering as long-term residents, which had increased by 10% in 1995, 45%
in 1996 and by over two thirds in 1997, fell by almost 30% in 1998 to number just under 46 500. Just as the ear-
lier increases had been due largely to substantially increased inflows of the grandchildren and later descen-
dants of Japanese emigrants (the overwhelming majority from South America), the inflow of whom had
increased almost six-fold between 1994 and 1997, the fall in 1998 was largely due to a decline in their num-
bers, itself attributable to the extremely unfavourable labour market situation for foreigners not possessing
sought-after skills.
Entries of individuals with restricted permission to work totalled 102 000, an increase of just under 9%
over the previous year. At the end of 1998, the total number of foreign nationals residing with this status was
119 000, an increase of 11% on 1997. A 9% increase in the number of entertainers (who account for almost three
quarters of the total inflow under this category) most of whom originate in the Philippines, accounts for over
half of the rise.
Following three years of at or above double-digit growth, at 49 800 the inflow of trainees in 1998 was just
1% higher than in 1997 (see Table III.23). As in previous years, nine out of ten were from Asia, of whom half
were from China; Indonesia, the Philippines and Thailand together accounted for a further 30%.
Tabl e III. 21.
Inflows of students, which have over recent years displayed a marked upward trend, increased by 16%
in 1998 to 28 000.

JAPAN

212
OECD 2000
Illegal immigration
In response to the sharp rise taking place in 1997 in the number of people detected as having entered the
country without proper documentation the authorities amended the Immigration Act in May of that year to
provide for the imposition of severe penalties on those found to have organised or abetted the smuggling of
aliens. At less than 7 500, the number detected in 1998 was just 5% greater than in 1997, a rate of increase
which corresponds to the medium term trend observed prior to 1997s 50% rise.
Box III.4. Policy on the entry of foreign workers
The scope for the acceptance of foreign workers is controlled by the Immigration Control and Refugees Rec-
ognition Act and other related immigration laws and regulations the implementation of which is the responsibility
of the Ministry of Justice. Containing neither quota systems nor a labour market test, these laws adopt rather a
positive list approach the requirements of which are set out in an Ordinance drawn-up by the Ministry of Justice
following consideration of factors that might affect Japanese industry and the general welfare (Article 7): implicitly
this includes consideration of labour market developments.
Within this framework, the basic principles of current migration policy are set out in the Economic Plan (1996)
and the Employment Counter Measures Plan (1996). According to these plans, which differ little from those set
out in the recent past, Japan will readily accept foreigners possessing technological expertise, skills or knowledge
or who engage in business which requires a knowledge of foreign culture not possessed by Japanese nationals.
Those with lower levels of qualification, however, are not to be accepted. The ethnic Japanese, who enter under
the status of long-term resident rather than foreign worker, are not subject to this basic principle.
Foreigners entering Japan for employment are given an authorised period of stay as stipulated by their entry
category in the Immigration Act. With the exception of entertainers, they can apply for an extension of the period
if they remain under the same circumstances. Japanese immigration policy, then, has neither a concept of perma-
nent nor of temporary foreign worker. Foreign workers dependants (i.e. their spouses and unmarried minor
children) are not in general authorised to work.
Box III.5. Policy on the entry of trainees and the conversion of their status to technical interns
Accompanying the growth in the direct investment by Japanese companies in other Asian countries the
employees of their overseas affiliates or joint ventures have been coming to Japan as trainees since the 1960s.
The companies three primary objectives have been to compensate for their foreign employees lack of basic
education and general training, to enhance their understanding of the companies products and production
processes and to encourage their long-term commitment.
Since 1990, small and medium sized enterprises without an overseas presence have been permitted to bring
in overseas trainees. They typically do so through intermediary bodies such as Chambers of Commerce and
employers associations; this exempts them from the 5% ceiling on the proportion of trainees to regular workers.
The Technical Internship Training Programme, an extension of the general trainee scheme, was introduced
in 1993 under the supervision of the Japan International Training co-operation Organisation (JITCO). Within the
framework of this programme, regular trainees, who pass certain skill tests after a period of training, can become
technical intern trainees thereby changing their status of residence to come under the designated activities cat-
egory and so becoming entitled to the same rights as their Japanese colleagues vis--vis the labour standard law,
the minimum wage law and other labour-related laws. In addition to being operational, technical intern trainees
play an important role in supervising and assisting the regular trainees. In 1997, their maximum period of stay was
extended from two years to three. JITCO has concluded agreements as a record of discussions with the govern-
ments of China, India, Indonesia, Laos, Myanmar, Mongolia, Peru, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Uzbekistan
and Vietnam regarding the exchange of information on trainees and on sending organisations.
Japan
213
OECD 2000
Deportations
Almost 48 500 persons were deported in 1998, a fall of slightly over 2% on 1997. Of these almost 85% had
been working illegally. Reflecting the increasing tendency for illegal workers to settle in Japan, over half had
been working for more than three years.
Though Japan receives few applications for asylum their number has, however, been displaying an upward
trend. Having received a total of fewer than 1 200 applications during the period 1982-95, 147 applications
were recorded in 1996; in 1997 the figure was 242 falling back to 133 in 1998. China and Myanmar account for
the majority of applications. Since 1982, fewer than 250 applications have been accepted. The authorities
report that the asylum application procedure is increasing becoming the subject of misuse, in particular as a
means of remaining in the country in order to take up employment during the period that the application is
being considered.
The recorded stock of foreign nationals (those staying for more than 90 days and registered as required under
the Alien Registration Law), stood at just over 1.5 million (1.2% of the total population) at the end of 1998, a 2% rise
on 1997 (see Table III.24). Koreans are the most numerous, accounting for over 40% of the total; their numbers are
Table III.23. Inflows of foreigners by status of residence, 1995-1998, Japan
Thousands
1. Excluding temporary visitors and re-entries.
Source: Ministry of Justice.
1995 1996 1997 1998
% change
1997-1998
Total
1
209.8 225.4 274.8 265.5 3.4
Diplomat and official 20.1 19.0 18.4 16.5 10.3
Residents with restricted permission to work 81.5 78.5 94.0 101.9 8.4
of which:
Entertainer 59.8 54.0 67.5 73.8 9.3
Specialist in humanities or international services 5.0 6.1 6.7 7.2 7.5
Engineer 3.7 4.4 5.1 5.7 11.8
Intra-company transferee 3.1 2.8 3.4 3.5 2.9
Instructor 3.0 2.9 3.1 3.3 6.5
Skilled labour 2.2 3.3 2.8 3.0 7.1
Professor 1.3 1.3 1.5 1.4 6.7
Religious activities 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
Investor and business manager 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.2 9.1
Researcher 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.2 7.7
Journalist 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
Artist 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Cultural activities 3.7 3.9 4.1 3.7 9.8
Student 20.1 21.2 24.2 28.0 15.7
Trainee 40.6 45.5 49.6 49.8 0.4
Dependant 14 15.2 16.1 16.1
"Designated activities" 3.2 3.2 3.3 3.0 9.1
Long-term residents 26.8 38.9 65.3 46.4 28.9
of which:
Spouse and child of Japanese national 19.95 25.9 31.6 24.6 22.2
Spouse and child of permanent resident 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.4 33.3
Other 6.6 12.8 33.4 21.5 35.6
214
OECD 2000
steadily and slowly declining however. Above the general trend increases in the second largest group, the Chinese,
and the fourth most important, the Filipinos, explain the major part of the overall increase.
Table I II. 22.
In principle, permanent residence cannot be accorded immediately but rather after a fairly extensive
period of stay. Numbering 626 800, permanent residents account for 42% of the foreign population. Of these,
almost 90% are special permanent residents, i.e. those Koreans who had lost Japanese nationality on the basis
of the Treaty of Peace with Japan, and their descendants who, born of foreign parents, are not automatically
entitled to Japanese nationality.
The stock of long-term residents declined by 0.3% in 1998 to just over 482 000, one third of the total for-
eign population. Slightly over half of these are the spouses or children of Japanese nationals. The remainder
are ethnic Japanese (the grandchildren and later descendants of Japanese emigrants); an almost negligible
number are the spouses or children of permanent residents (who themselves are essentially composed of
Korean nationals).
At the end of 1998, the total number of foreign nationals residing with restricted permission to work was
119 000, an increase of almost 11% on 1997 which continued the sustained upward trend observed since 1996.
More than half of this increase was due to an over 30% increase in the number of entertainers; the number of
engineers also rose significantly.
Official stock data for the number of trainees are unavailable; the estimate of 115 000 quoted in last years
report remains valid.
Visa overstayers
Through the matching of embarkation and disembarkation cards the number of foreign nationals over-
staying their legal period of stay has been estimated twice yearly since 1992. Due to tightened visa control,
improved co-operation between the agencies charged with tackling the problem as well as to a publicity cam-
paign dissuading employers from hiring illegal workers their number has been declining steadily since 1993.
The deteriorating state of the labour market and the implementation of the May 1997 amendment to the
Immigration Control and Refugee Recognition Act which provides for the imposition of severe penalties on
those found to have organised or abetted the smuggling of aliens have also had an impact. The 2% decline in
the total number of undocumented residents in 1998 (bringing the figure down to 270 000 by January 1999)
does however mask two interesting developments: on the one hand, the number of undocumented Koreans
having increased only moderately through to 1996 and having declined in 1997 rose by 20% in 1998 to 62 600
the recession in Korea and the fact that there exists a large Korean community in Japan would in large part
explain this; on the other, the number of undocumented Filipinos began to decline this appears to be linked
to the increased registered inflow of Filipina entertainers, the earlier increases in the undocumented immigration
of whom had been linked to tighter entry controls on this profession which they dominate.
Naturalisations
Having been on an upward trend, the number of naturalisations declined by nearly 2% in 1998 to 14 800.
This is nevertheless almost three times the 1988 figure. Koreans accounted for almost two thirds and Chinese
almost one third. The majority had previously possessed permanent resident status.
Stock of foreign workers
In spite of the recession, the Ministry of Labour estimates that the number of foreigners (not including
permanent residents) working in Japan increased by 1.5% in 1998 to approximately 670 000 (see Table III.24). It
should be noted that whilst technical intern trainees are included in this estimate general trainees are not.
Similarly, the estimated number of illegal workers comprised in this total does not take account those working
in violation of their visa status, for example language teachers working on tourist visas; rather, the number of
overstayers serves as a proxy.
Japan
215
OECD 2000
Table III.24. Current figures on migration flows and stocks of foreign population and labour force in Japan
Thousands
1. Excluding temporary visitors and re-entries.
2. Registered population as of 1 October of the years indicated.
3. Data are based on registered foreign nationals as of 31 December of the years indicated. The figures include foreigners staying in Japan for more than 90 days.
4. Essentially Korean nationals. A special permanent residents category was introduced in 1992. It includes Koreans and Taiwanese nationals who lost
their Japanese nationality as a consequence of the Peace Treaty of 1952 but who had continued to reside permanently in Japan.
5. Estimates including illegal workers. Excluding permanent residents.
6. Permanent residents, spouses or children of Japanese nationals, spouse or children of permanent residents and long-term residents have no restriction
imposed to the kind of activities they can engage in Japan and are excluded from these data.
7. Estimates made by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
8. Estimates made by the Ministry of Justice on the basis of the number of overstayers.
Sources: Ministry of Justice; Ministry of Foreign Affairs; Ministry of Labour.
1995 1996 1997 1998
Inflows of foreign nationals
1
209.8 225.4 274.8 265.5
Stock of total population
2
125 568.0 125 864.0 126 166.0 126 486.0
Stock of foreign nationals
3
1 362.4 1 415.1 1 482.7 1 512.1
By country of origin
Korea 666.4 657.2 645.4 638.8
China (including Chinese Taipei) 223.0 234.3 252.2 272.2
Brazil 176.4 201.8 233.3 222.2
Philippines 74.3 84.5 93.3 105.3
United States 43.2 44.2 43.7 42.8
Other 179.1 193.1 214.8 230.8
By status of residence
Permanent residents
4
626.6 626.0 625.5 626.8
Long-term residents 402.3 438.2 483.7 482.3
of which:
Spouse or child of Japanese national 244.4 258.8 274.5 264.8
Spouse or child of permanent resident 6.8 6.5 6.3 6.2
Other 151.1 172.9 202.9 211.3
Foreign workers with permission of employment 88.0 98.3 107.3 119.0
Other (accompanying family, student, trainee, etc.) 245.5 252.6 266.2 284.0
Naturalisations 14.1 14.5 15.1 14.0
of which:
Korea 10.3 9.9 9.7 9.6
China 3.2 4.0 4.7 4.6
Foreign labour force (estimates)
5
610 630 660 670
Foreign residents with permission of employment by status of residence
6
Specialist in humanities or international services 25.1 27.4 29.9 31.3
Entertainer 16.0 20.1 22.2 28.9
Engineer 9.9 11.1 12.9 15.2
Skilled labour 7.4 8.8 9.6 10.0
Instructor 7.2 7.5 7.8 7.9
Intra-company transferee 5.9 5.9 6.4 6.6
Professor 4.1 4.6 5.1 5.4
Investor and business manager 4.6 5.0 5.0 5.1
Religious activities 5.3 5.0 5.0 4.9
Researcher 1.7 2.0 2.5 2.8
Journalist 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.4
Artist 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3
Medical services 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1
Legal and accounting services 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Total 88.0 98.3 107.3 119.0
Trainees and working holiday makers 6.6 8.6 12.1 19.6
Estimates of students engaged in part time jobs 32.4 30.1 32.2 38.0
Estimates of Japanese descents engaged in gainful activities
7
193.7 211.2 234.1 220.8
Illegal workers
8
280 280 280 270
Number of foreign nationals deported 55.5 54.3 49.6 48.5
216
OECD 2000
This overall increase is composed on the one hand of declines in the number of long-term residence per-
mit holders (by 6%, 13 000) and illegal workers (by 2.5%, 7 000) and on the other of increases in the numbers of
those classified under designated activities (by 60%, 7 500 the overwhelming majority of such people are
former general trainees who have been permitted to change their status of residence from trainee to technical
intern; their number is increasing rapidly: the 1998 figure of 13 000 was over twice that of 1997 which itself had
been almost equal to the total of the preceding four years), of entertainers (by 30%, nearly 6 700), of engineers
(by 18%, 2 400) and of students engaged in part-time jobs (by 17%, 5 500).
Trends in the employment of foreign workers
According to the most recently collated results of the reports requested by and voluntarily submitted to
the Reporting System on the Employment of Foreigners, established in 1993 by the Ministry of Labour, those
of June 1998, there had been no significant changes over the previous twelve months in the occupational dis-
tribution of foreign workers: 41% of those directly employed were in the service sector, 52% in manufacturing
and 5.5% in construction. In line with the trend observed among nationals, the proportion of foreign workers
engaged in subcontracted employment increased by 1% to just under 40%. This proportion has been rising
continually since 1994, the first year that data on them were compiled and when they accounted for just over
one quarter of the foreign workforce.
Japan has the one of the worlds fastest growing proportion of over 65 year olds. In a report issued in
July 1999 entitled Secure Diversity and Vitality by Accepting Foreign Workers, the Economic Planning Agency called
for the development of active policies to encourage the immigration of foreign workers in specialist and tech-
nical fields. This immigration would not however be permanent: the EPA proposes that the acceptance of for-
eign workers be subject to accurate and flexible adjustments [] reflecting Japans labour market conditions,
including a deterioration of the employment situation. In addition, the EPA also proposed that measures be
introduced in order to increase the number of international students and to facilitate their employment after
graduation. Regarding unskilled labour, the EPA was much more cautious, expressing concern over the need to
give due consideration to the effects on Japans socio-economy and the lives of its people.
With the aim of facilitating the entry of skilled foreign workers and the prolongation of their stay (at
present less than 25% remain in the country for more than three years), in October 1999, the minimum visa
duration for the various categories of skilled worker (with the exception of entertainers) was extended from 6
months to one year. For these skilled workers the maximum period of the initial renewable visa is now three
years (the initial duration had in some cases been just one year). In addition, the requirement that those
entering under the category of researcher have three years previous experience was removed from those pos-
sessing a masters degree. Further, the minimum salary requirement for specialists in humanities and interna-
tional services was revised from over 250 000 yen per month to no less than a Japanese national would
receive for the same work.
In the case of entertainers, the minimum period of their (in principle non-renewable) visa is now three
months (rather than thirty days); the maximum duration of their visa remains one year.
In response to the continued increase in illegal entries in 1998, the Immigration Act was further amended
in August 1999. The amendments, which came into force in February 2000, removed the statute of limitations
on the crime of illegal entry (previously, once they had been in the country for more than three years the only
penalty they faced was deportation), provided for their punishment by a fine of up to JPY 300 000 and/or up to
three years in prison and further stipulated that once deported they would not be allowed to re-enter the
country for five years (previously the period was one year).
Korea
217
OECD 2000
Korea
Introduction
Koreas recovery from its worst recession in post-war history has been much stronger than expected. Out-
put growth in 1999 has been estimated at over 10% and is expected to run at a more sustainable rate of around
6% in 2000. Against this background, unemployment declined steadily during 1999. Nevertheless, the
January 2000 figure of 5.3%, though a marked improvement on that of 12 months earlier was still over twice as
high as that prevailing prior to the crisis; this despite a sharp fall in the participation rate.
Prior to the economic crisis the importation and employment of foreign workers had, despite their small
scale, been a source of some controversy. Their political importance would appear to have diminished still fur-
ther in 1999. The social and political pressure to clamp down on illegal migrant workers and their employers,
which had become quite vociferous upon the outset of the crisis, would appear to have been assuaged by the
legislation and accompanying measures implemented in their regard in 1998, notably two amnesty operations
which allowed undocumented foreigners (the overwhelming majority of whom visa-overstayers) to leave the
country without having to pay immigration-related fines. As was indicated in last years report, these measures
did not have a significant impact on the underlying phenomenon. Registered foreign workers have clearly
played a buffer role: the number of skilled foreign workers, having fallen by a quarter during 1998, increased
by over 10% in 1999; following an almost 30% fall in 1998, the growth in the number of trainees in 1999 was such
as to bring their number over the pre-crisis figure.
The rate of growth in the number of foreign nationals, staying more than 90 days and registered as required
under the Emigration and Immigration Act, having remained low through to 1991 increased rapidly following
the 1992 normalisation of diplomatic relations with China. This normalisation led to substantial increases both in
the inflows from China of Chinese and of ethnic Koreans and in the number of trainees entering from other neigh-
bouring countries. These increases notwithstanding, at the end of 1997 they numbered only 177 000, less than
half of 1% of the total population. Following an over 16% fall in 1998, their number increased by 28% in 1999 to
just over 189 000. In line with the medium term trend of, on the one hand, the rising relative importance of the
Chinese community and, on the other, the otherwise increasing diversification in the range of origin countries,
just under one quarter of the increase in 1999 was due to the re-continuation of the rise in the number of persons
originating from China and a further two thirds was attributable increases in the numbers of those originating
from countries other than the six most important, in particular Vietnam and Bangladesh.
There are three types of migrant worker in Korea: the legally employed; de facto employees accepted
under the industrial and technical training program (ITTP); and the illegally employed. All categories com-
bined, they accounted prior to the crisis for less than 1% of the total workforce. The legal migrant workers, com-
prised essentially of professionals, teachers, technicians and entertainers, are all skilled. The use of workers-
cum-trainees is largely confined to areas of the manufacturing sector such as textiles, electronics, chemicals,
toys and musical instruments. Illegal workers are typically found in unskilled positions in the construction
sector and areas of the manufacturing and service sectors.
Although unemployment remains high in relation to the weak coverage of unemployment insurance and
the benefits that such coverage provides, the total stock of foreign workers, having declined by 30%
during 1998, increased by over one third in 1999 bringing the total up to over 90% of the pre-crisis figure. The
rebound has been most marked for trainees: an over 50% rise in 1999 brought their number up to over 98 000,
almost 10% more than the pre-crisis figure (see Table III.25). The number of illegal workers rose by over one
third during 1999 bringing their total to 135 000 at the end of the year, just over 90% of the pre-crisis figure. The
13% increase in the number of skilled workers present at the end of 1999 brought their number up to 12 600,

KOREA

218
OECD 2000
which is equivalent to 85% of the pre-crisis figure. That their numbers rose by a much lower degree than the
other categories in 1999 is attributable on the one hand to the lagged effect of the fall in foreign direct invest-
ment (FDI) recorded in 1998 and on the other to the existence of a relatively buoyant demand for cheap
labour to accomplish the more disagreeable and demanding tasks.
Table I II. 23.
Skilled foreign workers
Shortly before the onset of the crisis the government had revised the Immigration and Emigration Law to
abolish the ceiling on the period of stay granted to foreign skilled workers. It also simplified the administra-
tive procedures governing the issuing of their visas. The steady improvement in the Korean economy can
therefore be expected to lead to sustained growth in their numbers, particularly if such an improvement is
accompanied by increases in FDI inflows.
Trainees
Created in 1992, the initial purpose of Koreas Industrial and Technical Training Programme (the ITTP) was
to permit foreign workers employed by the overseas subsidiaries of Korean firms to come to Korea for up to
one year in order to upgrade their skills. Then, as now, unskilled foreign workers were not permitted to work in
Korea. Later, the programme was extended to medium and small size companies in the manufacturing sector
suffering from labour shortages; de facto, their trainees are workers. In this way, the training programme has
effectively become a programme of unskilled labour importation. The maximum period of stay has been
extended twice, in 1993 and in 1996, to bring it up to three years. In 1997, after a great deal of nation-wide debate
concerning the possible introduction of a work permit system, a revision was made to the ITTP allowing trainees
to be employed as legal workers upon completion of a certain period of training.
Approximately one third of the trainees admitted under the ITTP are recruited directly by the overseas sub-
sidiaries of Korean firms. Almost all of the other two thirds enter under the auspices of the Korea Federation of
Table III.25. Foreign workers in Korea by category, 1996-1999
Thousands
1. Most of the overstayers are supposed to work illegally.
Source: Ministry of Justice.
1996 1997 1998 1999
Skilled workers 13.4 14.7 11.1 12.6
Language teacher 7.5 7.6 4.9 . .
Other teacher 0.8 0.9 0.8 . .
Entertainer 1.0 1.4 1.1 . .
Researcher 0.5 0.7 0.6 . .
Technician 0.9 1.0 0.5 . .
Other professional 0.3 0.3 0.3 . .
Other 2.4 2.8 2.9 . .
Trainees by recruting agencies 68.0 90.4 64.2 98.4
Korean Federation of small businesses 46.5 61.9 43.3 67.0
Companies investing abroad 21.6 26.9 19.8 30.0
Other 1.6 1.1 1.4
Estimates of the number of overstayers
1
129.1 148.1 99.5 135.3
China 50.6 57.8 55.6 68.8
Bangladesh 9.6 9.0 7.5 10.9
Mongolia 3.5 7.6 5.6 10.6
Philippines 14.6 13.9 6.4 9.2
Vietnam 4.4 6.4 3.7 5.1
Pakistan 5.5 5.9 3.1 4.3
Sri Lanka 1.6 2.2 1.1 1.3
Other 39.3 45.2 16.6 25.1
Total (skilled workers, trainees and overstayers) 210.5 253.1 174.9 246.3
Korea
219
OECD 2000
Small Businesses (KFSB). Almost negligible numbers are admitted through the National Federation of Fisheries
Co-operatives (NFFC) which has been permitted to bring in trainees since 1997 and latterly the Korean Construc-
tion Association (KCA). Each of the three federations requires approval from its relevant Ministry for the firms it
selects to receive trainees and the numbers allocated to them. In 1999, for the first time various ministries and
government agencies themselves admitted small numbers of trainees.
Illegal workers
As wages increased and labour shortages became more severe from the early 1990s onwards, the employ-
ment of illegal migrant workers rapidly increased. The figures presented in Table III.25 and discussed below
are based on the assumption that all those and only those overstaying their visa are illegally employed; they
do not include those who work in violation of their visa status, for example, private sector language teachers
working on tourist visas. (In view of Koreas geopolitical situation and its uncommonly tight border control,
very few will have entered the country clandestinely.) In 1992 they accounted for almost three quarters of all
foreigners working in Korea. After rising to over 80% in 1993 the proportion then fell back in 1994 to just under
60%. The proportion has since remained remarkably stable reflecting, it would be reasonable to suppose, the
influence of the ITTP.
The number of visa overstayers has risen continually since the end of the second amnesty in August 1998.
That the amnesty operations effected in 1998 have had only a very short-term impact on the employment of
undocumented foreign workers is attributable on the one hand to the sustained demand for low-wage workers
prepared to perform the more disagreeable jobs and, on the other, to the difficulty in preventing visa holders
from overstaying. The amnesties have in fact merely served to offer a windfall gain to persons who in initially
deciding to overstay their visa would have assumed that they would be obliged to pay immigration-related
fines on leaving the country and would have added the expected value of the fine to the target level of savings
which they sought to accrue in the course of their stay.
The Emigration, Immigration and Legal Status of Overseas Ethnic Koreans Act
The Emigration and Immigration and Legal Status of Overseas Koreans Bill, referred to in last years
report, was enacted in January 2000. Under this draft law, persons defined as ethnic Korean are permitted to
stay in Korea for two years with a possibility of extension and are permitted to visit Korea any number of
times. They are permitted to take up employment and to engage in other economic activities such as acquir-
ing real estate. Those staying more than 90 days are eligible for medical insurance coverage. Finally, despite
not having Korean nationality, those taking up work as civil servants, teachers or soldiers are entitled to
receive a state pension.
For the purposes of this act, Overseas ethnic Koreans are defined as those who fall into one of the three
following categories:
Korean citizens residing abroad with the status of permanent resident, or who are deemed to be residing
abroad permanently.
Persons who held Korean citizenship, left the country after the Republic of Korea was formed in 1948
and lost their Korean nationality; the descendants of such people are also included in this category.
Korean nationals who left Korea before the Republic was formed and who either i) prior to obtaining the
nationality of a foreign country had their Korean origin expressly confirmed through registration or ii) are
able to produce two or more persons who are qualified under the Act to act as guarantors of their
Korean origin; the descendants of such people are also included in this category.
As defined, this categorisation presents an obstacle to ethnic Koreans in China and Russia whose ances-
tors left or were forced to leave Korea before and during the period of Japanese rule (1910-1945) as they will
have great difficulty in locating guarantors.
220
OECD 2000
Luxembourg
Introduction
Luxembourg, which has a total population of approximately 430 000, is enjoying a favourable economic
situation. GDP grew by 7.5% in 1999, which was two points higher than the annual average since 1985. Employ-
ment has increased and the unemployment rate has continued to decline, falling to 2.9% in 2000. The growth
in activity is partly due to the dynamism of cross-border and immigrant workers.
Since the beginning of the 1990s, Luxembourgs population has risen by an average of 5 600 per year,
composed of a natural increase of just over 1 000 and net migration of approximately 4 000.
Since 1990, the annual average inflow has been 10 000, as compared with 6 000 for outflows. In 1998, there
was a net migration gain of over 4 000 foreigners, and the provisional figures for 1999 point to a gain of approx-
imately 4 700. Although there is an upward trend in arrivals from non-EU countries (3 500 in 1998 as compared
with 2 800 in 1997), the majority of new immigrants are from Portugal, France and Belgium.
Until 1987, most asylum seekers came under quotas accepted by the Luxembourg Government as part of
international refugee resettlement programmes. Since 1989, the number of asylum seekers has risen substan-
tially, peaking in 1999 with slightly over 1 300 applications filed, mostly by nationals of the former Yugoslavia. The
influx of applicants from Kosovo resulted in the creation of a special temporary protection scheme for Albanians
living in this region. This measure was added to existing ones, such as that introduced in March 1992 which
provides for the granting of humanitarian status for refugees from other regions of the former Yugoslavia.
Numerical trends
In nearly ten years, the foreign population residing in Luxembourg has increased by over 40%, rising from
113 000 in 1991 to nearly 160 000 in 2000. At the same time, Luxembourgs resident population has grown by
only 1.8%, which implies that population growth is almost entirely due to migration inflows and children born
to foreign residents.
The number of foreigners from non-EU countries is increasing (nearly 13% of the foreign population in 1998,
as compared with less than 9% in 1991). Italians constituted the biggest group of foreigners until the late 1970s,
but the Portuguese have been the largest group since the early 1980s. There were 57 000 Portuguese residents
in 2000, followed by the Italians (20 000) and the French (19 000). However, the increase in the number of foreign-
ers over the past four years has largely been due to the arrival of nationals of the former Yugoslavia (see
Table III.26).
Table I II. 24.
Naturalisations
To acquire Luxembourg nationality, the applicant must be over 18 years of age and have resided in Lux-
embourg for at least ten years (without interruption for the past five years). There are some 50 000 people who
meet these conditions, yet the annual number of naturalisations remains low (700). There are two likely expla-
nations for this situation: firstly, 90% of the foreign resident population are EU nationals and, secondly, the fact
that Luxembourg does not allow dual citizenship may be an obstacle.

LUXEMBOURG

L
u
x
e
m
b
o
u
r
g

2
2
1

O
E
C
D

2
0
0
0
Table III.26. Current figures on the components of total population change, on flows and stocks of foreign population and labour force in Luxembourg
2. Children acquiring nationality as a consequence of the naturalisation of their parents are excluded.
3. Data cover arrivals of foreign workers to Luxembourg and foreign residents entering the labour market for the first time.
4. Annual average.
5. Salaried workers as of 31 March of each year.
Sources: STATEC; Inspection gnrale de la Scurit sociale (IGSS); Administration de lEmploi.
1995 1996 1997 1998 1995 1996 1997 1998
Components of total population change Inflows of foreign workers
3
16.5 18.3 18.6 19.4
Natural increase 1.6 1.8 1.6 1.5 of which: Women 5.9 6.7 6.4 6.8
of which: foreigners . . 1.9 1.9 2.0 Inflows by region or country of origin
Net migration 4.6 3.7 3.8 4.0 EU 15.5 17.2 17.7 18.5
of which: foreigners 4.7 3.7 3.6 . . of which:
Population (31 December) 412.8 418.3 423.7 429.2 France 6.7 8.1 8.6 8.6
of which: foreigners 138.1 142.8 147.7 152.9 Belgium 2.6 2.9 3.0 3.0
Germany 2.2 2.5 2.6 2.6
Migration flows by country of origin/destination Portugal 2.2 2.1 1.8 1.8
Inflows 10.3 10.0 10.4 11.6 Italy 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6
Portugal 2.4 2.0 1.9 2.0 Other countries 1.0 1.1 0.9 0.9
France 1.5 1.5 1.7 2.0 Inflows by major industry division
Belgium 0.9 1.1 1.2 1.2 Agriculture, forestry 0.2 0.2 0.1 . .
Germany 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.8 Extractive and manufacturing industries 1.3 1.3 1.6 . .
Other countries 4.9 4.7 4.9 5.6 Building 1.8 1.6 1.6 . .
Net migration 4.6 3.7 3.8 4.1 Trade, banks, insurances 7.4 9.3 10.1 . .
Portugal 1.2 0.7 0.6 0.6 Transport, communications 1.1 1.4 1.4 . .
France 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.9 Hotels 1.9 1.8 1.7 . .
Belgium 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.5 Personal services 0.3 0.1 0.2 . .
Germany 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 Other services 2.5 2.5 2.5 . .
Other countries 2.1 1.6 1.6 1.9 Inflows by status of residence
Resident workers 5.7 5.6 . . . .
Foreign population by main nationality
1
138.1 142.8 147.7 152.9 Cross-border workers 10.7 12.6 . . . .
Portugal 51.5 53.1 54.5 55.9
Italy 19.8 19.8 19.9 20.0 Stock of workers (excluding unemployed)
France 15.0 15.7 16.5 17.5 Total employment (including nationals)
4
213.5 219.5 226.5 228.4
Belgium 11.8 12.4 13.2 13.8 Breakdown by nationality (%)
5
Germany 9.7 9.9 10.0 10.3 Luxembourgers 44 44 41 40
Spain 2.8 2.8 2.9 . . Resident and cross-border foreigners 56 56 59 60
Stock of cross-border workers by nationality
4
55.5 59.6 64.4 70.8
Acquisition of nationality by country of former nationality
2
0.8 0.8 0.7 0.6 France (% of total cross-borders) 51.5 51.7 52.3 52.7
Italy 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 Belgium (% of total cross-borders) 30.5 30.0 29.5 28.9
France 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 Germany (% of total cross-borders) 18.0 18.3 18.2 18.4
Germany 0.1 0.1 0.1
Belgium 0.1 0.1 0.1 Job-seekers (national definition) 5.1 5.7 6.4 5.5
Other countries 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.2 of which: Foreigners (% of total job seekers) 54.3 57.7 57.9 59.4
% of total marriages
26.8 24.4 27.6 25.0
222
OECD 2000
Luxembourgs labour force was estimated at approximately 185 000 in 1999 (not including cross-border
workers). Labour market trends in recent years have been characterised by a continual decline in the share of
nationals in salaried employment (40% in 1998, as compared with 54% in 1990). Nationals of the European Eco-
nomic Area hold 57% of salaried jobs while the share of foreigners from non-EU countries is 3%. Cross-border
workers have benefited most from the favourable economic situation, and their relative share of overall
employment is higher than 30%. Attracted by high wage levels, the largest numbers of cross-border workers
come, in descending order of importance, from France, Belgium and Germany.
Foreign wage-earners are well represented in all economic sectors (excepting public administration): 32%
are employed in industry, 15% in both commerce and real estate and 12% in banking.
Between 1996 and 1999, numerous regulations and laws aimed at promoting the integration of foreigners
were adopted. Among the many legislative measures passed, the following are worthy of mention:
The Regulation of 21 February 1996 on the composition and functioning of the special commissions of
the National Council for Foreign Nationals. This body is responsible for combating all forms of racial dis-
crimination, making foreigners aware of their right to participate in future local elections and addressing
issues involving cross-border workers.
The Act of 22 April 1996 on the creation of a procedure for examining asylum applications. This supple-
mented three other acts adopted during the same year brought Luxembourgs asylum procedures into
line with developments in the field of human rights, EU practice and the Schengen Agreements.
The Regulation of 3 June 1996 on the conditions governing the entry and stay of certain categories of for-
eigners covered by international conventions.
The Regulation of 3 June 1996 on the composition, organisation and functioning of the Advisory
Commission on the Supervision of Foreign Nationals.
The Act of 19 July 1997 increasing the sanctions applicable for the offence of slander or libel motivated
by the victims membership of an ethnic group, nation, race or particular religion.
Two new bills are currently being examined. The first provides for temporary protection and the second
amends the procedures for applying for asylum. Lastly, a new bill concerning the possibility of EU nationals
applying for posts in the Luxembourg civil service was adopted on 17 May 1999.
Numerous initiatives concerning the integration of children of foreign origin in Luxembourg schools have
also been adopted. They are based on common education, trilingual teaching (Luxembourg, French and
German) and equal opportunities, whatever the origin of the children and the language constraints involved.
In 1998, the Ministry of National Education presented a report entitled; Integrated schools: situation, ques-
tions and prospects, which examines ways of promoting the schooling of foreign children. Similarly, education
forums have been set up in order to try to reach a consensus on the future objectives of Luxembourg schools,
focusing on three main aspects (cultural, educational and economic) and on the resources required. This
report is to be discussed in Parliament. The Ministry also proposed, in a Ministerial Circular of May 1998, that
a mandatory early education project be implemented in communes as from 2001.
Mexico
223
OECD 2000
Mexico
Introduction
For the past three years, Mexicos economic performance has been improving. Real GDP growth, initially
stimulated by increased exports and subsequently sustained by increased gross fixed capital formation and
private consumption, has averaged over 5% per year. The economic recovery has led to considerable employ-
ment growth, albeit after a lag. In spite of this encouraging performance, fiscal policy is still tight owing to low
oil prices and a deteriorating current account balance. This adjustment implies cuts in spending,
i.e. postponing expenditure with potential economic and social benefits. Progress has been made in the area
of social security with the introduction of a funded pension scheme and a decrease in employees contribu-
tions to compulsory health insurance. Due to these reforms, interaction between social policy and the labour
market may make employment in the formal sector more attractive, although hardly any modernisation of
institutional labour market structures was achieved in 1998 and there is still a large informal economy.
Mexicos National Institute of Immigration highlights the fact that total inflows for the first seven months
of 1999 were up 5.8% on the same period in 1998. Mexico is not traditionally an immigration country, but
inflows (including movements of tourists and temporary visitors) have been increasing steadily since the mid-
1990s, with a 20% increase every year since 1995. Taking only foreigners with or about to receive permits, plus
political refugees, inflows are now approaching the 74 000 mark compared with 72 000 for outflows, in other
words a migration gain of 2 000. Some 65% of all foreigners want to remain in the country and 35% have perma-
nent resident status. The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) accounted for a net inflow of 68 000
in 1998. There is a special form (FMN) for North American professionals undertaking business trips to Mexico.
They are mainly United States nationals, comprised largely of business people, scientific specialists and
intra-corporate staff transfers.
Emigration
The border zone with the United States is probably one of the busiest in the world, owing to the strong
attraction of the United States (a destination chosen by 99% of Mexican migrants) (see Table III.27). Officially,
some 1 million Mexicans left the country in 1998, but the true figure is hard to evaluate as little information is
avai lable on the number of undocumented emigrants. In 1998, the US authoriti es expel led over
760 000 Mexicans. A study carried out for the Zapata Canyon Project
1
reveals that the great majority of the peo-
ple escorted back across the border attempt to cross it again within 24 hours of their return to Mexico, and 75%
within the next few months. Half of them are caught within three days of entry. A typical Mexican wishing to
emigrate to the United States is male (in 96% of cases), over 25 years of age, educated to no more than sec-
ondary level and resident in an urban area. Over 60% of the Mexicans interviewed had already worked in the
United States (see Table III.28).
Another debate has been emerging in recent years. Might the issue of national sovereignty on migration
policy clash with the right of free movement and with human rights? Between 1994 and 1999, some
450 Mexicans lost their lives trying to cross the US border illegally. The US Operation Gate Keeper has been sin-
gled out by Amnesty International and local NGOs as being responsible for most of the deaths. This is because
potential illegal immigrants are obliged to take greater risks at every attempt to enter the US, finding increas-
ingly more remote and dangerous entry routes. The hunt for undocumented immigrants, undertaken in
May 2000 by American ranchers near the border, has increased the need for constructive dialogue and closer
co-operation between the two countries.
Tabl e III. 25.
Tabl e III. 26.

MEXICO

224
OECD 2000
Table III.27. Mexican emigration to the United States,
1911-1998
1
Thousands
1. Data refer to grants of permanent residence in the United States. Data
refer to fiscal year (October to September of the given year).
Source: US Department of Justice, 1997 Statistical Yearbook of the Immigra-
tion and Naturalization Service.
Period Numbers
of which: Immigrants who had benefited
from the 1986 Immigration Reform
and Control Act (IRCA)
1911-20 219.0
1921-30 459.3
1931-40 22.3
1941-50 60.6
1951-60 299.8
1961-70 453.9
1971-80 640.3
1981-90 1 655.8 962.7
1991-98 1 800.7 1 047.9
1989 405.7 339.2
1990 680.2 623.5
1991 947.9 894.9
1992 214.1 122.5
1993 126.6 17.5
1994 111.4 4.4
1995 90.0 3.0
1996 163.7 3.6
1997 146.9 2.0
1998 131.6 . .
Table III.28. Socio-economic characteristics of undocumented Mexican immigrants to the United States, 1990, 1996-1999
Percentages
Source: Project Zapata Canyon. Survey of flows of undocumented Mexican immigrants as they cross the border with the United States, El Colegio de la
Frontera Norte.
1990 1996 1997 1998 1999
Sex
Men 86.1 94.6 97.4 95.5 96.2
Women 13.9 5.4 2.6 4.5 3.8
Age
Less than 20 17.8 9.0 9.0 8.3 7.0
20 to 24 32.4 26.6 22.8 21.7 22.8
25 to 29 28.0 34.5 32.6 31.0 31.0
30 and more 21.8 29.8 35.6 39.1 39.2
Level of education
Less than elementary 23.6 17.6 11.2 15.4 25.2
Elementary 34.5 42.7 45.9 44.1 39.2
Secondary 31.2 34.1 37.6 34.0 28.3
More than secondary 10.6 5.6 6.2 6.4 7.1
No answer 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1
Characteristics of last job in Mexico
Farm work 28.3 37.4 35.6 37.1 36.4
Job in a city 54.0 58.0 60.7 58.5 59.1
Unemployed 17.1 4.5 3.6 4.2 4.3
No answer 0.6 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2
Have you already had a job in the United States?
Yes 44.2 49.3 46.0 46.0 57.3
No 55.4 50.7 53.9 53.8 42.6
No answer 0.4 0.1 0.2
Netherlands
225
OECD 2000
Illegal immigration
For many years now illegal immigrants have been entering Mexico from other Central American countries.
In 1998, over 100 000 people were escorted back to their country of origin. They were mainly from Guatemala,
Honduras (particularly in the wake of Hurricane Mitch) and El Salvador. Little information is available on the
true number of illegal immigrants in Mexico. One estimate puts the number of undocumented Guatemalan
nationals at between 150 000 and 200 000. An agreement was signed between Guatemala and Mexico in 1999
to legalise the status of a number of these immigrants. It supplements the 1996 amendments to the General
Population Law granting the status of assimilated immigrant and authorising Guatemalans to settle and take
up employment in the country.
A Regional Conference on Migration was initiated by Mexico in 1996. The first meeting was held in Puebla
(Puebla Process). An advisory rather than decision-making forum, its members have agreed to recognise that
migration is beneficial to the area, and to promote the rights of immigrants, regardless of their status, as set
out in the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Recognised by the United Nations, the Conferences
recommendations concern migration policy, linkages between migration and development, combating illegal
immigration, technical co-operation, international co-operation on the integration of repatriated migrants, and
the respect of foreigners rights. The Conference holds an annual meeting, together with numerous seminars
and working parties attended by the eleven countries of Central and North America, in co-operation with
international institutions such as the UNHCR, the IOM and NGOs. The Puebla Process reflects a genuine deter-
mination to gain more insight into the many facets of migration, which countries view as beneficial because of
its potential to correct asymmetries between them (particularly regarding the labour market and economic
growth). In this respect, co -operation is a vital means of safeguarding not only national sovereignty in the
international arena but immigrants rights as well. The Fourth Regional Conference took place in January 1999
in El Salvador and confirmed the major contribution that migration has made to development.
Net herlands
Introduction
In 1999, GDP growth exceeded 3% for the fourth consecutive year. Although business services continue to
account for much of the countrys growth, the year was marked by a recovery in manufacturing.
In a general ly good economic cl imate, the labour market si tuati on continued to improve. In
September 1999, there were 206 000 job seekers, just 3% of the labour force. Over the past year, the decline in
unemployment has been even sharper, from 3.6% to 2.8% between the first and last quarters. For the last
five years, the number of people out of work has been falling systematically year on year.
In 1998, a total of 122 400 people migrated to the Netherlands, a peak not reached for 20 years. In the first
six months of 1999, the upward trend was confirmed with 53 000 entries (as against 52 000 in 1998 over the same
period). Official migration statistics, based on population register data adjusted to make fuller allowance for
departures of foreigners, show a net migration gain of 43 200, up 55.4% on 1997 (and 211% on 1995) (see Chart III.11).
Chart III .8.
In 1997, for the first time, movements by Dutch nationals were the leading feature of migration trends.
This occurred again in 1998, with an increase of around 23% in the return of nationals (1997: 33 100, 1998:

NETHERLANDS

226
OECD 2000
40 700), whereas the number of foreigners entering the country rose by only 6.5%. In 1998, for the first time in
ten years, the migration balance for Dutch nationals was positive (+1 531) (see Table III.29).
Table I II. 27.
By and large, variations in the flows of Dutch nationals can again be put down to a decline in emigration to
other parts of the European Union (1997: 6 470, 1998: 5 125) and an increase in arrivals of Dutch nationals from
the Netherlands Antilles (1997: 2 540, 1998: 6 400).
After a fall in total entries in 1994 and 1995, there is evidence of an upturn in foreign immigration
since 1996. In 1998, the rise was sharper, bringing total entries to 81 700. Over the same period, emigration
90
75
60
45
30
15
0
90
75
60
45
30
15
0
1980
90
60
30
0
-30
-60
-90
98 98 96 95 94 93 92 91 90 89 88 87 1986 97 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96
1980 98 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96
1. Data are taken from population registers, which include asylum seekers
living in private households.
2. The data include net administrative corrections.
3. A request heard is a request on which a decision is made in the given
year without regard to the year in which the request was filed. Requests
granted refer to applications for asylum in the given or in the previous
year. They include persons who are granted refugee status and persons
who receive a temporary residence permit on humanitarian grounds.
4. Figures have not been adjusted to include net administrative corrections.
Sources: Central Bureau of Statistics; Ministry of Justice.
Chart III.11. Migration flows and components of foreign population change,
1980-1998, Netherlands
Thousands
A. Migration flows
1
Total net migration
Immigration of nationals
Immigration of foreigners
Net migration, adjusted figures
2
Emigration of nationals
Emigration of foreigners
B. Flows of asylum seekers
Requests and grants
3
Total grants of asylum
New requests for asylum Total requests
for asylum heard
C. Components of foreign population change
Statistical adjustment
Net migration
4
Total change
Naturalisation
Natural increase
90
75
60
45
30
15
0
90
75
60
45
30
15
0
1980
90
60
30
0
-30
-60
-90
98 98 96 95 94 93 92 91 90 89 88 87 1986 97 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96
1980 98 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96
Thousands
A. Migration flows
1
Total net migration
2
Requests and grants
3
for asylum heard
Net migration
4
Total change
Naturalisation
Natural increase
90
75
60
45
30
15
0
90
75
60
45
30
15
0
1980
90
60
30
0
-30
-60
-90
98 98 96 95 94 93 92 91 90 89 88 87 1986 97 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96
1980 98 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96
Thousands
A. Migration flows
1
Total net migration
2
Requests and grants
3
for asylum heard
Net migration
4
Total change
Naturalisation
Natural increase
Netherlands
227
OECD 2000
remained relatively stable: in 1998, 21 300 foreigners officially left the Netherlands, 700 fewer than in the
previous year, giving a migration gain for foreigners of around 60 000.
A detailed country breakdown of the flows gives a better picture of these trends. It shows a clear stabilisa-
tion of the migration surplus with the European Union, a marked decrease with regard to Turkey but an
increase in the surplus with Morocco.
Table III.29. Current figures on flows and stocks of total population and labour force in the Netherlands
1. Data are taken from population registers, which include some asylum seekers.
2. The administrative corrections account for unreported entries and departures on the population register.
3. Data are from population registers and refer to the population on 31 December of the years indicated. Figures include administrative corrections.
4. Estimates are for 31 March and include cross-border workers, but exclude the self-employed and family workers.
5. The percentage of those in the labour force out of the total working population based on Labour Force Survey data.
6. Unemployment rates based on registered unemployment figures.
Source: Central Bureau of Statistics; Ministry of Justice; Labour Force Survey.
1995 1996 1997 1998 1995 1996 1997 1998
Migration flows
1
Total population New requests for asylum 29.3 22.9 34.4 45.2
Inflows 96.1 108.7 109.9 122.4 Total requests for asylum heard 50.8 75.3 . . 38.9
Outflows 63.3 65.3 62.2 60.4 Total grants of asylum 18.5 23.6 17.0 15.1
Net migration 32.8 43.4 47.6 62.0 Expulsions 40.0 51.5 62.0 55.7
Net administrative corrections
2
18.0 22.0 17.0 19.0 of which: asylum seekers 14.5 16.5 18.9 14.3
Adjusted total net migration figures 15.0 21.0 31.0 43.0
Dutch nationals Labour force
Inflows 29.1 31.6 33.1 40.7 Total foreign employment
4
221 218 208 . .
Outflows 41.6 42.9 40.3 39.2 % of total foreign population 30.5 32.1 30.7 . .
Net migration 12.5 11.3 7.2 1.5
Foreigners Dutch nationals born in the Netherlands
Inflows 67.0 77.2 76.7 81.7 Working age population 9 391 9 406 9 433 9 443
Outflows 21.7 22.4 21.9 21.3 Labour Force 5 986 6 061 6 192 6 294
Net migration 45.3 54.8 54.8 60.4 Employment 5 574 5 678 5 857 6 029
of which: Unemployment 412 383 335 265
European Union 6.0 8.6 10.3 10.9
Former Yugoslavia 7.1 3.0 1.2 1.0 Dutch nationals born abroad and foreigners
Turkey 3.5 4.9 5.4 4.8 Working age population 1 107 1 124 1 130 1 160
Morocco 1.9 3.2 3.7 4.5 Labour Force 610 620 646 663
Surinam 1.4 2.4 2.3 3.0 Employment 489 509 543 579
Unemployment 122 111 103 84
Stock of population
3
Total population 15 493.9 15 567.1 15 654.2 15 760.2 Participation rates (%)
5
Total foreign population 725.4 679.9 678.1 662.4 Dutch nationals born in the Netherlands 64 64 66 67
of which: Dutch nationals born abroad and foreigners 55 55 57 57
Morocco 149.8 138.7 135.7 128.6 of which:
Turkey 154.3 127.0 114.7 102.0 Turkey 44 44 45 44
Germany 53.9 53.5 53.9 54.1 Morocco 42 42 44 46
United Kingdom 41.1 39.3 39.2 38.8 Other Mediterranean countries 59 54 56 58
Former Yugoslavia 33.5 32.8 28.4 22.3 Other European countries 62 64 65 63
Total foreign-born population 1 407.1 1 433.6 1 469.0 1 513.9 Surinam 63 63 65 70
of which: Netherlands Antilles/Aruba 58 63 57 59
Surinam 181.0 181.6 182.2 184.2 Indonesia/Former Dutch Indies 58 54 60 59
Turkey 167.5 169.3 172.7 175.5 Other 51 53 56 53
Indonesia 177.7 174.8 172.1 170.3
Morocco 140.7 142.7 145.8 149.6 Unemployment rates (%)
6
Germany 130.1 128.0 126.8 125.5 Dutch nationals born in the Netherlands 5.8 5.4 4.0 3.0
Dutch nationals born abroad and foreigners 19 19 16 12
Naturalisations of which:
Total 71.4 82.7 59.8 59.2 Turkey 41 36 31 28
of which: Morocco 27 25 24 20
Turkey 33.1 30.7 21.2 13.5 Other Mediterranean countries 19 21 20 14
Morocco 13.5 15.6 10.5 11.3 Other European countries 8 7 7 5
Former Yugoslavia 1.4 1.8 2.9 6.7 Surinam 15 16 13 9
Surinam 4.0 4.4 3.0 3.0 Netherlands Antilles/Aruba 28 28 24 17
European Union 2.4 3.5 2.9 2.4 Indonesia/Former Dutch Indies 8 9 7 4
Naturalisation rate (%) 9.4 11.4 8.8 8.7 Other
28 25 22 17
228
OECD 2000
The number of asylum seekers rose again in 1998, with 45 000 applications filed. However, the increase
from 1997 to 1998 (31%) was less marked than during the previous period (a rise of 50.7% from 1996 to 1997).
During the first six months of 1999, the number of applications levelled out (21 000) (see Chart III.11).
It should be noted that only a fraction of all asylum applications were accepted and that the figures above
do not fully reflect real flow trends. In 1998, there was actually a decrease in the total number of new refugees.
Viewed in greater depth, there was a decline in almost every refugee category except that of temporary
refugees on humanitarian grounds, which nearly doubled between 1997 (5 182) and 1998 (9 152).
In percentage terms, the greatest rise was recorded in the number of asylum applicants from Sudan
between 1997 (680) and 1998 (1 875), but in absolute terms it was in those from the former Yugoslavia (1997:
3 800, 1998: 8 330). However, the number of asylum applications from nationals of Iraq fell slightly, accounting
for only 18% of the 1998 total compared with 28% in 1997.
In 1998, 28 000 applications were turned down and the authorities proceeded with 14 300 expulsions.
Numerical trends
Over the last five years, there has been a substantial fall in the foreign population residing in the
Netherlands, from 779 800 on 1 January 1993 to 662 400 on 1 January 1999. This is largely attributable to natu-
ralisations (see below), which more than offset the migration gain and the natural increase in the foreign popu-
lation (9 300 in 1998). In the case of the Netherlands, it is worth emphasising that in 1998 the birth rate of the
foreign population (1.57) was for the first time lower than the national average (1.63). This stems from the
way naturalisations are counted but also from an adjustment in the birth rate in the Turkish and Moroccan
communities (see Chart III.12).
Chart I II.9.
Moroccans and Turks account for over 25% of all foreigners living in the Netherlands. European Union
nationals, whose share has been steadily growing over the past few years, now account for 29% of the total (as
against 25.5% in 1994).
5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Chart III.12. Fertility rates according to the nationality
of the mother, 1990-1998, Netherlands
Per 1 000 women
National
Source: Statistics Netherlands.
Surinam
Turkey Morocco
Total (foreigners)
5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Per 1 000 women
National
Surinam
Turkey Morocco
Total (foreigners)
5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Per 1 000 women
National
Surinam
Turkey Morocco
Total (foreigners)
Netherlands
229
OECD 2000
In 1998, 9.6% of the total population of the Netherlands were foreign-born. The largest groups were from
Surinam (184 000), Turkey (175 000) and Indonesia (170 000). 149 000 people were born in Morocco and around
126 000 in Germany.
Naturalisation
Some 59 200 foreigners were naturalised in 1998. After some very sharp increases, the number of naturali-
sations is now showing signs of flattening out. However, the Netherlands still has a high naturalisation rate
(8.7% of the foreign population), particularly when compared with other European countries. Since the early
1990s, but more specifically since 1992 when dual nationality was officially recognised, there has been a
marked increase in naturalisations (see Table III.29). In October 1997, new legislation considerably tightened
the criteria for obtaining dual nationality but it has had a fairly limited impact, owing to i) the stock effect, but
also ii) the wide scope for dispensations. However, it is still too early to pass judgement on the effects of the
1997 changes.
Mixed marriages
The number of marriages between Dutch nationals and foreigners (1998: 12 330) has increased since 1997
(11 115). They involved slightly more Dutch men (7 180) than women (5 150).
Mixed marriages may in fact involve a significant proportion of people from the same ethnic group. This is
becoming more and more likely with the increase in naturalisation.
In 1998, as in 1997, there was an increase in migration for employment. More specifically, work-permit
applications from non-EU nationals increased significantly (1996: 11 400, 1997: 12 500, 1998: 19 800). However,
only 15 200 permits were actually granted (11 100 in 1997). These upward trends have been confirmed during
the first three quarters of 1999, with a total of 15 500 permits already issued. On the other hand, the immigration
flow of EU nationals has been fairly stable this year (see above).
In terms of employment, the Netherlands is in a particularly favourable situation compared with the rest
of the European Union, with unemployment close to its frictional level (3% in 1998). However, greater use of
immigrant labour to relieve labour-market tension is being impeded by the mismatch between employer require-
ments and foreign-labour skill profiles. To some extent, this explains the wide employment/unemployment
disparities between the native-born and other sections of the population (see Table III.29).
In particular, employment surveys show that the foreign and foreign-born population is clearly more
exposed to unemployment, with 12% out of work in 1998. Within that same group there are even greater dis-
parities, two possible factors being length of stay and differences in status. Only 4% of Indonesians and 5% of
EU nationals are out of work, for instance, whereas unemployment affects 28% of Turks, 20% of Moroccans and
17% of Surinamese. However, these figures should not mask improvements in labour market access. Back in
1995, for instance, 41% and 28% of the immigrants from Turkey and Morocco, respectively, were unemployed.
The foreign and foreign-born population also has a lower participation rate than the native-born Dutch
(57% compared with 67%) (see Table III.30). However, disparities between the two communities are less
marked than they were, and to some extent reflect the gender mix (in 1998, Turkey: 44%, Morocco: 46%,
Surinam: 70%, Indonesia: 59%).
230
OECD 2000
The principal developments over the past few years include recognition of dual nationality (1991), revi-
sion of the Aliens Act (1992), new rules for family reunion (1993), a new Act regulating the employment of
foreigners (1995) and a revision of the recognition of dual nationality (1997).
More recently, the main initiatives relate to the revision of measures to encourage voluntary return of
immigrants, the development of measures to combat illegal immigration and the adaptation of certain aspects
of asylum legislation. Several reports have also been published on integration policies.
Table III.30. Net participation rate, Netherlands, 1994 and 1998
Percentage of the population aged 15-64 (excluding schoolchildren)
Source: SPVA survey on social position and take-up of facilities by ethnic and indigeneous persons, 1998, Ministry of Social Affairs and Employment.
Turkey Morocco Surinam Antilleans/Arubans Nationals
A. Net participation rate by sex and ethnic origin (1994 and 1998)
Men 1994 49 41 60 63 78
Women 1994 18 12 45 46 53
Men 1998 57 52 74 76 82
Women 1998 22 17 58 49 54
B. Net participation rate of women by level of education and ethnic origin, 1998
No completed education 12 5 27 15 ..
Primary education 17 15 38 25 29
Lower secondary 34 39 58 50 40
Upper secondary 48 60 70 68 64
Pre-university/University 44 45 84 77 78
Box III.6. Labour-market participation of foreign or foreign-born women in the Netherlands
In line with the usual pattern, labour-market access varies substantially with gender in the Netherlands:
in 1998 the net participation rate was 49% for women compared with 75% for men.
The differences are even more marked when population groups are broken down by ethnic origin. For
instance, only 17% of Moroccan women were in or seeking work in that year, compared with 52% for Moroccan
men. Conversely, the net participation rate for Surinamese women was higher than for native-born Dutch women
(58% and 54%, respectively) and relatively close to the rate for men (74%).
As labour-market access improves for immigrants, women are benefiting relatively less than men, since the
gender gap widened from 1994 to 1998 for every community, including Dutch-born nationals.
From a broader point of view, it is worth noting that the female participation rate increases with length of stay and
decreases with age of entry to the Netherlands. However, the net participation rate for Dutch-born women of Moroccan
or Turkish origin (respectively 35% and 40%) is still markedly lower than for native-born Dutch women (54%).
With regard to female participation, family structure and more specifically the presence or absence of very
young children is still a decisive factor. Among mothers of children under the age of four, 16% of Turks, 13% of
Moroccans, 56% of Surinamese, 31% of Antilleans and 53% of Dutch-born nationals participate in the labour
market; without children the figures rise to 41%, 43%, 70%, 67% and 86%, respectively.
Finally, education also appears to be conducive to labour market access, regardless of origin. The difference is
particularly noticeable, however, among Moroccan women, with 5% participating in the labour market if uneducated
but 60% if educated to higher secondary level.
Netherlands
231
OECD 2000
A new Aliens Act
A new Aliens Act is currently before the Dutch Parliament for revision. It is largely aimed at improving the
prevailing legislation with regard to applications for asylum and ordinary residence permits:
Simplifying and shortening the processing of asylum applications by a) replacing the objection proce-
dure with a faster hearing, and combining it with an investigation procedure; b) imposing a maximum
six-month period for examining applications; c) revising grounds for refusal and d) strengthening the
coercive powers associated with checks and expulsions. The legislation also abolishes the fees for
asylum applications.
Revising the ordinary procedure. In this case, the objection procedure is maintained but the initial
investigation must be completed within six months of the application being filed. From now on, only
foreign nationals with a temporary stay permit may submit their initial application for a residence
permit. They must also be able to prove they have sufficient resources to support themselves.
Measures to encourage voluntary return
A new Act on the return of immigrants to their country of origin came into force on 15 June 1999. The previ-
ous legislation was aimed at facilitating the voluntary return of refugees and non-Dutch immigrants from Medi-
terranean countries. The new Act offers the long-term unemployed over 45 years of age a monthly allowance if
they return to their country of origin. Other improvements concern a) a supplementary medical insurance
scheme; b) payment of individual allowances following divorce; c) financial arrangements for orphans until they
reach their majority; d) a special visa to facilitate visits to family members remaining in the Netherlands;
e) index-linked monthly allowances; f) optional return to the Netherlands in the year following initial voluntary
return to the country of origin; g) the inclusion of EU nationals from former source countries (Greece, Italy,
Spain, Portugal); and h) introduction of a special arrangement for the disabled who did not apply for an
allowance under the previous system.
Measures to combat illegal immigration
In 1998, as in previous years, new measures were introduced to combat illegal immigration and people
smuggling. The Centre for Information and Studies on Human Trafficking began operating in co-operation with
the police and the immigration and naturalisation services.
For several years now, between 9 000 and 10 000 people have been turned back each year at Schiphol air-
port due to lacking proper documentation, or on other grounds. In 1998, they were mainly from, in decreasing
order of importance, Afghanistan, Iraq, Ecuador, Nigeria and Sri Lanka. Pre-boarding checks on supposedly
high-risk flights are still routinely carried out. In 1998, Karachi was added to the sensitive list.
New legislation on asylum seekers and refugees
A new law concerning people without identity papers came into force on 1 February 1999. Under the Act,
asylum applications from people without papers who cannot justify their loss will not be accepted.
Given the high number of asylum seekers from Afghanistan and Iraq, information bureaux were set up in
both countries in 1998. Special units have also been set up to deal exclusively with applications from nationals
of these countries.
In 1998, the special measures (VVTV policy) enabling asylum seekers from specific countries to obtain a
temporary stay permit were withdrawn. This concerned people from Liberia, northern Sudan, certain Somalis,
Sri Lankan Tamils, Iraqis and Afghans arriving via Pakistan. The aim was to reduce the number of asylum
applications in 1999.
The arrival of a growing number of very young asylum seekers is becoming a major issue. In 1998,
3 504 minors arrived in the Netherlands, an increase of 32% on 1997.
232
OECD 2000
Integration policy reports
Several reports were published in 1999 on various aspects of Dutch policy on migration and integration.
In March, for instance, a report was published taking stock of official integration policy in view of the edu-
cation options introduced between 1989 and 1998 (i.e. Dutch being considered a second language), and
numerous other measures implemented in 1996 and 1997. The report highlighted the uncertainty surrounding
integration policy outcomes which, it said, stemmed largely from the lack of clearly defined policy goals.
A second report was published in June 1999 on the prevention of illegal labour. It highlighted the lack of rel-
evant information and hence insufficient knowledge, even within the Ministry of Social Affairs and Employment,
about supply and demand for illegal labour, its economic importance and its impact on the labour market.
A third report, also published in June 1999, addressed the issue of asylum seekers returning home once
their application had been turned down. This too stressed the ineffectiveness of the measures put in place.
The Ministry of Social Affairs and Employment and the Employment Service also commissioned a research
group to assess the impact of the Employment of Foreigners Act. The study highlighted the restrictive nature of
the Act and its usefulness in terms of labour market flexibility, particularly for tackling bottlenecks in labour sup-
ply. However, since the Employment of Foreigners Act does not apply to all categories of immigration (e.g. family
reunion and refugees), in practice it can be viewed as playing only a limited coercive role.
Norway
Introduction
Between 1991 and 1997, the Norwegian economy experienced uninterrupted growth. This continued
in 1998, at a more moderate pace, with GDP (excluding oil production) rising by some 3.3%. Throughout the
period, economic expansion has stimulated employment growth. Since 1993 the labour force has increased by
almost 9%, while unemployment has fallen by half, to 2.2% in 1998.
Against this favourable economic background, the migration balance reached its highest point since the
start of the decade with 13 800 net entries in 1998. In the short term it seems that the Norwegian Government
intends to continue to relax immigration rules, in particular with regard to asylum seekers, refugees and
temporary workers.
In 1998, 22 900 people, including 10 900 nationals, emigrated from Norway, an increase of some 7.6% over
the previous year. Given the overall population of some 4.45 million, the emigration rate was 0.5% in 1998, the
highest observed since the late 1980s (see Table III.31).
Table I II. 28.
While around a fifth of Norwegian emigrants moved to another Scandinavian country, the proportion is
over twice as much for foreigners (44.6%). That reflects significantly greater mobility of foreigners within the
Nordic area. Between 1990 and 1997, only one foreign emigrant in three moved elsewhere in the area.
In the last two years, immigration to Norway has been sharply stimulated by the performance of its econ-
omy and labour market dynamism. A total of 36 700 people entered in 1998, an increase of 14.9% on the
previous year and 39% on that of 1996.

NORWAY

Norway
233
OECD 2000
These trends essentially reflect movements of foreigners. In 1998, 26 800 foreigners immigrated to Norway
while 12 000 emigrated, giving a migration balance for the foreign population of approximately 14 800.
In 1998, over a third of immigrants were nationals of Nordic countries, in particular Sweden (7 930), though
there were also 3 030 Danish nationals and 1 360 Finns. But only Swedish immigration makes a significant con-
tribution to the migration balance (+3 300). Approximately 11 000 other European nationals entered Norway,
while only 8% of immigrants were from Africa and 17% from Asia; these figures are relatively low compared with
those for other OECD countries. In comparison with 1997, there has in fact been a slight fall in the contribution
of non-OECD countries to total immigration.
Asylum seekers
Refugees and asylum seekers form one of the main categories of immigrants, and contribute substantially
to annual changes in the migration balance (though 1997 was a significant exception here) (see Table III.31).
In 1998, asylum claimants clearly predominated in migration trends, with a total of 8 730 applications (as com-
pared with 2 270 in 1997). The sudden and radical increase is explained by an inflow of Serbs from Croatia
(2 420), Albanians from Kosovo (1 620), Iraqis (1 300) and Somalis (940). The trend continued during the first
two quarters of 1999, with 4 450 people applying to the Norwegian authorities for asylum, including
2 160 Iraqis.
At the same time, only a small number of asylum claimants are accepted. In 1998, just 80 people obtained
refugee status in the strict sense, while a further 1 810 were accepted on humanitarian grounds (this latter
more than twice the combined figure for the two previous years).
Under a refugee resettlement programme, a further quota of 1 500 people may be accepted each year.
In 1998, some 1 120 refugees were accepted under the programme, chiefly Iranians and Iraqis.
Table III.31. Current figures on flows and stocks of foreign population, Norway
1. Data on 31 December of the years indicated, taken from population registers.
2. Excluding Bosnia Herzegovina and Croatia.
Source: Statistics Norway; Directorate of Immigration.
1995 1996 1997 1998 1995 1996 1997 1998
Total population
1
4 370.0 4 392.7 4 417.6 4 445.4 Asylum seekers by nationality 1.5 1.8 2.3 7.7
% of foreigners 3.7 3.6 3.6 3.7 Croatia 0.1 2.4
Former Yugoslavia
2
0.1 0.1 0.3 1.6
Migration flows by group of nationality Iraq 0.1 0.1 0.3 1.3
Inflows 25.7 26.4 32.0 36.8 Somalia 0.2 0.2 0.6 0.9
Nationals 9.2 9.2 9.9 10.0
Foreigners 16.5 17.2 22.0 26.8 Foreign population by region 160.8 157.5 158.0 165.1
of which: Europe 93.2 95.9 100.9 108.2
Nordic countries 4.8 5.8 8.6 10.4 Asia 39.5 34.9 31.5 31.1
EU (12 members) 3.9 4.2 4.8 5.8 Africa 10.7 10.0 9.7 10.1
North America 10.7 10.6 10.4 10.5
Outflows 19.3 20.6 21.3 22.9 South America 5.1 4.6 4.2 4.1
Nationals 10.3 10.6 11.2 10.9 Other 1.6 1.6 1.2 1.1
Foreigners 9.0 10.0 10.0 12.0
of which: Acquisition of nationality,
Nordic countries 3.4 3.4 3.9 5.4 by previous nationality 11.8 12.2 12.0 9.2
EU (12 members) 3.6 2.1 3.4 3.5 Pakistan 1.0 1.5 1.6 1.1
Vietnam 0.7 1.4 1.3 0.8
Net migration 6.4 5.8 10.7 13.9 Turkey 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.7
Nationals 1.1 1.3 1.3 0.9
Foreigners 7.5 7.2 12.0 14.8 Mixed marriages 2.9 3.2 3.0 4.1
of which: % of total marriages 13.6 13.8 12.4 17.5
Nordic countries 1.4 2.5 4.7 5.0
EU (12 members) 0.3 2.1 1.4 2.4
234
OECD 2000
The Norwegian authorities, in conjunction with the UNHCR, have also established a system of collective
protection for particular emergency cases. This has been applied on two occasions between 1993 and 1998, for
Bosnians (13 000 people over this period) and in 1999 for Kosovars (nearly 8 000 people were admitted on this
basis in one year).
Last, it will be noted that in 1998 around 880 people were accepted under the relaxed family reunion
conditions for refugees introduced in June 1997 (1996: 360; 1997: 660).
Foreign population
The total population of Norway rose by 27 730 in 1998 (0.6%) and totalled 4.45 million at the end of the
year. Given the record immigration registered in 1998, the number of foreign residents rose appreciably faster,
by approximately 4.5%. At the end of 1998, the resident foreign population totalled 165 070 (1997: 158 000), or
3.7% of the total population (see Table III.31).
European Union nationals account for a little under half the total (44%) and within this group nationals of
Nordic countries account in turn for around 50%. As a result of the migration flows described above, European
predominance has accentuated over recent years. People from Asia and Africa account for only 20 and 6%
respectively of all foreigners.
The largest contingent of foreign residents is from Sweden (1997: 20 600; 1998: 24 000), followed by
Denmark (1997: 18 400; 1998: 19 100), Bosnia-Herzegovina (1997: 11 600; 1998: 11 800) and the United Kingdom
(1997: 10 800; 1998: 11 200).
Naturalisations
As a rule, foreigners may acquire Norwegian nationality after they have legally resided in the country for
seven years. Individuals with a criminal record may be denied naturalisation. There are no language require-
ments or financial prerequisites. During the 1980s, the annual number of naturalisations ranged from 1 800 to
4 600. They averaged approximately 5 000 at the beginning of the 1990s. In 1998, some 9 250 foreigners
acquired Norwegian nationality. Although the figure is relatively high, it represents a significant fall on previ-
ous years (1996: 12 200; 1997: 12 000). In 1998, as in 1997, the largest numbers were from Pakistan, Vietnam
and Turkey.
Mixed marriages
Around 17.5% of all marriages contracted in Norway are mixed. The breakdown by nationality shows con-
siderable differences: while over 90% of North American nationals marry a native-born Norwegian, the figure is
only 69% for Asians and Africans.
Despite a sharp increase in employment, thus far the domestic market has largely been able to meet
labour demand. By 1996, the Norwegian authorities nonetheless recognised that it could prove necessary to
recruit foreign workers in some sectors, especially construction and healthcare. In 1998, 109 doctors were
recruited from Austria, France and Germany (88 were similarly recruited in the first six months of 1999). During
the same period, 400 nurses were recruited from Finland.
Nationals of the European Union do not require a permit to work in Norway but must (with the exception
of those from the Nordic countries) apply for a residence permit for a stay of longer than three months. In 1998,
4 570 residence permits were issued on this basis, including some to people not necessarily wanting to work.
Nationals of all other countries must obtain work permits. In 1998, 7 490 seasonal permits, 1 630 other
temporary permits and 2 420 permanent work permits were issued, excluding renewals.
Norway
235
OECD 2000
Seasonal permits are available, in particular to meet temporary demand in the agricultural sector. The
quota was set at 6 810 in 1997, and raised to 8 000 in 1998. Over 90% of seasonal workers are from Central and
Eastern Europe, in particular Poland. The permanent work permits were largely issued to immigrants on family
reunion grounds.
Under the impetus of steady economic development since 1996, unemployment in Norway fell from 4 to
2.2% in 1999. Unemployment among the immigrant population is considerably higher. But over the past two
years, contrary to the trend for Norwegian workers, immigrant unemployment has fallen from 7.1% in 1998 to
6.3% in 1999.
The extent of unemployment varies by region of origin. Those from Western Europe are slightly more sus-
ceptible to it than nationals (2.6%), but for immigrants from Africa, Asia and Latin America the rates are 12.6,
9.1 and 6.4% respectively. Some headway should be noted in this area, however, as with nationals of Central
and Eastern European countries, for whom unemployment has fallen from 17.1 to 9.2% in just four years.
New measures concerning labour market access and integration
The government has proposed two reforms to Parliament, i) authorising seasonal permits throughout the
year (they are currently limited to the period running from 15 May to 31 October), and ii) lowering the
minimum education requirement for work permits (which is at present three years of higher education).
In August 1999, the regulations on work permits were relaxed for nationals of Barents Sea countries, allow-
ing Norwegian fishery firms to hire Russian workers. The nationals of Central and Eastern European countries
should also benefit from this amendment.
The government has further commissioned a legal working party to recommend adjustments to the
system of training available to new immigrants. The aim is to make the system more coherent and effective.
New regulations on asylum and refugee rights
Two significant amendments were made to the asylum rules in 1999. As from 1 July 2000, responsibility for
questioning asylum-seekers will be transferred from the police to the immigration department. In addition,
the Norwegian Parliament approved the establishment of an independent panel to hear appeals against
denials of refugee status. Appeals are currently handled by the Justice Ministry.
Illegal immigration
In order to combat illegal immigration, the Immigration Act was amended in 1997 and the prison sentence
for organising the illegal entry of foreigners into Norway for financial gain was raised from a maximum of two to
five years. In 1998, 530 cases were recorded by the national Bureau of Crime Investigation (390 in 1997); over a
quarter of these cases may have involved trafficking in human beings (1997: 70; 1998: 150).
International agreements
For over 40 years the Nordic Passport has guaranteed complete freedom of movement among the five
Nordic countries. Ultimately, however, free movement within the Nordic countries can now continue only if
they introduce regulations compatible with the Schengen Agreement, whether or not they belong to the
European Union.
Following ratification of the Amsterdam Treaty in May 1999, Norway and Iceland have to conclude
co-operation agreements with the States party to the Schengen Agreements. For Norway, the process should
be under way by October 2000.
236
OECD 2000
Poland
Introduction
Having averaged 6.5% between 1994 and 1997, GDP growth decelerated in 1998, levelling off at 4% in 1999.
The unemployment rate, which had been declining steadily between 1995 and 1998, falling from 15.2% to 10%,
rose to 12% in 1999. Poland remains an emigration country, although outflows have decreased sharply over the
past three years. It also remains a transit country for persons wishing to emigrate to European Union countries.
As Poland is seeking to join the EU, changes in its migration legislation can be expected in the near future in
order to bring it into line with the norms prevailing in the Member States.
Permanent emigration
The available figures on permanent emigration (settlement abroad for a duration equal or superior to one
year) considerably underestimate the true outward flows as large numbers of migrants do not notify the
authorities of their departure. The extent of permanent emigration fluctuates considerably with a marked
decline sometimes being followed by an similarly sharp increase. However, the amplitude of the fluctuations
has since 1990 been much less than during the two previous decades; since 1996, the flow has stabilised at
between 20 000 and 22 000 permanent exits per year. These figures are quite close to those observed
between 1990 and 1992 and are much lower than those for 1987-89 (see Table III.32 and Chart III.13).
Table I II. 29.
In 1998, the flow towards Germany increased in dominance, passing from 70.2 to 72.2% of the total emigra-
tion flow. Europe received over 84% of the Polish emigrants in that year. These flows are largely comprised of
people with a low level of education (over 75% had gone no further than primary school). Nevertheless, the
proportion of those with a good level of professional training did register an increase.
Chart I II.10.
As the Polish authorities have changed the rules governing the issuance of residence permits, it is impos-
sible to compare the figures for immigration into Poland before 1998 with the current figures. Formerly, the
immigrant category covered all new permanent residents arriving from abroad whether they were Polish or
not. However, a new Aliens Act has recently come into force. It sets out the conditions governing the stay of
foreigners and sets out their rights and duties in Poland. It also brings the status of refugees and asylum seek-
ers into line with the principles of the Geneva Convention. The new provisions adopted in 1998 have led to
the establishment of two different kinds of residence status for foreigners, one entitling them to settle in the
country (permanent residence) and the other granting a renewable two-year right of temporary residence.
Between 1998 and 1999, the number of residence permits issued rose by 78%, mainly because of the
growth in the issuance of temporary residence permits. Three characteristics of inflow patterns stand out: i) the
roughly equal numbers of men and women entering since 1993; ii) the predominance of migrants from Europe
(60%, mostly from Germany), the American continent (mainly from the United States) and Asia; and iii) the
large proportion of young people among the new arrivals (approximately 60% are under the age of 40).
Since 1996, the number of asylum seekers had increased significantly, rising from 850 applications to some
3 400 in 1998. In that year, most of the applications were made by Armenians, Sri Lankans, Afghans and nationals
of the former Yugoslavia. The number of Armenian applicants has been rising steadily but is likely to diminish as
the Polish authorities have decided to require Armenians wishing to come to Poland to obtain a visa.

POLAND

Poland
237
OECD 2000
Illegal migration
Poland is one of the main transit countries for migrants heading towards Western Europe. Formerly inter-
cepted at the Eastern borders, they now attempt to enter Poland via the borders with the Slovak and Czech
Republics. Border controls have been improved and there has been a drop in the number of foreigners inter-
cepted since 1995, which might indicate that these controls are more effective and/or that the number of
people attempting illegal immigration has fallen.
The undocumented foreigners apprehended in Poland are chiefly Romanian, Ukrainian and Bulgarian. In
all, more than 7 000 foreigners were expelled in 1998. In the same year, the number of undocumented foreign-
ers readmitted into Poland under readmission agreements decreased. They mainly come from Germany, and
are mostly nationals of the former Yugoslavia and Afghanistan. The number of administrative expulsions rose
by over 50% in 1998. Romanian, Ukrainian and Armenian nationals are the most frequently affected by the
enforcement of the new rules and procedures regarding foreigners living illegally in Poland.
Trends in the structure of the foreign population
At the end of 1997 there were, on the basis of the estimate made in 1993 of the number of residence permits
issued and the number of naturalisations, approximately 40 000 to 45 000 foreigners legally residing in Poland. A
more recent estimate by the Ministry of the Interior put the number of permanently resident foreigners at
Table III.32. Permanent immigration and emigration, 1995-1999, Poland
Thousands
1. Persons who entered Poland (including returning Polish emigrants) and registered in the Central Population Register (PESEL) after obtaining a permanent
residence permit. Counts in the table may be underestimated since not all children accompanying immigrants are registered.
2. Data on permanent residence permits issued are not linked with data from the Central Population Register and therefore are not comparable. There is a
break in series in 1998. For more details, see the paragraph Trends in migration movements in the note.
3. Only departures of permanent residents registered in the Central Population Register are included. Data for 1999 are not available.
Sources: Central Statistical Office; Office for Migration and Refugee Affairs.
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 1995 1996 1997 1998
Permanent immigration by region
or country of origin
1
Permanent emigration by region
or country of destination
3
Europe 4.9 5.2 5.3 5.6 . . Europe 21.0 17.0 16.3 18.5
Germany 2.0 2.2 2.1 2.3 . . Germany 18.2 14.8 14.2 16.1
Ukraine . . 0.5 0.8 0.6 . . Other Europe 2.8 2.2 2.1 2.4
Other Europe 2.9 2.5 2.5 2.7 . . Americas 4.9 3.9 3.6 3.3
Americas 2.4 1.9 1.7 1.8 . . United States 3.2 2.5 2.2 2.2
United States 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.3 . . Canada 1.7 1.3 1.3 1.1
Canada 1.0 0.5 0.4 0.4 . . Other regions 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.4
Other America 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 . . Total 26.3 21.3 20.2 22.2
Other regions 0.9 1.1 1.4 1.5 . . of which: Women 13.0 10.4 10.0 10.6
Total 8.1 8.2 8.4 8.9 . .
of which: Women 3.8 4.0 4.1 4.5 . .
Permanent residence permits issued
by nationality
2
Ukraine 0.6 0.6 1.0 0.9 1.2
Vietnam 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.7 0.9
Russian Federation 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.6
Belarus 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3
Kazakhstan 0.2 0.2 0.6 0.1 0.2
Other countries 1.5 1.2 1.6 2.7 5.9
Total 3.1 2.8 4.1 5.1 9.1
of which:
Permission for settlement . . . . . . 0.3 0.3
Permission for fixed-time residence . . . . . . 4.8 8.9
238
OECD 2000
32 500, equivalent to 0.1% of the total population. Nationals of the republics of the former Soviet Union
(principally Ukraine, Russia and Belarus) comprised the largest national groups (see Table III.32).
Mixed marriages
Mixed marriages are rare, but are increasing rapidly (by nearly 20% to 4 000 in 1998). They accounted for less
than 2% of the total marriages contracted that year. Approximately one quarter of mixed marriages involved
Polish women marrying German men. Those involving Polish men were mainly to women from Ukraine. Marriages
involving Vietnamese nationals is a recently emergent phenomenon; they numbered approximately 500 in 1998.
Labour migration and the labour market
The data on the employment of foreign workers are incomplete. There are available only rough estimates
based on the number of work permits issued by the Polish authorities, which show that one-third of permits
were granted to workers in small enterprises (fewer than five employees). The number of permits issued is
increasing yearly (up 19% in 1998, for a total of 21 000). They are granted mainly to Ukrainians, followed by
Belarus and Vietnamese nationals. Germans rank only fifth, after workers from the United Kingdom. Belarus
nationals are the fastest growing group, followed by French nationals who are helping to establish a number of
foreign subsidiaries.
Immigration of skilled workers
The vast majority of work permits are granted to skilled workers (entrepreneurs, consultants and teach-
ers). The proportion in unskilled employment is declining as the number of consultant positions and other
more skilled jobs increases; it fell from 5% in 1997 to 3% in 1998. Furthermore, the number of workers who are
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1960 65 70 75 80 85 90 95
Inflows of permanent residents
Chart III.13. Permanent migration flows in Poland,
1
1960-1998
Thousands
1. Persons who entered Poland (including returning Polish emigrants) and
registered in the Central Population Register (PESEL) after obtaining
a permanent residence permit. Counts in the table may be underestimated
since not all children accompanying immigrants are registered. Outflows
only cover departures of permanent residents registered in the Central
Population Register.
Source: Central Statistical Office.
Outflows of permanent residents
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1960 65 70 75 80 85 90 95
1
1960-1998
Thousands
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1960 65 70 75 80 85 90 95
1
1960-1998
Thousands
Portugal
239
OECD 2000
self-employed or employ a small number of Polish workers has risen (by nearly 40%). One-quarter of the
entrepreneurs are Vietnamese, over one-quarter of the teachers are from the United Kingdom and 40% of the
manual workers (both skilled and unskilled) are Ukrainian. Senior managers come mainly from four Western
countries: Germany, France, the United Kingdom and the United States. Foreign workers are more attracted to
the private sector than the public sector and most frequently have jobs in trading activities or the hotels and
catering sector.
Employment of undocumented workers
The National Labour Bureau estimated in a 1999 report that over the course of each year some
200 000 foreigners worked in the informal sector, mainly in seasonal jobs. The undocumented workers are prima-
rily Ukrainian and Vietnamese nationals. Some German, French and Dutch nationals would also appear to be
working illegally in Poland in large-scale projects to establish commercial centres. Many other undocumented
foreigners hold jobs in the construction, catering and automobile sectors.
In 1998, more than 80 000 inspections led to the detection of some 2 500 illegal workers, mainly Russians
and EU nationals.
The policy authorities have a full agenda in a number of areas. First, the government has taken two legisla-
tive initiatives regarding the regulation of migration flows. One of them, the Polish Nationality Act, concerns the
acquisition, recovery and loss of Polish nationality as well as the question of dual nationality. This Act will replace
provisions dating from the beginning of the communist regime. The other initiative proposes to amend the
1997 Aliens Act in order to take into account criticisms from EU institutions. Neither Act has yet been voted on by
the Polish legislature. The Polish authorities have also clearly reaffirmed that they intend to take all necessary
steps to facilitate the return and settlement in Poland of Polish citizens or persons of Polish origin who were
deported or forcibly displaced. However, no concrete steps have yet been taken in this regard.
Poland has been a candidate for membership of the European Union since 1997, and has entered into
negotiations with the European authorities to determine the date when member countries labour markets will
be opened to Polish workers. The government would like complete freedom of movement for persons as well
as of goods, but it is uncertain whether the European authorities share this viewpoint. In any event, accession
will not take place before 2003, after the agricultural negotiations have been completed.
Portugal
Introduction
At 31 December 1998, Portugals total resident population stood at just under 10 million. The authorities
estimate the number of Portuguese living abroad at about 4.8 million. Portugal is one of the few OECD
countries that has a long-standing policy for facilitating the integration of its citizens abroad.
There was a net migration gain of 15 000 in 1998, similar to the 1997 figure. The Alentejo was the only Por-
tuguese region that experienced both a natural decrease in its population and a net migration loss. On the
other hand, the population of the Algarve further increased after the rise in 1997, mainly because its net
migration gain was the highest in Portugal.

PORTUGAL

240
OECD 2000
In the second half of the 1970s the emigration of Portuguese nationals decreased, a trend that became a
great deal more pronounced during the 1980s. In 1980 approximately 18 000 permanent departures (for more
than one year) were recorded; in 1988 the figure was only 9 500. Departure statistics after 1988 are not compa-
rable, since the type of passport on which the earlier data were based was abolished at that time. The free
movement of Portuguese nationals within the European Union (EU) as of 1992 does not seem to have pro-
duced any significant upturn in permanent emigration to Member countries. Since 1993 the National Statistical
Institute has been conducting a sample survey to estimate outflows. According to this survey, approximately
22 000 Portuguese nationals emigrated in 1998, some 15 000 fewer than in 1997 (see Table III.33). Nearly half
the 1998 emigrants were from northern Portugal. Europe is the main destination, and in 1998 68% of
Portuguese emigrants went to France, Switzerland or Germany.
Table I II. 30.
The main sectors employing temporary migrants are agriculture, the hotel industry and construction, all of
which experience strong seasonal and cyclical fluctuations in their labour demand. On the whole, alongside
the increase in temporary emigration, there has been a slowdown in permanent emigration over the last
decade.
The Portuguese community abroad totalled approximately 4.8 million, of whom more than a quarter
reside in Brazil. The data from embassies and consulates show that some 30% of Portuguese residing abroad
in 1998 lived in Europe (26% in the EU). The Portuguese constitute one of the largest expatriate groups living
inside the EU (some 1 million). Remittances from Portuguese emigrants remain very high, equivalent in 1996
to nearly 4% of GDP.
The increase in return migration to Portugal, which had picked up during the 1980s, continues. In 1998, a
little over 17 000 people returned to Portugal, 2 700 more than in 1997. Most came from European Union
countries, mainly Germany and France; there were significant numbers from South Africa too.
In 1998, as in 1997, the resident foreign population rose by nearly 1.4% (an increase of 2 500 on 1997).
According to a survey by the National Statistical Institute, 6 100 immigrants made their first application for a
permanent residence permit in 1998, 2 800 more than in 1997 (see Table III.33). Most of the new holders of res-
idence permits are concentrated in the Lisbon area, the Tagus valley and the Algarve. Overall, nationals of
OECD Member countries account for nearly half of these new residents. The other immigrants come mainly
from Brazil and from Portuguese-speaking African countries (principally Cape Verde and Angola).
Nearly 4 000 foreigners left Portugal in 1998, mostly nationals of Brazil, African countries (49% from Cape
Verde) and Europe.
Portugal experienced an exceptional increase in asylum applications in 1993 (to total approximately 2 000),
with Romanians accounting for nearly two-thirds and Angolans for 20%. Applications fell sharply thereafter.
In 1998, 355 asylum applications were lodged, chiefly by nationals of Sierra Leone, Nigeria, Ghana and Algeria.
Foreign population
In 1998, approximately 178 000 foreigners were legally resident in Portugal, or 1.7% of the total population
(see Table III.33). Men (58%) outnumbered women. Over half of the foreigners lived in the area (distrito) of
Lisbon. Almost 13% lived in the Faro area, followed by Setubal (9.2%) and Porto (6.1%), while Bragana had the
lowest proportion of foreigners (0.1%).
Portugal
241
OECD 2000
By nationality, Cape Verde nationals are the most numerous (over 40 000) followed by Brazilians (20 000)
and Angolans (16 500). Foreign nationals from OECD countries (nearly 80% from the European Union) account
for one-third of the total foreign population. In 1998, 8 100 children were born of a foreign mother and/or father
in Portugal, accounting for approximately 7% of total births (113 000).
Naturalisations
Portuguese law has allowed dual nationality since 1981, but the annual number of naturalisations remains
low. The number of foreigners acquiring Portuguese nationality by naturalisation rose substantially in 1998,
Table III.33. Current figures on flows and stocks of total population and labour force in Portugal
1. Results of a special survey (INE).
2. Figures include all foreigners who hold a valid residence permit (including those who benefited from the 1992-1993 and 1996 regularisation programmes).
3. Workers who hold a valid residence permit (including the unemployed). Data include workers who benefited from the 1992-1993 and 1996 regularisation
programmes.
4. Including the following economic activities: Transport, Storage and communications; Financial intermediation, insurance and business services; Community,
social and personal services.
Sources: Survey on outflows (INE); Labour Force Survey (INE); Ministry of the Interior.
1995 1996 1997 1998
Emigration
1
22.6 32.8 37.8 22.2
of which: Women 5.9 8.8 8.8 7.0
Returns of nationals (estimates) 17.4 20.1 15.3 17.4
First requests for a permit of permanent residence
by region or country of origin 5.0 . . 3.3 6.1
EU 2.5 . . 1.9 2.8
of which:
Germany 0.6 . . 0.4 0.6
United Kingdom 0.7 . . 0.3 0.5
Brazil 0.7 . . 0.3 0.6
Other 1.8 . . 1.1 2.7
Foreign population
2
168.3 172.9 175.3 177.8
By region of residence
Region of Lisboa 92.4 95.3 96.8 98.1
Region of Setubal 15.5 16.0 16.2 16.4
Other regions 60.3 61.6 62.3 63.3
By group of nationality
Africa 79.2 81.2 81.7 82.5
Europe 44.9 47.3 49.7 51.9
South America 25.9 27.7 25.3 24.9
North America 10.9 10.8 10.6 10.3
Other regions 7.5 5.9 8.0 8.2
Acquisition of Portuguese nationality 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.5
% of total marriages 2.2 1.9 2.2 2.1
3
84.4 86.8 87.9 88.6
By main industry division
Agriculture, forestry, fishing 19.8 20.6 21.3 . .
Mining and quarrying 4.8 5.0 5.1 . .
Manufacturing 3.4 3.4 3.5 . .
Electricity, gas and water supply 6.8 7.1 7.2 . .
Construction 6.7 7.2 7.4 . .
Sales, hotels and restaurants 1.1 1.1 1.1 . .
Other
4
41.8 42.4 42.4 . .
By professional status
Self-employed 16.6 16.7 17.0 17.1
Wage earners 67.8 69.7 70.6 71.2
242
OECD 2000
however, from 140 in 1997 to 520. The most frequent countries of origin are Cape Verde, Guinea Bissau,
Mozambique and Brazil. Over 78% of naturalisations concerned people from Portuguese-speaking countries.
Mixed marriages
Mixed marriages accounted for just over 2% of all marriages in 1998, as in 1997. The majority were
between Portuguese women and foreign men. These Portuguese women mainly married Brazilians, Germans,
Venezuelans and Cape Verde nationals. The foreign wives of Portuguese men were mainly from Brazil, Cape
Verde and Angola.
Schooling of immigrant children
In the academic year 1997/98, 60 000 children with foreign-born fathers and/or mothers were enrolled in
the public system (excluding higher education), or 4.6% of the total enrolment. The majority of foreign children
come from Portuguese-speaking countries (67%), with EU countries accounting for just 17%.
Foreigners and the labour market
Since May 1998 the new Employment of Foreigners Act has allowed legally resident foreigners to work in
Portugal without being subject to any numerical restrictions (under the previous legislation, the total number
of foreigners employed in firms with five or more employees could not exceed 10% of the total workforce,
though this rule did not apply to nationals of European Economic Area countries, or to nationals of countries
which have bilateral agreements with Portugal, notably Brazil and Cape Verde).
In December 1998, the foreign labour force totalled over 88 000, an increase of 710 on the previous year.
Most are unskilled agricultural workers, skilled workers (specialised or not) in manufacturing industry, science
and technology specialists, and professionals. Europeans are employed mainly in scientific occupations and
service jobs, whereas the vast majority of Africans are employed in industry and construction. Most Brazilians
are employed in services (teaching, health and other scientific and technical occupations). Over 80% of foreign
workers are wage-earners. Of the 17 000 entrepreneurs and self-employed workers living in Portugal, United
Kingdom and Brazilian nationals are the most numerous.
At the end of 1998 there were a little over 370 600 people unemployed in Portugal, 59% of whom were
women. Compared with 1997, the total number of unemployed fell by over 50 000, but the number of unem-
ployed foreigners rose by 7.5%. Cape Verde and Angolan nationals were most vulnerable to unemployment,
for though they accounted for only 9.5% of the foreign labour force they accounted for nearly 21% of unem-
ployed foreigners. Of the unemployed foreigners, 71% were from Africa, 19% from Europe and 9% from North
and South America.
Migration policy in Portugal has two facets, one applicable to the Portuguese community residing abroad
and the other applicable to immigrants in Portugal. The two facets of this policy reflect coherent goals and
explain the focus on migrants rights, their political and social integration in the host country and objective
information concerning their contribution to development.
Recent developments in immigration law
The new Employment of Foreigners Act of 12 May 1998 concerns foreigners authorised to reside and work in
Portugal. This Act ensures equal opportunities with respect to recruitment and working conditions. Employment
contracts must be in writing, except for EU nationals, and must first be lodged with the Labour and Solidarity
Ministry. In addition, terminations of employment contracts must be notified to the Ministry of Labour within
15 days.
Portugal
243
OECD 2000
The Act of 8 August 1998 dealing with the admission, residence and departure of foreigners was designed
to bring Portuguese legislation into line with international conventions to which Portugal is a party, and more
particularly with EU law and the Schengen Agreements. The Act reaffirmed the rights of family reunion, which
is now open to family members of a foreigner resident in Portugal. Entry on family reunion grounds will be
granted on condition that, at the time of application, the foreigner has a residence permit valid for more than a
year, appropriate housing and adequate means of support.
The Act abolishes the previous classes of permits and introduces two residence permits: a temporary
one, valid for two years and renewable; and, a permanent one for foreigners who have been resident in
Portugal without a break for at least ten years and have not incurred a prison sentence of over one year.
The Act introduces seven different types of visa: stop-over, transit, short-period, residence, education,
employment and temporary residence.
Lastly, it provides that the expulsion of a foreigner may be ordered by a judicial or administrative author-
ity. Administrative decisions are subject to a direct appeals procedure in the administrative courts. This
appeals procedure does not however suspend the order.
A new regularisation programme
The government proposes to run a new regularisation programme from May 2000, for foreigners without
the required papers who entered Portugal before 31 December 1999. In April 2000, it accepted a recommen-
dation by the National Committee for the Regularisation of Immigrants, that regional governments should be
empowered to accept regularisation applications, rather than the Foreigners Department in the Ministry of the
Interior as had been the case for the 1996 programme.
Migration and development
Under the heading of co-operation policy, measures have recently been taken to assist in the develop-
ment of university structures and vocational training centres in some Portuguese-speaking African countries.
Supporting peace processes and the consolidation of emerging democracies in Africa, as well as the promotion
of joint business ventures between Portuguese and African companies are other aspects of co-operation policy.
Financial support is also extended to non-governmental organisations working with refugee populations or
displaced persons in Africa.
Box III.7. Links with Portuguese communities abroad
Portuguese nationals residing abroad are represented by directly elected members of Parliament. Across the
world there are a little over 2 000 associations created by migrants or their descendants. The aim of policy with
regard to emigrants is to encourage political and social integration of the Portuguese in their host countries whilst
respecting these emigrants national identity, and to maintain links with emigrant communities. Measures are
therefore designed to safeguard and disseminate the Portuguese language, facilitate links between the commu-
nities, and defend the interests and rights of Portuguese emigrants. To this end, numerous approaches have
been developed. They include assistance for the teaching of Portuguese; grants to associations, missions and
other organisations of Portuguese residing abroad; and, socio-cultural exchanges and vocational training pro-
grammes co-funded by the European Social Fund.
There are other forms of aid, such as financial assistance, legal, economic and social services, special bank
accounts and preferential credit through an emigrant savings scheme which makes capital loans. Further measures
were introduced in 1996, chiefly focusing on developing and modernising the services of Portuguese consulates and
improving the dissemination of legal information to Portuguese communities abroad (using the Internet, for
instance). In September 1996, Parliament unanimously passed a law setting up the Council of Portuguese Communi-
ties, a body to advise the government on policies concerning emigrant communities. This Council represents all
Portuguese people living abroad who wish to be involved. It has one hundred elected members.
244
OECD 2000
Romania
Introduction
Between 1990 and 1992 substantial numbers of Romanian citizens, both of non-Romanian and Romanian
origin, left to settle permanently abroad. Current estimates of the outflow by the Romanian authorities suggest
that having fallen substantially to a relatively low level the flow continues to diminish, albeit at a more moder-
ate pace. Return migration and readmissions have increased during each of the last five years. However, the
figure is still only just over half that of estimated permanent emigration. Previous reports have underlined
Romanias increasing importance as a transit destination in the East-west emigration flow, a feature linked,
inter alia, to its relaxed visa regime. Although this continues to be a source of concern it would appear that
in 1998 there took place in Romania a considerable increase in the attention paid to detecting illegal
immigrants both at the border and within the country.
Emigration
Estimates of emigration made by the Ministry of the Interior are based on two sources: compulsory cus-
toms forms completed by those intending to leave the country on a permanent basis and data on those
already abroad who apply for the renewal of their passport at a local embassy or consulate. Over the last five
years, the estimated total number has averaged approximatel y 20 000, less than one quarter of
the 1990 figure. Following a 7% decline in 1997, the figure declined by a further 12% in 1998 to 17 500. Although
the countries of destination are becoming more diffuse, over 95% settle in OECD Member countries. Whilst
Germany remains the most popular destination, receiving just over 20% of the total as estimated by the Roma-
nian authorities, its importance is diminishing. In 1993, members of ethnic minorities accounted for just over
half the total outflow. Having since then steadily decreased to just over 15% in 1997 this proportion would
appear to have stabilised. Reflecting the increasing proportion of young families among the emigrants, pro-
portion of under 10s doubled to almost 30% in 1998. Reflecting non-EU OECD countries more stringent entry
criteria, 25% of the adults who emigrated to them had tertiary-level education whereas the corresponding fig-
ure for those leaving for the EU was less than 10% (see Chart III.14).
Chart I II.11.
Labour migration
Excepting the relatively small volume arranged under the aegis of the Ministry of Labour and Social Wel-
fare, temporary foreign employment is registered only in the general flow of those temporarily leaving the
country. That said, recent estimates have been made by the Israeli authorities of the sizeable contingent of
documented and undocumented Romanian workers employed in its country; their number has been
estimated at between 60 000 and 100 000. Data on individually arranged seasonal work remains sketchy.
Based on agreements between the Governments of Germany and Romania, 2 600 employment contracts
of eighteen months duration and just over 5 500 seasonal contracts of three months duration were approved
in 1998, increases of respectively 172% and 12% on 1997. The beneficiaries of the very short-term contracts are
young workers aged 20-35 years in possession of a high level of education and a solid understanding of the
German language. In conformity with similar bilateral arrangements, approximately 2 000 Romanians took up
seasonal employment in Hungary and a further 1 000 each in Greece, Italy and Turkey.
Remittances
In February 1998, the Romanian bank Bank Post signed an agreement with Israeli Postal Authority relat-
ing to bank transfers of savings for Romanians who work in Israel. From February 1998 to the end of June 1999,
the remittances exceeded USD 36 million. At the end of 1998, the Banca Religilor started a remittance transfer

ROMANIA

Romania
245
OECD 2000
58
00
00 100
56
54
52
50
48
100
80
60
40
20
0
100
80
60
40
20
0
80
60
40
20
0
100
80
60
40
20
0
-18 18-25 26-40 40+
1990 91 92 93 94 95 96 98
1990 91 92 93 94 95 96 98 1990 91 92 93 94 95 96 98
1990 91 92 93 94 95 96 98 1990 91 92 93 94 95 96 98 97 97
97
97 97
1. Estimates by the Romanian Ministry of the Interior. Persons having
reported their intention to settle abroad.
2. Romanian nationals with no other declared ethnic affiliation.
Source: Ministry of the Interior.
Chart III.14. Demographic characteristics of permanent emigrants,
1
1990-1998, Romania
Percentages
Ethnic groups Destination countries
Share of women (%) Age groups
Educational attainment
Vocational Secondary Post-secondary
Other Primary
Hungarians France Other Romanians
2
Germans Other Germany United States
58
00
00 100
56
54
52
50
48
100
80
60
40
20
0
100
80
60
40
20
0
80
60
40
20
0
100
80
60
40
20
0
-18 18-25 26-40 40+
1990 91 92 93 94 95 96 98
1990 91 92 93 94 95 96 98 1990 91 92 93 94 95 96 98
1990 91 92 93 94 95 96 98 1990 91 92 93 94 95 96 98 97 97
97
97 97
1
1990-1998, Romania
Percentages
Other Primary
2
58
00
00 100
56
54
52
50
48
100
80
60
40
20
0
100
80
60
40
20
0
80
60
40
20
0
100
80
60
40
20
0
-18 18-25 26-40 40+
1990 91 92 93 94 95 96 98
1990 91 92 93 94 95 96 98 1990 91 92 93 94 95 96 98
1990 91 92 93 94 95 96 98 1990 91 92 93 94 95 96 98 97 97
97
97 97
1
1990-1998, Romania
Percentages
Other Primary
2
246
OECD 2000
system with mobile teams going to workplaces or places of accommodation. No figures for the sums thereby
remitted are available.
Romanian citizens as asylum seekers
As was reported last year, having come to the view that basic standards of human rights were being
observed in Romania, the UNCHR ceased at the end of 1997 to consider Romania as a generator of refugees.
Notwithstanding, the cases of Romanian citizens who submit asylum applications abroad would however be
individually and thoroughly analysed. At slightly over 9 000, the number of new applications submitted
in 1998 was only 4% less than the 1997 figure. Almost one third of these applications were made in France and
just over 10% each in Spain and the United Kingdom. With the exceptions of Canada (20%), Switzerland (14%)
and the United States (6%), the recognition rates were below 2% indicating, it would be reasonable to sup-
pose, that the motivating factor behind the claims was to render legitimate the applicants residence status.
Immigration
Return migration and readmissions
The number of applications for repatriation, having increased steadily through to the mid-1990s, acceler-
ated sharply in 1997. The rate of increase in 1998 was the same, 35%, for a total number of almost 11 300. Appli-
cations from Moldova, the number of which increased almost five-fold during 1997 and 1998 account for the
bulk of the increase. In 1998, they accounted for nearly three quarters of the total (see Table III.34).
Table I II. 31.
Since 1993, nearly 120 000 Romanian citizens (the majority of whom were found in illegal situations)
have been expelled from third countries. Almost two thirds were expelled from Germany and almost
one fifth from Hungary. Expulsions numbered 21 600 in 1998, 30% of which were from Hungary, their number
being over three times higher than in 1997 and almost 10% more than the combined total for the previous
three years. The numbers expelled from Czech Republic, Italy and Belgium were twice as high as in 1997.
Though the number expelled from Germany was lower than in previous years, they still accounted for over
one quarter of the total.
Romania received less than 1 250 applications for refugee status in 1998, a 12% fall on the 1997 figure.
Although the number of decisions made increased by almost 800% to 2 600, the number of claims accepted
rose by less than 250% to total 276. Bangladesh accounted for almost 50% of the new applications in 1998; all
were refused.
As consequence of the recent armed conflict in the former Yugoslavia, the Romanian Government
issued a Priority Ordinance in April 1999 approving the entry and the granting of refugee status to citizens
of former Yugoslavia. A total of 6 000 were initially covered by this Ordinance though refugee status would
also be granted to any others already in Romania or who subsequently entered Romania directly.
Illegal migration
Having been broadly constant since 1994, the number of people caught attempting to illegally cross
Romanias borders rose by over one third in 1998 to just under 1 700. The annual total number of foreign citi-
zens found to be in illegal situation as consequence of controls carried out within the country more than
doubled over the period 1993-1997 to 36 000; the figure for 1998 is not available.
A clear trend has developed whereby due in part to return migration (particularly in the case of Greek cit-
izens) and to the fact that since 1990 there has not existed an institution with the authority to grant this status,
the stock of immigrants with permanent resident status continues to decline, standing at present at slightly
Romania
247
OECD 2000
less than 1 400 (see Table III.34). A proposal to have this institutional deficiency remedied in the context of a
new law on foreign citizens status is still awaiting approval by the Romanian Parliament.
In the absence of the possibility of acquiring permanent residence status, foreigners wishing to prolong
their stay beyond 120 days are obliged to obtain a renewable temporary residence permit. The number of
such persons did not increase significantly in 1998, standing at 55 000 at the end of the year. Almost 50% were
classified as entrepreneurs. Of these, one in five were Chinese and over one in ten were from Syria and
Turkey; Iran, Iraq, Italy and Lebanon each accounted for at least a further 5%. Students and trainees accounted
for just under one third of the temporary residence permit holders. Their number is determined largely by the
quantity of scholarships awarded by the Romanian government. Having fallen back by 10% in 1997 to stand at
20 400, very close to the figures for 1993-95, their numbers declined for a second successive year, by 12% to
bring the number to 18 000 at the end of 1998. The largest proportion, one third, are from Moldova. Just over
one quarter are Greek.
Table III.34. Current migration figures in Romania
Thousands
1. Residence permits valid for a period longer than 120 days.
2. Estimates based on the number of expulsions, the number of persons detected within Romania and at the border.
Sources: Romanian Ministry of the Interior; Statistiches Bundesamt (Germany).
1995 1996 1997 1998
Stocks of foreigners
Stock of persons with permanent residence status 1.7 1.6 1.4 1.4
Stock of persons with temporary residence visas
1
55.2 55.7 55.0 55.3
Republic of Moldova 6.3 7.4 6.9 6.0
Greece 5.4 6.2 5.7 5.3
China 4.2 4.4 5.4 5.2
Turkey 4.8 5.1 5.5 4.2
Syria 4.1 4.1 3.8 3.3
Other 30.4 28.5 27.7 31.3
of which: Foreign citizens in education and training 20.8 22.7 20.4 18.0
Republic of Moldova . . . . . . 5.9
Greece 5.3 5.8 4.9 4.7
Former USSR 5.8 7.1 6.7 6.0
Israel 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.6
Other 8.3 8.6 7.8 0.8
Return migration 5.5 6.3 8.4 11.3
Refugee claims submitted 0.6 0.6 1.4 1.2
Refugee status granted 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.3
Illegal immigration
Number detected at border 1.1 1.0 1.2 1.7
Number detected within borders 4.0 4.2 5.5 4.0
Estimated stock of illegal migrants
2
20.0 15.0 18.0 18.0
Expulsions
Romanian citizens expelled from other countries 10.5 18.1 16.9 21.6
Foreigners expelled from Romania 0.7 1.2 1.4 1.6
Romanian citizens in Germany:
A. Migration flows between Romania and Germany
Ethnic Germans from Romania 6.5 4.3 1.8 1.0
Inflows of Romanian nationals 24.8 17.1 14.2 17.0
Outflows of Romanian nationals 25.2 16.6 13.6 13.5
Asylum seekers from Romania 3.5 1.4 0.8 0.3
B. Stock of people from Romania in Germany
Stock of Romanian nationals 109.2 100.7 95.2 89.8
Acquisitions of German nationality by former Romanians 12.0 9.8 8.7 6.3
248
OECD 2000
Naturalisations
Though they remain few in number, the number of naturalisations has been increasing sharply. From 100
in 1997, the figure rose to 195 in 1998 and to almost 250 for the first half of 1999. As previously, the majority
(three quarters) of applications were approved upon completion of three years of marriage to a Romanian citi-
zen. The remainder were company proprietors and a small number of employees with permanent contracts
who had resided in Romania for over five years. In almost all cases naturalised foreign citizens have retained
their original citizenship. In 1999, over one third of those naturalised were from Syria and almost one quarter
were from Jordan.
Relating to Romanians
In September 1999, the Romanian Ministry of Labour and Social Protection and the German Federal
Labour Office signed an agreement on Limited duration employment in Germany. Replacing a similar agree-
ment concluded in May 1991, it seeks to facilitate the seasonal employment of Romanian citizens in Germany
(see Table III.34). The new agreement increases the number of sectors in which Romanians can be employed,
extends from three to nine months their maximum period of employment and requires that they be employed
under conditions comparable with those of German workers. Further, Romanian workers are now obliged to
participate in the German social insurance system and their employers are obliged to ensure that they are
provided with appropriate accommodation.
In November 1998, a law was passed stipulating that the State is obliged to ensure the protection of
Romanian citizens who are working abroad but whose permanent residence is in Romania. Through the Minis-
try of Labour and Social Protection and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Romanian Government is therefore
seeking to conclude bi-lateral agreements and to sign international treaties or conventions in order to ensure
that these workers benefit from guaranteed minimum labour protection standards covering such areas as min-
imum wage levels, general working conditions and insurance against workplace accidents or work-related ill-
nesses. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs, through its diplomatic missions and consular offices, will endeavour to
ensure that Romanian citizens working abroad are accorded the protection provided by the legislation in that
country and will attempt to resolve, in accordance with that legislation, any disputes which might arise.
In July 1998, a law was passed creating a Fund at the Prime-Ministers disposal to support Romanian
communities abroad. An Inter-Ministerial Council was simultaneously created charged with approving priority
actions that are to be financed from this fund. In December of the same year, the Department for Relations
with Romanians living abroad was created. It is charged with ensuring that the basic rights of citizens of
Romanian origin are observed.
Illegal migration
In September 1998, Romania signed a Protocol of enhanced trilateral co-operation with Bulgaria and
Greece with the aim of combating trans-frontier criminality, including infringements related to illegal border
crossing and the illegal traffic of human beings.
In June 1999, the government issued a Priority Ordinance amending and completing the 1992 law on
Romanias State border. In addition to restructuring the administration of the border police, according them a
degree of immunity when carrying out their duties and introducing a bonus scheme for them based on the
amount of fines collected, the Priority Ordinance sets out the sanctions that can be imposed against those who
facilitate illegal migration and renders carriers liable for the cost of returning irregular migrants.
Citizenship
The Law on Romanian Citizenship is to be amended and completed in 2000. It has been proposed that
Romanian citizenship be granted to foreigners provided they give up their current citizenship and have been
domiciled in Romania for a period of at least five years. Furthermore, persons who have lost their Romanian
citizenship (for example, emigrants) could regain it, preserving at the same time their current citizenship. The
Slovak Republic
249
OECD 2000
proposed amendment would also remove the possibility of withdrawing, as a sanction, citizenship from those
who have had it since birth. In addition, it will not be possible to rescind Romanian citizenship without
furnishing proof that another citizenship has already been obtained.
Slovak Republic
Introduction
After several years of strong growth, the Slovak economy has, since 1998, slowed down considerably with
GDP growth falling from 6.5% 1997 to 4.5% in 1998. For the three preceding years, inflation was relatively low
and stable while in 1998 it rose by 6.7% over the preceding year. At the end of 1998, unemployment stood at
around 12%, but at the beginning of 1999 increased significantly to reach 15.8% during the second quarter of
the year. This increase in unemployment is due in part to a sharp falls in public investment and in consump-
tion. In previous years, public and private investment had been the driving force behind economic growth but
this situation did not last, obliging the new government to introduce more restrictive measures.
The natural rate of population increase fell sharply between 1990 and 1998, from 5% to nearly 1%, a trend
which continued in 1998. Although, since 1993, the Slovak Republic has had a positive migration balance, this
is not sufficient to offset the decline in the natural population growth rate.
Sizeable migrant outflows to the Czech Republic were concentrated over the period 1992-1994. When the
Czech and Slovak Federal Republic (CSFR) was divided in two on 1 January 1993, Czech law did not allow
Slovaks working on Czech territory to have double nationality. In order to obtain Czech nationality, many of
them registered as permanent residents of the Czech Republic. This showed up in the Czech Republic statis-
tics as a migrant inflow from the Slovak Republic. Since 1994, Czech sources point to a considerable decline in
flows of permanent migrants from the Slovak Republic, although they remain much higher than the flows of
Czech citizens coming to settle in the Slovak Republic (see Table III.35).
Tabl e III. 32.
The National Statistics Institutes data are based on the notification by residents of the place of their per-
manent residence. This often results in an underestimation of migration flows.
Immigration flows are low. In 1998, the number of immigrants continued to fall, from 2 300 to 2 050, while
the number of emigrants continued to rise, from 570 to 750. Some 80% of migrants entering or leaving the
Slovak Republic come from Europe.
Although since the dissolution of the CSFR on 1 January 1993, there has been a sharp fall in migration
between the Slovak Republic and the Czech Republic, Czechs still accounted for over 34% of total immigrants
into the Slovak Republic in 1998. Ukrainians form the second largest group of immigrants, accounting for 13%
of the total.
Illegal migration
The Slovak Republic is a transit country. Unlike legal migration, inflows and outflows of illegal migrants are
not evenly distributed among the countrys different borders. Illegal migrants move from East to West and
from South to North. Inflows are concentrated on the Hungarian and Ukrainian borders, outflows on the Czech,
Austrian and Polish borders.

SLOVAK REPUBLIC

250
OECD 2000
In 1998, some 2 000 illegal migrants were apprehended whilst trying to enter the country, and 6 300 when
trying illegally to leave the Slovak Republic, three times the number in both cases than for the previous year.
Most illegal immigrants are from the former Yugoslavia (3 600), Afghanistan (1 050) and Romania (650).
Flows of asylum seekers, which were negligible in 1993, have risen a little since then, but the criteria for
awarding refugee status were tightened in 1997. As a result, only 10% of applicants were granted refugee status
Table III.35. Current migration figures, Slovak Republic
1. The outflows are underreported because people leaving the country are requested but not required to report their departure.
2. Changes of permanent residence in the Czech Republic. The data are issued by the Czech Statistical Office.
3. January to June 1998.
4. The data refer to the stock of permanent and long-term residents as of 31 December of the years indicated.
5. The data refer to the stock of work permit holders as of 31 December of the years indicated.
6. Under a bilateral agreement signed by the Czech and Slovak Republics in 1992, nationals of each Republic have free access to both labour markets. Data
on Czech workers are monitored by the National Labour Office of the Slovak Republic.
Sources: Ministry of Labour and the National Labour Office of the Slovak Republic; Czech Statistical Office.
1995 1996 1997 1998
Inflows of permanent residents 4.6 2.5 2.3 2.1
Arrivals (excluding those from Czech Republic) 3.1 1.5 1.4 1.3
Arrivals from Czech Republic 1.5 1.0 0.9 0.8
Outflows of permanent residents 4.1 3.6 3.4 3.8
Departures (excluding those to Czech Republic)
1
0.2 0.1 0.3 0.9
Departures to the Czech Republic
2
3.8 3.5 3.1 2.9
Net migration 0.5 1.1 1.1 1.7
Residence permits newly granted by category
Long-term residence permits 3.7 3.5 4.1 2.2
3
Permanent residence permits 3.0 1.9 2.0 0.9
3
Family reunification 2.7 1.5 1.6 0.7
Other 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.2
Inflows of asylum seekers 0.3 0.4 0.6 1.0
Illegal migrants caught at the border 2.8 3.3 2.8 8.2
of which:
Inflows 1.3 1.0 0.7 1.9
Outflows 1.5 2.4 2.1 6.3
Holders of permanent or long-term residence permit, by country of origin
4
Czech Republic 4.3 5.1 5.8 . .
Ukraine 2.6 3.0 3.5 . .
Poland 2.3 2.5 2.8 . .
Former Yugoslavia 1.9 2.0 2.0 . .
Other 10.7 11.6 10.7 . .
Total 21.9 24.1 24.8 27.4
Work permit holders, by country of origin
5
Ukraine 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.7
Poland 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.7
Other 1.8 1.8 2.2 2.0
Total 2.7 3.3 3.8 3.7
Estimates of Czech workers
6
1.2 1.5 1.7 1.4
Slovak citizens abroad
Slovak workers in the Czech Republic 59.3 72.2 69.7 61.3
% of total foreign workers in the Czech Republic 53.0 50.4 53.3 55.1
Slovak citizens in Hungary 3.5 3.7 3.7 . .
% of total registered foreigners in Hungary 2.5 2.6 2.6 . .
Slovak workers in Austria 2.8 3.7 4.0 4.0
% of total foreign workers in Austria 1.4 1.4 1.6 1.7
Slovak Republic
251
OECD 2000
in that year; 50 successful applications were recorded in 1998. Until 1997, the Slovak Republic also took in a few
war refugees, who were housed in humanitarian centres. These centres have since been closed. Since 1996,
Afghans have constituted the largest group of asylum seekers. Between 1 January and 31 October 1999, they
accounted for 57% of applications, as compared with 12% from Iraq, 8% from Sri Lanka and 7% from India.
Family reunion
The largest number of permanent residence permits granted for reasons of family reunion (3 000) was
recorded in 1994, one year after the break-up of the CSFR. In 1998, the number of such permits granted was
much lower (700).
Numerical trends
For historical reasons, the ethnic composition of the Slovak Republic is highly varied. At the last census,
in 1991, almost 11% of residents said they were of Hungarian origin, 1.4% of gypsy stock and 1% Czech. In 1998,
the Hungarian minority still accounted for 10.5% of the total population. Hungarians are the largest minority
group in the Slovak Republic. In 1998, the number of Slovaks of Hungarian origin amounted to 570 000. The
proportion of gypsies in the total population has grown. According to the police services, there were some
350 000 gypsies in the Slovak Republic in 1998.
Under bilateral government agreements, the employment of foreigners in the Slovak Republic before 1989
was restricted solely to nationals of socialist countries and developed countries. But since 1996, the employment
of foreigners in the Slovak Republic as well as the employment of Slovaks abroad has been regulated by the
Employment Act No. 378 as well as the Labour Code. Apart from permanent residents, refugees, Czech nationals
and other foreigners employed within the framework of international agreements, all other foreigners wishing to
carry out a professional activity in the Slovak Republic must obtain a work permit. Such permits are granted on
the basis of a residence permit which is obtained for work reasons. Since 1997, foreigners able to prove that they
are of Slovak origin (going back three generations) are entitled to work without a permit.
Between 3 000 and 4 000 permits have been granted in each of the last two years (see Table III.35). The
proportion of foreigners in legal employment, compared to the Slovak Republics total labour force of
2 million, is negligible. Once foreigners are legally employed in the Slovak Republic, they enjoy the same
rights as nationals. Ukrainian, Polish, United States and United Kingdom nationals are the most numerous.
Almost a third are employed by foreign companies. The number of Czech workers, who are not required to
have a work permi t, may be deduced from the declarations sent by employers to labour offi ces.
Numbering 2 000 at the end of 1998, their unemployment rate is 4.2%, much lower than the Slovak average.
Slovak nationals who are not registered as permanent residents in the Slovak Republic may request
assistance from the Slovak authorities in their efforts to secure employment abroad. The primary destination
is the Czech Republic but since the increase in unemployment, the number of Slovak workers in the Czech
Republic has fallen slightly.
Under a bilateral agreement concluded before 1993 between the Slovak Republic and the Czech Repub-
lic, citizens working legally in the other country and who become unemployed may be paid benefits by the
Labour Office of their own country. The current relations between the two countries as regards labour law are
therefore very similar to the rules in force in the European Union.
252
OECD 2000
New legislation
A new Act concerning foreigners residence status came into force in 1995. Under this Act, there are three
types of residence permit in the Slovak Republic: short-term residence permits, limited to a maximum of
180 days, long-term residence permits, for a maximum period of one year, and permanent residence permits,
granted for reasons of family reunion or national interest or to persons of Slovak origin. The issuance of such
permits may be refused or withdrawn.
New international agreements
In 1998, the Slovak Republic concluded a bilateral agreement with Switzerland authorising free move-
ment, and is about to sign a similar agreement with Austria. Other agreements concerning free movement to
and from Indonesia, the Philippines and France are in course of preparation. Free movement agreements
reserved exclusively to diplomats or the holders of special passports were signed in 1998 with Kazakhstan, the
former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Algeria and Chile.
On the other hand, in the face of hundreds of applications for asylum by gypsies arriving from the Slovak
Republic, the United Kingdom has unilaterally suspended its free movement agreement with that country, as
did Ireland, shortly after, and the Bahamas. In the summer of 1999, the same measures were adopted tempo-
rarily by Finland, while Norway adopted a preventive measure. Finland and Norway abandoned these mea-
sures in November 1999.
Spain
Introduction
Spains recent economic performance has been strong, with GDP growing at a rate of 3.7% in 1999. Stimu-
lated by high domestic demand, moderate wage growth and low wage costs, employment rose by 4.6%; the
unemployment rate, having been 22% in 1996, stood at 15% at the end of 1999. The economic outlook is good
and migration, which is already supported by an active immigration policy, can be expected to increase.
Emigration
In 1998, as recorded by the General Directorate for Migration, 26 900 Spanish workers left the country
temporarily, an increase of 65% on the previous year. This temporary emigration was motivated by a variety of
reasons, such as wage differentials, income supplements and better social protection regarding unemploy-
ment, etc. Two out of three labour emigrants went to other European countries, in particular to France (15 000),
often to take up seasonal employment (see Table III.36).
Table I II. 33.
Although the statistics available on the number of permits issued provide only a approximate indication
of the immigration flow, it is clear that numbers rose in all immigrant categories in 1998. For example, issu-
ances of settlement permits doubled from 47 000 to over 93 000. The number of permits issued to students
rose by 25% (22 100 in 1998) and those to workers by almost 14% (28 100). The new arrivals came mainly from
Morocco (29%), the United States (11%), Peru (6%) and a comparable proportion (5% each) from the Dominican
Republic and from China.

SPAIN

Spain
253
OECD 2000
Application for asylum rose for a second consecutive year. In 1998, 6 760 people filed applications, up 36%
over the previous year. Some 38% of the applications were ruled to be admissible, and of those, 42% were
approved.
The largest groups of applicants were Algerians (1 600 applications) and Romanians (1 100 applications).
Two-thirds of applicants were men between the ages of 18 and 35. Over 80% of applicants did not have more
than secondary school education.
Requests for asylum were rejected because applicants were unable to prove that their request was justi-
fied (54%) or provided false or dubious documents and information (36%). Romanian nationals have the
highest rate of refusal.
Trends in the stock of the foreign population
Since 1991, the foreign resident population has doubled, partly because of the regularisation pro-
grammes for illegal foreigners decided upon in 1991 and 1996. Depending on the case, some foreigners were
granted both a work and residence permit or a residence permit only. There were 720 000 foreign residents at
the end of 1998, 18% more than the previous year; they accounted for slightly less than 2% of the total popula-
Table III.36. Current figures on flows and stocks of total population and labour force in Spain
Thousands
1. Stock of foreigners who hold a residence permit. Permits of short duration (less than 6 months) as well as students are excluded. Data refer to the population
on 31 December of the years indicated and include permits delivered following the 1996 regularisation programme.
2. Total permits issued, including seasonal and cross-border workers and renewals of permits. Provisional figures for 1998.
3. Since 1 January 1992, the nationals of the European Union do not need a work permit.
4. Seasonal and cross-border workers.
5. Data are for 31 December of each year and are counts of valid work permits. Workers from the EU are not included. Data include work permits delivered
following the 1996 regularisation programme. Provisional data for 1998.
Sources: General Directorate on Migration; Ministry of Labour and Social Security; Ministry of Justice.
1995 1996 1997 1998 1995 1996 1997 1998
Outflows of nationals 14.4 14.5 16.4 26.9 Total work permits granted
2
100.3 126.4 86.8 79.1
of which: to a European country 9.1 9.2 9.7 17.8 of which: Women 29.5 39.7 31.9 33.7
By industry division
Returns of nationals 18.5 26.6 . . . . Agriculture 18.9 26.0 18.4 15.6
Industry 7.5 8.6 5.8 4.4
Stock of foreign residents
1
499.8 539.0 609.8 719.7 Building 10.4 12.2 7.2 4.8
By region of origin Services 57.2 72.7 53.5 53.1
Europe 254.5 273.3 289.1 330.5 Not specified 6.3 6.9 2.0 1.4
Africa 95.8 98.8 142.8 179.5 By region of origin
America 108.9 121.3 127.0 147.2 Africa 57.4 70.6 44.2 32.2
Asia 38.5 43.4 49.1 60.7 Central and South America 22.7 30.2 23.3 28.0
Oceania 0.9 0.9 0.9 1.0 Asia 11.8 15.8 12.5 11.6
Stateless 0.3 0.4 1.0 0.7 Europe (except EU)
3
6.6 8.0 5.7 6.2
North America 1.6 1.6 1.1 0.9
By region of residence Oceania and other 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
Madrid 93.0 111.1 116.0 148.1 By type of permit
Barcelona 78.0 84.5 90.7 104.3 Long-term work permits
Alicante 39.5 42.7 42.6 44.6 Employees 4.6 29.6 27.3 14.5
Other 289.4 300.7 360.5 422.7 Self employed 2.0 4.8 3.7 2.5
One-year work permit
Acquisition of Spanish nationality Employees 83.3 81.1 51.1 58.8
Grants of Spanish nationality Self employed 8.5 7.0 3.0 1.9
(excluding persons recovering Other
4
2.0 3.9 1.8 1.5
their Spanish nationality) 6.8 8.4 10.3 13.2
Stock of foreign workers
5
139.0 166.5 178.8 190.6
254
OECD 2000
tion (see Table III.36). Since 1994, the stock of foreigners from non-EU countries has been growing steadily, ris-
ing by over 20% in 1997 and 1998. This can be explained by the application of the new regulations under the
Act on the Status of Foreigners, the main effect of which is to grant permanent, indefinite-term, permits to for-
eigners; it is also due to the arrival of new immigrants attracted by the upturn in economic activity and
employment that has taken place over the past three years and by the progressive increase in the quota for
foreign workers.
The residential concentration of foreigners is very high. One-third of foreign residents live in Madrid or Bar-
celona and three-quarters live in the Mediterranean provinces and the Canary Islands. Among non-EU nationals,
Moroccans constitute the largest group. On the whole, the African and Asian communities have grown the most
rapidly over recent years, increasing by 87% and 59% respectively between 1995 and 1998. Nevertheless, Euro-
pean residents remain the largest group. The number of foreign residents from all EU Member countries has
increased over the past four years, with the sharpest rise in the number of Austrians, Finns and Swedes.
However, nationals of the United Kingdom, Germany, Portugal and France remain the largest groups.
The proportion of women among foreign residents has been rising over recent years. Although the num-
ber of women and men is roughly the same among European immigrants, African immigrants are mostly male
while those from Asia and the Americas are predominantly female.
Naturalisations
Between 1995 and 1998, the number of naturalisations doubled. In 1998, 60% of those naturalised were
from South America. Nationals of the Dominican Republic were the most numerous, followed by Moroccans
and nationals of Equatorial Guinea. At 7%, Dominican nationals also had the highest naturalisation rate (the
percentage of a foreign resident population that has been naturalised).
By the end of 1998, more than 190 000 work permits had been issued, down by slightly less than 7% on the
previous year. The relative share of wage-earners has been rising yearly and 90% of work permits were issued
to workers in this category. The proportion of women has been growing and rose to 40% in 1998, a trend due to
the fact that they have entered the labour market more recently, which explains the larger number of work per-
mit renewals. It is also due to the fact that women outnumber men in the annual quotas for workers set by the
government.
Half of the workers are based in Madrid (31%) and Barcelona (20%). Non-EU workers are employed in ser-
vices (60%), agriculture (20%) and the remainder in industry and construction. Nearly half of foreign workers are
from Africa, with the largest numbers being Moroccan workers employed in agriculture. Nationals of South
American countries are the next largest group.
In 1998 more than 105 000 new applications for permits were filed, with an acceptance rate of 75%. This
was the lowest acceptance rate since 1991. Of the permits issued to wage earners (95% of the total), 60% were
first permits valid initially for one year, approximately 20% were for a duration of three to five years and 18%
were renewals for two years. The remainder consisted of seasonal or cross-border permits. The relative share
of the service sector grew in 1998, and this sector employs nearly 70% of foreign workers, 43% in domestic ser-
vices. African workers (especially Moroccans) were the main recipients of the permits granted in 1998,
followed by workers from South America (predominantly Peruvians and Ecuadorians) (see Table III.36).
Spain is developing a policy of quotas for foreign workers based on the needs of the labour market. In 1999,
the government decided to grant a maximum of 30 000 work permits to foreigners not residing legally in Spain.
The priority sectors are agriculture, construction and services. Between January and August 1999, just under
97 000 applications were filed, an increase of 50% on the corresponding period for the previous year. Slightly
more than 26 000 permits were issued to Moroccan (31%), Ecuadorian (12%) and Chinese (11%) nationals.
Sweden
255
OECD 2000
The influx of foreigners seeking to work in Spain is essentially due to two factors. For five years this trend
has been encouraged by the practice of quotas, regularisation programmes and agreements signed with sea-
sonal workers. Since April 1996, this active immigration policy has been supplemented by important legisla-
tive amendments that allow for greater flexibility in the management of work permits by making it possible to
grant them for longer periods, which provides for greater stability.
In August 2000, the Spanish government agreed to present to parliament a draft reform of the Immigration
Act designed to render it more restrictive. The key aspect of the reform concerns more stringent control of
undocumented immigrants, who will have to prove that they have been in Spain for over five years, rather
than two years, in order to regularise their situation. There are also provisions for increasing the penalties and
sanctions imposed on those who help migrants to enter Spain illegally, or employ them illegally.
Sweden
Introduction
After a period of stagnation, Swedens economy has recovered with growth of 3% in 1998 and 3.8% in 1999.
The recovery has actually had a highly positive impact on the labour market, with the unemployment rate
falling to 6.5%, substantially below 8% for the first time since 1993.
In 1998, there were some 500 000 foreign residents in Sweden, out of a total population of 8.8 million. Over
the last ten years migration flows have fluctuated considerably, in both qualitative and quantitative terms. These
changes are due both to recent economic trends and to the new thrust of Swedens migration policy.
Emigration flows of foreigners have been relatively stable for the past five years. In 1998, over
14 000 foreigners left Sweden. These were mainly other Scandinavian nationals. Immigration peaked in 1994
with 75 000 permanent entries (people stating that they wish to remain in Sweden for more than a year, not
including asylum seekers with applicants pending). By 1997, the figure had fallen by over half to 33 400.
In1998, the figure rose slightly, to 35 701; the migration gain totalled 21 564, an increase of 19.1% on 1997.
Around 40 000 residence permits were issued in 1998 (an increase of some 7.6% over the previous year).
Over half the permits were issued on family reunion grounds, nearly 21% to refugees and nearly 15% under
European agreements. Immigration for employment purposes is negligible (363).
The main groups are of Scandinavian, Iraqi, Yugoslav, Iranian and Bosnian origin. Immigration from the fif-
teen European Union countries totalled 8 353, or 23.3% of total immigration. Some 51% of immigrants are
female (see Table III.37).
Tabl e III. 34.
Asylum seekers
Since the early 1990s, the number of asylum seekers has fluctuated significantly, peaking in 1992 during
the war in the former Yugoslavia, with a total of 84 000 applications. Numbers have since fallen substantially,
numbering 5 800 in 1996. There were 12 460 asylum applications in 1998; the figure for 1999 is likely to be
around 11 200.
In 1998, a little over a third of asylum applications were made by Iraqis and nationals of the former Yugoslavia,
5.1% by Iranians, while smaller groups sought asylum from Afghanistan, Turkey, Somalia, Syria and Lebanon.

SWEDEN

256
OECD 2000
Although the Swedish Government has taken steps to encourage refugees to return home, the outcome
has been patchy. In 1998, for instance, just 375 refugees returned to Bosnia-Herzegovina, 55 to Chile, 26 to
Croatia, 14 to Iran and 11 to the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.
In 1998, Swedens total population stood at 8.85 million, of whom 5.6% (499 900) were foreigners. At this
time, over 968 700 people had been born abroad (10.9% of the total population). Of these, 40% had been set-
tled in the country for over twenty years and 558 200 held Swedish nationality. A further 779 000 people were
born in Sweden but had links, via their parents, with at least one other country. In 1998, there were in total
1 746 900 people of foreign origin, accounting for 19.7% of the total population (see Table III.37).
After declining steadily since 1993, the number of naturalisations rose spectacularly in 1998. Naturalisa-
tions totalled 46 502, a level not seen for over ten years, and included 8 991 nationals of the former Yugoslavia,
and approximately 1 700 Finns and Turks.
Table III.37. Current figures on flows and stocks of foreign population and labour force in Sweden
2. Data are from population registers and refer to persons who declare their intention to stay in Sweden for longer than one year. Figures do not include asylum
seekers who are waiting for decisions and temporary workers.
3. Residence permits are not required for Nordic citizens.
4. Foreign background, first or second generation immigrant only.
5. Persons with at least one parent born abroad. The increase between 1997 and 1998 depends mostly on quality improvements in the population register.
6. Annual average from the Labour Force Survey.
Sources: Swedish Immigration Board ; Statistics Sweden.
1995 1996 1997 1998 1995 1996 1997 1998
Total population
1
8 837.5 8 844.5 8 847.6 8 854.3 Number of residence permits
% of foreign population 6.0 6.0 5.9 5.6 by category of admission
3
32.4 31.7 36.6 39.4
Family reunification 19.7 18.8 18.9 21.7
Stock of foreign population
1
531.8 526.6 522.0 499.9 Refugees 5.6 4.8 9.6 8.2
Nordic countries 163.7 160.8 162.2 159.7 EEA-agreement 4.7 5.2 4.6 5.7
Finland 104.9 103.1 101.3 99.9 Foreign students 1.5 1.5 2.4 2.7
Norway 32.3 31.7 31.0 30.6 Adopted children 0.8 1.1 0.7 0.8
Denmark 26.5 26.0 25.4 25.0 Employment 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.4
Other countries 368.1 365.8 359.8 340.2
of which: Asylum seekers 9.0 5.8 9.6 12.5
Iraq 21.3 22.8 24.8 26.6 of which:
Former Yugoslavia 38.4 36.6 33.6 26.0 Iraq 1.8 1.6 3.1 3.8
Iran 29.3 27.2 26.2 19.8 Former Yugoslavia 2.4 1.1 3.0 3.4
Inflows of foreigners by nationality Persons with foreign background
4
1 630.1 1 656.6 1 683.7 1 746.9
or region of origin
2
36.1 29.3 33.4 35.7 Foreign-born 936.0 943.8 954.2 968.7
Nordic countries 6.3 5.6 5.3 5.8 Swedish citizens 497.3 510.6 579.2 558.2
Finland 2.8 2.6 2.8 3.0 Foreigners 438.7 433.2 375.0 410.5
Norway 1.7 1.5 1.5 1.6 Born in Sweden
5
694.0 712.8 729.0 778.6
Denmark 1.8 1.4 1.0 1.1 Swedish citizens 613.8 632.3 646.0 695.5
Other countries 29.8 23.8 28.1 29.6 Foreigners 80.2 80.5 83.0 83.0
of which:
Iraq 2.3 2.1 3.7 5.4 Stock of foreign labour
6
220 218 220 219
Former Yugoslavia 2.5 0.8 3.9 1.9 Nordic nationals 91 90 87 85
Non-nordic nationals 130 128 133 134
Net migration of foreigners
by nationality
2
21.2 14.9 18.1 21.8 Acquisition of nationality
Nordic countries 0.2 1.0 1.1 0.3 by country of former nationality 32.0 25.6 28.9 46.5
Finland 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 Former Yugoslavia 3.6 2.4 6.1 9.0
Norway 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.1 Finland 2.1 2.0 1.9 1.7
Denmark 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.1 Turkey 2.8 2.0 1.4 1.7
Other countries 21.4 15.8 19.3 22.1 Other countries 23.5 19.1 19.5 34.1
of which:
Former Yugoslavia 2.3 0.6 3.6 1.7 Mixed marriages 6.4 6.2 5.0 . .
% of total marriages 17.7 17.2 16.4 . .
Sweden
257
OECD 2000
During the 1950s and 1960s, Sweden made intensive use of immigrant labour to meet the needs of its rap-
idly expanding labour market. Over that period unemployment among immigrants was similar to that for the
whole population. The position has deteriorated markedly since then and the number of immigrants receiving
social benefits has risen fivefold.
In 1998, there were 219 000 foreign workers in Sweden, of whom 98 000 were women. This figure, relatively
stable over the past five years, represents around 5% of the total labour force. Those from the other Nordic
countries and the former Yugoslavia predominate on the labour market. The largest group of foreigners are the
Finns at around 52 000, followed by Yugoslavs (31 000) and Norwegians (17 000). Iranians, of whom there are
approximately 9 000, form the largest non-European group.
The number of residence permits issued for employment purposes, chiefly to highly skilled workers and
business persons, was marginal at some 400 in 1998, as in 1997. However, EU and Norwegian nationals are not
included in these statistics.
Temporary work permits are not systematically recorded in Sweden, but are issued for example to scien-
tists and artists or for seasonal work, in particular fruit-picking. Temporary work permits totalled 8 400 in 1996.
Numerous changes have occurred in Swedens migration policy over recent years. In particular, migration
procedures as a whole are now managed by the Swedish Immigration Council, rather than by the police. The
Council has recently taken over responsibility for all applications for residence permits. New offices have
been opened in air and sea ports and in some provincial towns. The Council also runs the detention centres
and it is gradually taking over responsibility for handling applications lodged at Swedens embassies
throughout the world.
In January 1999, the Council became the executive authority for carrying out expulsion orders, taking over
from the police though their assistance is still available when force may be required. Around 5 900 expulsion
orders were enforced in 1999. According to the Councils statistics, the police took part in 25% of them.
New naturalisation measures
Since the start of 1999, people who are unable to prove their identity may obtain Swedish citizenship if
they have resided in Sweden for at least eight years and can provide some evidence that their declared
identity is correct.
A Citizenship Committee recently proposed that Sweden should recognise dual nationality. Other mea-
sures to facilitate the acquisition of Swedish nationality for the children of unmarried Swedish fathers,
adopted children and stateless persons were suggested.
New integration policy and a new authority
A new policy on integration came into effect in 1998 and a new authority was established to implement it.
In September 1997, the government submitted a bill to Parliament entitled Sweden, the Future and the Plu-
ral Society From Immigration Policy to Integration Policy. In this framework, recognition of cultural and eth-
nic diversity is considered a prerequisite for the shaping and enforcement of new legislation, in whatever
sector or sphere of society. Policies directly addressing immigrants, as a group, should be confined to
expenditure and measures necessary in the early years after arrival in Sweden.
Integration policy seeks particularly to:
Provide opportunities to enable individuals to support themselves and to integrate in society.
Preserve essential democratic values and work to guarantee equal rights and opportunities for men and
women.
Prevent and eradicate discrimination, xenophobia and racism.
258
OECD 2000
The National Integration Office was set up in June 1998. It is responsible for implementing measures
designed to attain the objectives of integration policy and seeing that the new approach impacts on all sectors
of society. The Office further monitors and assesses developments concerning ethnic and cultural plurality in
the community as a whole.
Switzerland
Introduction
The upturn in Switzerland economic growth was confirmed in 1998. Real GDP rose by 2.1% as compared
with 1.7% the previous year. Accompanying this recovery, unemployment declined by over one percentage
point, from 4.8% in 1997 to 3.2%. The recovery has also had an impact on migration, which continued into 1999.
For the first time since 1992, for instance, Switzerland recorded noticeable growth in new entries (6.9%), while
the number of emigrants fell by 7%. Foreigners, in particular seasonal and cross-border workers, are however
still insecurely placed on the labour market compared with Swiss nationals, as evidenced by their greater
vulnerability to fluctuations in the business cycle and to corporate restructuring.
At almost 19%, Switzerland has one of the highest proportions of foreign nationals in the OECD area and is
in this respect second only to Luxembourg in Europe. Relative to its population, it also receives large
numbers of asylum seekers and refugees (applications for asylum rose by 72% in 1998).
For the first time since 1992, the migration balance was inverted and the country recorded a gain of
16 000. Whilst net migration was positive with Germany and France (36% of the gain), it was negative with
Portugal, Spain and Italy. While nationals of the former Yugoslavia (33% of the overall gain) still form the largest
immigrant group in Switzerland, the inflow from that area has been declining since 1994. Excepting nationals of
the former Yugoslavia, Germany (9 300), France (5 400), Italy (5 350) and Portugal (5 100) were the principal
source countries in 1998 (see Table III.38).
Table I II. 35.
In 1998, some 75 000 people entered Switzerland, 31% of them on family reunion grounds and 36% for
employment. Over three-quarters of them were under 35 years of age, and this is helping to slow down the
ageing of the Swiss population. Most of the new entrants were seasonal workers, mainly in catering and the
hotel industry, construction and agriculture/forestry.
Outflows were down on 1997. Almost 59 000 foreigners left Switzerland, headed by Italians, then Germans
and Spaniards. Over half of those leaving the country were aged 20-39 and the greatest number (19%) had
worked in banking and insurance.
There was a considerable increase in the number of political asylum seekers in Switzerland in 1998.
Almost 42 000 people filed applications (up 72% on the previous year). The political and economic situation in
the Balkans contributed to this (60% of applicants were from the area). However, acceptance rates varied
widely according to nationality. For instance, 23% of claims by nationals of Bosnia-Herzegovina were success-
ful, compared with 97% for the Vietnamese. In 1998, 3 460 applicants were deported and 6 480 left of their own
accord. Initial estimates for 1999 suggest another rise in applications.

SWITZERLAND

T
r
e
n
d
s

i
n

I
n
t
e
r
n
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

M
i
g
r
a
t
i
o
n

2
5
9

O
E
C
D

2
0
0
0
Table III.38. Current figures on the components of total population change, on migration flows and stocks of foreign population and labour force
in Switzerland
1. Data cover only foreigners with annual or settlement permits and include conversions of seasonal work permits into annual or settlement permits.
2. The introduction of a new data processing system explain the peculiarly high figure for 1995.
3. Data include only foreigners who obtained an annual or settlement permit during the indicated year. Conversions of seasonal work permits into annual or settlement permits are not included.
4. Figures cover foreign workers with settlement, annual, cross-border and seasonnal permits.
Source: Office fdral des trangers.
1995 1996 1997 1998 1995 1996 1997 1998
Population on 31 December of the years indicated 7 062.4 7 081.3 7 096.5 7 123.5 Foreign population by main nationality
1
1 330.6 1 337.6 1 340.8 1 347.9
% of foreigners 18.8 18.9 18.9 18.9 Italy 358.9 350.3 342.3 335.4
Components of foreign population change
1
30.5 7.0 3.2 7.1 Portugal 134.8 137.1 136.3 135.8
Net migration
1
26.8 12.0 9.3 16.0 Germany 90.9 92.7 94.7 97.9
Natural increase 13.3 14.1 13.4 12.7 Spain 101.4 97.7 94.0 90.4
Acquisitions of Swiss nationality 16.8 19.4 19.2 21.3 Turkey 78.6 79.4 79.6 79.5
Other
2
7.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 France 53.6 54.3 55.0 56.1
Other countries 218.1 221.1 225.5 231.6
3
Inflows by main nationality
3
87.9 74.3 72.8 74.9 Foreign workers
4
895.7 869.7 847.4 842.3
Former Yugoslavia 22.3 14.1 12.8 11.5 of which: Women 319.1 313.6 309.4 309.6
Germany 8.6 8.7 8.5 9.3 Inflows by status of residence
France 5.0 5.0 4.8 5.4 % of resident workers 81.3 81.5 81.7 82.1
Italy 6.7 5.4 5.0 5.3 % of cross-border workers 16.9 16.9 16.7 17.9
Portugal 7.6 5.5 4.0 5.1
Other countries 37.7 35.7 37.7 38.3 Foreign resident workers
Outflows by main nationality
3
67.5 67.7 63.4 59.0 By main nationality
1
728.7 709.1 692.8 691.1
Italy 10.3 10.8 9.9 8.6 Italy 214.3 202.5 191.7 184.4
Portugal 7.4 7.9 8.7 7.8 Former Yugoslavia 134.6 136.2 138.2 142.8
Former Yugoslavia 8.7 9.0 7.2 6.2 Portugal 80.5 79.3 77.4 76.6
Germany 6.6 6.2 5.9 5.5 Germany 56.3 56.7 57.3 58.7
France 3.8 3.7 3.5 3.3 Spain 63.5 59.8 56.4 53.7
Other countries 30.6 30.1 28.2 27.6 Others 179.5 174.6 171.7 174.9
Net migration by main nationality
3
20.4 6.6 9.3 16.0
Former Yugoslavia 13.6 5.1 5.6 5.3 By major industry division
Germany 2.0 2.4 2.6 3.8 Agriculture, forestry 14.8 14.5 15.5 13.6
France 1.2 1.3 1.3 2.1 Extractive and manufacturing industries 325.7 308.2 292.2 283.2
Portugal 0.2 2.3 4.7 2.7 Building 94.2 87.4 80.5 76.2
Italy 3.6 5.4 4.9 3.2 Trade 91.7 90.6 89.5 90.0
Other countries 7.0 5.6 9.4 10.7 Hotel, restaurants 81.3 80.4 80.0 81.2
Other services 120.9 128.1 135.0 147.0
Asylum seekers 17.0 18.0 24.0 41.3
Cross-border workers by nationality 151.0 147.0 142.0 142.5
Acquisition of nationality by country of former nationality 16.8 19.4 19.2 21.3 France (% of the total) 49.0 49.5 50.2 50.3
Italy 4.4 5.2 5.0 5.6 Italy (% of the total) 24.2 23.4 23.0 22.7
Former Yugoslavia 2.5 2.8 3.0 3.3 Germany (% of the total) 20.6 21.1 21.0 20.9
Turkey 1.2 1.4 1.8 2.1 Others (% of the total) 6.2 6.0 5.8 6.1
France 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.2
260
OECD 2000
Family reunion
Over 22 000 people gained permission for family reunion in 1998 (30% of all entries), but fewer than 10%
had an occupation. A typical person entering Switzerland on family reunion grounds is female (in 62% of
cases), has an annual residence permit (87%) and does not work (92%).
Trends in the stock of foreign residents
The foreign population increased by 7 120 to 1.35 million in 1998. They account for 19% of the total popu-
lation. This increase of some 0.5% was lower than in previous years and the trend has been downward
since 1991. The participation rate of the foreign population remained stable at 51.6% in 1998. Over half of all
foreigners in Switzerland are married men. Just over one-quarter of the foreign population have one-year
residence permits and around three-quarters have lived in Switzerland for over five years.
Over the past 20 years there has taken place considerable change in the nationality mix of the foreign
population (see Table III.38). Italians, in spite of steadily falling numbers (down 40% between 1974 and 1998),
still comprise the largest group, accounting for almost one-quarter of the foreign population. They are closely
followed by migrants from the former Yugoslavia (24%), whose numbers are rising all the time (up 1 300%
between 1970 and 1998), Portugal (10%), Germany and Spain (approximately 7% in both cases). Nationals of
countries that share borders with Switzerland account for 38% of the foreign population. The great majority of
foreigners residing in Switzerland come from EU and EFTA countries.
The German-speaking region has the largest number of foreigners (64% of all those residing in the country)
but the French-speaking region still has proportionally most foreigners, nearly 27% of the population there.
The average age of the foreign population is lower than that of the Swiss population. The 0-19 and the 20-
64 age groups account for, respectively, 26.1 and 68.8% of the foreign population as compared with 22.5 and
59.9 respectively for the Swiss population. The number of people entitled to an old-age pension is over three
times higher among the Swiss than among the foreign population. Furthermore, in 1998 births outnumbered
deaths by 12 740, 5% fewer than in 1997.
Naturalisations
The Federal Act on the Acquisition and Loss of Swiss Citizenship distinguishes between ordinary naturali-
sation, re-integration, facilitated naturalisation, recognition of Swiss citizenship under the new right of filiation,
marriage to a Swiss citizen and adoption. With applications sharply up on 1992, Swiss citizenship is becoming
popular again. In 1998, 21 280 people acquired Swiss citizenship, 11% more than in 1997. Two thirds applied
through the ordinary procedure, one criterion being more than 12 years of residence. Some 30% were eligible
for facilitated naturalisation. Most candidates were migrants from EU and EFTA countries.
Mixed marriages
On 1 January 1992, changes were made to the legislation governing the acquisition of Swiss citizenship by
marriage. A foreign wife must now wait three years before naturalisation, which is subject to conditions regard-
ing uninterrupted residence and duration of married life. It should be noted that, with regard to the standard
requirement of 12 years residence in Switzerland, years of marriage to a Swiss woman count double.
Of the 3 850 000 people in the Swiss labour force in 1998, 18% were foreign nationals. Of those, 60% held
settlement permits and 20% one-year permits. In 1998, the number of seasonal workers stood at almost 28 800
and cross-border workers at approximately 142 500. In all, some 843 000 foreigners were engaged in gainful
employment on Swiss soil, 0.5% down on the previous year, thus confirming the downward trend which began
Switzerland
261
OECD 2000
in 1995. The explanation lies in a decline in economic activity, the application of legal provisions (lower quotas
for seasonal workers) and trends in the sectors traditionally employing foreigners (the hotel and construction
industries). Heading the list of foreign workers are the Italians, French and Portuguese (see Table III.38).
Some 48% of the unemployed are foreign. Reflecting their greater vulnerability to changes in the business
cycle, in 1998 the unemployment rate of foreigners was 7.4% as compared with 2.3% for Swiss nationals
Skilled and highly skilled immigrants
The 1998 figures show that a large proportion of foreigners on the labour market are in commerce, banking
and insurance (22%), followed by metalworking and machine tools (16.5%), hotels and catering (11.5%) and
construction and civil engineering (10.5%). In comparison with the previous year, the number of foreign work-
ers declined by 5.3% in construction and civil engineering, by 1.7% in metalworking and machine tools and by
2.4% in hotels and catering.
Illegal employment of foreign workers
The only statistic available on foreigners without the required permits is the number of orders banning
former illegal foreign residents from re-entering the country. Of the 9 760 bans issued in 1998, 15% concerned
illegal workers. The most numerous were nationals of the former Yugoslavia, well ahead of the French,
Portuguese and Italians. The hotel sector is the largest employer of illegal immigrants.
Foreigners labour market integration
Responsibility for integration policy lies with the cantonal and communal authorities. A new Act passed in
June 1998 gives the Confederation scope to play a more active role in funding projects that promote social integra-
tion. Its annual contribution, according to the Federal Commission for Foreigners (CFE), is estimated at
CHF15 million. In 1998, the CFE also launched a two-year project on Skills for Migrants, with the support of the
Federal Office for Vocational Training and Technology. The aim is to give young foreigners better access to
apprenticeships and vocational proficiency courses and to encourage foreign employers to provide training places.
1998 was marked by the signature of bilateral agreements with the EU that will come into force in 2001.
They focus in particular on two policy issues, the free movement of persons and labour market access.
The first agreement establishes the free movement of persons, the granting to all EU nationals residing in
Switzerland treatment equal to that accorded to Swiss nationals, the adoption of the acquis communautaire on
mobility and family reunion and the abolition of the status of seasonal worker (this latter to be replaced by regu-
lations governing short-term stays in line with those of the European Union). The measures contained in the sec-
ond agreement will be phased in gradually. In the transitional phase, EU nationals can work in Switzerland
subject to quotas, priority for residents and the monitoring of pay and working conditions. The priority and moni-
toring arrangements will lapse two years after the implementation of this agreement, but the quota will apply for
five years. Free movement will be introduced during the sixth year. During the seventh, however, Switzerland
reserves the right to hold a referendum on the future of the agreement. These agreements with the European
Union were endorsed by a referendum on 21 May 2000. Over two-thirds of the Swiss population voted in favour,
opening up a new era of co-operation with the EU Member States. There are also plans for Switzerland to join the
countries in the Schengen Agreement, whereby a visa issued in any one is valid in all the others.
Revising the law on the residence and settlement of foreigners is a further fundamental aspect of policy.
The new legislation sets out the general principles relating to foreigners, asylum, integration as well as foreign
policy concerning migration. An 18% initiative, aimed at restricting the number of foreigners to 18% of the
total population, was the subject of a referendum in September 2000; it was rejected, as have the four other
proposals to limit immigration put forward over the last 30 years.
262
OECD 2000
Asylum and refugee status
Four principles underlie Switzerlands policy on asylum:
Any person threatened or persecuted in their country of origin according to criteria recognised by inter-
national law will be given asylum in Switzerland.
Switzerland allows temporary right of entry to those living in war or disaster zones when it is unable to
provide assistance to those regions.
Rejected asylum seekers will systematically be sent back to their country of origin.
Switzerland vigorously combats abuses of the asylum procedure, in particular when applicants have
committed offences.
Temporary permission to enter the country may be given to applicants refused political refugee status
(civil war in their country of origin). Between January and December 1998, over 23 700 people were ordered to
leave Switzerland; the whereabouts of over half of them are unknown. Given the growing number of appli-
cants, particularly from the Balkans, the Federal Council decided to bar asylum seekers and persons tempo-
rarily admitted from taking work for one year, but its impact has not yet been measured.
Turkey
Introduction
After three years of sustained GDP growth (at an average of 7% from1995 to 1997), the economy began to
slow down in 1998 (growth of 3.1%) due to the financial crises in Asia and the Russian Federation, and then dete-
riorated markedly in the aftermath of the earthquakes (GDP declined by 5% in 1999). Nevertheless, the labour
market does not seem to have suffered; Turkeys unemployment rate declined form 10.1% in 1998 to 7.3% in 1999.
The Turkish economy remains highly dependant on the agricultural sector and suffers from an underdeveloped
financial sector and chronic monetary instability, due to serious budget deficits that are largely financed through
inflation. An agreement concluded with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in 1998 provides for a restructur-
ing of public finances, the acceleration of privatisation policy and the establishment of a coherent incomes policy
based on inflation reduction objectives with the rate of inflation to be cut from nearly 65% in 1999 to 25% by the
end of 2000, 12% in 2001 and 7% in 2002. This reduction in the rate of inflation will mainly be contingent on a
reduction in wage growth in the civil service and the adoption of a tight monetary policy.
Since 1994, the number of Turks obtaining work abroad through the Turkish Employment Office (TEO) has
been declining steadily by nearly 20% per year. In 1999, it fell by approximately one-third in comparison to the
previous year (see Table III.39).
Table I II. 36.
Although the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) and the Gulf States remain the two areas that
receive the most Turkish workers, the pattern has changed following the economic crisis in Russia; Turks have
been increasingly going to the European Economic Area (up 30% on 1998) rather than to the former republics
of the Soviet Union (down 50% over the same period). Although emigration flows have declined, the waiting
list established by the TEO continues to grow, which shows that workers still wish to go abroad, not only to
find jobs but also to obtain higher salaries, since three-quarters of candidates are skilled workers and many of
these already have a job.
In terms of flows, the leading destination in 1999 was Saudi Arabia (replacing the Russian Federation), fol-
lowed by Germany. Given the economic outlook in the Gulf States, it is unlikely that migration flows to these

TURKEY

Turkey
263
OECD 2000
countries will rise. Saudi Arabias pre-eminent position is due solely to the slack labour market in other coun-
tries, and in particular to the economic difficulties in the Russian Federation. In the future, migration to the Rus-
sian Federation and Western Europe might rise, since many joint venture projects between Turkish and Russian
firms are in the pipeline. There will also be a growing need for migrants in some European countries due to the
ageing of their populations, which, in the case of Germany for example, might benefit Turkish workers, even
though there is strong competition from Central European countries. Nearly 90% of Turkish emigration flows to
other OECD countries are to Germany (which received 13% of total flows in 1999 as compared with 7% in 1998).
Since the beginning of the 1990s, Turkey has had to cope with very large migration flows from Bulgaria,
Bosnia and Iraq. Even though for many migrants Turkey is merely a transit country, the fact remains that its ris-
ing standard of living is increasingly attracting immigrant workers from Central Europe and Turkish-speaking
students from the republics of the former USSR to stay and/or work for longer in the country.
Numerical trends
Turkey is not considered to be an immigration country. Slightly fewer than 165 000 foreigners were resi-
dent there in 1999 (approximately 0.5% of the total population), many of whom come from the CIS and the
European Economic Area (15% in each case). Flows from the American continent and the rest of Europe
concern highly skilled workers who come to Turkey in connection with foreign direct investment projects.
The number of foreign residents increased by 7% in 1999 over the previous year. Nearly half came from
central and eastern Europe, in particular Bulgaria, Romania, Poland and the CIS. Mention should also be made
of highly qualified technicians and engineers from the Russian Federation, who have no difficulty in integrating
into the Turkish labour market.
Naturalisations
Host country legislation on the acquisition of nationality varies in its restrictiveness. Recently, Germany,
the main receiving country, liberalised its legislation in this field and, for the first time, the principle of jus sanguinis is
Table III.39. Number of Turkish workers sent abroad
by the National Employment and Placement Office,
by country or region of destination, 1996-1999, Turkey
Thousands
1. The data also include the other countries of the Economic European Area.
Source: Ministry of Labour and Social Security, General Directorate of
Workers Abroad.
1996 1997 1998 1999
New Independent States 25.9 17.0 13.2 6.8
Saudi Arabia 5.6 7.7 6.8 5.2
EU
1
2.6 1.9 1.8 2.4
of which: Germany 2.4 1.8 1.7 2.4
Israel 3.7 4.3 1.8 1.5
Libya 2.1 1.8 1.0 0.7
Cyprus 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3
Romania 0.5 0.2
Australia 0.1
Total 40.7 33.3 25.9 17.5
264
OECD 2000
no longer the only criterion used, since, under certain conditions, jus solis can now be recognised. Children
born in Germany to foreign parents who have lived in the country for at least 8 years and have had a perma-
nent residence permit for at least 3 years will be eligible for German nationality. But these children will have
to choose between German or Turkish nationality between the ages of 18 (age of majority) and 23. Thereafter,
they lose the right to apply for German citizenship. It is important to bear in mind that since 1995, although
Turkish law allows for dual nationality, renunciation of Turkish nationality no longer automatically results in the
confiscation of property.
Germany is the foremost host country for refugees and asylum seekers from Turkey (more than
9 000 applications in 1999, representing 16% of the total number), followed by the United Kingdom and France.
Labour migration
The official figures for 1998 show that nearly 5% of Turkish nationals live abroad, 36% of whom are
employed. The largest number live in the European Economic Area. The employment situation of these
Turkish nationals varies considerably across countries. For example, over 90% of Turkish immigrants in Qatar
and Saudi Arabia work, while only 35% of them work in Germany. This shows that they emigrate to the Gulf
States for economic and work-related reasons, but that family reunion is the predominant reason for going to
other countries, particularly in Europe. This difference, despite the agreements with the European Community
giving Turkish workers priority for job vacancies not filled by workers from the EU, is explained by poor com-
mand of the host countrys language, insufficient formal education and a lack of occupational and technical
training. As a result, Turks are more vulnerable to economic fluctuations and more affected by unemployment
than host country nationals and other foreign communities. This is the case in Belgium, Denmark, the
Netherlands, France and Germany.
The population of Turkey was estimated at approximately 67 million in 1998, of which nearly 35% are actu-
ally employed. Given that there is no unemployment benefit system and that family workers and self-
employed constitute a large proportion of the labour force, it is as important to estimate underemployment as
unemployment which remained stable at around 6% between October 1997 and October 1998. The annual rate
of population growth (2%), its demographic structure (a third of the population is below 14 years of age), and
the likely rise in the participation rate point to a rapid increase in the labour force in the years to come, which
risks leading to a worsening of the general employment situation.
Unit ed Kingdom
Introduction
Although GDP growth marked a pause at the end of 1998, bringing to an end five consecutive years of
rates in excess of 2.5%, the slowdown was limited and brief. In the middle of 1999, GDP was up 0.7% on the
year before, service sector output up 2.3% but manufacturing output down 1.3%. Whilst the manufacturing sec-
tor has shown signs of recovery, particularly in some hi-tech areas, it is the service sector that has really gained
momentum during 1999. There is some evidence that the UK economy is becoming less homogeneous, the
main dichotomies being between the manufacturing and service sectors and between the North and South. In
southern Britain, particularly the South-east, growth is much faster than in the rest of the country.
Although employment growth has decelerated slightly the labour market has remained tight. This is espe-
cially the case in London and the South-east where, accompanying the strong growth in the service sector,

UNITED KINGDOM

United Kingdom
265
OECD 2000
over 55% of the net employment growth between the end of the first quarter of 1998 and that of 1999 took
place. Both manufacturing and service companies have been reporting difficulties in recruiting skilled workers.
In 1998, migration inflows again responded positively to the strong economic performance. Net migration
was the highest for over 15 years. Furthermore, reversing the traditional labour-force balance of these flows,
whereas in 1997 the UK enjoyed an overall net gain of 4 000 persons in employment compared with 56 000 not in
employment, the 1998 figures were 71 000 and 60 000 respectively. Having declined in 1997, the number of ille-
gal immigrants detected increased once more in 1998 renewing the strong upward trend of recent years. The
number of asylum applications increased by over 40% in 1998, the figure of 58 500 being the highest since 1991.
Net flows of non-UK nationals have been positive throughout the 1980s and thus far through the 1990s.
The flow pattern has broadly reflected changes in economic conditions with a lag of some 12-18 months. The
amplitude of fluctuation has been rather less than that of British citizens. A disaggregation of the flow data into
the European Union (excluding Ireland whose citizens share with those of the United Kingdom a Common
Travel Area) and non-EU citizens reveals that the former, having fluctuated between 4 and +9 000 during
the 1980s (with the exception of 1986), have increased substantially since 1994. Having remained broadly con-
stant in 1997, the number rose once again in 1998, by almost 50% to 43 000 (see Table III.40). During the 1980s
and through to 1992, the net flows of non-EU citizens fluctuated to a greater extent around a core value of
approximately 40 000 since which time they have increased year on year to 65 000 in 1997 and to 91 000
in 1998, the highest recorded in this data series.
Tabl e III. 37.
The balance of immigration, traditionally very much in favour of those not in employment, changed
in 1998. Whereas in 1997, 59% of the outflow but only 48% of the inflow was employed, in 1998 the figures were
60% and 58% respectively. And so, whereas in 1997 the UK enjoyed an overall net gain of 4 000 persons in
employment compared with 56 000 not in employment, the 1998 figures were 71 000 and 60 000.
Illegal immigration and deportation
Some 16 500 illegal entrants persons who entered the country using false papers or clandestinely were
detected in 1998. This compares with 7 500 in 1994, 10 400 in 1995, 14 500 in 1996 and 14 300 in 1997 and thus
renews the strong upward trend of recent years. The number of persons removed as illegal entrants, including
those who left voluntarily following the initiation of enforcement action, again increased substantially, by over
10% to 7 260.
Asylum
The basis for granting refugee status continues to be the 1951 Geneva Convention and the 1967 Protocol.
Applicants who do not fully meet the Convention criteria, but for whom it would be unreasonable to enforce
their return to their home country, may be granted exceptional leave to remain (ELR) status, renewable
annually. From time to time there are special refugee programmes, normally involving people already recogn-
ised as Convention refugees, in response to particular problems. These people (such as the 25 000 South-east
Asian refugees, mainly Vietnamese, accepted for settlement since 1979) are not normally included in the sta-
tistics of asylum applications and decisions. Neither do the figures include certain people who were allowed
to remain on an exceptional basis, without applying for asylum, because of the situation in the country of ori-
gin, for instance particularly vulnerable individuals from the former Yugoslavia and their dependants received
in the United Kingdom under arrangements announced on 30 November 1992 and 6 August 1995.
Applications in 1998
Having fallen back sharply in 1996 following the introduction in February of that year of restrictions on
asylum seekers eligibility for social security benefits, in 1997 the number of applications (including depen-
dants) rose again, by 4 500 to 41 500. In 1998, the number increased by over 40%, the figure of 58 500 being the
highest since 1991.
T
r
e
n
d
s

i
n

I
n
t
e
r
n
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

M
i
g
r
a
t
i
o
n

2
6
6

O
E
C
D

2
0
0
0
Table III.40. Current figures on migration flows and stocks of total population and labour force in the United Kingdom
Note: European Union totals from 1995 onwards include the new member countries (Austria, Finland and Sweden).
1. Data are from the International Passenger Survey. Movements between the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom are not recorded. Data for 1998 are provisional. Data includes adjustments for asylum
seekers and for persons admitted as short-term visitors who are subsequently granted an extension of stay for other reasons.
2. An acceptance of settlement is not required for EU citizens.
3. Data are from the national Labour Force Survey.
Sources: International Passenger Survey; Home Office Statistical Bulletin; Control of Immigration Statistics; National Labour Force Survey.
1995 1996 1997 1998 1995 1996 1997 1998
Migration flows
1
Total grants of citizenship in the United Kingdom
Total inflows 320.7 331.4 340.7 401.5 by previous country or region of nationality 40.5 43.1 37.0 53.3
Inflows of non-British citizens 229.4 227.8 244.2 290.2 Europe 4.6 4.7 4.3 5.9
of which: European Economic Area 1.8 1.7 1.5 1.3
EU 59.1 69.5 71.5 77.6 Other European countries 2.9 2.9 2.8 4.7
Non-EU 170.3 158.3 172.7 212.6 America 4.1 4.3 3.5 5.2
Inflows of British citizens 91.3 103.6 96.5 111.3 Africa 7.9 9.2 8.0 12.9
Total outflows 212.0 238.4 248.7 223.7 Indian sub-continent 9.9 10.8 8.5 14.6
Outflows of non-British citizens 93.9 99.2 117.9 112.5 Middle East 3.5 3.5 2.8 4.3
of which: Other Asian countries 4.8 5.2 4.1 6.4
EU 36.6 42.7 52.3 47.2 Oceania 1.7 1.5 1.4 1.7
Non-EU 57.3 56.5 65.6 65.3 Other countries 3.9 3.9 4.3 2.5
Outflows of British citizens 118.1 139.2 130.8 111.2
Net migration 108.7 93.0 92.0 177.8 Grants of citizenship in Hong Kong, China 25.7 5.5 3.4 . .
Non-British citizens 135.5 128.6 126.3 177.7
of which: Asylum seekers (total applications received) 44.0 29.6 32.5 46.0
EU 22.5 26.8 19.2 30.4 By region of origin
Non-EU 113 101.8 107.1 147.3 Europe 7.1 6.5 9.1 17.8
British citizens 26.8 35.6 34.3 0.1 Africa 22.5 11.3 9.5 12.4
Asia 13.0 10.0 10.9 14.7
Acceptances for settlement 55.6 61.7 58.7 69.8 Other 1.4 1.8 2.9 1.1
By region of origin According to the place where the application was received
Europe (excluding EU)
2
4.0 7.4 7.6 7.3 At port 14.4 12.4 16.6 23.4
America 8.2 8.5 7.8 10.8 In country 29.6 17.2 15.9 22.7
Africa 12.0 13.0 13.2 16.1
Indian Sub-Continent 14.5 13.6 13.1 16.4 Illegal immigration statistics
Middle East 2.9 4.8 4.2 4.2 Persons against whom enforcement action taken 16.0 21.4 19.9 21.1
Remainder of Asia 8.8 9.5 8.4 9.5 Persons removed from country 5.0 5.4 6.5 7.3
Oceania 3.5 3.5 3.1 3.7
Other 1.8 1.5 1.4 1.8 Available sources on inflows of foreign workers
By category of acceptance Labour Force Survey 51.0 50.0 59.0 68.0
Accepted in own right 6.4 6.7 7.6 10.3 International Passenger Survey 77.0 89.0 79.0 120.0
Spouses and dependents 44.9 48.6 46.2 53.0 Department of Social Security 133.9 145.9 130.3 . .
Other 4.3 6.5 4.9 6.4 Work permits 35.5 37.7 42.4 49.7
of which
Stock of total population
3
Short-term 15.6 16.8 19.0 . .
Total population 57 406 57 624 57 870 58 106 Long-term 15.5 16.9 18.7 . .
Total number of British citizens 55 442 55 680 55 796 55 895 Trainees 4.4 4.0 4.7 . .
Total number of foreign nationals 1 948 1 934 2 066 2 207
Total stock of employment
3
Total 25 699 25 962 26 446 26 736
British citizens 24 835 25 095 25 497 25 696
Foreign nationals 862 865 949 1 039
United Kingdom
267
OECD 2000
As in 1997, half of the applications in 1998 were made within the United Kingdom by people who had
already entered in some other capacity. This sizeable fall on the proportion of the two previous years (65 and
55% in 1995 and 1996) is assumed to be the consequence of the aforementioned benefit restrictions as well as
of the imposition of visa regimes.
Decisions in 1998
The number of initial decisions made on asylum applications in 1998, excluding dependants, was 31 600,
a decrease of 12% on 1997. This decrease was due to administrative changes in handling cases.
Of the initial decisions made in 1998, 5 300 (17%, as compared with 10% in 1997, 6% in 1996 and 5% in 1995)
were to recognise the applicant as a refugee and grant asylum, 3 900 (12%, as compared to 9, 13 and 15%
respectively in the three previous years) were not to recognise as a refugee but to grant exceptional leave to
remain and the remaining 22 300 (over 70% as in 1996) were to refuse both asylum and exceptional leave.
Thus, in 1998, the proportion of positive decisions increased.
Over 60% of the 5 300 grants of asylum in 1998 were to nationals of Somalia and the former Yugoslavia.
There were also significant increases in grants of asylum to Iraqis, Algerians and Colombians. Those granted
exceptional leave to remain were mainly from Afghanistan (nearly 40% of the total), Iraqis (15%), Somalis and
nationals of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (both 10%).
Of the 22 300 cases refused Pakistanis, Sri Lankans, former USSR nationals each accounted for 9% and
Chinese a further 7%. The number of non-compliance refusals (for failure to produce evidence to support the
asylum claim, including failure to appear for an interview to establish the applicants identity) appears to have
settled at a low level, implying that the administrative measures introduced in 1991 to deter multiple and
fraudulent claims, and the provision in the Asylum and Immigration Appeals Act 1993 to fingerprint asylum
seekers, have been successful.
The Labour Force Survey is the only source of data permitting a breakdown by nationality of the stock of
foreign population and workforce in the United Kingdom. The survey includes all United Kingdom and foreign
citizens, but the relatively small size of the sample (one sample interviewee is weighted up to approximately
300 people) means that disaggregation by nationality and migrant characteristics cannot be detailed.
During the period 1992-96 stocks of foreign nationals in the United Kingdom fluctuated around the
2 million mark. Having increased by almost 7% in 1998 to just over 2.2 million, the figure remained constant
in 1999. In 1999, the preponderance of females among the foreign population continued (53.1%) and, indeed
increased as a slight fall in male numbers was compensated by a similar rise in those of females.
As in previous years, the Irish were easily the largest national group in 1999, 20% of all foreign nationals,
down on the year before (21.6%), but with the number almost unchanged for the last five years. Indians and
US citizens again occupied second and third places. There were substantial numbers also from Pakistan and
Bangladesh. After the Irish, the next largest European group was German (85 000) for the first time displacing the
Italians in that position. A group whose numbers have steadily risen since 1995 is the Turks, up from 29 000 to
63 000 in 1998, but falling back to 41 000 in 1999. The rise in Turkish numbers may principally have been among
Kurds who have sought asylum, though this cannot be verified from the LFS data. African numbers continued
their rise since 1997, reaching 249 000 in 1999, the largest number recorded from that source, while those from
Asia fell slightly but still totalled over half a million. Australian numbers resumed their rising trend having fallen
back in 1998, while those of Canadians fell back to the relatively stable level they have assumed since 1993.
Settlement
Settlement, in the context of migration in the United Kingdom, refers to the acquisition of permanent
residence status. Most of the individuals acquiring permanent residence status have already resided in the
United Kingdom for a considerable period of time (typically four years continuously) in order to fulfil qualify-
ing periods of residence. In 1998, a total of 69 800 persons were granted settlement, of whom the proportion
268
OECD 2000
accepted on the basis of family ties with other UK residents declined slightly to 76%. Those accepted on the
basis of having held a work permit was almost unchanged at less than 5%.
As in recent years, the majority of those granted settlement in 1997 were young, with almost
three quarters of those accepted aged under 35. Only 4% were aged 60 and over. Those from the Indian sub-
continent, who accounted for just under one quarter of the total, continued to be generally younger with about
85% of acceptances under 35, though there was a relatively higher proportion from that source aged 60 and
over, reflecting acceptances of elderly relatives.
Citizenship and naturalisation
Having been drifting downwards since the beginning of the 1990s, grants of British citizenship increased
by 45% in 1998 to 54 000 (see Table III.40). This in large part due to the administrative services success in
reducing the substantial backlog of applications generated by the high level of applications received in 1997
(which had had the effect of reducing the number of decisions made, and hence grants, in that year). Grants on
the basis of marriage, having declined by over one quarter in 1997 to account for only 28% of the total as com-
pared to the previous norm of one third, increased by almost 80% in 1998 bringing the proportion up to 43%.
The increase in this category had the effect of bringing the proportion of Indian sub-continent nationals up to
27% of the total, as compared to the previous years figure of 22% and the previous norm of one quarter.
The number of foreign nationals working in the United Kingdom fluctuated between 850 and 900 000
from 1993 to 1996. Having since risen strongly, to exceed one million for the first time in 1998 (3.9% of the total
in employment), the number fell back slightly to 1.005 million in 1999. A 1.5% decline to 552 000 in the number
of foreign workers from non-EU countries is responsible for this, the number of foreign workers from other
EU countries having remained almost unchanged at 453 000 (45% of all foreign employment, the highest figure
in recent years). Irish workers account for just under half of all EU workers; it would appear that the Republics
continued strong economic growth is having little effect on the net labour migration of its nationals vis--vis
the UK. Significant non-EU groups were the 122 000 from the Indian Sub-continent, the 55 000 United States
nationals, the 40 000 from western African states and the 36 000 Australians.
The foreign national working population has a broadly similar socio-economic structure to that of the
overall population, but differs in a number of ways. It is generally more skilled, with a higher proportion (30.3%
rather than 24.7%) categorised as professionals, employers or managers, at the expense of the intermediate
non-manual group. This is particularly the case among non-EU foreigners, 32.1% of whom are in the former cat-
egory. The situation for EU nationals is affected by the inclusion of the Irish, who proportionately contain
about the same number of the first category as the total labour force, but considerably less than the rest of
the EU (25 and 31% respectively). Compared with foreigners as a whole, a higher proportion of Irish are also to
be found among manual groups (44%). However, the trend in recent years is for the Irish to include more of the
highly skilled, bringing them closer into line with the rest of the EU. In general, it would appear that the
tendency for foreign nationals to be more skilled than their UK counterparts has been increasing.
Work permits
Applications for work permits are made by the employer on behalf of the non-EEA potential employee in
order to fill a specific post. (Since 1994, EEA nationals have not required a work permit.) During 1998, new
issues of work permits and first permissions for those engaged in training combined with work experience
totalled 49 700, an increase of 17% on 1997. In 1999, the number fell back by 10% to 44 500. The major countries
of origin are other advanced industrial countries with which the United Kingdom has developed a network of
expertise exchange, notably the United States and Japan.
An analysis of the occupations for which the permits have been accorded reveals that the work permit
system is mainly operating to bring in, on a long-term basis, the highly skilled. The rise in the number of long-
term work permits holders over the last few years is consistent with an increased demand for skills as the UK
United Kingdom
269
OECD 2000
economy emerged strongly from recession and went into a period of sustained growth. The data also suggest
that deregulation in the UK labour market has opened it up to labour from outside the EEA.
The work permit system is characterised by a turnover of labour, though for a substantial minority it
results in a grant of the right of settlement. Based on a comparison between the number of permit holders
granted settlement and the number of long-term work permits issued four years previously since 1985, the
propensity of work permit holders to settle permanently is one quarter.
Seasonal workers
The United Kingdom has one seasonal worker scheme, in agriculture. The origins of the scheme go back
to the period after the Second World War when Displaced Persons were employed as seasonal agricultural
labourers. Systematic data on the present scheme have only been collected since 1992, however. All new
recruits must be students in full time education abroad, and aged between 18 and 25. The period of work is of
a maximum of 3 months and should not extend beyond 30 November. The total number recruited each year is
governed by a quota, currently set at 10 000, though the actual number is normally below this level. That said,
the scheme has been growing in importance with the number of workers admitted rising from less than 3 600
in 1992 to just under 9 450 in 1998. Almost 98% of those admitted are from central and eastern Europe. As
in 1997, Poland accounted for almost 40% of the total and the former Soviet Union almost 30% in 1998; of these
latter, Lithuanians accounted for over 40%. The majority are male, though their proportion has been falling,
from 67% in 1992 to 54% in 1997; the proportion was unchanged in 1998.
Corporate transfers
In 1998/9, the average number of people working abroad a year before the time of the Labour Force Sur-
vey was 80 000, the same as in 199 though much higher than the averages in 1996/7 and in 199
5
/
6
(66 000 and
61 000 respectively). Of these about 30 000 (38%, a fall of just over 2% on 199) worked for the same employer
at both times and may therefore be assumed to be corporate transferees. The majority (18 000) were foreign
nationals. The numbers of corporate transferees for 1997 and 1998 are considerably higher than in the years
before and represent a substantial reversal of a fluctuating but generally slow downward trend from the mid-
1980s. The 1998/9 figure reflected only a small downward shift in numbers. It is still not clear whether the
recent increase was due to random statistical fluctuations caused by the sampling or reflects a significant
change in corporate relocation practices.
Working Holidaymakers
Commonwealth citizens aged between 17 and 27 wishing to work in the United Kingdom for limited peri-
ods do not require a work permit. Their employment is allowed under the working holidaymakers scheme.
The annual number employed under this scheme, having risen from 23 200 in 1990 to 33 300 in 1997, with a
peak of 36 000 in 1995, rose by over 20% in 1998 to almost 40 800; the data for the first six months of 1999 point
to a further increase.
Source countries are dominated by the Old Commonwealth, with Australians the largest group, account-
ing for 42% in 1998. The number of South Africans has grown rapidly following the introduction of black major-
ity rule: having shot up from three in 1993 to over 2 300 in 1994 they have since consistently accounted for over
20% of those employed under the scheme: the figure of 28% in 1998 made them the second most important
group ahead of New Zealand (19%) and Canada (9%).
Though little is known about their characteristics, it would be reasonable to assume that they are gener-
ally well educated and adaptable. As these people are in the United Kingdom to both work and take a holiday
one cannot know how many of them are working at any one time. Although data providing a regional break-
down of where they go to are not available, it may reasonably be expected that London and other major tour-
ist centres would employ the bulk of them, where they account for a numerically significant and highly flexible
element in the labour market.
270
OECD 2000
Since 1999 policy development has been dominated by the passage through Parliament and the imple-
mentation of the new Asylum and Immigration Act. The background and major provisions of the Act were
outlined in the 1999 edition of this report.
Other significant initiatives include:
As was stated in the 1999 edition of this report, in response to claims that the Eurostar train service from
Belgium was being used to bring inadequately documented passengers into the United Kingdom, the
Carriers Liability legislation was extended to the train operator in April 1998 for the route between
Brussels and London. For reasons relating to French domestic legislation, however, it had not been pos-
sible to extend this liability to the Eurostar train services from France to the UK. In 1999, just under
7 900 passengers arrived at the London terminus without proper documentation. In March 2000, the
French and UK governments initialled an additional Protocol to the Channel Fixed Link Protocol which,
upon ratification (expected in 2001) will allow British immigration officers to check the documents of
would-be travellers to the UK before they leave from the Eurostar termini in France. French officials will
similarly be permitted to make checks in the UK.
The announcement by the government in March 2000 that, in response to reports that significant num-
bers of asylum seekers were engaged in begging in the streets (a criminal offence, compounded in
some cases by the abusive use of small children), legislation would be drafted such that asylum seekers
convicted for such an offence would automatically be put on a fast track to have their case for refugee
status examined, with a presumption that it would be rejected. The first hearing would be held within
seven days, followed by a three-week period of grace for an appeal to be launched, the success of
which would be doubtful given the abuse of the benefits system implied by their conviction.
The introduction in May 2000, in response to an estimated 2 000 persons per month illegally entering
the UK hidden in vehicles, of a non-criminal penalty of GBP 2 000 to be imposed on drivers for each ille-
gal entrant to the UK discovered in their vehicle. This measure was accompanied by the publication of a
code of practice for the drivers of road haulage and private vehicles, buses and coaches which advises
them how they should secure their vehicles before travelling to the UK.
The announcements in March and in May 2000 that a fast-track work permit system is to be introduced
in order to speed up the recruitment of foreign workers by companies experiencing severe skill short-
ages and that certain information technology, communications and electronics occupations are to be
added to the work permit shortage occupation list. The scheme, which includes measures to acceler-
ate the administrative procedures, is aimed at hard-pressed sectors such as information technology and
engineering. This initiative aims to attract skilled workers predominantly from Asia and eastern Europe.
The time taken a company to secure and renew work permits for non-EU employees is to be shortened
from three months to one week. The issuance of permits and the stamping of passports will in future be
combined into a one-stop shop run by the overseas labour service of the Department of Education and
Employment. The maximum permit period will be extended from four to five years. Season ticket per-
mits for regular, short-term workers and a plan to allow outstanding individuals to apply for permits on
their own behalf, rather than through a company, were among other changes announced. It will also be
made easier for non-British high-level university students to switch from temporary student visas to full
employment permits.
United States
271
OECD 2000
United States
Introduction
The US economy has enjoyed annual growth rates of over 4% in the second half of the 1990s. At less than
4%, the rate of unemployment remains very low. Labour shortages are starting to be felt in some key sectors.
As a result, the government is coming under strong pressure to further open up the labour market, especially
to highly-skilled immigrants. The question of whether the quota of H-1B visas should be increased has been
hotly debated in Congress.
The downward trend in permanent immigration observed in 1997 was confirmed in 1998. Nearly
660 500 immigrants obtained a permanent residence visa, three-quarters of whom on family reunion grounds.
This 17% overall decline from the 1997 figure is due essentially however to a lengthening of the waiting list of
those (who are often already in the country) who have applied for this type of visa. If processing delays are
resolved, it is highly probable that in the next few years permanent immigration will rise.
Most of the legislative reforms proposed recently [in particular, the restoration of food stamps to all eligi-
ble immigrants, the extension of an amnesty to nationals of El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Haiti and
Liberia] have yet to be voted on by the Congress.
1. Trends in migration flows
Emigration
There do not exist reliable statistics on emigration flows. It is estimated, however, that emigration has
been rising steadily since 1950, at an annual rate of more than 100 000 between 1970 and 1990, and more than
200 000 a year in the 1990s. The US Bureau of the Census estimates that the annual emigration flow (of both
US citizens and foreigners) is currently 220 000 (i.e., less than 0.1% of the total population). The UN and the
European Commission estimate that 200 000 immigrants leave the United States every year, mainly for
Mexico, the United Kingdom and Germany.
Inward and outward flows of foreigners
Immigration into the United States can be divided into three main streams, that of: i) immigrants persons
who possess a permanent residence permit, ii) non-immigrants these are persons with a temporary status,
and, iii) illegal immigrants.
In 1998, slightly less than 660 500 people obtained immigrant status, 17% fewer than the previous year
and 28% less than in 1996. This markedly downward trend is due not to a decline in the number of applications
but instead largely to a steady increase in the number of people awaiting a decision. This rose from 435 000
in 1996 to 809 000 at the end of 1998. The fact that for 1995-97 [under the Immigration and Nationality Act
Section 245 (I)] undocumented immigrants who have lodged admissible applications can stay in the United
States while they are waiting to obtain this immigrant status has helped to lengthen the list. The Immigration
and Naturalization Service (INS ) has estimated that during the period 1995-98, the annual volume of immigra-
tion would, on average, have been 110 to 140 000 higher (i.e., much the same as over the previous three years)
had the length of the waiting list remained constant.
Permanent immigrant status is granted primarily on the grounds of family reunion (72% of the total
in 1998). In that year, those entering under this category for reasons of employment (including accompanying
family members see Section 3, Migration and the labour market) accounted for a further 11.7% of the total
and those accepted on humanitarian grounds accounted for 8.3%.
It must be stressed that the figures available on the number of new immigrants do not reflect the number
of new entries into the United States. The possibilities for student, temporary workers or other temporary
immigrants to transform their temporary status into permanent immigrant status are numerous. Thus, in 1998,

UNITED STATES

272
OECD 2000
approximately 45% of new immigrants had already been living in the United States. The backlog in the appli-
cations process and the decrease in the quota set for a part of family immigration explain the fall in total immi-
gration since 1997. In 1996, exceptionally, the family immigration quota was increased by an amount
corresponding to that part of the employment-based quota which had not been used up the previous year.
Since 1997, the family immigration quota has been kept at 226 000, its minimum annual level.
Asia, Europe and the Caribbean provide the largest number of immigrants. Mexico remains however the prin-
cipal country of origin, accounting for a fifth of total immigration in 1998. In that year, six States (California, New York
State, Florida, Texas, New Jersey and Illinois) received nearly two-thirds of the new immigrants (see Map III.2).
Map III .2.
Between 1900 and 1990, about 38 million permanent immigrants were admitted, and nearly 12 million for-
eign-born persons emigrated. Thus, for every 100 immigrants admitted, 30 returned to their home country (or
moved to another country).
Illegal migration
All those who have crossed the border illegally or who have failed to respect the terms of the residence or
employment visa accorded to them are classified as illegal immigrants. The Immigration and Naturalization
Service (INS) estimates that visa overstayers accounted for nearly 41% of all illegal immigrants in 1996.
The INS estimates that in 1999 the illegal immigrant population was almost 6 million, having in
October 1996 been between 4.6 and 5.4 million. It is estimated that this population is rising by 275 000 every
year. Mexicans account for over half of all illegal immigrants, followed, a long way behind, by nationals of El
Salvador (6.7%) and Guatemala (3.3%).
Faced with the extent of the phenomenon, Congress passed the Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA)
of 1986, establishing a legalisation program. Approximately 2.7 million illegal immigrants took advantage of it.
Note: The 10 States who admitted the largest number of immigrants are pointed out on the map. Figures in parentheses indicate the
number of immigrants entered in Fiscal y ear 1997 (in thousands).
Source: 1997 Statistical Yearbook of the INS, US Department of Justice.
Map III.2. Immigrants admitted to the United States
by State of intended residence, Fiscal year 1997
Inflows
New Jersey (41.1)
Illinois (38.1)
Florida (82. 3)
California
(203.3)
Washington (18.7)
New York
(123.7)
Massach. (17.3)
Virginia (19.3)
Texas (57. 9)
Maryland (19.1)
0.2 to 1.9
1.9 to 3.5
3.5 to 5.2
5.2 to 6.9
Inflows
New Jersey (41.1)
Illinois (38.1)
Florida (82. 3)
California
(203.3)
Washington (18.7)
New York
(123.7)
Massach. (17.3)
Virginia (19.3)
Texas (57. 9)
Maryland (19.1)
0.2 to 1.9
1.9 to 3.5
3.5 to 5.2
5.2 to 6.9
Inflows
New Jersey (41.1)
Illinois (38.1)
Florida (82. 3)
California
(203.3)
Washington (18.7)
New York
(123.7)
Massach. (17.3)
Virginia (19.3)
Texas (57. 9)
Maryland (19.1)
0.2 to 1.9
1.9 to 3.5
3.5 to 5.2
5.2 to 6.9
Inflows
New Jersey (41.1)
Illinois (38.1)
Florida (82. 3)
California
(203.3)
Washington (18.7)
New York
(123.7)
Massach. (17.3)
Virginia (19.3)
Texas (57. 9)
Maryland (19.1)
0.2 to 1.9
1.9 to 3.5
3.5 to 5.2
5.2 to 6.9
Inflows
New Jersey (41.1)
Illinois (38.1)
Florida (82. 3)
California
(203.3)
Washington (18.7)
New York
(123.7)
Massach. (17.3)
Virginia (19.3)
Texas (57. 9)
Maryland (19.1)
0.2 to 1.9
1.9 to 3.5
3.5 to 5.2
5.2 to 6.9
United States
273
OECD 2000
Penalties were subsequently introduced for those employing illegal immigrants, and border controls were
tightened up. In this latter regard, the introduction in 1993 of new measures dramatically increasing border
enforcement patrols to discourage illegal border-crossers before they crossed the border. Since the start of
the 1990s the government has also become increasingly concerned by the large number of migrants who have
stayed on in the country after the expiration of their visa.
Immigrants illegally entering the United States remain there for widely varying lengths of time. Notewor-
thy in this regard is the considerable extent of short-term circular migration between Mexico and the United
States: immigrants come to work in the United States (in massive numbers to California where there exists a
large demand for unskilled labour) and then return to their country once they have accumulated sufficient sav-
ings, repeating the process on a regular basis. The tightening of border controls has disrupted significantly this
form of migration.
Refugees and asylum-seekers
Behind that of admittance for family reunion, the flow of those entering as a refugee or asylum-seeker is
often the second largest channel of immigration into the United States. The law defines and treats those per-
sons fleeing persecution differently according to whether they have applied for asylum in the United States
(asylum-seekers) or from outside (refugees). Both groups can eventually adjust to immigrant status: refugees
are eligible after having been in the country for one year, but successful asylum seekers often take longer as
the number of adjustments to immigrant status is limited to 10 000 per year.
Every year, Congress sets a ceiling on the number of refugees to be allowed into the country. It is not
strictly a quota since it can be revised during the year (for example, the ceiling was adjusted upwards in
August 1999 because of the Kosovo crisis), but nonetheless this figure and the actual number of refugees
admitted in are closely correlated. The ceiling contains a regional breakdown, though it is possible for trans-
fers to be made from one region to another during the year if this is considered to be necessary. The ceiling
for 2000 was set at 90 000 entries, whereas for the previous three years it was between 78 000 and 83 000.
Since 1994, the largest regional ceiling has been for refugees from the former Soviet Union. Conversely,
the ceiling for persons from South-east Asia fell from 45 000 in 1994 to 14 000 in 1998, and was set at 8 000
for 2000. In August 1999, in response to the Kosovo crisis, the total ceiling was raised from 78 000 to 91 000.
Nearly 14 000 refugees arrived from Kosovo, of whom 2 600 have left and others are about to.
At the start of 1990s, the United States had to cope with the arrival of large numbers of Haitians and
Cubans fleeing their respective countries. The exodus of the Haitians came to an end with the return to power
of President Aristide in October 1994. That of the Cubans was checked by an agreement by the US and Cuban
governments under which the United States would admit 20 000 Cubans immigrants each year, in return for
which the Cuban government agreed to take the necessary steps to stem the outflow of its citizens.
The Asylum Officer Corps has doubled the number of its staff since 1994: 300 officials now process asylum
requests. Successive reforms of the applications procedure have made it possible to reduce substantially the
backlog of applications. At present, only 20 000 of the requests filed before the reforms are still pending.
Family reunion
Family reunion, the principal component of the immigration into the United States, accounted for 72% of
total permanent immigration in 1998. It is composed of two categories:
Immediate family members of US citizens, i.e., spouses, unmarried minor children and parents. This category
does not have a numerical limit and accounted for nearly 45% of all new permanent immigrants in 1998.
Other family members i.e., adult children, brothers and sisters of US citizens and spouses and unmar-
ried children of permanently resident foreigners. There are four preference categories each of which is
subject to a numerical limit. They accounted for almost 30% of all new permanent immigrants in 1998.
274
OECD 2000
Numerical trends
Immigrant data collection from the monthly population survey (Current Population Survey) was launched
in January 1994. It provides the United States with a second source of data on the foreign-born population, the
other being the ten-year census.
Between 1970 and 1998, the foreign-born population increased much more rapidly than the native popu-
lation. It rose from 9.6 million to 26.3 million, and its proportion of the total population doubled. Since the
early 1990s, the foreign-born population has risen by a third, and the number of economically active persons
in that population has increased by 39%, spread between the various sectors of the economy.
The geographical origin of the foreign-born population in the United States has changed considerably
since the 1970s. Whereas in 1970 the European-born immigrant population accounted for 60% of the total for-
eign-born population, it accounted for only 22% in 1990. During the same period, the first European cohorts
entered old-age and began to experience high mortality rates. Today, the largest contingents of immigrants
are from Asia and Central America.
Naturalisations
To acquire US nationality, it is necessary to meet a number of conditions regarding age, lawful entry and
length of residence in the country, command of English and knowledge of the United States history. The number
of naturalisations doubled between 1992 and 1995 (from 240 000 to 488 000) and then again in 1996, to over
one million. One of the reasons for this was that in 1996 a large number of immigrants who had been legalised
through the IRCA programme became eligible for US citizenship. In the following three years, naturalisations
numbered respectively 598 000, 473 000 and 872 000.
Since 1992, the year in which the 1990 Immigration Act (IMMACT 90) came into force, the numerical limit
on the annual number of employment-based visas has risen from 54 000 to 140 000. During the period 1992-98,
immigrants entering the country for work purposes accounted for (not including accompanying persons)
between 4.6 and 5.8% of total immigration flows. The main reason why this percentage has remained low
despite the rise in the overall annual quota is the considerable increase in other categories of immigration
(especially family reunion). In addition, part of the quota is taken up by workers families (see Table III.41).
The employment-based preference system favours the entry of highly-skilled workers.
Table I II. 38.
Immigration of highly-skilled personnel
The United States also takes in a large number of temporary workers categorised as non-immigrants, a
large proportion of whom are highly-skilled workers. The system of recording temporary migrants was modified
two years ago with the collaboration of the Canadian immigration services in order to remedy various shortcom-
ings in the way these migrants are counted. Analysing the statistics in this area is thus problematic. Many of
these temporary workers stay in the country for more than one year. Holders of the H-1B visa, created for the
highly-skilled, can stay for up to six years for example. The main categories of temporary workers are traders and
investors entering on the basis of international agreements, H-1B professionals and intra-company transferees.
The number of Canadian workers entering the country under the North American Free Trade Agreement
(NAFTA) has risen steeply, from 25 000 in 1994 to nearly 60 000 in 1998 (in this latter year there were also
17 000 family members). By contrast, the number of Mexicans entering the country under the agreement is still
negligible. This agreement concerns business people, investors, intra-company transferees and highly quali-
fied professionals. Its purpose is to facilitate the temporary entry of this type of personnel. Whereas there are
no limits on entries from Canada, the number of entries from Mexico is limited to 5 500 per year. This limit is
scheduled to be abolished as from 1 January 2004.
United States
275
OECD 2000
4. Migration policies
New legislation
Because of the forthcoming elections, many legislative proposals will not reach the statute book. On the
other hand, other proposals which had been abandoned were brought before Congress again. In particular, the
proposal to split the INS into two separate entities was again put forward, as was that for a new Agricultural
Guestworker Program. Also, under pressure from the employers concerned, the issue of raising the quota of
H-1B visas is being discussed again in Congress.
Admission and residence
Two new programmes provide for the entry of very limited numbers of temporary workers: the Nursing
Relief for Disadvantaged Areas Act of 1999 permits the admission of up to 500 nurses each year and the Irish
Peace Process and Cultural Training Program of 1998 permits a limited number of young Irish nationals to
receive three-years training in the United States.
Employers in high-technology sectors are pressing for a significant increase in the annual quota of
H-1B visas. A figure of 200 000 has been put forward (the 2000 quota was 115 000).
Legislation has been proposed to reinstate section 245(i) which would enable those illegal residents
eligible for immigrant status to adjust their status without leaving the United States.
Table III.41. Employment-based immigration, by preference, fiscal years 1995-1998, United States
Thousands
Source: US Department of Justice, 1997 Statistical Yearbook of the Immigration and Naturalization Service.
1995 1996 1997 1998
Total, employment 1st preference 17.3 27.5 21.8 21.4
Aliens with extraordinary ability 1.2 2.1 1.7 1.7
Outstanding professors or researchers 1.6 2.6 2.1 1.8
Multinational executives or managers 3.9 6.4 5.3 5.2
Spouses and children of 1st preference 10.6 16.5 12.7 12.7
Total, employment 2nd preference 10.5 18.5 17.1 14.4
Members of the professions holding advanced degrees or persons of exceptional ability 5.0 8.9 8.4 6.9
Spouses and children of 2nd preference 5.5 9.6 8.7 7.5
Total, employment 3rd preference 50.2 62.8 42.6 34.3
Skilled workers 9.1 16.0 10.6 8.5
Baccalaureate holders 5.8 5.5 4.0 3.9
Spouses and children of the above 23.3 29.0 19.2 15.6
Chinese Student Protection Act 4.2 0.4 0.1
Other workers (unskilled workers) 3.6 6.0 4.0 2.7
Spouses and children of unskilled workers 4.2 5.8 4.7 3.6
Total, employment 4th preference 6.7 7.8 7.8 6.6
Special immigrants 2.9 3.5 3.7 2.7
Spouses and children of 4th preference 3.8 4.4 4.1 3.9
Total, employment 5th preference 0.5 0.9 1.4 0.8
Employment creation, not targeted area 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Spouses and children 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.2
Employment creation, targeted area 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.2
Spouses and children 0.2 0.3 0.7 0.4
Total, employment preferences, principals 37.4 51.6 40.3 33.8
Total, employment preferences, dependents 47.9 65.9 50.3 43.7
Total, employment preferences 85.3 117.5 90.6 77.5
% of total permanent settlers 11.8 12.8 11.3 11.7
276
OECD 2000
Legislation has also been proposed creating an amnesty programme granting immigrant status to nation-
als of El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Haiti and Liberia, similar to the legalisation program for Nicaraguans
and Cubans created by the 1997 Nicaraguan Adjustment and Central American Relief Act (NACARA) of 1997.
The provisions of Proposition 187, the controversial 1994 initiative by the State of California, which would
have denied illegal immigrants access to public education, social services and non-emergency medical care
were declared unconstitutional.
New Zealand
Introduction
This report provides an overview and analysis of the historical development of New Zealands migration
flows and policies, with particular emphasis on recent policy initiatives designed to enhance the contribution
of immigration to the countrys medium-term economic development and to prevent abuses of the system.
Modern immigration to New Zealand dates back to the 19th century at which time, reflecting the countrys
status as a British colony, the flows were overwhelmingly composed of British migrants and Australian migrants
of British descent. This state of affairs was institutionalised by the passing in 1899 of the Immigrants Restric-
tion Act which limited access to those of British or Irish descent or those able to pass a written English lan-
guage test. From the end of the Second World War through to the beginning of the 1990s, New Zealands
immigration policy became more open and focused essentially on meeting the immediate needs of the labour
market. Since 1991, immigration policy has reflected instead a focus on medium-term human (and investment)
capital development. The implementation of this policy is rendered transparent through the use of points
tests and has recently been refined by the use of risk management tools, in particular the use of refundable
bonds which enable travellers who would otherwise have been declined a visa to enter New Zealand as well
as the use of non-convertible visas and permits.
1. The history of migration to New Zealand
New Zealand is a country created and shaped by immigration. New Zealands indigenous people, the
Maori, arrived in a series of voyages between 750 and 1350 AD from the islands of Polynesia. Contact with
European explorers, followed by sealers, whalers, and traders, began in the late 18th century.
The Treaty of Waitangi was entered into by the Maori people and the British Crown in 1840. The main pur-
pose of the Treaty was to ensure that both parties to it would live together peacefully and develop New
Zealand together. The Treaty was an exchange of sovereignty for protection it gave the British Crown power
to govern and in return the Crown extended its royal protection to Maori and promised to respect Maori
authority over land, resources and other prized possessions.
At the time of the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi there were between 1 000-2 000 Europeans and 70-
90 000 Maori in New Zealand.
3
By the end of the following decade steady immigration and the effects of intro-
duced diseases and firearms resulted in the European population equalling the depleted Maori population of
60 000.
4
These trends continued as a combination of gold rushes and immigration programmes (which assisted
selected migrants by subsidising the cost of the long sea journey to the colony) led to the European popula-
tion nearly trebling in the 1860s and doubling in the 1870s.
5
Assisted immigration would bring 100 000 people
to New Zealand between 1871 and 1880.
6
By 1881, the non-Maori population had reached 490 000.
7
This was
overwhelmingly composed of English, Irish, and Scottish migrants, who together with Australian migrants of
British descent, enjoyed preferential access to New Zealand. Only small numbers of mainly Western European
migrants came from other nations.
8
Immigration declined in importance in the latter part of the 19th century as depression led to the loss of
many migrants to Australia, a reversal of earlier trends and part of a cyclical process that would also be

NEW ZEALAND

New Zealand
277
OECD 2000
repeated in the 20th century. The depression resulted in cuts to the assisted immigration programme as many
blamed the supposedly excessive immigration of earlier decades for New Zealands problems. In any case,
natural population growth was succeeding immigration in importance as the 1886 Census revealed that 52% of
the non-Maori population were born in New Zealand.
9
As a result of this and the effects of the assisted immi-
gration scheme the population began to lose its earlier frontier nature and assume a more balanced age and
gender structure.
Another feature of this period was rising hostility towards minority migrant groups, in particular small
numbers of Chinese migrants (around 5 000 by 1881) who had come to New Zealand to work on the goldfields.
Throughout the 1880s and 1890s, a series of progressively harsher Immigration Acts were introduced, culminat-
ing in the 1899 Immigrants Restriction Act which limited access to those of British or Irish descent or those able
to pass a written English language test.
10
The turn of the century saw a return of prosperity, and with it, a renewed emphasis on immigration.
Droughts in Australia resulted in a return to earlier trends and some 44 000 Australians migrated to New
Zealand between 1900 and 1906.
11
There was also a return to assisted immigration in 1905, intended to
redress labour shortages and, in the 1920s, to restore the gender balance, which had been disturbed, by the
primarily male immigration of the 1900s. Between 1901 and 1928, immigration added over 200 000 people to
the population, again overwhelmingly of British, Irish, and Australian provenance as restrictive immigration
policies were reinforced in 1919 and 1920 with the aim of maintaining a White New Zealand, much like
Australian policies of the era.
12
The onset of the Great Depression in the late 1920s saw cuts in immigration as unemployment and hous-
ing issues became paramount. Until 1945, immigration fluctuated with economic conditions and wartime disrup-
tion.
13
The period is also notable for slightly increased diversity in immigration flows as spouses joined already
established minority groups and settlers from India arrived to work on drainage schemes. Together with the
acceptance of refugees from fascism in the 1930s and war in the 1940s, these developments foreshadowed the
more open immigration policies of the post-war period.
Between 1945 and 1975, New Zealand witnessed its most sustained population growth of the 20th century,
growing from 1.7 to 3 million people, a growth rate of 2% which was high compared to other predominantly
European nations at the time.
14
This was due largely to natural population growth, but was supplemented by
225 000 migrants between 1947 and 1968.
15
In 1945, the new Dominion Population Committee had recom-
mended that immigration could be used to fill labour shortages, with the additional goal of consolidating New
Zealand as a British country.
16
From 1947 to 1991, New Zealands immigration policy focused on meeting labour market skills shortages.
In 1947, a new assisted passage scheme was introduced, targeting British migrants with specific skills, but
ongoing labour shortages saw this expanded over the following years. From the 1950s to the early 1970s, immi-
gration followed a cyclical trend driven by economic fluctuations as migrants were sought in times in prosper-
ity but frequently arrived too late, to become a target of hostility in times of recession until the next economic
upswing brought a return to migrant recruitment.
17
Perhaps more significant was the great increase in migrant diversity in this period. The 1951 bilateral
Netherlands migration scheme brought 30 000 Dutch migrants to New Zealand between 1952 and 1972.
18
Even
more significant was the growth in migrants from the Pacific Islands who were recruited to fill a labour shortage
of unskilled and semi-skilled workers. Between 1945 and 1976, the number of Polynesians living in New
Zealand grew from 2 159 to 65 694.
19
Most settled in Auckland, which has became the largest Polynesian city
world. In addition, New Zealand continued to accept refugees, largely from Eastern Europe but by the 1960s
and 1970s also from Asia, Africa, the Middle East, and South America.
The 1970s saw considerable changes in immigration as a labour shortage early in the decade led to the
recruitment of migrants from Britain, Western Europe and the United States. This resulted in a surge of
migrants, peaking at 70 000 in 1973-4 but by that time the boom was over.
20
The consequent pressure on ser-
vices and housing led to a new public attitude to immigration and a reconsideration of traditional policies,
although the latter ironically took place during a period of net population outflow, largely to Australia, of
100 000 people between 1976 and 1986.
21
More significantly, the events of the early 1970s led the Government
to end the policies of assisted immigration, the bilateral agreement with the Netherlands, and the previously
278
OECD 2000
unrestricted entry of British migrants. The exception to these changes was the special relationship with Austra-
lia (by which citizens of either nation may live and work in the other), which has been maintained to this day.
22
These changes were quickly followed by the opening up of immigration to non-traditional sources and the
formation in the 1980s of an explicitly non-discriminatory policy emphasising individual merit over ethnicity or
nationality.
These developments were expressed in a new policy developed in 1986.
23
This provided for immigration
to be managed on the basis of four categories of potential migrant: occupational, business, family, and human-
itarian. A new emphasis on business migrants, together with a new policy for occupational migrant selection
intended to be more responsive to labour market needs, marked the ongoing development of the traditional
policy of selecting migrants that would help strengthen New Zealands economy.
A major shift in New Zealands immigration policy took place in 1991. The Wilson Report
24
of that year had
noted the inefficiencies of a policy framework based around meeting short term labour market skills. Some
modifications were introduced during the policy development phase, but the new General Category and Busi-
ness Investment Category policies which took effect on 18 November 1991 reflected a focus on medium term
human (and investment) capital development rather than immediate labour market needs. Further, in order to
introduce transparency and more objectivity into immigration assessments, New Zealand adopted a points
test to assess applicants human and investment capital.
In practice, it quickly became apparent that the policies introduced in 1991 had some deficiencies. In par-
ticular, because there was no effective assessment of English skills, many skilled migrants from non-English
speaking backgrounds arrived in New Zealand with poor English. This made it difficult for them to find jobs.
The difficulties faced by these migrants were compounded by the inability of many to effectively transfer their
human capital to New Zealand, because their qualifications (for which they had been awarded immigration
points) were not always recognised by professional bodies and/or employers. The settlement difficulties of
these skilled migrants were a major driver for a review undertaken in 1994/95,
25
which led to a number of
policy changes.
The key objective of developing New Zealands human (and investment) capital base remained in place,
but the importance of that human capital being transferable to New Zealand was recognised in the post-1995
policy framework. Firstly, a robust means of assessing English language skills was introduced; secondly, if reg-
istration with a professional body was required before a migrant could work in New Zealand, an applicant had
to gain that registration before points for those qualifications could be awarded; fourthly, points for a job offer
in New Zealand were increased; finally, some marginal points were awarded for people with New Zealand work
experience. There are indications that the post-1995 cohort of skilled migrants have found settlement easier.
Settlement assistance has also developed since 1995, albeit in a piecemeal way. The NZISs Settlement
Information Programme has provided pre-arrival and initial settlement information since 1995, via a pre-arrival
settlement pack and video, and post-arrival newsletters for up to two years. Specialist information is also
being gradually introduced, with material targeted at young people and older migrants. In addition, the NZIS
and the Office of the Race Relations Conciliator have produced an Ethnic Communities Directory.
A specialist Business Migrant Liaison Unit, which is a telephony based advice and information source, was
established in 1998. More recently, the NZIS has established a national Migrant Helpline offering new arrivals
information and referral to key services.
2. New Zealands population and migration movements
As at December 1998, New Zealands population was estimated to be 3 803 900.
26
At the time of the 1996
Census, 75% of the New Zealand population identified with a European ethnic group. Maori, New Zealands
indigenous people accounted for the next largest group of people, around 15%. Five percent of the population
identified with Pacific Islands and Asian ethnic groups respectively.
27
In addition to natural increase and immi-
gration, a number of factors impact on New Zealands population. For example, Trans-Tasman travel
28
and the
arrival and departure of New Zealand citizens, migrants and long-term visitors all affect population levels in New
Zealand. These factors are illustrated when looking at trends in permanent long term arrivals and departures.
29
New Zealand
279
OECD 2000
Permanent and long-term arrivals and departures
Permanent and long term refers to those people who indicate on their arrival (or departure) card that
they intend to be in (or away from) New Zealand for 12 months or more. Permanent and long-term migration
figures are not directly related to immigration residence approvals. Chart III.15 shows permanent and long
term arrivals and departures from 1991/92. A break-down by nationality for the 1998/99 year (Table III.42 refers)
illustrates the significance of inward and outward flows of New Zealanders. A further break-down reveals that
(where information was available) Professional was the most frequently recorded occupational classification
for both permanent long-term arrivals and departures. It should, however, be noted that for a significant pro-
portion of both arrivals and departures, occupation was unspecified or not collected (approximately
31 000 departures and 29 900 arrivals).
Chart III .12.
Tabl e III. 39.
Net migration
The sum of all permanent and long-term arrivals minus permanent and long-term departures produces
the net migration gain or loss for a given year. An increase in permanent and long-term departures accompa-
nied by a decrease in permanent long-term arrivals has contributed to steadily decreasing net migration gains
in recent years and a net migration loss in 1998/99 (see Table III.43).
Tabl e III. 40.
3. The objectives of New Zealands immigration policy
As at November 1998, the purpose of immigration policy is to produce social and economic benefits for
New Zealand. In particular, immigration policies seek to:
Contribute to New Zealands human capability base by selecting migrants who are able to quickly and
effectively match their skills with opportunities in New Zealand.
90 000
80 000
70 000
60 000
50 000
40 000
30 000
90 000
80 000
70 000
60 000
50 000
40 000
30 000
91/92 92/93 93/94 94/95 95/96 96/97 97/98 98/99
Source: Statistics New Zealand.
Arrivals
Chart III.15. Flows of permanent and long-term residents, 1991/92-1998/99, New Zealand
Departures
Fiscal years
90 000
80 000
70 000
60 000
50 000
40 000
30 000
90 000
80 000
70 000
60 000
50 000
40 000
30 000
91/92 92/93 93/94 94/95 95/96 96/97 97/98 98/99
Arrivals
Departures
Fiscal years
90 000
80 000
70 000
60 000
50 000
40 000
30 000
90 000
80 000
70 000
60 000
50 000
40 000
30 000
91/92 92/93 93/94 94/95 95/96 96/97 97/98 98/99
Arrivals
Departures
Fiscal years
280
OECD 2000
Foster the development of strong international linkages by, for example, facilitating the entry of resi-
dents and travellers who will contribute to the building of strong economic and social links with other
countries.
Contribute to the development of a culture of enterprise and innovation by attracting migrants and
business visitors with entrepreneurial skills and experience.
Complement skills training and employment strategies through allocating temporary work permits in
order to fill short-term skills shortages.
Reunite the families of New Zealanders and responding to the humanitarian needs of persons with
close family links to New Zealand.
Meet New Zealands obligations as a member of the international community through refugee
programmes. And
To maintain a high level of social cohesion.
These objectives are achieved through both temporary entry and residence policy. While traditionally
there has been a distinction between the two, in practice, the outcomes and objectives of each overlap. Immi-
gration polices are considered as an integrated package designed to contribute to New Zealands economic
and social well-being. For example, the temporary entry of skilled workers contributes to short-term capacity
formation in the labour market through enabling employers to fill immediate skills shortages. Many go on to
become residents. Equally, some residents choose not to stay in New Zealand permanently.
Table III.42. Permanent and long-term flows,
1998/1999, New Zealand
Top ten nationalities
Inflows Outflows
New Zealand 20 039 New Zealand 51 745
United Kingdom 5 535 United Kingdom 3 475
Japan 3 836 Australia 3 179
Australia 3 434 Japan 1 396
China 3 146 United States 989
South Africa 2 077 Korea 830
India 1 924 Malaysia 541
Chinese Taipei 1 469 Canada 417
United States 1 253 India 367
Fiji 1 244 Samoa 365
Other nationalities 12 295 Other nationalities 4 317
Total 56 252 Total 67 621
Table III.43. Net migration, 1992/93-1998/99,
New Zealand
1992/93 8 702
1993/94 16 815
1994/95 22 729
1995/96 29 506
1996/97 16 770
1997/98 450
1998/99 11 365
New Zealand
281
OECD 2000
In the longer-term, immigration contributes to the development of new economic and labour market
opportunities. Along with trade and investment, immigration plays an important role in determining the
extent of New Zealands interaction with the global economy. Immigration policy settings can also influence
investment flows into New Zealand, while increasing the diversity of the population helps create economic
activity, as well as enriching New Zealand society.
4. The legislative and policy framework
Immigration in New Zealand is governed by the 1987 Immigration Act and its amendments. The Act sets
out the legislative parameters for the operation of immigration policy. The Act establishes that persons who
are not New Zealand citizens must hold a permit to be in New Zealand. (Australian citizens/resident, however,
are exempt from this requirement under the Trans-Tasman travel Agreement). Immigration legislation further
prescribes how applications can be made, the powers of immigration officers and the right to certain appeals.
Policy relating to eligibility for visas and permits is not specified in legislation.
An amendment to the Immigration Act was passed through Parliament in 1999. The Amendment con-
tained a number of significant changes. In particular, the introduction of new risk management tools have
underpinned initiatives to introduce more flexibility into immigration policy. Some of the key aspects of the
1999 Act are outlined below:
Streamlining of the removals process and associated appeal provisions
The Act places a statutory obligation on persons to leave New Zealand on or before the expiry of their
temporary permit. Persons who fail to do so have 28 days in which to activate their appeal rights. If no appeal
is lodged, there is no further opportunity to appeal against removal. When located, such individuals are now
removed immediately.
Provisions to grant limited purpose visas/permits to persons who may otherwise be refused entry into New Zealand.
Limited Purpose Visas/Permits (LPPs) provide for the issue of a visa or permit for an explicit purpose and
duration. Essentially a risk management tool, LPPs enable persons who may otherwise have been considered
to impose an unacceptable level of immigration risk, to enter New Zealand for a specific reason. Holders of
LPPs have no right to change their immigration status in New Zealand and no right to access immigration
appeal authorities.
The ability to charge bonds.
The Act provided for the introduction of a system of refundable bonds. Also a risk management tool,
bonds enable travellers who would otherwise have been declined a visa, to enter New Zealand. The bond
may be refunded once the applicant has departed from New Zealand.
The 1999 Immigration Amendment Act also introduced:
A flexible cost recovery framework.
Provisions to protect sensitive security information relevant to immigration matters.
Provisions to detain illegal entrants in a situation of mass arrival. And
Provisions to streamline and limit the timeframes for Judicial Review proceedings in relation to
immigration matters.
5. Immigration policy in context
Following an atypically high number of residence approvals during the 1994-1996 period, demand for
New Zealand residence declined during 1997/98 and 1998/99
30
.
A range of factors may account for the increased demand after 1993/94 and subsequent decline, including:
the relatively poor performance of the New Zealand economy, settlement difficulties and a perception of New
Zealand as unwelcoming of migrants.
282
OECD 2000
Consequently, a number of policy adjustments were introduced to make New Zealand a more viable and
attractive destination for international students, workers and residents in 1997 and 1998. Policy initiatives
designed to introduce more flexibility were introduced. A flexible immigration policy is important, to accom-
modate changing social and economic environments, and to recognise the broad range of factors that motivate
prospective migrants behaviour.
6. The immigration target
In managing immigration, the Government sets a target (or upper limit), on the number of persons that
may be granted residence.
31
The importance of stability in immigration flows is one of the factors taken into
account by the Government when setting the target. In the 1998/99 and 1999/00 years, the target was set at
38 000 residence approvals.
In addition to refugees and asylum seekers, the immigration target includes residence
32
approvals under
the following Categories:
General Skills (the points test).
Business (including the Investor, Entrepreneur, Long-Term (temporary) Business Visa and
Employees of Relocating Companies sub-categories).
Family.
Humanitarian. And
Samoan Quota.
The Family, Humanitarian and Business Categories are entirely demand driven there is no limit on the
number of persons that can be granted residence under these categories. The General Skills Category acts as
a residual to make up the target number. The Category consists of a points system under which applicants
must exceed an automatic fail mark in order to be eligible. A floating passmark that can adjust up or down
depending on the number of applications and approvals, operates to deliver within 10% of the annual target.
However, the automatic fail mark serves to set a quality standard below which the passmark cannot fall.
Therefore, there must be sufficient demand for New Zealand residence in order to meet the annual target.
As noted above, there has been a decline in demand for New Zealand residence in recent years. Conse-
quently there was a shortfall of over 7 000 in meeting the 1998/99 target of 38 000 residence approvals. How-
ever, indications are that the inflow of applications is sufficient to reach within 10% of the target of
38 000 residence approvals in 1999/2000.
7. Residence approvals
Chart III.16 illustrates the overall numbers of people approved for residence over the past eight years com-
pared to the annual targets set by the Government. These are grouped into economic and social streams for
illustrative purposes. The economic stream includes General/General Skills Categories and all business catego-
ries. Social includes the Family and Humanitarian Categories, the Samoan Quota and refugees.
Chart I II.13.
Within the social and economic streams, the majority of migrants to New Zealand are approved under the
General Skills and Family categories. Chart III.17 provides a category breakdown of approvals in the 1998/
99 year. Together, the General Skills and Family categories accounted for over 80% of residence approvals in
the 1998/99 year. These figures are largely unchanged from 1997/98.
Chart I II.14.
Other than the special Quota for Samoan nationals, residence policy does not target specific nationalities.
Consequently New Zealands immigration flows are very diverse with people from over 140 countries gaining
residence each year. As illustrated in Table III.44, the United Kingdom, the Peoples Republic of China and
South Africa were the single largest source countries in 1998/99.
New Zealand
283
OECD 2000
60 000
50 000
40 000
30 000
20 000
10 000
0
60 000
50 000
40 000
30 000
20 000
10 000
0
00/01 92/93 93/94 94/95 95/96 96/97 97/98 98/99 99/00
2
5

0
0
0
2
5

0
0
0
2
5

0
0
0
4
8

0
0
0
3
5

0
0
0
3
5

0
0
0
3
8

0
0
0
3
8

0
0
0
3
8

0
0
0
Source: NZIS Statistics.
Chart III.16. Persons accepted for residence in comparison with the annual target, 1992/93-2000/01, New Zealand
Fiscal years
Social Annual target Economic
Persons accepted Persons accepted
60 000
50 000
40 000
30 000
20 000
10 000
0
60 000
50 000
40 000
30 000
20 000
10 000
0
00/01 92/93 93/94 94/95 95/96 96/97 97/98 98/99 99/00
2
5

0
0
0
2
5

0
0
0
2
5

0
0
0
4
8

0
0
0
3
5

0
0
0
3
5

0
0
0
3
8

0
0
0
3
8

0
0
0
3
8

0
0
0
Fiscal years
60 000
50 000
40 000
30 000
20 000
10 000
0
60 000
50 000
40 000
30 000
20 000
10 000
0
00/01 92/93 93/94 94/95 95/96 96/97 97/98 98/99 99/00
2
5

0
0
0
2
5

0
0
0
2
5

0
0
0
4
8

0
0
0
3
5

0
0
0
3
5

0
0
0
3
8

0
0
0
3
8

0
0
0
3
8

0
0
0
Fiscal years
Business
1%
Chart III.17. Persons accepted for residence,
by category of immigration, 1998/99, New Zealand
Percentages
Family
38%
Skilled
workers
47%
Others
10%
Humanitarian
4%
Business
1%
Percentages
Family
38%
Skilled
workers
47%
Others
10%
Humanitarian
4%
Business
1%
Percentages
Family
38%
Skilled
workers
47%
Others
10%
Humanitarian
4%
284
OECD 2000
8. Residence categories
The general skills category
Immigration policys key contribution to human capability development is through the General Skills
Category. The points system is designed to select highly skilled migrants who are likely to settle well and
make a positive contribution to New Zealand. Thus, the key objectives of the General Skills category are
to increase New Zealands human capability base and foster external linkages while maintaining social
cohesion.
Points are awarded for a range of human capital and settlement factors such as:
Qualifications.
Table III.44. Residence permits granted, by category and by nationality, 1998/99, New Zealand
Top ten nationalites
Note: Data as at 28 February 2000.
Source: New Zealand Immigration Services
Business Skilled workers
1998/99 1998/99
Total 228 Total 14 101
United Kingdom 33 South Africa 3 011
United States 33 United Kingdom 2 416
Netherlands 27 India 2 123
Singapore 19 China 932
Fiji 15 Fiji 682
Chinese Taipei 15 United States 435
Hong Kong (China) 14 Sri Lanka 395
Germany 9 Philippines 384
Italy 8 Korea 354
Malaysia 6 Malaysia 292
Top ten (% of total) 78.5 Top ten (% of total) 78.2
Family members Humanitarian
China 2 249 Cambodia 187
United Kingdom 1 774 Fiji 143
Fiji 837 Iraq 142
Tonga 758 China 112
India 722 Somalia 93
Samoa 601 Tonga 65
South Africa 510 Samoa 62
United States 317 United Kingdom 49
Philippines 312 Vietnam 49
Chinese taipei 236 South Africa 36
Others Total permits
Samoa 1 189 United Kingdom 4 345
Somalia 304 South Africa 3 567
Sri Lanka 137 China 3 350
Ethiopia 132 India 2 949
Former Yougoslavia 130 Samoa 1 877
Bangladesh 116 Fiji 1 693
Iran 111 Tonga 1 155
United Kingdom 73 United States 858
United States 66 Sri Lanka 737
India 65 Philippines 736
New Zealand
285
OECD 2000
Employability (including work experience, age and an offer of employment). And
Settlement factors (including settlement funds, spousal qualifications, family sponsorship and New
Zealand work experience).
All applicants and accompanying family members (over the age of 16) are required to meet a minimum
standard of English. Accompanying family members may alternatively pre-purchase English for Speakers of
Other Languages (ESOL) training. Appendix I contains a more detailed breakdown of the General Skills points
system.
In the 1998/99 year, around 46% of the overall migrant intake were approved under the General Skills
Category. The top ten nationalities of migrants under this category are illustrated in Table III.44.
New Zealand has been operating a points system since 1991. As previously noted, a review of immigra-
tion policy resulted in the introduction of a number of adjustments in October 1995. The 1995 changes were
intended to encourage the selection of migrants likely to be able to match their capability with opportunities
in New Zealand.
Further immigration policy adjustments were introduced in 1998 and 1999. These more recent changes
were designed to introduce more flexibility into qualifying criteria and to remove barriers to obtaining
residence. These changes included:
Introducing English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) pre-purchasing.
33
Reducing the minimum pass mark from 25 to 24 points.
Enabling applicants with insufficient points to be granted residence approval in principle and issued
with a work permit enabling them to job search in New Zealand with the aim of gaining a job offer and
sufficient points for residence. And
Increasing the points allocation for a New Zealand qualification.
The business categories
Business immigration policy seeks to contribute to the development of a culture of enterprise and innova-
tion in New Zealand as well as developing New Zealands human capability base and fostering external linkages.
A major review resulted in the introduction of a new business policy in March 1999. However, in the earlier
part of the 1998/99 year, business migrants could still apply for residence under the (now defunct) Business
Investor Category. This Category used a points test to assess a range of human and investment capital factors
including: business experience, accumulated earnings funds, direct investment funds, age and settlement fac-
tors. In the 1998/99 year, around 1% of the overall migrant intake were approved under the now closed
Business Investor Category.
A review of the Business Investor Category was initiated in 1998 because it was considered that New
Zealand was failing to maximise the opportunities presented by business immigration. The new business
immigration policy recognises that there are distinct markets for business immigration and provides business
people who wish to migrate to New Zealand with a greater range of options.
The following categories were introduced in March 1999:
Investor Category for persons with funds to invest in New Zealand. Applicants are assessed by a points
system which allocates points for: age; business experience and investment funds.
Entrepreneur Category for persons who have successfully established a business that is benefiting New
Zealand in some way.
Long Term Business Visa (LTBV) a stepping stone for the Entrepreneur Category, the LTBV enables
potential migrants to be granted a temporary work permit in order to establish a business in New
Zealand. Applicants must have (among other things), a satisfactory business plan, access to sufficient
funds and a genuine interest in establishing a business in New Zealand.
Employees of Relocating Businesses Category enables key employees of businesses relocating to New
Zealand to be granted residence. Applicants must demonstrate that they are not eligible for residence
under any other category.
286
OECD 2000
The number of applications received under the new policy has exceeded forecasts. Over 650 applications
have been received to date: 67% for Long-term Business Visas and 27.5% in the Investor Category. The key
source countries of applications are China, Korea and Britain, together accounting for approximately half of all
applications.
Family category
This category enables the close family members of New Zealand residents and citizens to be granted resi-
dence. The current objective of the Family Category is to allow individuals to maintain and be part of a family unit
while reinforcing the Governments overall objectives in immigration policy. All applicants must be sponsored by a
New Zealand resident or citizen. The following family members of New Zealanders may be eligible:
Spouses, de facto partners, dependent children. And
Parents, siblings, adult children.
Parents must meet a centre of gravity test.
34
Siblings and adult children must be single, with no children
of their own and with no immediate family members in the country.
In the 1998/99 year, 38% of the overall migrant intake were approved under the Family Category (see
Table III.44), China being the single largest source country.
The family category has not been reviewed for quite some time. A major policy review of Family
Sponsored Immigration policy is currently underway.
Humanitarian category
The Humanitarian Category enables family members of New Zealanders to be granted residence where
serious humanitarian circumstances exist. Migrants under this category must have a family member who is a
resident/citizen of New Zealand to sponsor their application. In addition, the following criteria must be met:
The applicant or a New Zealand party are suffering serious physical and/or serious emotional harm.
The granting of residence in New Zealand is the only reasonable solution to the serious physical/emotional
harm. And
The granting of residence would not be contrary to the public interest.
In the 1998/99 year, 4% of the overall migrant intake were approved under the Humanitarian Category with
Cambodia being the major source country (see Table III.44).
The Humanitarian Category is included in the review of Family Sponsored Immigration policy noted
above.
Samoan quota
New Zealand has particularly close links with Samoa, as reflected in the Treaty of Friendship signed by
New Zealand and Samoa in 1962 when Samoa became independent. The Samoan Quota scheme reflects this
unique relationship. Under the scheme, 1 100 Samoans may be granted residence in New Zealand annually.
The key requirement is that applicants have a job offer. There is generally a high level of demand for places
under the scheme. Procedural changes were introduced in 1999 to improve the application process.
9. Settlement
Migrants, in common with other New Zealanders, may be eligible for services from various Government
agencies that may assist them to settle in New Zealand. The most significant are services in the employment,
welfare, education and health sectors. Some migrant-specific services are also provided. For example, the
NZIS provides assistance for refugees through the Mangere Refugee Resettlement Centre. Refugees accepted
under Refugee Quota Programme are provided with a six week live-in orientation course at the NZISs Refugee
Resettlement Centre. The Refugee and Migrant Service (RMS) is contracted to locate and maintain sponsors
for refugees when they leave the Centre.
New Zealand
287
OECD 2000
A pre-arrival settlement information kit and video is available to all migrants approved for residence.
Some post-arrival information is also available including a magazine published quarterly. Settlement informa-
tion is funded by means of a Settlement Information Fee payable once residence has been approved. A
migrant levy is payable by all migrants in the General Skills and Business Categories. It is currently used to
contribute towards funding for English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) in the compulsory schools
sector and research into immigration outcomes.
In August 1999, a Business Migrant Liaison Unit was established to assist business migrants. The unit pro-
vides information on New Zealands business environment, business opportunities and key contacts. A
Migrant Help Line acts as an information and referral service for new migrants.
The above specific services aside, there has been growing concern about the level of support provided to
new migrants and refugees to assist them to settle in New Zealand. Settlement policy is currently therefore a
key priority for the Government. The incoming Government has asked the NZIS to ensure a migrant settle-
ment and refugee resettlement strategy is developed to address the settlement needs of refugees and
migrants in a more systematic and comprehensive way.
10. Refugees and asylum seekers
The refugee quota programme
New Zealand accepts up to 750 refugees who have been mandated as in need of resettlement by the United
Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). The Programme contributes to New Zealands international
humanitarian objectives and reflects New Zealands commitment to the principle of international burden
sharing.
Refugees accepted for resettlement spend their first 6 weeks at the Mangere Refugee Resettlement
Centre. This Centre provides initial accommodation and orientation services in addition to medical screening/
treatment. At the end of the six week period, sponsors assist refugees to settle into local communities.
To assist the UNHCR to provide protection to the most vulnerable refugee cases, the Quota is divided
into the following sub-categories:
These categories operate as targets rather than absolute limits. Flexibility is exercised in managing the
overall quota. For example, if there are insufficient referral to meet the women-at-risk target, then these
places could be used for protection cases. In the 1998/99 year, refugee cases accepted under the Quota
comprised of the following:
Source: NZIS Statistics
The nationalities of refugees accepted for resettlement in New Zealand in the 1998/99 year are detailed in
Table III.45.
Tabl e III. 41.
Women at risk 75 places
Medical/disabled 75 places
Protection cases 600 places
Total 750 places
Emergency 14
Family Reunion 2
Medical 31
Protection 568
Women-at-Risk 112
Total 727
288
OECD 2000
Asylum seekers
As a signatory to the 1951 United Nations Convention and the 1967 Protocol on the Status of Refugees,
New Zealand is obliged to consider all claims for refugee status (or political asylum). The number of claimants
has increased significantly in the past ten years.
All claims are considered, in the first instance, by the Refugee Status Branch of the New Zealand Immigra-
tion Service. Unsuccessful claimants have the opportunity to lodge an appeal against the NZISs decision to
the Refugee Status Appeal Authority (RSAA). The RSAA is an independent body.
Claimants are generally granted a work permit while their claim is being determined. They are also enti-
tled to receive welfare assistance (income support, accommodation assistance, health care and education).
Around 30% of all claims are determined to be genuine by the NZIS or the RSAA.
11. Temporary migration
Temporary entry to New Zealand may be gained for the purpose of visiting, studying or temporary
employment. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, New Zealand has pursued a policy of reducing visitor visa
requirements in line with reducing other barriers to trade, tourism and other economic activity. In recognition
of the increasingly blurred distinction between temporary entry and residence, recent policy initiatives have
introduced incentives for temporary entrants to apply for residence. For example, initiatives designed to
facilitate a transition from student to resident and to enable working holiday makers to apply for residence.
Visitors to New Zealand
Citizens from 51 countries do not need to apply for a visa in order to visit New Zealand for visits of up to
three months.
35
Consequently, over 90% of visitors enter New Zealand visa free. Appendix II contains a list of
visa waiver countries as at 1 March 2000. In the 1998/99 year, over 1.5 million overseas visitors entered New
Zealand.
International students
The NZIS approved around 28 900 applications from international students wishing to study in New
Zealand in the 1998/99 year. The majority were attending short-term courses, often in English for Speakers of
Other Languages (ESOL). Others were tertiary or secondary school students.
Temporary workers
Work permit policy is intended to enable employees to fill short-term skills or labour shortages. Appli-
cants are required to have an offer of employment in a job which there are no suitable New Zealanders avail-
Table III.45. Refugee quota programme, 1998/99,
New Zealand
Major nationalities
Source: Statistiques du NZIS
Somalia 212
Ethiopia 199
Iraq 130
Eritrea 47
Afghanistan 42
Iran 39
Sudan 33
Rwanda 14
Other 11
Total 727
New Zealand
289
OECD 2000
able to fill. In the 1998/99 year, around 39 000 people were granted the right to work temporarily in New
Zealand.
However, work permits/visas may also be granted for social reasons. For example, to the spouse, de facto
partners and fiance(e)s. Analysis of work visas/permits issued in 1999 showed that 51% were issued to
spouses, partners or fiance(e)s of New Zealanders.
Working holiday makers
New Zealand operates a number working holiday schemes for young people who wish to undertake inci-
dental employment while visiting New Zealand. These schemes are generally reciprocal arrangements and are
currently available to citizens from Canada, France, Ireland, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, the Netherlands,
Singapore and the United Kingdom (UK). The current overall cap of 10 000 on the total number of working
holiday makers able to enter New Zealand in any given year is currently under review.
The number of places under each Scheme are outlined in TTable III.46.
Tabl e III. 42.
12. Risk management
Effective risk management is achieved by facilitating the entry of migrants and temporary entrants who
will benefit New Zealand while managing the risk posed by those likely to impose costs. Costs are incurred by
persons who fail to comply with the conditions of their temporary permits, for example, by failing to leave New
Zealand. Costs are also imposed by persons seeking to enter New Zealand to work unlawfully.
Immigration risks are managed by refusing visas and permits to high risk travellers. For example, improp-
erly documented travellers and persons who intend to work illegally in New Zealand may be refused entry at
the border.
The Government has introduced new mechani sms to facili tate ri sk management through the
1999 Immigration Amendment Act. The introduction of bonds and limited purpose permits has enabled the
NZIS to adopt a more flexible and facilitative approach to border management. The Act also provided for the
introduction of a streamlined removals process, making it easier for the NZIS to remove persons not entitled
to be in New Zealand. Another initiative to enable more effective management of immigration risks has been
the introduction of an offshore interdiction programme. Interdiction involves working with airline staff to
identify ill-properly documented passengers prior to their arrival in New Zealand.
Table III.46. Working Holiday schemes, by nationality,
1999, New Zealand
1. 100 places have been agreed for the calendar year 2000.
Source: New Zealand Immigration Statistics (NZIS)
Places Duration of stay
Canada 400 12 months
France
1
100 12 months
Ireland 250 12 months
Japan No limit 12 months
Korea 200 12 months
Netherlands 250 12 months
Malaysia 100 6 months
Singapore 200 6 months
United Kingdom 4 000 12 months
290
OECD 2000
Appendix I
Points System General Skills Categories 1998-99
The principal applicant had to score 25 points or more to gain residence in 1998-99. This was reduced to
24 points on 1 November 1999.
Qualifications
Base qualification 10
Advanced qualification 11
Masters degree or higher 12
Employability
Work experience
2 years 1
4 years 2
6 years 3
8 years 4
10 years 5
12 years 6
14 years 7
16 years 8
18 years 9
20 years 10
Offer of employment 5
Age (maximum age: 55 years)
18-24 years 8
25-29 years 10
30-34 years 8
25-39 years 6
40-44 years 4
45-49 years 2
Settlement factors
Settlement funds
$100 000 1
$200 000 2
Partners qualifications
Base qualification 1
Advanced qualification 2
NZ Work Experience
1 year 1
2 years 2
Family sponsorship 3
Maximum settlement points 7
New Zealand
291
OECD 2000
Appendix II
Visa Waiver Countries as at 1 March 2000
* Residents of Hong Kong travelling on Hong Kong Special Administrative Region or
British National (Overseas) passports.
** Portuguese passport holders must also have the right to live permanently in Portugal.
Visits up to 3 months, except for UK (visits up to six months)
Citizens of:
Andorra Argentina Austria
Bahrain Belgium Brazil
Brunei Canada Chile
Czech Republic Denmark Finland
France Germany Greece
Hong Kong* Hungary Iceland
Ireland Israel Italy
Japan Korea (South) Kiribati
Kuwait Liechtenstein Luxembourg
Malaysia Malta Monaco
Nauru Netherlands Norway
Oman Portugal** Qatar
San Marino Saudi Arabia Singapore
Slovenia South Africa Spain
Sweden Switzerland Thailand
Tuvalu United Arab Emirates United Kingdom
United States of America Uruguay Vatican City
Zimbabwae
292
OECD 2000
Notes
1. The Zapata Canyon Project, the only source of information available for measuring flows of illegal Mexican emigrants,
is a study launched in September 1987, based on interviews with prospective migrants to the United States in the
main border areas.
2. Deborah Garrett, Cameron Bayly & Justin Hurrelle (Policy, Research & Development Group of the NZIS).
3. New Zealand Immigration Policy and Trends New Zealand Immigration Service (NZIS) for the Population Conference,
Wellington, 13-14 November 1997, p. 1; J.M.R. Owens, New Zealand Before Annexation, in Geoffrey W. Rice (Ed.),
1992, The Oxford History of New Zealand, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, Auckland, p. 50.
4. Gordon Schroff, 1988, New Zealands Immigration Policy, in the New Zealand Official Yearbook 1988-89, Department of
Statistics, Wellington, p. 194.
5. W.J. Gardner, A Colonial Economy, in Geoffrey W. Rice (Ed.), 1992, The Oxford History of New Zealand, 2nd edition, Oxford
University Press, Auckland, pp. 66, 74; Jeanine Graham, Settler Society, in Geoffrey W. Rice (Ed.), 1992, The Oxford
History of New Zealand, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, Auckland, p. 116.
6. Raewyn Dalziel, Railways and Relief Centres, in Keith Sinclair (Ed.), 1990, The Oxford Illustrated History of New Zealand,
Oxford University Press, Auckland, p. 104.
7. W.J. Gardner, A Colonial Economy, in Geoffrey W. Rice (Ed.), 1992, The Oxford History of New Zealand, 2nd edition, Oxford
University Press, Auckland, p. 74.
8. New Zealand Immigration Policy and Trends, NZIS for the Population Conference, Wellington, 13-14 November 1997, p. 1.
9. Jeanine Graham, Settler Society, in Geoffrey W. Rice (Ed.), 1992, The Oxford History of New Zealand, 2nd edition, Oxford
Statistics, Wellington, pp. 194-195.
12. Malcolm McKinnon, New Zealand in the World, in Keith Sinclair (Ed.), 1990, The Oxford Illustrated History of New Zealand,
Oxford University Press, Auckland, pp. 243-244; Erik Olssen, Towards a new Society, in Geoffrey W. Rice (Ed.), 1992,
The Oxford History of New Zealand, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, Auckland, p. 257.
14. Graeme Dunstall, The Social Pattern, in Geoffrey W. Rice (Ed.), 1992, The Oxford History of New Zealand, 2nd edition,
Oxford University Press, Auckland, p. 454.
15. Ibid.
16. Erik Olssen, Depression and War, in Keith Sinclair (Ed.), 1990, The Oxford Illustrated History of New Zealand, Oxford
17. New Zealand Immigration Policy and Trends, NZIS for the Population Conference, Wellington, 13-14 November 1997, pp. 2, 4.
18. Ibid., p. 4; Gordon Schroff, 1988, New Zealands Immigration Policy, in the New Zealand Official Yearbook 1988-89,
Department of Statistics, Wellington, pp. 196-198.
19. Mary Boyd, New Zealand and the Other Pacific Islands, in Keith Sinclair (Ed.), 1990, The Oxford Illustrated History of New
Zealand, Oxford University Press, Auckland, pp. 314-315.
Statistics, Wellington, p. 198.
21. Ibid, pp. 198, 200.
22. Ibid; New Zealand Immigration Policy and Trends, NZIS for the Population Conference, Wellington, 13-14 November 1997, p. 5.
23. This was based on the Review of Immigration Policy, August 1986, also known as the Burke Report.
24. Report of the Working Party on Immigration, March 1991.
25. Review of Residence Policy, NZIS, September 1994.
26. New Zealands Official Yearbook on the Web (1999), Statistics New Zealand.
Notes
293
OECD 2000
27. Statistics for Presenters, Statistics New Zealand for the Population Conference 13-14 November 1997, p. 29.
28. The trans-Tasman travel agreement between Australia and New Zealand means that Australian residents and citizens
and New Zealand citizens may enter each others country to visit, live and work without having to meet prior entry
requirements.
29. Unless otherwise stated, all statistics relate to the New Zealand financial year which runs from 1 July to 30 June.
30. All immigration statistics have been obtained from the New Zealand Immigration Services Residence Information
Management System for statistics to 30/06/97, thereafter, the Management Information System.
31. It should be noted that the immigration target relates to residence approvals rather than arrivals.
32. Applications for residence are assessed in terms of whether the principal applicant meets the eligibility criteria. With
the exception of some sub-categories in the Family Category, principal applicants may be accompanied by their
spouse/partner and dependent children who are also afforded the status of resident. All migrants to New Zealand
must meet health and character requirements.
33. Family members who do not meet the minimum standard of English may instead pre-purchase ESOL training. The
amount of training purchased varies according to the applicants level of English ability.
34. The centre of gravity is deemed to be in New Zealand if the parent(s) have an equal or greater number of their adult
children living in New Zealand than in any other country. For parents with dependent children, the number of
dependent children must be equal to or fewer than the number of adult children living in New Zealand.
35. British citizens and other British passport holders who can produce evidence of the right to reside permanently in the
United Kingdom may enter New Zealand visa free for visits of up to six months.
295
OECD 2000
STATISTICAL ANNEX
Data on the flows and stocks of migrants and related
issues, such as their performance in the labour market, are
derived from a wide variety of sources and the nature of
these sources varies across countries. This makes the appli-
cation of standardised definitions difficult and hence particu-
lar attention needs to be paid to the characteristics of the
data, especially in the context of international comparisons.
Section A of this annex describes the sources and methods
used to generate migration statistics and is followed by pre-
sentation of data in Section B. These data are a selection
from the OECDs database of migration statistics.
Some preliminary remarks are required concerning
the nature of the OECDs migration data. Most of the data
are taken from the individual contributions of correspon-
dents appointed by the OECD Secretariat with the
approval of national governments. In this regard it should
be noted that:
As discussed in the Foreword to this report, the
Conti nuous Reporti ng System on Mi gration
(SOPEMI) covers almost all of the Member countries
of the OECD.
The coverage of countries in the data and the ability
to construct time-series is to a certain extent affected
by the dates at which countries became members of
the SOPEMI network. Recent participants to SOPEMI
do not necessarily provide historical data in their
reports and, in addition, further clarification is
sometimes required before data can be published.
SOPEMI has no authority to impose changes in data
collection procedures. It has an observatory role
which, by its very nature, has to use existing statis-
tics. However, it does play an active role in suggest-
ing what it considers to be essential improvements
in data collection and makes every effort to present
consistent and well documented statistics.
A. SOURCES AND COMPARABILITY
OF MIGRATION STATISTICS
Compared to some other areas of statistics, such as
labour force data, there exists little international stan-
dardisation of migration statistics. Consequently there are
varying degrees of comparability between countries. One
reason for this is that relatively few sources have as their
raison dtre the recording of migration. Population regis-
ters, a common source of migration statistics, are used for
a number of other administrative and statistical purposes.
As a result, tailoring registers such that migration data
conform to an international standard is made more diffi-
cult. Comparability is also problematic if data are based
on residence or work permits. The data reflect migration
systems and the policies of national governments and so,
once again, it can be difficult to generate harmonised
data. Hence, although there has been some development
and agreement in the definition and classification of
migration for statistical purposes (see Box 1), these
standards have proved difficult to implement.
Aside from problems relating to international compa-
rability, there are other difficulties with migration statistics,
most notably the problem of measuring illegal immigration.
Estimation is difficult and the figures that exist should be
viewed, therefore, with some scepticism (see OECD, 1989).
For this reason, explicit estimates of illegal immigrants have
not been included in this annex. However, some stock and
flow data partially incorporate illegal migration, therefore
the phenomenon does not necessarily go completely
unmeasured. For example, individuals may remain on pop-
ulation registers after their permits have expired, residing
as illegal (or undocumented) immigrants. Finally, it
should be noted that those achieving legal status under
regularisation programmes are sometimes included in
inflow data and must be taken into account when analysing
trends. In addition, regularisation programs may be fol-
lowed by an additional wave of immigration depending on
the extent to which the acquisition of legal status allows
family reunification.
The following provides a brief review of the sources of
migration statistics (1); this is followed by a discussion of the
techniques used for measuring migration flows (2), and of
data issues relating to stocks of migrants and the immigrant
population (3).
1. Sources of migration statistics
The principle sources of migration statistics are pop-
ulation registers, residence or work permits, censuses and
surveys. However, a wide variety of other data sources
(e.g. special surveys, counts at border crossings, analysis
of landing cards) may sometimes be used. Table 1 pro-
vides an overview of data sources and shows that popula-
tion registers are commonly used as a source of flow and
stock data on migration, especially in northern Europe. In
296
OECD 2000
other countries, data on residence permits and census
data are the most common means of measuring flows and
stocks of international migrants.
Population registers
Population registers are accounts of residents within
a country. They are typically maintained via the legal
requirement that both nationals and foreigners residing in
the country must register with the local authorities. Aggre-
gation of these local accounts results in a record of popu-
lation and population movement at the national level. As
a result, the registers can provide data on all migrant flows
(inflows and outflows of both nationals and foreigners) as
well as data on stocks of foreigners and nationals. For this
reason they tend to be widely used. However there are
some drawbacks: individuals often fail to record their
departures and therefore data on outflows can be less
reliable. Also, there are differences in the type of migrants
counted which must be taken into account in international
comparisons.
Permit data
Residence and work permit data commonly form the
basis of flow statistics for countries which do not have
population registers. The data are necessarily more lim-
ited in scope as they do not capture all flows and it can be
difficult to use them to generate stock and outflow data as
these require careful accounting of the number of permits
both issued and expired.
Census and household survey data
Census data enable comprehensive, albeit infre-
quent analysis of the stock of immigrants (censuses are
generally conducted every 5 to 10 years). In addition,
many labour force surveys now include questions about
nationality and place of birth, thus providing a source of
annual stock data. However, some care has to be taken
with detailed breakdowns of the immigrant population
from survey data as sample sizes can be very small. Inevi-
tably, both census and survey data may under-represent
migrants, especially where they tend not to be registered
Box 1. Definitions of migration flows and immigrant populations developed by the United Nations
New recommendations on statistics relating to international migration
The United Nations, in co-operation with other international organisations, has recently revised its 1976
recommendations on statistics relating to international migration in order to 1) propose a simplified and more
pragmatic definition of international migrant which would take into account the emerging importance of tempo-
rary migration and 2) provide guidelines for the compilation of statistical information which would fit with the new
definitions (United Nations, 1998).
According to the new United Nations recommandations, an international migrant is defined as any person who
changes his or her country of usual residence. The country of usual residence refers to the country in which a per-
son lives, that is to say, the country in which he or she has a place to live where he or she normally spends the daily
period of rest. As a consequence, all movements which are not accompanied by a change of usual residence are not
considered as migrations. For example, movements for the purpose of recreation, holiday, visits to friends and
relatives, business, medical treatment or religious pilgrimage should not be considered as migrations.
In order to take into account the increase in short term international movements (except tourism), long term
and short term migrations have been taking into account separately:
A long-term migrant is a person who moves to a country other than that of his or her usual residence for a
period of at least a year (12 months), so that the country of destination effectively becomes his or her new
country of usual residence.
A short-term migrant is a person who moves to a country other than that of his or her usual residence for a
period of at least 3 months but less than a year (12 months) except in cases where the movement to that
country is for purposes of recreation, holiday, visits to friends and relatives, business, medical treatment or
religious pilgrimage.
Immigrant population
The immigrant population is usually measured either as the part of the resident population who are foreign
nationals, or as the part of the foreign-born in the resident population. In the latter case there are situations
where individuals are difficult to classify due to changes in national boundaries. The United Nations recommends
that the foreign-born be defined as those born outside the country or area where the country or area of birth
is based on current national boundaries (or, more precisely, those that existed at the time the data were
collected) (UN, 1989, pp. 103).
Statistical Annex
297
OECD 2000
for census purposes, or where they do not live in private
households (labour force surveys do not usually cover
those living in institutions, such as reception centres and
hostels for immigrants).
2. Measurement of migration flows
The inflows and outflows included in this annex are
all based either on population registers or on permit data.
The types of f low measured di ffer qui te markedly
between these two sources and there are also differences
to account for between different registers and the differ-
ent types of permit used to generate the statistics.
Flows derived from population registers
Population registers can usually produce inflow and
outflow data for both nationals and foreigners, however
there are differences in the type of flows measured due to
differences in the way migrants are defined in the regis-
ters. In this regard, a key condition used to define immi-
grants is intention to reside for more than a specified
length of time. In addition, foreigners who register may
have to indicate possession of an appropriate residence
and/or work permit. Emigrants are usually identified by a
stated intention to leave the country, however a period of
(intended) absence is not typically specified.
Key features of migration data derived from population
registers are as follows:
Departures tend to be less well recorded than arriv-
als, often because registration results in certain
rights and benefits to the individual, whereas there
is less incentive to inform authorities of departure.
In order to provide more accurate figures, some
countries use additional information such as
host-country estimates to generate emigration data.
The rules governing entry into the register and who is
defined as a migrant vary across countries. Notably,
the minimum duration of stay for individuals to be
defined as immigrants varies between three months
and one year, implying that for some countries the
data include short as well as longer term migration
flows.
Table 1. Summary table on the sources of migration statistics
Foreign and foreign-born population Foreign and foreign-born labour force
Inflows
of foreigners
Outflows
of foreigners
Asylum
seekers
Stocks of
foreign-born
population
Stocks
of foreign
population
Naturalisation
Inflows
of foreign
workers
Seasonal
workers
Stocks of
foreign-born
workers
Stocks
of foreign
workers
Australia P A C A R A S
Austria A F A R R
Belgium F F A F A R R
Canada P A C A R A C
Czech Republic A F
Denmark F F A F F A R F
Finland F F A F F A R
France R A C A R A S
Germany F F A F A R R A
Greece R A
Hungary F A F A R R
Ireland A A S R S
Italy R A R A R R R
Japan F F F A R
Korea F A
Luxembourg F F A F A R R
Netherlands F F A F F A A A
New Zealand R R A
Norway F F A F F A R F
Poland A
Portugal A R R
Spain A R A R R
Sweden F F A F F A S
Switzerland F F A F A R R R
United Kingdom A A S A R A S
United States P A C, S C A R R C
F Population register or register of foreigners.
R Residence or work permits (renewable).
P Acceptances for permanent settlement.
C Census.
S Labour Force Survey.
A Other administrative sources.
298
OECD 2000
Asylum seekers are included in some register
data but excluded from others. Inclusion typically
occurs when the asylum seekers live in private
households (as opposed to reception centres and
hotels). In the data presented in this annex, some
asylum seekers are incl uded in the data for
Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands, and Norway.
Despite these qualifications, population registers are
generally regarded as a good source of migration data and
are used in preference to other sources, especially in the
generation of annual estimates.
Flows derived from residence and work permits
Countries which do not have population registers use
a variety of sources to generate flow data. Inflows for
Australia, the United States, Canada, and France are
based on residence and/or work permits. Data for the
United Kingdom are based on information from landing
cards. Note that permit data usually represent the num-
ber of permits issued in a given period and have the
following general characteristics:
The nature of the flows measured obviously
depends on the type of permit(s) used to generate
the statistic. Inflows for the so-called settlement
countries (Australia, Canada and the United States)
are calculated as the number of permanent resi-
dence permits (also known as acceptances for set-
tlement) issued. In the case of France, a sum of
various types of permit issued (all of limited
duration) is used.
Flows of nationals are not recorded in the data and
some flows of foreigners may also not be recorded,
depending on the type of permit used as a basis for
the statistic and also on the nature of free-circulation
agreements. In France, some inflows from other
EU countries are included in the data as permanent
work permits are still required for EU nationals (this
is a formality rather than a means of restricting entry).
Permit data do not necessarily reflect physical flows
or actual lengths of stay since: i) permits may be
issued overseas but individuals may decide not to
use them, or delay their arrival; ii) permits may be
issued to persons who have in fact been resident in
the country for some time, the permit indicating a
change of status, or a renewal of the same permit.
The data for Australia do not include those who have
been accepted for permanent settlement whilst resi-
dent in Australia, whereas data for Canada and the
United States include all issues of permanent settle-
ment permits.
Permit data may be influenced by the processing
capaci ty of gover nment agenci es. I n some
instances a large backlog of applications may build
up and therefore the true demand for permits may
only emerge once backlogs are cleared.
Estimation of net migration
From the preceding discussion on flow data it is evi-
dent that some countries have readily available means to
calculate net migration (e.g. through population registers)
whilst others face greater difficulties and estimates must
be made on the basis of a variety of sources. This annex con-
tains data for the net migration of foreigners. Note that for
some countries, figures for total net migration (i.e. including
the movement of both foreigners and nationals) are pre-
sented in the Country Notes. The OECD also publishes a
series of total net migration figures in Labour Force Statistics.
These are calculated as a residual from data on annual
population change and natural increase.
Asylum seekers are usually allowed to remain in the
country whilst their applications are processed. The time
taken to process applications varies and it is therefore dif-
ficult to determine whether they should be counted as
migrants or not. In practice, asylum seekers are not gener-
ally counted in migrant inflows unless they are subse-
quentl y granted asylum. However there are some
countries where they are partially, or wholly included in
the data. For example, asylum seekers often enter popu-
lation registers because they have been resident for some
time and live outside reception centres.
Statistics on asylum seekers and the numbers
granted asylum are usually readily available from admin-
istrative sources, however there are some differences in
the type of data made available. In a number of countries,
asylum seekers are only counted when their application
has been approved, in which case they appear in the sta-
tistics, not according to the date of arrival but according to
the date of approval (note that approval of application
simply means that the application will be considered by
the authorities and allows the individual certain rights as
an asylum seeker whilst their application is being pro-
cessed). For some countries (e.g. Switzerland), the data
include the dependants of the principal applicant; for cer-
tain others (e.g. France), they do not, since dependants
are admitted under other provisions.
In addition to asylum seekers entering under the
usual administrative channels, there are some cases
where individuals are allowed entry under exceptional cir-
cumstances and who are given other forms of status. For
example, in the early 1990s, a number of European coun-
tries (e.g. Austria, and the Nordic countries) granted tem-
porary residence to those fleeing conflict in the former
Yugoslavia. To date, evidence suggests that these individ-
uals have largely been allowed to remain in these coun-
tries through renewal of permits and therefore effectively
represent a group of de facto refugees.
Statistical Annex
299
OECD 2000
3. Stocks of migrants and characteristics
of the immigrant population
Time series of stocks are used in conjunction with
flow data to examine trends in migration. In addition,
data which include socio-economic variables can be
used to examine differences between immigrants and
native populations. In both cases, there are differences in
how immigrants are defined.
Definition of the immigrant population
In data, the immigrant population is usually defined
in one of two ways. Some countries have traditionally
focused on producing data that represents foreign nation-
als (European countries, Japan and Korea) whilst others
refer to the foreign-born (Australia, Canada and the United
States). This difference in focus relates in part to the nature
and the history of immigration systems and legislation on
citizenship and naturalisation (see Box 2).
The foreign-born population can be viewed as rep-
resenting first-generation migrants, and may consist of
both foreign and national citizens. The size and compo-
sition of the foreign-born population is influenced by
the history of migration flows and mortality amongst the
foreign-born. For example, where inflows have been
declining over time, the stock of the foreign-born will
tend to age and represent an increasingly established
community.
The population of foreign nationals may represent
second and higher generations as well as first-generations
of migrants. The characteristics of the population of for-
eign nationals depend on a number of factors: the history
of migration flows, natural increase in the foreign popula-
tion and naturalisations. Higher generations of immigrants
arise in situations where they retain their foreign citizen-
ship even when native-born. The nature of legislation on
citizenship and the incentives foreigners have to natura-
lise both play a role in determining the extent to which
this occurs in practice.
A more comprehensive view of the immigrant popu-
lation is possible when both nationality and birthplace are
known. This type of data is becoming increasingly avail-
able for some OECD countries and allows four sub-
populations to be examined: the foreign-born who are
foreign citizens; the foreign-born who are nationals; the
native born who are foreign nationals and the native born
who are nationals. The first three of these groups represent
the immigrant population, as defined either by national-
ity or by place of birth. Note that in some countries, such as
the United States, those who are native-born but who are
foreign nationals are a non-existent or negligible group as
legislation is such that birth within the country usually
entitles individuals to citizenship.
Time series of stocks of the immigrant population
Time series of stocks are generally derived either from
population registers or from labour force survey or census
data. In this annex, the figures for Australia, Canada France,
Ireland, Portugal, Spain, the United Kingdom and the United
States are based on survey, census or permit data, data for
all other countries are from population registers (see
Table 1).
Impact of naturalisation on the development
of the immigrant population
Naturalisations must be taken into account in the
analysis of the populations of foreigners and nationals.
Also, differing approaches to naturalisation between coun-
tries must be considered when making international com-
parisons. In France and Belgium, for example, where
foreigners can fairly readily acquire the nationality of the
country, increases in the foreign population through immi-
gration and births can eventually contribute to a signifi-
cant rise in the native population. In Germany and
Switzerland (see OECD, 1995), on the other hand, where
naturalisation is more difficult, increases in immigration
and births amongst foreigners manifest themselves almost
exclusively as rises in the foreign population. In addition,
changes in rules regarding naturalisation can have signifi-
cant numerical effects, for example during the 1980s, a
number of countries made naturalisation easier and this
resulted in noticeable falls in the foreign population (and
rises in the population of nationals).
However, host-country legislation is not the only fac-
tor affecting naturalisation. For example, where naturalisa-
tion involves forfeiting citizenship of the country of origin,
there may be incentives to remain as a foreign citizen.
Where the difference between remaining a foreign citizen
or becoming a national is marginal, naturalisation may
largely be influenced by the time and effort required to
make the application for naturalisation and the symbolic
and political value individuals attach to being citizens of
one country or another.
Data on naturalisations are usually readily available
from administrative sources. As with other administrative
data, resource constraints in processing applications may
result in a backlog of unprocessed applications which are not
reflected in the figures.
B. STATISTICAL SERIES
Introduction to the statistical Annex tables
The Tables are divided into two series. The A series
tables provide aggregate data on stock and flow statistics
as well as administrative data on asylum seekers and nat-
uralisations. The B series tables present data disaggre-
gated by country of origin (as defined either by country of
birth or by nationality). As is evident from the preceding
discussion on the sources and methods used to generate
migration statistics, the presentation of the tables in a
relatively standard format should not lead users to think
that the data have been fully standardised and are com-
parable at an international level. In order to facilitate
300
OECD 2000
understanding of the data, detailed notes on the sources
and definitions are presented at the end of the Statistical
Annex.
A number of general comments apply to the tables:
a) The tables provide annual series for the ten most
recent years (in general 1989-1998). However data
relating to the stock of foreigners by nationality
(Tables B.1.6 and B.2.2) are only given for certain
years (in general 1985, 1990, 1995 and the most
recent available year).
b) Up to 1994 (inclusive), European Union (unless
st at ed other wi se) r ef er s t o t he f ol l owi ng
12 countries: Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany,
Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Nether-
lands, Portugal, Spain and the United Kingdom,
members of the European Union at 31 December
1994. From 1995 onwards, European Union also
Box 2. Migration systems
Historically, migration systems developed alongside the evolution of nation-states and the concomitant
desire to enumerate and sometimes influence the size and composition of the resident population. The need to
implement immigration control is also linked to the increased numbers of individuals who are aware of attractive
economic and social conditions elsewhere and able to afford the expense and risk associated with a long-term, or
permanent move overseas. In some areas of the world, immigration control has also developed at an international
as well as national level, creating zones of free movement, the most notable example being the European Union.
Whether operating at a national or an international level, most migration systems have the following features:
The opportunity to enter the country and remain there for a limited length of time (often three months).
Depending on the nationality of the entrant, a visa may or may not be required. Generally, the regulations are
designed to encourage movements of individuals which provide economic benefits. Such movements include,
inter alia, tourism and business travel. However, there are situations where entry may be strictly monitored. This
type of movement is not regarded as migration as such and is commonly referred to as short-term movement.
A mechanism for spouses and close relatives of citizens or permanent residents to enter the country on a
permanent basis. They may arrive as accompanying family at the same time as the migrant, or at a later
date under what is often called family reunion.
A means for individuals who claim social and political persecution in their country of origin to apply for
asylum. Such asylum seekers are usually treated on a case-by-case basis and may also have the right to
remain in the country whilst their application is being processed.
Mechanisms for individuals to enter largely for the purpose of employment and business. Policies gov-
erning this type of migration may reflect purely economic considerations such as perceived labour short-
ages or a desire to encourage international business links. However, policy may also be influenced by
diplomatic considerations as well as policies and agreements in international trade.
Means by which foreign citizens can acquire national citizenship (naturalisation). The ease with which
this may be achieved and the incentives to do so vary across countries and may also depend on the impli-
cations of a change in legal status in the country of origin (see OECD, 1995, pp. 157-181).
Beyond these general features of immigration systems, it is common to distinguish between temporary
permit systems and permanent residence systems (for a more detailed classification, see OECD ,1994). In
temporary residence systems, characteristic of most OECD countries, initial entry to the country is typically
made on the basis of a temporary residence permit and permanent status can only be granted after several
years stay in the country. Only certain special groups (e.g. close relatives, refugees) are able to acquire perma-
nent residence status on entry into the country. In permanent residence systems, typified by settlement coun-
tries (e.g. Australia, Canada and the United States), there are more channels available for individuals to enter
with permanent resident status, beyond those catering for special groups. This reflects the historical, if not
always current, use of migration policy as a means for populating the country. The additional channels available
to immigrants take a variety of forms but are generally based on attracting individuals with certain characteris-
tics, such as high levels of skill or experience in certain occupations.
There are differences between these systems in the type of migration statistics commonly used. Perma-
nent residence type countries tend to focus on acceptances for permanent settlement as an indication of
inflows and on the population of foreign-born as an indication of the stock of immigrants. Temporary permit
type countries, coincidentally, tend to have population registers and use these to focus on inflows and stocks of
foreign citizens (as distinct from the foreign-born). Two notable exceptions are France and the United Kingdom
who do not have population registers and rely on other sources of data.
Statistical Annex
301
OECD 2000
includes the following three countries: Austria, Fin-
land and Sweden.
c) The A series tables are presented in alphabetical
order by the name of the country in English. In the
other tables, the nationalities or countries are ranked
by decreasing order of the stocks for the last year
available. In series B.1.3. (Net migration of foreigners
by nationality), net migration has been calculated for
the fifteen principal immigration countries; the coun-
tri es are l isted in the same order as that of
series B.1.1. (Inflows of foreigners by nationality).
Countries for which emigration data are not available
do not feature in the table.
d) In the tables by country of origin (series B) only the
main 15 countries are shown and only when this infor-
mation is available. Other countries is a residual
calculated as the difference between the total foreign
population and the sum of the nationalities indicated
in the table. For some nationalities, data are not
available for all years and this is reflected in the
residual entry of Other countries. This must be
borne in mind when interpreting changes in this
category.
e) The rounding of entries may cause totals to differ
slightly from the sum of the component entries.
f) The symbols used in the tables are the following:
. . Data not available.
Nil, or negligible.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
OECD (1989),
Trends in International Migration, Annual Report 1989, Paris.
OECD (1994),
Migration and Development; New Partnerships for Co-operation, Paris.
OECD (1995),
OECD (1997),
OECD (1998),
OECD (1999),
UN (1991),
1989 Demographic Yearbook, New York.
UN (1998),
Recommendations on Statistics of International Migration, Revision 1, New York.
TABLES OF THE STATISTICAL ANNEX
304
OECD 2000
Table A.1.1. Inflows of foreign population into selected OECD countries
Thousands
Note: Data from population registers are not fully comparable because the criteria governing who gets registered differ from country to country. Counts for
the Netherlands, Norway and especially Germany include substantial numbers of asylum seekers. For more details on sources, refer to the notes at the
end of the Annex.
Table A.1.2. Outflows of foreign population from selected OECD countries
Thousands
Note: For more details on sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
Table A.1.3. Net migration of foreign population in selected OECD countries
Thousands
Note: Data are derived from Tables A.1.1. and A.1.2. For more details on sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Inflow data based on population registers:
Belgium
43.5 50.5 54.1 55.1 53.0 56.0 53.1 51.9 49.2 50.7
Denmark
15.1 15.1 17.5 16.9 15.4 15.6 33.0 24.7 20.4 . .
Finland
4.2 6.5 12.4 10.4 10.9 7.6 7.3 7.5 8.1 8.3
Germany
770.8 842.4 920.5 1 207.6 986.9 774.0 788.3 708.0 615.3 605.5
Hungary
33.7 37.2 23.0 15.1 16.4 12.8 13.2 12.8 13.4 12.8
Japan
237.4 223.8 258.4 267.0 234.5 237.5 209.9 225.4 274.8 265.5
Luxembourg
8.4 9.3 10.0 9.8 9.2 9.2 9.6 9.2 9.4 10.7
Netherlands
65.4 81.3 84.3 83.0 87.6 68.4 67.0 77.2 76.7 81.7
Norway
18.5 15.7 16.1 17.2 22.3 17.9 16.5 17.2 22.0 26.7
Sweden
58.9 53.2 43.9 39.5 54.8 74.7 36.1 29.3 33.4 35.7
Switzerland
80.4 101.4 109.8 112.1 104.0 91.7 87.9 74.3 72.8 74.9
Inflow data based on other sources:
Australia 145.3 121.2 121.7 107.4 76.3 69.8 87.4 99.1 85.8 77.3
Canada 192.0 214.2 230.8 252.8 255.8 223.9 212.9 226.1 216.0 174.1
France 53.2 102.4 109.9 116.6 99.2 91.5 77.0 75.5 102.4 138.1
Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.2
Ireland . . . . . . . . . . 13.3 13.6 21.5 23.5 20.8
Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111.0
New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36.2
United Kingdom . . . . . . 203.9 190.3 193.6 206.3 216.4 236.9 . .
United States 1 090.9 1 536.5 1 827.2 974.0 904.3 804.4 720.5 915.9 798.4 660.5
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Belgium 27.5 27.0 35.3 28.1 31.2 34.1 33.1 32.4 34.6 36.3
Denmark 4.8 4.6 5.2 4.8 4.9 5.0 5.3 6.0 6.7 . .
Finland 1.0 0.9 1.1 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 3.0 1.6 1.7
Germany 438.3 466.0 497.5 614.7 710.2 621.5 561.1 559.1 637.1 639.0
Japan 204.8 166.1 181.3 204.8 200.5 204.2 194.4 160.1 176.6 187.8
Luxembourg 5.5 5.5 5.9 5.6 5.0 5.3 4.9 5.6 5.8 6.8
Netherlands 21.5 20.6 21.3 22.7 22.2 22.7 21.7 22.4 21.9 21.3
New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.9
Norway 10.6 9.8 8.4 8.1 10.5 9.6 9.0 10.0 10.0 12.0
Sweden 13.1 16.2 15.0 13.2 14.8 15.8 15.4 14.5 15.3 14.1
Switzerland 57.5 59.6 66.4 80.4 71.2 64.2 67.5 67.7 63.4 59.0
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Belgium 16.1 23.4 18.8 26.9 21.8 21.9 20.0 19.5 14.6 14.4
Denmark 10.3 10.5 12.3 12.1 10.5 10.5 27.7 18.8 13.7 . .
Finland 3.2 5.6 11.2 8.9 9.4 6.1 5.8 4.5 6.6 6.6
Germany 332.5 376.4 423.0 592.9 276.6 152.5 227.2 148.9 21.8 33.5
Japan 32.6 57.7 77.1 62.2 34.0 33.3 15.5 65.3 98.2 77.6
Luxembourg 2.8 3.8 4.1 4.2 4.2 3.9 4.7 3.7 3.6 3.9
Netherlands 43.9 60.7 63.0 60.3 65.4 45.7 45.3 54.8 54.8 60.4
New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.3
Norway 8.0 5.9 7.7 9.1 11.8 8.3 7.5 7.2 12.0 14.7
Sweden 45.8 37.0 28.9 26.3 40.0 59.0 20.7 14.9 18.1 21.6
Switzerland 22.9 41.8 43.3 31.7 32.8 27.5 20.4 6.6 9.3 15.9
Statistical Annex
305
OECD 2000
Table A.1.4. Inflows of asylum seekers into selected OECD countries
Thousands
Table A.1.5. Stocks of foreign-born population in selected OECD countries
Thousands
Note: Data are from censuses for Australia, Canada and the United States and from population registers for the other countries. For more details on sources,
see the notes at the end of the Annex.
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
Australia 3.8 17.0 4.1 4.6 4.2 5.1 6.0 9.3 7.8 . .
Austria 22.8 27.3 16.2 4.7 5.1 5.9 7.0 6.7 13.8 20.1
Belgium 13.0 15.4 17.6 26.5 14.7 11.7 12.4 11.8 22.1 35.8
Canada 36.7 32.3 37.7 21.1 21.7 25.5 25.4 24.2 25.2 29.4
Czech Republic 1.8 2.0 0.9 2.2 1.2 1.4 2.2 2.1 4.1 8.6
Denmark 5.3 4.6 13.9 14.3 6.7 5.1 5.9 5.1 5.7 6.5
Finland 2.7 2.1 3.6 2.0 0.8 0.8 0.7 1.0 1.3 3.1
France 54.8 47.4 28.9 27.6 26.0 20.4 17.4 21.4 22.4 30.9
Germany 193.1 256.1 438.2 322.6 127.2 127.9 116.4 104.4 98.6 95.1
Greece 4.1 2.7 2.0 0.8 1.3 1.4 1.6 4.4 2.6 1.5
Hungary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 7.4 11.5
Ireland 0.1 0.1 0.4 0.4 1.2 3.9 4.6 7.7
Italy 4.7 31.7 2.6 1.3 1.8 1.7 0.7 1.9 11.1 33.4
Luxembourg 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 1.6 2.9
Netherlands 21.2 21.6 20.3 35.4 52.6 29.3 22.9 34.4 45.2 39.3
New Zealand . . 1.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.7 1.3 1.6 2.9 2.1
Norway 4.0 4.6 5.2 12.9 3.4 1.5 1.8 2.3 7.7 10.2
Poland . . . . . . . . 0.6 0.8 3.2 3.5 3.4 3.0
Portugal 0.1 0.2 0.6 2.1 0.8 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
Spain 8.6 8.1 11.7 12.6 12.0 5.7 4.7 5.0 6.8 8.4
Sweden 29.4 27.4 84.0 37.6 18.6 9.0 5.8 9.6 12.5 11.2
Switzerland 35.8 41.6 18.0 24.7 16.1 17.0 18.0 24.0 41.2 46.1
United Kingdom 38.2 73.4 32.3 28.0 42.2 55.0 37.0 41.5 58.0 91.2
United States 73.6 56.3 104.0 144.2 146.5 154.5 128.2 85.9 55.0 42.5
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Australia . . . . 3 753.3 . . . . . . . . 3 908.3 . . . .
% of total population . . . . 22.3 . . . . . . . . 21.1 . . . .
Canada . . . . 4 342.9 . . . . . . . . 4 971.1 . . . .
% of total population . . . . 16.1 . . . . . . . . 17.4 . . . .
Denmark . . . . . . 207.4 215.0 222.1 244.5 259.2 276.8 287.7
% of total population . . . . . . 4.0 4.1 4.3 4.7 4.9 5.2 5.4
Finland . . . . . . . . . . . . 106.3 111.1 118.1 125.1
% of total population . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.0 2.1 2.3 2.4
Netherlands 1 166.8 1 217.1 . . . . 1 375.4 1 387.4 1 407.1 1 433.6 1 469.0 1 513.9
% of total population 7.8 8.1 . . . . 9.0 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.4 9.6
Norway 183.3 . . 195.7 . . 216.2 233.4 240.3 246.9 257.7 273.3
% of total population 4.3 . . 4.6 . . 5.0 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.8 6.1
Sweden . . . . . . 834.5 869.1 922.1 936.0 943.8 954.2 968.7
United States . . 19 767.3 . . . . . . 22 600 23 000 24 600 25 800 26 300
% of total population . . 7.9 . . . . . . 8.7 8.8 9.3 9.7 9.8
306
OECD 2000
Table A.1.6. Stocks of foreign population in selected OECD countries
Thousands and percentages
Note: Data are from population registers or from register of foreigners except for France and the United States (Census), Portugal (residence permits), Ireland
and the United Kingdom (Labour Force Survey) and refer to the population on the 31 December of the years indicated unless otherwise stated. For
more details on sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Austria 387.2 456.1 532.7 623.0 689.6 713.5 723.5 728.2 732.7 737.3
% of total population 5.1 5.9 6.8 7.9 8.6 8.9 9.0 9.0 9.1 9.1
Belgium 880.8 904.5 922.5 909.3 920.6 922.3 909.8 911.9 903.2 892.0
Czech Republic . . . . . . 41.2 77.7 103.7 158.9 198.6 209.8 219.8
Denmark 150.6 160.6 169.5 180.1 189.0 196.7 222.7 237.7 249.6 256.3
Finland 21.2 26.6 37.6 46.3 55.6 62.0 68.6 73.8 80.6 85.1
France . . 3 596.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
% of total population . . 6.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Germany 4 845.9 5 342.5 5 882.3 6 495.8 6 878.1 6 990.5 7 173.9 7 314.0 7 365.8 7 319.6
Hungary . . . . . . . . . . 137.9 139.9 142.5 143.8 . .
% of total population . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.4 . .
Ireland 78.0 80.0 87.7 94.9 89.9 91.1 96.1 118.0 114.4 111.0
Italy 490.4 781.1 863.0 925.2 987.4 922.7 991.4 1 095.6 1 240.7 1 250.2
Japan 984.5 1 075.3 1 218.9 1 281.6 1 320.7 1 354.0 1 362.4 1 415.1 1 482.7 1 512.1
Korea 47.2 49.5 51.0 55.8 66.7 84.9 110.0 148.7 176.9 147.9
Luxembourg 106.9 113.1 117.8 122.7 127.6 132.5 138.1 142.8 147.7 152.9
Netherlands 641.9 692.4 732.9 757.4 779.8 757.1 725.4 679.9 678.1 662.4
Norway 140.3 143.3 147.8 154.0 162.3 164.0 160.8 157.5 158.0 165.1
Portugal 101.0 107.8 114.0 123.6 131.6 157.1 168.3 172.9 175.3 177.8
Spain 249.6 278.8 360.7 393.1 430.4 461.4 499.8 539.0 609.8 719.6
Sweden 456.0 483.7 493.8 499.1 507.5 537.4 531.8 526.6 522.0 499.9
Switzerland 1 040.3 1 100.3 1 163.2 1 213.5 1 260.3 1 300.1 1 330.6 1 337.6 1 340.8 1 347.9
United Kingdom 1 812 1 723 1 750 1 985 2 001 2 032 1 948 1 934 2 066 2 208
United States . . 11 770.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
% of total population . . 4.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Statistical Annex
307
OECD 2000
Table A.1.7. Acquisition of nationality in selected OECD countries
7. Statistics cover all means of acquiring the nationality of a country, except where otherwise indicated. These include standard naturalisation procedures sub-
ject to age, residency, etc., criteria, as well as situations where nationality is acquired through a declaration or by option (following marriage, adoption,
or other situations related to residency or descent), recovery of former nationality and other special means of acquiring the nationality of a country. For
more details on sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex. The naturalisation rate (% of foreign population) indicates the number of persons
acquiring the nationality of the country as a percentage of the stock of the foreign population at the beginning of the year.
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Countries where national/foreigner distinction is prevalent
Austria 8.5 9.2 11.4 11.9 14.4 16.3 15.3 16.2 16.3 18.3
% of foreign population 2.5 2.4 2.5 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.1 2.2 2.2 2.5
Belgium . . . . 8.5 46.4 16.4 25.8 26.1 24.6 31.7 34.0
% of foreign population . . . . 0.9 5.0 1.8 2.8 2.8 2.7 3.5 3.8
Denmark 3.3 3.0 5.5 5.1 5.0 5.7 5.3 7.3 5.5 10.3
Finland 1.5 0.9 1.2 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.7 1.0 1.4 4.0
France 82.0 88.5 95.5 95.3 95.5 126.3 92.4 109.8 116.2 122.3
% of foreign population . . . . 2.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Germany 68.5 101.4 141.6 179.9 199.4 259.2 313.6 302.8 271.8 236.1
Hungary 1.1 3.2 5.9 21.9 11.8 9.9 10.0 12.3 8.7 6.4
% of foreign population . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 8.8 6.1 4.5
Italy . . . . 4.5 4.4 6.5 6.6 7.4 7.0 9.2 9.8
% of foreign population . . . . 0.6 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.8
Japan 6.1 6.8 7.8 9.4 10.5 11.1 14.1 14.5 15.1 14.8
Korea 0.4 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.7 1.0 1.0 1.4 . . . .
% of foreign population 0.8 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.5 1.1 1.3 . . . .
Luxembourg 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.6
Netherlands 28.7 12.8 29.1 36.2 43.1 49.5 71.4 82.7 59.8 59.2
Norway 4.6 4.8 5.1 5.1 5.5 8.8 11.8 12.2 12.0 9.2
Spain 5.9 7.0 3.8 5.3 8.4 7.8 6.8 8.4 10.3 13.2
Sweden 17.6 16.8 27.7 29.3 42.7 35.1 32.0 25.6 28.9 46.5
Switzerland 10.3 8.7 8.8 11.2 12.9 13.8 16.8 19.4 19.2 21.3
United Kingdom 117.1 57.3 58.6 42.2 45.8 44.0 40.5 43.1 37.0 53.5
Countries where native-born/foreign-born distinction is prevalent
Australia 119.1 127.9 118.5 125.2 122.1 112.2 114.8 111.6 108.3 112.3
Canada . . 87.5 104.3 118.6 116.2 150.6 217.3 227.7 155.6 134.4
United States 233.8 270.1 308.1 240.3 314.7 434.1 488.1 1 044.7 598.2 473.2
308
OECD 2000
Table A.2.1. Inflows of foreign workers into selected OECD countries
Thousands
Note: For details on sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
Table A.2.2. Inflows of seasonal workers in selected OECD countries
Thousands
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Australia
Permanent settlers 43.8 42.8 48.4 40.3 22.1 12.8 20.2 20.0 19.7 26.0
Temporary workers . . . . . . 14.6 14.9 14.2 14.3 15.4 12.5 . .
Austria 37.2 103.4 62.6 57.9 37.7 27.1 15.4 16.3 15.2 15.4
Belgium 3.7 . . 5.1 4.4 4.3 4.1 2.8 2.2 2.5 7.3
Canada 289.2 229.5 233.8 230.4 185.6 172.9 . . . . . . . .
Denmark 2.7 2.8 2.4 2.4 2.1 2.1 2.2 2.8 3.1 3.2
France
Permanents 15.6 22.4 25.6 42.3 24.4 18.3 13.1 11.5 11.0 10.3
APT 3.1 3.8 4.1 3.9 4.0 4.1 4.5 4.8 4.7 4.3
Germany 84.8 138.6 241.9 408.9 325.6 221.2 270.8 262.5 285.4 275.5
Hungary 25.3 51.9 41.7 24.6 19.5 18.6 18.4 14.5 19.7 22.6
Ireland 1.2 1.4 3.8 3.6 4.3 4.3 4.3 3.8 4.5 5.6
Italy . . . . 125.5 123.7 85.0 99.8 111.3 129.2 166.3 . .
Luxembourg 14.7 16.9 16.9 15.9 15.5 16.2 16.5 18.3 18.6 . .
Spain 14.1 16.0 81.6 48.2 7.5 15.6 29.6 31.0 23.2 . .
Switzerland 37.1 46.7 46.3 39.7 31.5 28.6 27.1 24.5 25.4 26.8
United Kingdom
Long term 13.3 16.1 12.9 12.7 12.5 13.4 15.5 16.9 18.7 . .
Short term 12.2 13.8 12.6 14.0 13.3 12.9 15.6 16.8 19.0 . .
Trainees 4.2 4.8 3.5 3.4 3.5 3.8 4.4 4.0 4.7 . .
Total 29.7 34.6 29.0 30.1 29.3 30.1 35.5 37.7 42.4 64.5
United States
Permanent settlers 57.7 58.2 59.5 116.2 147.0 123.3 85.3 117.5 90.6 77.5
Temporary workers 141.3 144.9 169.6 175.8 182.3 210.8 220.7 254.4 . . . .
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Australia 32.0 38.0 36.7 25.2 25.6 29.6 35.4 40.3 50.0 . .
Canada . . . . . . 11.1 11.2 10.4 10.9 . . . . . .
France 61.9 58.2 54.2 13.6 11.3 10.3 9.4 8.8 8.2 7.5
Germany 212.4 181.0 155.2 192.8 220.9 226.0 201.6
Italy . . . . . . 1.7 2.8 5.8 7.6 8.9 8.4 . .
Netherlands . . . . . . 1.0 0.9 0.5 . .
Norway . . 4.3 4.3 4.7 4.6 4.5 5.0 5.4 6.1 7.5
Switzerland 156.4 153.6 147.5 126.1 93.5 83.9 72.3 62.7 46.7 39.6
United Kingdom . . . . . . 3.6 4.2 4.4 4.7 5.5 9.3 9.4
United States . . . . . . 16.4 16.3 13.2 11.4 9.6 . . . .
Statistical Annex
309
OECD 2000
Table A.2.3. Stocks of foreign and foreign-born labour force in selected OECD countries
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Stocks of foreign labour force
Austria 178.0 229.5 277.2 295.9 304.6 316.5 325.2 328.0 326.3 327.1
% of total labour force 5.9 7.4 8.7 9.1 9.3 9.7 9.9 10.0 9.9 9.9
Belgium 291.3 288.9 302.5 321.6 335.9 351.2 357.6 363.7 374.2 375.4
Denmark 66.9 68.8 71.2 74.0 77.7 80.3 83.8 88.0 93.9 . .
% of total labour force 2.3 2.4 2.4 2.6 2.7 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2 . .
Finland . . . . . . . . . . 24.4 26.9 29.7 33.0 34.7
% of total labour force . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
France 1 593.8 1 549.5 1 506.0 1 517.8 1 541.5 1 593.9 1 573.3 1 604.7 1 569.8 1 586.7
Germany 1 940.6 2 025.1 2 179.1 2 360.1 2 575.9 2 559.6 2 569.2 2 559.3 2 521.9 . .
% of total labour force 7.0 7.1 7.5 8.0 8.9 8.9 9.0 9.1 9.1 . .
Hungary . . 31.7 33.4 15.7 17.6 20.1 21.0 18.8 20.4 22.4
% of total labour force . . . . . . 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.6
Ireland 33.0 34.0 39.3 40.4 37.3 34.5 42.1 52.4 51.7 47.5
Italy . . . . 285.3 296.8 304.8 307.1 332.2 . . . . . .
% of total employment . . . . 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.7 . . . . . .
Japan . . . . . . 85.5 95.4 105.6 88.0 98.3 107.3 119.0
% of total labour force . . . . . . 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2
Luxembourg 76.2 84.7 92.6 98.2 101.0 106.3 111.8 117.8 124.8 134.6
% of total employment 42.4 45.2 47.5 49.2 49.7 51.0 52.4 53.8 55.1 57.7
Netherlands 192 197 214 229 219 216 221 218 208 . .
% of total employment 3.2 3.1 3.3 3.5 3.3 3.3 3.2 3.1 2.9 . .
Norway 47.7 46.3 46.3 46.6 47.9 50.3 52.6 54.8 59.9 66.9
Portugal 48.7 51.8 54.9 59.2 63.1 77.6 84.3 86.8 87.9 88.6
Spain 69.1 85.4 171.0 139.4 117.4 121.8 139.0 166.5 178.7 190.6
Sweden 237 246 241 233 221 213 220 218 220 219
Switzerland 631.8 669.8 702.5 716.7 725.8 740.3 728.7 709.1 692.8 691.1
United Kingdom 914 882 828 902 862 864 862 865 949 1 039
Stocks of foreign-born labour force
Australia . . . . 2 182.3 . . 2 194.9 2 164.1 2 138.8 2 238.8 2 251.6 2 293.9
% of total labour force . . . . 25.7 . . 25.3 24.8 23.9 24.6 24.8 24.8
Canada . . . . 2 681.0 . . . . . . . . 2 839.1 . . . .
% of total labour force . . . . 18.5 . . . . . . . . 19.2 . . . .
United States . . 11 564.6 . . . . . . 12 900 12 900 14 400 15 400 16 100
% of total labour force . . 9.4 . . . . . . 9.8 9.7 10.7 11.3 11.7
310
OECD 2000
Table B.1.1. AUSTRALIA, inflows of permanent settlers and temporary residents by country or region of birth
Thousands
Note: Data refer to fiscal years (July to June of the given year). For details on definitions and sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
1. Counts include both principal applicants and their accompanying dependents, if any.
2. From 1996 on, data are available for Bosnia Herzegovina, Croatia, FYROM, Slovenia and Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.
3. Including 17 049, 51 998 and 79 232 holders of a Temporary Business Entry (TBE) visa (Long stay) in 1996/1997, 1997/98 and 1998/99 respectively. This new
visa was introduced on 1 November 1995.
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
A. Permanent settlers
1
New Zealand 11.2 7.5 7.2 6.7 7.8 10.5 12.3 13.1 14.7 18.7
United Kingdom 23.5 20.7 14.5 9.5 9.0 10.7 11.3 9.7 9.2 8.8
Former Yugoslavia 2.0 1.9 2.5 4.2 4.9 6.7
2 2 2 2
China 3.1 3.3 3.4 3.0 2.7 3.7 11.2 7.8 4.3 6.1
South Africa 2.4 2.1 1.3 1.0 1.7 2.8 3.2 3.2 4.3 5.0
Philippines 6.1 6.4 5.9 3.7 4.2 4.1 3.2 2.8 2.8 3.3
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9
India 3.0 5.1 5.6 3.6 2.6 3.9 3.7 2.7 2.8 2.6
Vietnam 11.2 13.2 9.6 5.7 5.4 5.1 3.6 3.0 2.3 2.1
Hong Kong (China) 8.1 13.5 12.9 6.5 3.3 4.1 4.4 3.9 3.2 1.9
Fiji 2.6 2.4 2.1 1.6 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.7 1.1 1.6
Chinese Taipei 3.1 3.5 3.2 1.4 0.8 0.8 1.6 2.2 1.5 1.6
Bosnia Herzegovina . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 2.1 2.1 1.4
Croatia . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.7 0.7 1.0 1.1
United States 1.9 1.9 1.7 1.3 1.4 1.8 1.6 1.5 1.3 1.0
Other countries 43.2 40.2 37.5 28.1 24.7 31.8 37.2 31.6 26.7 26.0
Total 121.2 121.7 107.4 76.3 69.8 87.4 99.1 85.8 77.3 84.1
B. Temporary residents
United Kingdom and Ireland 53.6 47.0 34.9 26.5 35.7 42.1 42.8 49.1 60.7 70.0
Northern Europe 15.6 15.5 14.4 12.7 15.9 16.9 17.7 18.9 22.1 24.1
Southern Europe 3.4 3.9 2.7 2.9 3.3 3.0 2.8 2.7 3.2 3.1
Asia (excluding Middle East) 39.5 38.0 34.9 26.1 30.6 30.4 33.1 41.6 46.8 52.1
Middle East 1.2 0.9 1.0 0.9 1.1 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.3 1.5
United States and Canada 32.8 29.5 26.1 20.8 24.1 26.1 27.9 25.3 29.7 31.2
South and other America 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.4 1.0 0.8 1.4 1.3 2.1
Africa 0.6 1.0 1.1 0.9 1.9 2.2 1.8 4.1 5.8 7.1
Oceania 0.9 1.7 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.4 1.8 1.8 1.6 2.3
Other and not stated 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.6 0.8 0.8
Total 149.0 139.0 117.8 93.2 115.2 124.4 130.2 147.1
3
173.2
3
194.1
3
Statistical Annex
311
OECD 2000
Table B.1.1. BELGIUM, inflows of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
Note: Data are from population registers. Asylum seekers awaiting a decision are excluded from 1995 on. For details on definitions and sources, refer to the
notes at the end of the Annex.
Table B.1.1. CANADA, inflows of permanent settlers by region or country of origin
Thousands
Note: Counts include both principal applicants and their accompanying dependents, if any. Figures include backlog clearance. For details on definitions and
sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
France . . . . 5.8 5.9 6.0 6.2 6.2 6.6 7.0 7.4
Netherlands . . . . 6.2 6.6 6.7 4.3 6.5 7.8 6.3 6.2
Morocco 2.3 2.6 3.4 3.3 3.4 4.8 3.6 4.0 3.9 4.3
Germany . . . . 2.7 2.8 3.0 3.1 3.1 3.2 3.1 3.2
United States . . . . 2.9 3.1 2.7 2.9 3.0 3.0 3.1 2.8
United Kingdom . . . . 3.2 3.1 2.9 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.7 2.7
Italy 2.7 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.8 1.9 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.5
Turkey 1.8 2.4 2.9 2.7 2.5 3.6 2.5 2.5 1.4 2.4
Portugal 1.7 1.7 1.9 3.2 2.1 1.2 1.7 1.8 1.6 1.4
Spain 0.8 0.8 0.8 1.1 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.2 1.1
Poland . . . . 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.9 1.1 1.1
Japan . . . . 0.7 0.7 1.0 1.1 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.9
Zaire . . 1.8 1.9 2.7 2.3 2.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.7
China . . . . 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7
Greece 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.8 1.8 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.5
Other countries 33.5 37.7 17.3 15.3 14.6 17.9 16.1 12.7 12.4 12.6
Total 43.5 50.5 54.1 55.1 53.0 56.0 53.1 51.9 49.2 50.7
of which: EU 22.5 24.6 24.8 27.1 26.4 27.0 26.6 28.7 27.6 27.4
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Asia and the Pacific 76.5 89.6 97.6 120.9 130.8 128.2 112.9 124.8 117.1 84.0
China 4.4 8.0 13.9 10.4 9.5 12.5 13.3 17.5 18.5 19.7
India 8.8 10.6 12.8 12.7 20.5 17.2 16.3 21.3 19.6 15.3
Philippines 11.4 12.0 12.3 13.3 19.8 19.1 15.2 13.2 10.9 8.2
Hong Kong (China) 19.9 29.3 22.3 38.9 36.6 44.2 31.8 30.0 22.2 8.1
Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . 3.7 4.0 7.8 11.2 8.1
Chinese Taipei 3.4 3.7 4.5 7.5 9.9 7.4 7.7 13.2 13.3 7.2
Iran . . . . . . . . . . 2.7 3.7 5.8 7.5 6.8
Sri Lanka 2.4 3.1 6.8 12.6 9.1 6.7 8.9 6.2 5.1 3.3
Vietnam 9.4 9.1 9.0 7.7 8.3 6.2 4.0 2.5 1.8 1.6
Other Asian countries 16.7 13.8 15.9 17.9 17.2 8.5 8.1 7.4 6.9 5.7
Europe 52.1 51.9 48.1 44.9 46.6 38.6 41.3 40.0 38.7 38.5
United Kingdom 8.4 8.2 7.5 7.1 7.2 6.0 6.2 5.6 4.7 3.9
Bosnia Herzegovina . . . . . . . . 2.8 4.9 6.3 5.1 3.8 3.7
Poland 16.0 16.6 15.7 11.9 6.9 3.4 2.3 2.1 1.7 1.4
Africa and the Middle East 31.0 38.3 41.6 41.6 36.5 29.4 32.9 36.5 37.8 32.5
Lebanon 6.2 12.5 12.0 6.5 4.7 2.6 1.9 1.8 1.2 1.2
Other African countries 24.9 25.8 29.7 35.1 31.9 26.8 31.0 34.7 36.5 31.3
America 32.4 34.5 43.5 45.4 41.9 27.6 25.7 24.7 22.5 18.8
United States 6.9 6.1 6.6 7.5 8.0 6.2 5.2 5.9 5.0 4.8
El Salvador 2.8 4.3 7.0 5.6 2.9 1.2 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.5
Other American countries 22.6 24.1 29.9 32.3 31.0 20.3 19.7 18.2 16.8 13.5
Total 192.0 214.2 230.8 252.8 255.8 223.9 212.9 226.1 216.0 173.8
312
OECD 2000
Table B.1.1. DENMARK, inflows of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
Note: Entries of foreigners staying in Denmark for more than one year. Asylum seekers and refugees with a provisional residence status are not included. For
details on definitions and sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
1. Including 16 077 ex-Yugoslavs who have been recognised as refugees after 3 years of legal residence in Denmark as war refugees (temporay status).
2. Including Finland and Sweden from 1995 on.
Table B.1.1. FINLAND, inflows of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
Note: Entries of foreigners intending to stay in Finland for longer than one year. For details on definitions and sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Somalia . . . . . . . . 1.3 1.5 2.5 1.8
1
. . 1.4
Iraq 0.4 0.5 1.3 1.0 0.7 1.0 1.1 1.3
Germany 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.0 1.2 1.1
Norway 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1
Sweden 0.5 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Turkey 1.1 1.8 1.1 0.7 0.6 0.8 1.2 1.0
United Kingdom . . . . . . . . 1.1 0.9 1.0 0.9
Iceland 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.7 1.2 1.2 0.9
United States 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.5
France 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.5
Netherlands 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.4
Thailand . . . . . . . . 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.4
Iran 0.8 0.9 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.5 0.4
Poland 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.3
Other countries 8.4 9.5 9.5 8.7 6.1 5.8 11.9 7.4
Total 15.1 17.5 16.9 15.4 15.6 33.0 24.7 20.4
of which: EU
2
2.3 2.6 2.7 3.0 3.7 4.4 3.9 4.9
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Former USSR 2.9 2.2 1.9 2.0 2.0 2.4 2.5
Sweden 0.6 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.8
Estonia 2.1 2.0 1.4 1.0 0.7 0.6 0.7
Somalia 0.3 0.9 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.5 0.4
Iraq 0.2 0.4 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.5 0.3
United States 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
China 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2
Iran 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.2
Vietnam 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2
Germany 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2
United Kingdom 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2
Thailand 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2
Turkey 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1
Ukraine . . 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1
Other countries 2.5 2.0 1.8 2.1 2.0 1.8 2.1
Total 10.4 10.9 7.6 7.3 7.5 8.1 8.3
Statistical Annex
313
OECD 2000
Table B.1.1. FRANCE, inflows of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
Note: For details on definitions and sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
1. Up to 1989, inflows include permanent workers, holders of provisional work permits and persons admitted under family reunification. From 1990 on, spouses
of French nationals, parents of French children, refugees, the self-employed and others eligible for a residence permit are also included. Provisional work
permits, on the other hand, are not included. In 1998, data include 45 800 persons who benefited from the 1997 regularisation programme.
2. Figures include estimates of some unregistered flows (inflows of family members of European Economic Area citizens for example).
Table B.1.1. GERMANY, inflows of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
1. Included in Former USSR until 1991.
2. Included in Former Yugoslavia until 1991.
4. European Union 15 for all years.
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Algeria 6.3 13.8 12.9 12.3 13.1 9.7 8.4 7.8 12.2 16.7
Morocco 13.6 18.0 18.2 16.4 13.8 8.1 6.6 6.6 10.3 16.1
Turkey 5.3 7.0 9.2 9.2 6.8 4.7 3.6 3.4 5.1 6.8
China . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 0.9 0.7 2.8 5.7
Tunisia 3.2 4.0 4.3 4.0 3.5 2.3 1.9 2.2 3.6 5.3
Zaire . . . . . . . . 2.2 1.3 0.9 0.9 2.9 4.6
Former Yugoslavia 0.6 1.2 1.1 1.2 4.0 1.3 1.6 1.3 1.5 2.4
Haiti . . . . . . . . 3.2 1.9 1.4 0.8 1.9 1.9
Poland 1.4 2.9 2.5 1.2 1.1 0.8 0.9 0.7 0.8 1.4
Japan . . 1.3 1.5 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.1
Romania . . 0.7 1.3 1.1 1.0 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.9
Russian Federation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.6 0.7 0.9
Cambodia . . 1.3 1.2 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.8
Vietnam . . 3.5 3.1 1.3 1.3 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.8
Lebanon . . 6.4 4.4 1.8 . . 0.9 0.6 0.5 0.7 0.7
Other countries 22.8 42.3 50.3 66.1 47.0 33.9 27.1 27.1 35.1 50.7
Total
1
53.2 102.4 109.9 116.6 99.2 69.3 56.7 55.6 80.9 116.9
of which: EU . . 11.3 11.7 25.9 14.4 10.8 7.9 7.1 6.4 6.1
Total
2
. . . . . . . . . . 91.5 77.0 75.5 102.4 138.1
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Poland 260.3 200.9 128.4 131.7 75.2 78.6 87.2 77.4 71.2 66.3
Federal Rep. of Yugoslavia 61.5 65.2 221.0 341.3 141.6 63.2 54.1 42.9 31.2 59.9
Turkey 85.7 83.6 81.9 80.6 67.8 63.9 73.6 73.2 56.0 48.2
Italy 40.2 36.9 35.4 30.1 31.7 38.7 48.0 45.8 39.0 35.6
Russian Federation
1
. . . . . . 24.6 29.4 33.4 33.0 31.9 24.8 28.4
Hungary . . 15.9 24.9 27.9 24.2 19.3 18.8 16.6 11.2 19.3
Portugal 5.3 7.0 10.7 10.1 12.9 26.5 30.5 32.0 26.4 18.8
Former USSR 32.6 37.0 39.0 15.2 13.3 7.8 2.3 2.3 4.4 17.6
United States . . . . . . 21.3 17.6 15.8 16.0 16.3 15.1 17.0
Romania 14.2 78.2 61.4 109.8 81.6 31.4 24.8 17.1 14.2 17.0
Greece 29.5 26.5 28.3 23.6 18.3 18.9 20.3 18.8 16.4 16.1
Croatia
2
. . . . . . 38.6 26.0 16.7 14.9 12.3 10.0 10.1
Bosnia Herzegovina
3
. . . . . . . . 107.0 68.3 55.2 11.1 6.9 8.5
Spain 4.4 4.4 5.1 5.4 5.8 6.0 7.2 7.8 7.8 7.5
Bulgaria . . . . . . 31.4 27.2 10.4 8.0 6.3 6.3 5.3
Other countries 237.1 286.8 284.4 315.8 307.1 275.0 294.5 296.0 274.2 230.0
Total 770.8 842.4 920.5 1 207.6 986.9 774.0 788.3 708.0 615.3 605.5
of which: EU
4
142.0 139.6 147.4 140.8 136.7 155.8 177.2 172.5 151.5 136.0
314
OECD 2000
Table B.1.1. GREECE, inflows of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
Table B.1.1. HUNGARY, inflows of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
Note: Data are from the Register of long-term residence permits. For details on definitions and sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
2. Excluding Croatia.
1998 of which: Women 1998
Russian Federation 4.8 3.1
Bulgaria 2.9 2.2
Albania 2.7 1.9
Egypt 2.2 0.3
Romania 2.1 1.6
Ukraine 1.7 1.2
Former Yugoslavia 1.4 0.9
United States 1.4 0.8
Poland 1.3 1.1
Germany 1.3 0.8
United Kingdom 1.2 0.7
Philippines 1.0 0.8
Turkey 0.8 0.3
Syria 0.7 0.2
Lebanon 0.7 0.2
Other countries 12.0 6.9
Total 38.2 23.1
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
1
Romania 26.6 29.6 10.9 6.5 6.1 4.3 4.7 4.0 4.3 4.6
Ukraine 0.6 1.1 1.3 1.1 1.2 1.4 1.2 1.3 1.9 1.9
Former Yugoslavia
2
0.4 0.4 3.6 3.2 5.0 2.3 1.4 0.9 1.1 1.4
China 0.1 0.7 2.1 0.4 0.5 0.5 1.2 1.7 1.5 0.9
Germany 0.7 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.5
Slovak Republic 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4
Russian Federation 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.3
Croatia 0.1 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.3
Vietnam 0.8 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.3
Israel 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1
Poland 1.3 0.8 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1
United Kingdom 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1
Austria 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Greece 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1
Norway 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 . .
Other countries 2.2 2.9 2.5 2.0 1.8 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.0 1.7
Total 33.7 37.2 23.0 15.1 16.4 12.8 13.2 12.8 13.4 12.8
of which: EU
3
1.3 1.3 1.4 1.0 1.0 1.3 1.3 1.5 1.6 10.5
Statistical Annex
315
OECD 2000
Table B.1.1. IRELAND, inflows of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
Note: CSO estimates on the basis of 1996 Census results. For details on definitions and sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
Table B.1.1. ITALY, inflows of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
Table B.1.1. JAPAN, inflows of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
Note: New entry except temporary visitors. Re-entry are excluded. For details on definitions and sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
United Kingdom 6.3 5.8 8.3 8.2 8.3 7.9
United States 2.0 1.5 4 4.2 2.2 2.5
Other countries 5.0 6.3 9.2 11.1 10.3 11.2
Total 13.3 13.6 21.5 23.5 20.8 21.6
of which: EU 9.6 9.0 13.3 13.7 14.1 14.7
1998
Albania 11.2
Morocco 7.3
Romania 5.9
Former Yugoslavia 5.7
United States 4.7
Poland 3.9
China 3.4
Germany 3.3
Russian Federation 3.2
Iraq 3.0
Sri Lanka 2.7
Philippines 2.6
India 2.6
France 2.5
Brazil 2.4
Other countries 46.6
Total 111.0
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
China 53.1 29.9 35.6 52.4 45.2 38.9 38.8 45.6 53.3 55.7
Philippines 48.0 48.8 63.8 57.5 48.2 58.8 30.3 30.3 43.2 47.6
United States 28.6 30.8 29.8 29.3 27.4 27.6 27.0 27.9 27.7 27.7
Brazil 5.3 11.6 17.3 19.2 14.6 11.8 11.9 16.4 39.6 21.9
Korea 21.0 23.1 26.6 26.0 21.3 21.3 18.8 17.1 17.9 17.1
Thailand 6.1 7.0 8.3 7.7 6.5 6.8 6.5 6.6 6.4 7.5
United Kingdom 6.9 7.5 6.1 6.7 5.9 6.6 6.4 6.4 6.9 6.8
Chinese Taipei 6.5 7.3 7.6 6.0 5.2 4.7 4.7 4.4 5.1 4.9
Canada 3.1 3.8 4.2 4.2 3.8 4.1 4.1 4.6 4.8 4.6
Germany 3.7 4.3 4.1 4.2 4.2 4.0 3.7 4.2 4.3 4.4
Peru 4.3 2.8 1.1 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.7 2.4 3.1 3.1
Other countries 50.8 46.9 53.9 52.9 51.3 51.9 55.9 59.6 62.6 64.1
Total 237.4 223.8 258.4 267.0 234.5 237.5 209.9 225.4 274.8 265.5
316
OECD 2000
Table B.1.1. LUXEMBOURG, inflows of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
Table B.1.1. NETHERLANDS, inflows of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
Table B.1.1. NEW ZEALAND, inflows of permanent and long-term migrants by country of birth
Thousands
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Portugal 2.9 3.4 3.5 2.4 2.9 2.4 2.4 2.0 1.9 2.0
France 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.5 1.5 1.7 2.0
Belgium 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.9 0.9 1.1 1.2 1.2
Germany 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.8
Italy 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.6
United States 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.3
Netherlands 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.2
Spain . . . . . . . . 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Other countries 2.0 2.3 2.9 3.9 2.5 2.6 2.9 2.8 2.8 3.4
Total 8.4 9.3 10.0 9.8 9.2 9.2 9.6 9.2 9.5 10.7
of which: EU
1
6.9 7.6 7.8 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.1 . . . . . .
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Morocco 8.4 9.4 8.9 7.2 5.9 3.2 3.1 4.3 4.5 5.3
Turkey 11.0 12.6 12.4 9.1 7.8 4.3 4.8 6.4 6.5 5.1
Germany 4.6 5.6 6.8 7.1 7.4 6.1 4.7 5.7 5.7 4.7
United Kingdom 4.2 5.4 6.0 6.5 5.0 3.5 3.7 4.3 4.3 4.7
United States 2.3 2.5 2.6 2.9 2.6 2.2 2.2 3.1 3.1 3.3
Suriname 4.4 6.8 6.7 6.9 7.8 2.9 1.7 2.8 2.6 3.2
France 1.6 1.8 1.7 1.8 1.5 1.4 . . 1.7 2.1 2.1
Belgium 2.2 2.4 2.4 2.2 2.0 1.7 1.3 1.9 2.2 1.9
Poland 1.1 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.3 0.8 . . 1.4 1.4 1.5
Former Yugoslavia . . . . . . 4.9 8.9 8.4 7.3 3.4 1.6 1.4
China . . . . . . . . 1.1 1.0 . . 1.3 1.6 1.4
Italy 1.0 1.1 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.9 . . 1.2 1.2 1.4
Japan . . . . . . . . 1.0 1.1 . . 1.3 1.2 1.2
Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 1.3 1.2
Iran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6 0.3
Other countries 24.6 32.3 34.4 32.0 34.2 30.8 38.2 37.4 35.8 43.0
Total 65.4 81.3 84.3 83.0 87.6 68.4 67.0 77.2 76.7 81.7
of which: EU
1
15.7 18.6 20.8 22.3 19.7 16.0 14.8 19.2 20.3 19.9
1998
United Kingdom 5.5
Japan 3.8
Australia 3.4
China 3.1
South Africa 2.1
India 1.9
Chinese Taipei 1.5
United States 1.3
Fiji 1.2
Other countries 12.3
Total 36.2
Statistical Annex
317
OECD 2000
Table B.1.1. NORWAY, inflows of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
Note: Data are from population registers. For details on definitions and sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
1. Included in former Yugoslavia before 1993.
2. Excluding Austria, Finland and Sweden.
Table B.1.1. SWEDEN, inflows of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
1. Included in former Yougoslavia before 1993.
2. EU 15 for all years.
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Sweden 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.3 1.6 1.9 2.1 2.9 4.9 6.0
Denmark 2.2 1.8 1.8 1.7 1.7 1.9 1.6 1.6 1.8 2.1
United Kingdom 0.9 0.7 0.8 1.1 1.1 0.8 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.3
Germany 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.1
Somalia 0.6 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 1.1
Iran 0.9 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.6 0.7
Pakistan 0.9 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.6
Bosnia Herzegovina
1
. . . . . . . . 6.2 3.2 1.7 1.0 0.6 0.5
Turkey 0.7 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.5
Sri Lanka 0.8 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4
China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3 0.3 0.4
Philippines 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4
Poland 0.7 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
Morocco 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2
Other countries 7.8 7.1 7.4 7.2 6.7 6.5 6.9 7.3 9.3 10.9
Total 18.5 15.7 16.1 17.2 22.3 17.9 16.5 17.2 22.0 26.7
of which: EU
2
4.1 3.4 3.6 3.9 4.0 3.9 6.6 7.7 10.8 . .
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Iraq 1.4 2.0 2.5 3.8 4.6 3.5 2.3 2.1 3.7 5.4
Finland 4.5 4.1 3.0 2.7 2.4 2.8 2.8 2.6 2.8 3.0
Norway 8.7 7.3 2.6 1.9 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.5 1.5 1.6
Iran 7.0 4.5 3.8 3.6 1.9 1.5 1.1 0.8 1.7 1.5
Bosnia Herzegovina
1
. . . . . . . . 20.7 25.7 4.6 1.2 1.8 1.3
Denmark 4.5 3.1 1.7 1.3 1.2 1.8 1.8 1.4 1.0 1.1
United Kingdom 0.7 0.9 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.8 0.9 0.8 1.0
United States 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.7 0.8 1.1 1.1 0.9 1.0
Somalia . . . . . . . . . . 2.8 0.5 0.4 1.1 0.8
Poland 1.7 2.0 1.6 1.5 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.7 0.6 0.6
Turkey 1.5 1.6 1.5 1.1 0.8 1.1 1.1 1.1 0.8 0.5
Chile 5.9 1.6 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.3
India 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.3
Romania 1.3 1.5 1.0 0.8 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.3
Other countries 18.8 21.2 21.7 18.7 15.0 14.8 14.0 13.8 12.0 15.1
Total 58.9 53.2 43.9 39.5 54.8 74.8 36.1 29.3 33.4 35.7
of which: EU
2
11.6 10.2 7.2 6.2 5.8 7.0 7.9 7.9 7.1 8.4
318
OECD 2000
Table B.1.1. SWITZERLAND, inflows of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
Note: Data are from the register of foreigners. For details on definitions and sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
Table B.1.1. UNITED KINGDOM, inflows of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
Note: Passengers, excluding European Economic Area nationals, admitted to the United Kingdom. Data exclude visitors, passengers in transit or returning on
limited leave or who previously settled. Students and au pair girls are excluded. For details on definitions and sources, refer to the notes at the end of
the Annex.
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1995 1997 1998
Germany 8.4 9.8 9.9 9.6 8.6 8.7 8.6 8.7 8.5 9.3
France 4.9 5.4 4.9 5.1 4.5 5.0 5.0 5.0 4.8 5.4
Italy 7.9 8.8 8.3 8.3 7.3 6.9 6.7 5.4 5.0 5.3
Portugal 9.5 13.8 14.1 13.3 10.0 8.6 7.6 5.5 4.0 5.1
United States 2.4 2.5 3.0 2.6 2.4 2.6 2.9 2.9 2.7 2.8
United Kingdom 2.3 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.4 2.6 2.4 2.4 2.7
Turkey 4.0 6.0 6.7 5.3 4.8 3.8 3.8 3.4 3.4 2.6
Spain 4.8 5.6 4.6 3.9 3.1 2.3 2.7 2.0 1.8 1.7
Austria 1.9 2.1 2.1 2.0 1.6 1.5 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3
Netherlands 1.6 1.9 1.7 1.8 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.4 1.1 1.0
Canada 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.9
Other countries 16.2 20.4 24.2 23.4 22.8 22.3 22.0 21.6 24.1 25.4
Total 80.4 101.4 109.8 112.1 104.0 91.7 87.9 74.3 72.8 74.9
of which: EU . . . . . . . . . . 37.8 39.3 35.7 34.4 35.1
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
United States 43.9 37.3 38.2 39.4 43.2 42.5
Australia 25.0 21.5 27.2 26.6 25.1 26.5
India 9.2 8.9 9.9 11.6 13.0 16.1
South Africa 2.3 2.6 5.6 11.1 12.9 13.0
New Zealand 10.6 9.3 12.1 12.0 11.0 12.1
Japan 10.4 9.4 10.4 10.1 10.8 10.4
Pakistan 8.3 7.5 6.6 7.2 7.8 9.6
Canada 6.4 5.8 6.7 6.7 7.4 8.3
Philippines 2.6 3.3 5.2 6.5 6.8 7.5
Poland 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.6 5.4
Korea . . 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.2 4.2
Bangladesh 3.2 3.2 3.2 2.8 3.3 4.0
Russian Federation . . . . 3.5 4.2 3.6 4.0
Malaysia 3.0 3.0 3.3 3.5 3.3 3.6
China 1.8 2.3 2.7 3.2 3.2 2.5
Other countries 73.6 71.2 53.4 55.6 58.3 67.3
Total 203.9 190.3 193.6 206.3 216.4 236.9
Statistical Annex
319
OECD 2000
Table B.1.1. UNITED STATES, inflows of permanent settlers by region or country of birth
Thousands
Note: Data refer to fiscal years (October to September of the given year). Since 1989, approximately 2.9 millions of immigrants obtained a permanent resi-
dence permit following legalization under the 1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act. For details on definitions and sources, refer to the notes at the
end of the Annex.
1. Excluding Russian Federation and Ukraine from 1992 on.
Table B.1.2. BELGIUM, outflows of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
North and Central America 607.4 957.6 1 211.0 384.0 301.4 272.2 231.5 340.5 307.5 253.0
Mexico 405.2 679.1 946.2 213.8 126.6 111.4 89.9 163.6 146.9 131.6
Dominican Republic 26.7 42.2 41.4 42.0 45.4 51.2 38.5 39.6 27.1 20.4
Cuba 10.0 10.6 10.3 11.8 13.7 14.7 17.9 26.5 33.6 17.4
Jamaica 24.5 25.0 23.8 18.9 17.2 14.3 16.4 19.1 17.8 15.1
El Salvador 57.9 80.2 47.4 26.2 26.8 17.6 11.7 17.9 18.0 14.6
Haiti 13.7 20.3 47.5 11.0 10.1 13.3 14.0 18.4 15.1 13.4
Canada 12.2 16.8 13.5 15.2 17.2 16.1 12.9 15.8 11.6 10.2
Other North or Central American countries 57.2 83.3 80.9 45.2 44.4 33.5 30.1 39.7 37.5 40.4
Asia 312.1 338.6 358.5 357.0 358.0 292.6 267.9 307.8 265.8 219.7
China 32.3 31.8 33.0 38.9 65.6 54.0 35.5 41.7 41.1 36.9
India 31.2 30.7 45.1 36.8 40.1 34.9 34.7 44.9 38.1 36.5
Philippines 57.0 63.8 63.6 61.0 63.5 53.5 51.0 55.9 49.1 34.5
Vietnam 37.7 48.8 55.3 77.7 59.6 41.3 41.8 42.1 38.5 17.6
Korea 34.2 32.3 26.5 19.4 18.0 16.0 16.0 18.2 14.2 14.3
Pakistan 8.0 9.7 20.4 10.2 8.9 8.7 9.8 12.5 13.0 13.1
Other Asian countries 111.7 121.5 114.7 113.0 102.3 84.1 79.2 92.6 71.8 66.9
Europe 82.9 112.4 135.2 145.4 158.3 160.9 128.2 147.6 119.9 90.8
Former USSR
1
11.1 25.5 57.0 20.4 28.2 27.2 22.5 22.0 16.7 . .
Russian Federation . . . . . . 8.9 12.1 15.2 14.6 19.7 16.6 11.5
Ukraine . . . . . . 14.4 18.3 21.0 17.4 21.1 15.7 . .
South America 58.9 85.8 79.9 55.3 53.9 47.4 45.7 61.8 52.9 45.4
Colombia 15.2 24.2 19.7 13.2 12.8 10.8 10.8 14.3 13.0 11.8
Peru 10.2 15.7 16.2 9.9 10.4 9.2 8.1 12.9 10.9 10.2
Other South American countries 33.5 45.9 44.0 32.2 30.7 27.4 26.8 34.6 29.0 23.4
Africa 25.2 35.9 36.2 27.1 27.8 26.7 42.5 52.9 47.8 40.7
Oceania 4.4 6.2 6.2 5.2 4.9 4.6 4.7 5.3 4.3 3.9
Total 1 090.9 1 536.5 1 827.2 974.0 904.3 804.4 720.5 915.9 798.4 660.5
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
France . . . . 4.4 3.3 3.4 4.0 4.2 4.3 4.5 5.3
Netherlands . . . . 3.4 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.9 4.1 4.4 4.2
United States . . . . 3.1 3.0 3.0 2.9 2.9 2.7 3.0 3.2
United Kingdom . . . . 2.4 2.3 2.4 2.7 2.7 2.6 2.8 2.9
Italy 2.5 2.5 3.6 2.0 2.0 0.7 2.1 1.9 2.2 2.7
Germany . . . . 2.2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.4 2.6
Spain 1.2 1.2 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.2 1.5 1.1 1.4 1.6
Portugal 0.4 0.5 0.8 0.6 0.9 0.6 0.9 1.0 1.4 1.3
Japan . . . . 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
Greece 0.6 0.6 1.0 0.5 0.4 2.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.8
Morocco 0.7 0.7 0.9 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.8
Turkey 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.6
Poland . . . . 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.5 0.5
China . . . . 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.5
Zaire . . 0.8 1.0 0.5 0.6 1.1 0.9 0.7 0.4 0.4
Other countries 21.4 20.1 8.3 7.2 9.2 9.6 8.0 8.1 8.3 8.1
Total 27.5 27.0 35.3 28.1 31.3 34.1 33.1 32.4 34.6 36.3
of which: EU 15.6 15.5 20.7 15.7 16.6 19.1 20.0 19.7 15.4 23.3
320
OECD 2000
Table B.1.2. DENMARK, outflows of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
Note: Departures of foreigners for more than one year. Departures of asylum seekers and refugees with a provisional residence status are not included. For
details on definitions and sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
Table B.1.2. FINLAND, outflows of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Iceland 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.4 0.7
Norway 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.7
United Kingdom . . . . . . . . 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6
Germany 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5
Sweden 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4
United States 0.3 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4
Former Yugoslavia 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 . . 0.3
France 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
Netherlands 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2
Somalia . . . . . . 0.1 0.2 0.2
Turkey 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2
Finland 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2
Italy 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2
Poland 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Iran 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Other countries 1.8 2.0 1.9 2.0 1.5 1.6 2.0 1.9
Total 4.6 5.2 4.8 4.9 5.0 5.3 6.0 6.7
of which: EU
1
1.4 1.6 1.4 1.4 1.7 2.2 1.8 2.5
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Sweden 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4
Estonia 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.2
Former USSR 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.5 0.1 0.1
United States 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1
United Kingdom 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1
Germany 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Somalia 0.1 0.1 0.1
China 0.1
Turkey
Bosnia Herzegovina . . . . . . . .
Thailand . .
Former Yugoslavia . . . .
Other countries 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.5 1.1 0.5 0.7
Total 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 3.0 1.6 1.7
Statistical Annex
321
OECD 2000
Table B.1.2. GERMANY, outflows of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
Table B.1.2. JAPAN, outflows of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
5. Data are from the register of foreigners. For details on definitions and sources,refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Bosnia Herzegovina
1
. . . . . . . . 10.3 16.5 15.7 27.2 83.9 106.8
Poland 142.5 157.7 115.3 109.5 101.8 65.8 70.7 71.7 70.2 60.8
Turkey 37.7 35.1 36.1 40.3 45.5 46.4 43.2 43.5 46.0 47.2
Italy 38.5 34.1 36.4 32.7 31.0 32.1 33.5 36.8 37.9 37.9
Portugal 2.8 2.9 4.1 4.9 6.3 14.3 20.5 25.4 26.5 22.1
Greece 14.6 14.3 15.4 16.2 17.5 19.2 19.3 20.1 21.8 20.3
Croatia
2
. . . . . . 28.5 25.0 28.5 22.0 17.3 18.9 16.7
United States . . . . . . 16.2 16.9 17.2 16.0 16.0 5.6 15.7
Romania 3.5 15.8 30.2 51.9 101.9 44.0 25.2 16.6 13.6 13.5
Hungary . . 8.7 14.9 21.2 25.1 22.0 18.8 17.0 15.1 12.2
Russian Federation
3
. . . . . . 6.2 7.8 12.3 13.5 12.6 11.2 11.0
Spain 6.4 6.1 6.2 6.5 7.2 7.6 7.2 8.2 9.2 8.4
Bulgaria . . . . . . 10.8 34.9 17.8 10.3 7.0 6.3 4.9
Morocco 1.3 1.5 2.0 2.3 2.8 3.3 2.7 2.5 2.4 2.8
Other countries 155.0 151.5 183.9 168.1 202.8 212.4 202.1 203.1 223.9 200.3
Total 438.3 466.0 497.5 614.7 710.2 621.5 561.1 559.1 637.1 639.0
of which: EU
4
104.9 100.9 114.6 111.8 116.4 133.4 139.6 153.9 159.3 146.7
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Philippines 40.3 50.7 57.2 43.2 50.7 44.2 16.3 31.4 34.9
United States 26.5 25.0 26.0 25.7 25.6 24.9 24.8 24.3 24.8
China 14.5 12.7 17.0 23.0 20.9 21.7 21.8 23.6 24.2
Brazil 3.7 6.9 13.8 20.7 19.7 16.8 14.0 14.1 20.0
Korea 16.1 18.2 18.9 16.6 16.5 14.5 12.4 12.4 10.4
United Kingdom 6.7 4.9 5.8 5.1 5.9 5.5 5.0 5.4 5.5
Thailand 5.9 6.7 6.8 6.1 5.4 5.5 5.3 4.7 5.2
Germany 4.1 3.8 4.1 4.1 3.8 3.6 3.9 3.9 4.2
Canada 2.7 3.1 3.3 3.2 3.2 3.3 3.3 3.5 3.6
Chinese Taipei 6.1 5.9 5.2 4.4 4.2 4.0 3.2 3.5 3.3
Peru 0.8 0.8 2.1 1.8 1.4 0.9 0.8 0.6 0.7
Other countries 38.7 42.6 44.6 46.6 46.9 49.5 49.3 49.2 51.1
Total 166.1 181.3 204.8 200.5 204.2 194.4 160.1 176.6 187.8
322
OECD 2000
Table B.1.2. LUXEMBOURG, outflows of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
Note: Data are from the Central Population Register. For details on definitions and sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
Table B.1.2. NETHERLANDS, outflows of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
Table B.1.2. NEW ZEALAND, outflows of permanent and long-term migrants by country of birth
Thousands
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Portugal 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.5
France 1.0 0.9 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.9 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1
Belgium 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.7
Germany 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.5
Italy 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.4
United States 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3
Netherlands 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2
Spain 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Other countries 1.4 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.0 1.3 1.4 1.9
Total 5.5 5.5 5.9 5.6 5.0 5.3 4.9 5.6 5.8 6.8
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Germany 2.5 2.3 2.7 2.9 3.0 3.2 2.9 3.5 3.1 3.0
United Kingdom 2.5 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.6 2.8 2.9 2.5 2.3 2.6
United States 1.5 1.7 1.7 1.9 1.9 1.8 1.5 1.9 2.2 1.8
Japan . . . . . . . . 0.9 0.9 . . 1.1 1.1 1.0
Belgium 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.1 1.3 0.9 1.2 1.1 1.0
Turkey 3.0 2.3 1.7 1.8 1.7 1.6 1.6 1.5 1.1 0.9
France 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.8 . . 0.8 0.8 0.8
Morocco 1.3 1.0 1.1 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.1 1.0 0.8 0.6
Italy 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.5 . . 0.5 0.5 0.6
Poland . . . . . . . . 1.2 0.2 . . 0.3 0.4 0.4
Former Yugoslavia . . . . . . 0.3 0.3 0.3 . . 0.4 0.4 0.4
Suriname 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3
China . . . . . . . . 0.1 0.2 . . 0.2 0.2 0.2
Other countries 7.7 7.9 8.4 9.1 6.5 7.4 10.4 7.2 7.6 7.7
Total 21.5 20.6 21.3 22.7 22.2 22.7 21.7 22.4 21.9 21.3
of which: EU
1
9.7 8.9 9.6 10.0 10.5 10.4 10.0 10.7 10.0 10.3
1998
United Kingdom 3.5
Australia 3.2
Japan 1.4
United States 1.0
Korea 0.8
Malaysia 0.5
Canada 0.4
India 0.4
Samoa 0.4
Other countries 4.3
Total 15.9
Statistical Annex
323
OECD 2000
Table B.1.2. NORWAY, outflows of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
2. European Union 15 from 1995 on.
Table B.1.2. SWEDEN, outflows of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Sweden 1.7 1.1 0.7 0.7 0.7 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.7 2.7
Denmark 2.6 2.0 1.7 1.4 1.4 1.6 1.7 1.4 1.4 1.4
United Kingdom 1.5 1.5 1.1 0.9 1.1 0.9 0.9 1.0 0.8 0.8
Germany 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4
Bosnia Herzegovina
1
. . . . . . . . 0.2 0.3 0.9 0.6 0.4
Pakistan 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2
China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.1 0.1 0.2
Sri Lanka 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2
Philippines 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2
Chile 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Iran 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
United States 1.0 0.8 0.9 0.7 1.0 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.9 . .
Other countries 3.0 3.1 2.7 2.8 3.7 3.4 3.1 3.5 3.6 5.4
Total 10.6 9.8 8.4 8.1 10.5 9.6 9.0 10.0 10.0 12.0
of which: EU
2
5.4 4.5 3.6 3.0 3.5 3.3 5.0 5.1 5.5 . .
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Finland 5.4 5.4 4.5 3.1 2.8 2.6 2.7 2.9 3.0 2.9
Norway 2.0 3.9 4.1 3.4 2.9 2.4 2.2 2.0 2.0 1.8
Denmark 1.8 2.4 2.2 1.8 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.4 1.2
United States 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
United Kingdom 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.6
Iran 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.5 0.7 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.4
Greece 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3
Poland 0.1 . . . . 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2
Turkey 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2
Chile 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.3
Other countries 2.3 2.9 2.8 3.2 4.5 5.2 6.5 5.5 5.9 5.6
Total 13.1 16.2 15.0 13.2 14.8 15.8 15.4 14.5 15.3 14.1
of which: EU
1
8.5 9.2 7.9 6.2 6.0 6.1 6.8 6.5 6.5 6.3
324
OECD 2000
Table B.1.2. SWITZERLAND, outflows of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
Note: Data are from registers of foreigners. For details on definitions and sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
Table B.1.3. BELGIUM, net migration of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
Note: Data are derived from Tables B.1.1. and B.1.2. For details on sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Italy 11.6 11.7 11.5 15.3 11.7 9.9 10.3 10.8 9.9 8.6
Portugal 4.2 4.7 6.3 10.1 8.7 7.5 7.4 7.9 8.7 7.8
Germany 6.2 6.2 7.2 7.1 7.3 6.2 6.6 6.2 5.9 5.5
Spain 6.6 7.2 7.9 11.6 8.1 6.1 6.1 6.3 5.8 5.3
France 3.6 3.8 3.9 4.0 3.8 3.5 3.8 3.7 3.5 3.3
Turkey 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.9 3.0 3.0 2.7 2.5 2.3 2.3
Austria 1.5 1.5 1.7 1.8 1.6 1.3 1.4 1.2 1.2 1.0
Other countries 16.1 16.0 18.9 20.2 20.0 18.9 20.5 20.1 19.0 19.0
Total 57.5 59.6 66.4 80.4 71.2 64.2 67.5 67.7 63.4 59.0
of which: EU . . . . . . . . . . . . 42.3 42.6 41.7 . .
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
France . . . . 1.4 2.6 2.5 2.2 2.0 2.3 2.5 2.1
Netherlands . . . . 2.8 3.3 3.2 0.7 2.6 3.8 1.9 2.1
Morocco 1.6 1.9 2.5 2.8 2.7 4.2 2.7 3.2 3.2 3.6
Germany . . . . 0.5 0.8 0.9 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.7 0.6
United States . . . . 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.4
United Kingdom . . . . 0.8 0.8 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2
Italy 0.2 0.2 1.0 0.6 0.8 1.1 0.4 0.8 0.6 0.2
Turkey 1.1 1.8 2.2 2.2 1.9 2.8 1.9 2.0 0.9 1.9
Portugal 1.3 1.2 1.1 2.6 1.2 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.3 0.1
Spain 0.4 0.4 1.3 0.2 0.4 0.1 0.3 0.5
Poland . . . . 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6
Japan . . . . 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1
Zaire . . 0.9 0.9 2.2 1.7 1.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3
China . . . . 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.2
Greece 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.4 0.8 0.1 0.1 0.2
Other countries 12.2 17.7 9.0 8.1 5.4 8.3 8.1 4.6 4.1 4.5
Total 16.1 23.4 18.8 26.9 21.8 21.9 20.0 19.5 14.7 14.4
of which: EU 6.9 9.1 4.1 11.3 9.8 8.0 6.5 9.0 12.2 4.0
Statistical Annex
325
OECD 2000
Table B.1.3. DENMARK, net migration of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
Table B.1.3. FINLAND, net migration of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Somalia . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 2.4 1.6
Former Yugoslavia 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.2 0.2 16.6 . . 1.2
Iraq 0.4 0.5 1.3 1.0 0.7 1.0 1.0 1.2
Germany 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.7
Norway 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.4
Sweden 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.6
Turkey 1.0 1.6 0.9 0.5 0.4 0.6 1.1 0.8
United Kingdom . . . . . . . . 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.3
Iceland 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.4 1.0 0.8 0.2
United States 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
France 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3
Netherlands 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2
Iran 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.3
Poland 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2
Pakistan 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3
Other countries 6.1 6.9 7.0 6.2 5.8 4.1 9.8 5.3
Total 10.5 12.3 12.1 10.5 10.5 27.7 18.8 13.7
of which: EU
1
0.9 1.0 1.3 1.6 2.0 2.3 2.1 2.5
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Former USSR 2.8 2.0 1.7 1.7 1.6 2.3 2.4
Sweden 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4
Estonia 2.1 1.9 1.2 0.8 0.4 0.5 0.5
Somalia 0.3 0.9 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.4 0.3
Iraq . . . . . . . . 0.4 0.5 . .
China 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2
Iran 0.2 0.1 0.2 . . 0.1 0.3 . .
Vietnam . . 0.2 . . . . 0.1 . .
Germany 0.1 0.1 0.1
United Kingdom 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Thailand 0.1 . . 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Turkey 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1
Former Yugoslavia . . 1.7 0.1 . . 0.1 0.2 0.1
Ukraine . . . . . . . . 0.2 0.1 . .
Other countries 2.5 2.1 1.7 2.1 1.0 1.3 2.2
Total 8.9 9.4 6.1 5.8 4.5 6.6 6.6
326
OECD 2000
Table B.1.3. GERMANY, net migration of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
Table B.1.3. JAPAN, net migration of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Poland 117.8 43.1 13.1 22.2 26.6 12.9 16.5 5.7 1.0 5.5
Turkey 48.0 48.5 45.8 40.3 22.3 17.6 30.4 29.7 10.0 1.0
Italy 1.7 2.8 1.0 2.7 0.7 6.6 14.5 9.0 1.1 2.3
Russian Federation
1
. . . . . . 18.4 21.7 21.1 19.5 19.3 13.6 17.4
Hungary . . 7.2 10.0 6.8 0.8 2.7 0.4 3.9 7.1
Portugal 2.5 4.1 6.6 5.2 6.6 12.2 10.0 6.6 0.1 3.3
Former USSR 22.3 25.6 26.9 11.9 9.2 4.8 0.5 0.8 3.1 . .
United States . . . . . . 5.1 0.7 1.3 0.0 0.4 9.5 1.3
Romania 10.7 62.4 31.2 58.0 20.2 12.6 0.3 0.4 0.7 3.5
Greece 14.9 12.2 12.9 7.4 0.7 0.3 0.9 1.2 5.3 4.2
Croatia
2
. . . . . . 10.1 1.0 11.8 7.1 5.0 8.9 6.6
Bosnia Herzegovina
3
. . . . . . . . 96.7 51.8 39.4 16.1 77.0 98.3
Spain 2.0 1.7 1.1 1.1 1.3 1.6 0.4 1.5 0.9
Bulgaria . . . . . . 20.6 7.6 7.5 2.3 0.7 0.1 0.4
Other countries 91.1 145.2 110.6 148.7 105.7 62.3 91.6 92.0 49.2 44.5
Total 332.5 376.4 423.0 592.9 276.6 152.5 227.2 148.9 21.8 33.5
of which: EU
4
37.1 38.7 32.8 29.0 20.3 22.4 37.7 18.6 7.8 10.7
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
China 15.4 22.9 35.4 22.2 18.0 17.1 23.8 29.7 31.6
Philippines 8.5 13.1 0.3 5.0 8.1 13.9 14.0 11.8 12.7
United States 4.3 4.8 3.3 1.7 2.0 2.1 3.1 3.4 2.9
Brazil 7.9 10.4 5.4 6.1 7.9 4.9 2.4 25.5 1.9
Korea 7.0 8.4 7.1 4.7 4.8 4.3 4.7 5.5 6.7
Thailand 1.1 1.6 0.9 0.4 1.4 1.0 1.3 1.7 2.2
United Kingdom 0.8 1.2 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.9 1.4 1.5 1.3
Chinese Taipei 1.2 1.7 0.8 0.8 0.5 0.7 1.2 1.6 1.6
Canada 1.1 1.1 0.9 0.6 0.9 0.8 1.3 1.3 1.1
Germany 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.2
Peru 2.0 0.3 1.2 0.8 0.4 0.8 1.6 2.5 2.4
Other countries 8.2 11.3 8.3 4.7 5.0 6.4 10.3 13.4 12.9
Total 57.7 77.1 62.2 34.0 33.3 15.5 65.3 98.2 77.6
Statistical Annex
327
OECD 2000
Table B.1.3. LUXEMBOURG, net migration of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
Table B.1.3. NETHERLANDS, net migration of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
Table B.1.3. NEW ZEALAND, net migration of permanent and long-term migrants by country of birth
Thousands
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Portugal 1.9 2.2 2.2 1.0 1.7 1.2 1.2 0.7 0.6 0.6
France 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.9
Belgium 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.5
Germany 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
Italy 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
Netherlands 0.1 0.1
Spain . . . . . . . . 0.1 0.1
Other countries 0.5 0.9 1.5 2.5 1.3 1.3 2.0 1.5 1.3 1.6
Total 2.8 3.8 4.1 4.2 4.2 3.9 4.7 3.7 3.7 3.9
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Morocco 7.1 8.4 7.8 6.1 4.8 2.0 2.0 3.2 3.7 4.7
Turkey 8.0 10.3 10.7 7.3 6.0 2.7 3.2 4.9 5.4 4.2
Germany 2.1 3.3 4.1 4.2 4.4 3.0 1.8 2.2 2.6 1.7
United Kingdom 1.7 2.9 3.5 4.1 2.4 0.7 0.7 1.9 2.0 2.1
United States 0.8 0.8 0.9 1.0 0.7 0.4 0.7 1.2 0.9 1.5
Suriname 3.9 6.3 6.1 6.2 7.2 2.4 1.3 2.4 2.3 2.9
France 0.8 1.0 0.8 1.0 0.9 0.6 . . 0.9 1.3 1.3
Belgium 1.0 1.2 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.4 0.5 0.7 1.1 1.0
Poland . . . . . . . . 0.1 0.5 . . 1.1 1.0 1.1
Former Yugoslavia . . . . . . 4.6 8.6 8.1 . . 3.0 1.2 1.0
China . . . . . . . . 1.0 0.9 . . 1.1 1.4 1.2
Italy 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.4 . . 0.7 0.7 0.8
Japan . . . . . . . . 0.1 0.2 . . 0.2 0.1 0.2
Other countries 18.0 25.7 27.5 24.4 27.7 23.5 35.2 31.2 31.0 36.7
Total 43.9 60.7 63.0 60.3 65.4 45.7 45.3 54.8 54.8 60.4
of which: EU
1
6.0 9.7 11.1 12.2 9.2 5.6 4.8 8.6 10.3 9.6
1998
United Kingdom 2.1
India 1.6
Japan 0.7
United States 0.3
Australia 0.3
Other 15.5
Total 20.3
328
OECD 2000
Table B.1.3. NORWAY, net migration of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
Table B.1.3. SWEDEN, net migration of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Sweden 0.6 0.4 0.6 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.8 3.3 3.3
Denmark 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.7
United Kingdom 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.5
Germany 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.7
Iran 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.6 0.6
Pakistan 0.8 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.5
Bosnia Herzegovina
1
. . . . . . . . 6.2 3.1 1.4 0.1 0.0 0.1
Sri Lanka 0.8 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.3
China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.1 0.2 0.2
Philippines 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2
Chile 0.4 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1
United States 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 . .
Other countries 5.6 4.6 5.1 4.8 3.3 3.3 3.8 3.9 5.9 7.5
Total 8.0 5.9 7.7 9.1 11.8 8.3 7.5 7.2 12.0 14.7
of which: EU
2
1.3 1.0 0.1 0.9 0.5 0.6 1.6 2.6 5.4 . .
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Finland 0.9 1.3 1.5 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1
Norway 6.7 3.4 1.5 1.5 1.4 0.8 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.1
Iran 6.8 4.3 3.6 3.4 1.4 0.8 0.9 0.6 1.3 1.1
Denmark 2.7 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.1
United Kingdom 0.4 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.4
United States 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.1
Poland 1.6 . . . . 1.4 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.5 0.4 0.4
Turkey 1.4 1.5 1.4 1.0 0.7 0.9 1.0 0.9 0.7 0.4
Chile 5.7 1.4 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.3
Greece 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Other countries 19.2 23.8 24.0 20.2 36.3 42.0 15.3 12.4 12.9 17.3
Total 45.8 37.0 28.9 26.3 40.0 59.0 20.7 14.9 18.1 21.6
of which: EU
1
3.2 1.0 0.7 0.2 0.9 1.1 1.4 0.6 2.0
Statistical Annex
329
OECD 2000
Table B.1.3. SWITZERLAND, net migration of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
Table B.1.4. BELGIUM, inflows of asylum seekers by nationality
Thousands
Table B.1.4. CANADA, inflows of asylum seekers by nationality
Thousands
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Germany 2.2 3.6 2.7 2.5 1.4 2.5 2.0 2.4 2.6 3.8
France 1.3 1.6 1.0 1.1 0.8 1.5 1.2 1.3 1.3 2.1
Italy 3.7 2.8 3.1 7.1 4.4 3.0 3.6 5.4 4.9 3.2
Portugal 5.3 9.0 7.8 3.2 1.3 1.1 0.2 2.3 4.7 2.7
Turkey 1.5 3.4 4.0 2.4 1.8 0.8 1.1 0.8 1.1 0.3
Spain 1.8 1.6 3.3 7.7 4.9 3.7 3.4 4.3 4.0 3.7
Austria 0.4 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2
Other countries 7.0 12.0 13.3 10.9 9.7 10.7 9.3 8.9 12.2 13.8
Total 22.9 41.8 43.3 31.7 32.8 27.5 20.4 6.6 9.3 16.0
of which: EU . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.0 7.0 7.3 . .
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Zaire 0.9 1.1 2.0 3.8 4.1 2.0 1.0 0.8 1.2 1.8
Romania 0.2 1.7 2.4 3.4 5.1 1.2 0.9 0.8 0.6 1.5
Albania 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.4 1.0 1.1
Rwanda 0.1 0.1 0.7 0.3 0.4 0.6 1.1
Slovak Republic 0.2 0.3 1.0
Armenia 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.9 0.6 0.7
Somalia 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.5
Georgia 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.5
Bulgaria 0.3 0.4 0.5 1.4 0.6 0.4 0.6 0.2 0.5
Other countries 6.9 9.4 9.6 8.7 14.4 8.2 6.7 6.1 5.6 7.4
Total 8.2 12.9 15.4 17.5 26.4 14.6 11.7 12.4 11.8 22.1
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Sri Lanka 2.5 2.3 2.8 2.6 2.5
China 0.5 0.8 0.9 1.2 2.1
Pakistan 0.7 1.1 1.0 1.2 1.8
Hungary 0.1 0.4 1.4
Mexico 0.2 0.6 0.9 1.0 1.2
India 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.3 1.2
Algeria 0.7 0.8 0.6 0.8 0.8
Iran 1.5 1.9 1.7 1.2 0.8
Russia 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Nigeria 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.7
Zaire 0.4 0.6 1.1 0.9 0.6
Somalia 2.0 1.6 0.9 0.7 0.6
Bangladesh 0.8 0.9 0.8 0.5 0.4
Afghanistan 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4
Romania 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.4
Other countries 9.4 12.0 11.2 10.5 9.7
Total 21.7 25.5 25.4 24.2 25.2
330
OECD 2000
Table B.1.4. FRANCE, inflows of asylum seekers by nationality
Thousands
Table B.1.4. GERMANY, inflows of asylum seekers by nationality
Thousands
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Romania 3.3 2.4 2.2 2.7 4.0 4.0 4.0 5.1 3.0
China 0.8 2.4 2.1 0.4 1.3 1.6 1.4 1.7 2.1
Zaire 5.8 4.3 3.1 2.2 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.2 1.8
Former Yugoslavia 0.4 0.9 2.4 2.5 1.9 1.4 0.9 1.0 1.7
Turkey 11.8 9.7 1.8 1.3 1.3 1.7 1.2 1.4 1.6
Former USSR 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.6 1.0 1.0
Algeria 0.1 0.2 0.6 1.1 2.4 1.8 0.6 0.9 0.9
Cambodia 1.1 0.9 0.7 1.0 0.5 0.4 0.4 . . 0.6
Haiti 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.3 0.4 0.1 0.1 . . 0.4
Vietnam 3.3 2.3 1.1 1.0 0.6 0.4 0.4 . . 0.2
Laos 1.1 1.2 0.6 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.3 . . 0.2
Sri Lanka 2.5 3.4 4.0 2.8 1.7 1.1 . . 1.6 . .
Pakistan . . . . . . . . 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.7 . .
India . . . . . . . . 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.5 . .
Mauritania . . . . . . . . 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.3 . .
Other countries 23.6 18.7 9.5 11.4 8.3 4.5 5.0 6.0 8.9
Total 54.8 47.4 28.9 27.6 26.0 20.4 17.4 21.4 22.4
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Turkey 20.0 22.1 23.9 28.3 19.1 19.1 25.5 23.8 16.8 11.8
Iraq . . . . . . . . 1.2 2.1 6.9 10.8 14.1 7.4
Afghanistan 3.7 7.3 7.3 6.4 5.5 5.6 7.5 5.7 4.7 3.8
Vietnam 1.0 9.4 8.1 12.3 11.0 3.4 2.6 1.1 1.5 3.0
Iran 5.8 7.3 8.6 3.8 2.7 3.4 3.9 4.8 3.8 3.0
Sri Lanka . . 4.4 5.6 . . 3.3 4.8 6.0 5.0 4.0 2.0
Armenia . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 3.4 3.5 2.5 1.7
Bosnia Herzegovina . . . . . . 6.2 21.2 7.3 4.9 3.5 1.7 1.5
Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . 2.0 3.1 2.6 2.3 1.5
India . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7 2.8 1.9 1.5
Togo . . . . . . . . 2.9 3.5 . . 1.0 1.1 0.7
Nigeria . . 5.4 8.4 . . . . . . . . 1.7 1.1 0.7
Lebanon 6.2 16.2 . . 5.6 . . . . . . 1.1 1.0 0.6
Romania 3.1 35.3 40.5 103.8 73.7 9.6 3.5 1.4 0.8 0.3
Other countries 65.2 98.8 119.3 252.9 181.6 43.4 35.1 30.9 33.1 24.6
Total 121.3 193.1 256.1 438.2 322.6 127.2 127.9 116.4 104.4 98.6
Statistical Annex
331
OECD 2000
Table B.1.4. NETHERLANDS, inflows of asylum seekers by nationality
Thousands
Table B.1.4. SWEDEN, inflows of asylum seekers by nationality
Thousands
Table B.1.4. SWITZERLAND, inflows of asylum seekers by nationality
Thousands
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Iraq 0.4 0.7 0.8 3.2 2.9 2.4 4.4 9.6 8.3
Afghanistan 0.6 0.3 0.4 1.5 2.5 1.9 3.0 5.9 7.1
Somalia 1.7 1.7 4.2 4.3 5.4 4.0 1.5 1.3 2.8
Former USSR 0.2 1.0 0.6 1.6 4.5 1.9 1.7 2.0 2.7
Sudan . . . . 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.6 0.7 0.7 1.9
Iran 1.7 1.7 1.3 2.6 6.1 2.7 1.5 1.3 1.7
Turkey 0.8 0.9 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.7 1.1 1.2
Sri Lanka 3.0 1.8 1.0 1.9 1.8 1.3 1.5 1.5 1.0
China . . . . . . 0.9 0.9 0.5 0.5 1.2 0.9
Algeria . . . . . . 0.3 1.4 0.7 0.4 0.5 0.8
Zaire . . . . . . 1.3 2.2 0.8 0.4 0.6 0.4
Liberia 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.7 0.4 0.3 0.6 0.5 0.2
Romania 2.2 1.7 1.0 1.1 2.8 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.1
Other countries 9.8 8.7 4.3 4.9 7.5 5.0 3.9 4.5 7.8
Total 21.2 21.6 20.3 35.4 52.6 29.3 22.9 34.4 45.2
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Iraq 2.0 2.2 3.2 2.3 1.7 1.8 1.6 3.1 3.8
Iran 4.3 0.3 0.8 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.6
Afghanistan . . . . . . 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.3
Turkey 1.0 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.3
Somalia 2.4 1.4 2.7 0.7 0.9 0.9 0.4 0.4 0.2
Syria 1.2 0.3 0.3 0.1 . . . . . . 0.1 0.2
Lebanon 3.6 0.3 0.2 0.1 . . . . . . 0.1 0.1
Ethiopia 2.0 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Peru . . 0.5 0.8 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.1
Romania 2.7 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.1
Cuba . . . . . . 0.2 1.2 0.3 . .
Uganda . . . . . . 0.5 0.1
Russian Federation . . . . . . 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 . .
Other countries 7.9 7.8 5.6 2.8 2.4 1.9 1.6 2.0 3.2
Total 29.4 27.4 84.0 37.6 18.6 9.0 5.8 9.6 12.5
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Former Yugoslavia 1.4 5.6 14.2 . . 12.1 7.5 9.0 7.5 6.9 20.4
Albania . . . . . . . . 2.0 . . . . . . 3.1 3.8
Sri Lanka 4.8 4.8 7.3 . . 1.7 1.5 1.0 2.0 2.1 1.9
Turkey 9.4 7.3 4.3 . . 1.1 1.1 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.6
Somalia . . . . . . . . 2.3 . . . . 0.7 0.9 0.6
Angola . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 0.5 . . 0.3 . .
Lebanon 2.5 5.5 . . . . . . . . . . 0.2 . .
Romania . . . . 2.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Other countries 6.4 12.6 13.1 18.0 5.5 5.1 5.2 6.5 9.1 13.1
Total 24.4 35.8 41.6 18.0 24.7 16.1 17.0 18.0 24.0 41.3
332
OECD 2000
Table B.1.4. UNITED KINGDOM, inflows of asylum seekers by nationality
Thousands
Table B.1.4. UNITED STATES, inflows of asylum seekers by nationality
Thousands
Note: Data refer to fiscal years (October to September of the given year). For more details on sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Former Yugoslavia 0.3 5.6 1.8 1.4 1.6 1.0 2.3 8.0
Somalia 1.9 2.3 2.0 1.6 1.5 1.8 3.5 1.8 2.7 4.7
Sri Lanka 1.8 3.3 3.8 2.1 2.0 2.4 2.1 1.3 1.8 3.5
Former USSR 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.4 2.0 2.8
Afghanistan . . . . . . 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.6 0.7 1.1 2.4
Turkey 2.4 1.6 2.1 1.9 1.5 2.0 1.8 1.5 1.4 2.0
Pakistan 0.3 1.5 3.2 1.7 1.1 1.8 2.9 1.9 1.6 2.0
China . . . . 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.4 0.8 0.8 1.9 1.9
Poland . . . . . . 0.1 0.2 0.4 1.2 0.9 0.6 1.6
Nigeria 0.1 0.3 0.6 1.7 4.3 5.8 2.9 1.5 1.4
Iraq 0.2 1.0 0.9 0.7 0.5 0.6 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.3
Algeria 0.2 0.3 1.0 1.9 0.7 0.7 1.3
India 0.6 1.5 2.1 1.5 1.3 2.0 3.3 2.2 1.3 1.0
Kenya 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.6 1.1 1.4 1.2 0.6 0.9
Zaire 0.5 2.6 7.0 0.9 0.6 0.8 0.9 0.7 0.7 0.7
Other countries 4.0 12.2 22.2 6.9 8.5 11.9 14.6 9.6 11.2 10.6
Total (excluding dependents) 11.6 26.2 44.8 24.6 22.4 32.8 44.0 29.6 32.5 46.0
Total (including dependents) 16.8 38.2 73.4 32.3 28.0 42.2 55.0 37.0 41.5 58.0
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Mexico 0.6 6.4 9.3 9.7 9.7 18.8
Guatemala 43.9 34.2 34.4 23.2 13.9 9.8
El Salvador 6.8 14.6 18.6 75.9 65.6 8.2
China 3.5 14.5 10.9 5.0 3.5 5.7
Haiti 5.4 10.9 9.5 2.6 4.4 5.4
India 3.2 5.7 4.5 3.4 4.7 4.9
Former USSR 63.2 4.5 0.4 0.1 2.4 2.4 2.7
Somalia 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 1.2 1.9
Honduras 1.1 2.8 4.4 3.2 1.8 1.9
Nicaragua 2.1 3.2 4.7 1.9 2.0 1.7
Pakistan 3.3 4.5 3.3 2.5 1.4 1.4
Mauritania . . . . . . . . 1.3 1.4
Philippines 4.0 4.0 2.4 1.0 1.7 1.4
Bangladesh 1.0 3.8 3.7 1.9 1.0 1.2
Ethiopia 4.9 1.0 1.2 0.9 0.9 1.1 1.1
Other countries 54.9 23.3 37.9 39.7 20.8 12.5 18.5
Total 123.5 104.0 144.2 146.5 154.5 128.2 85.9
Statistical Annex
333
OECD 2000
Table B.1.5. AUSTRALIA, stock of foreign-born population by country of birth,
census results of 1986, 1991 and 1996
Thousands
1. In 1996, data include Croatia (47 000), Republic of Macedonia (42 200), Bosnia Herzegovina (13 600), Serbia (9 000), Slovenia (6 700) and Former Yugoslavia
(57 000) without further description.
2. Excluding Chinese Taipei.
Table B.1.5. CANADA, stock of immigrant population by country of birth,
Thousands
1986 1991 1996
United Kingdom 1 083.1 1 122.4 1 072.5
New Zealand 211.7 276.1 291.4
Italy 261.9 254.8 238.2
Former Yugoslavia
1
150.0 161.1 175.5
Vietnam 83.0 122.3 151.1
Greece 137.6 136.3 126.5
China
2
37.5 78.8 111.0
Germany 114.8 114.9 110.3
Philippines 33.7 73.7 92.9
Netherlands 95.1 95.8 87.9
India 47.8 61.6 77.5
Malaysia 47.8 72.6 76.2
Lebanon 56.3 69.0 70.2
Hong Kong (China) 28.3 59.0 68.4
Poland 67.7 68.9 65.1
Other and not stated 791.0 986.0 1 093.5
Total 3 247.4 3 753.3 3 908.3
% of total population 20.8 22.3 21.1
1986 1991 1996
Of which : Women
1986 1991 1996
United Kingdom 793.1 717.8 655.5 425.8 385.6 352.2
Italy 366.8 351.6 332.1 173.0 165.5 158.0
United States 282.0 249.1 244.7 160.8 141.4 139.8
Hong Kong (China) 77.4 152.5 241.1 38.7 77.3 124.3
India 130.1 173.7 235.9 63.5 84.8 117.0
China 119.2 157.4 231.1 62.6 81.5 122.2
Poland 156.8 184.7 193.4 78.0 92.8 100.1
Philippines 82.2 123.3 184.6 48.1 73.2 111.7
Germany 189.6 180.5 181.7 96.8 92.8 95.2
Portugal 139.6 161.2 158.8 68.6 79.8 79.3
Vietnam 82.8 113.6 139.3 38.5 53.8 69.7
Netherlands 134.2 129.6 124.5 64.1 62.4 60.9
Jamaica 87.6 102.4 115.8 49.5 58.6 67.3
Former USSR 109.4 99.4 108.4 56.3 52.0 57.1
Other and not stated 1 069.6 1 357.4 1 702.2 529.8 669.0 851.4
Total 3 908.2 4 342.9 4 971.1 1 995.7 2 212.9 2 565.7
% of total population
15.6 16.1 17.4 8.0 8.2 9.0
334
OECD 2000
Table B.1.5. DENMARK, stock of foreign-born population by country of birth
Thousands
Table B.1.5. FINLAND, stock of foreign-born population by country of birth
Thousands
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Turkey 24.0 24.4 24.7 25.3 26.3 27.3 28.2
Germany 21.6 21.7 21.8 21.9 22.3 22.6 22.9
Norway 11.8 11.8 11.9 13.0 12.3 12.6 12.9
Sweden 11.9 11.9 11.8 11.9 12.9 12.3 12.5
Lebanon 10.4 10.8 10.9 11.0 11.2 11.5 11.6
Iran 9.6 9.8 9.9 10.0 10.3 10.7 11.0
Iraq 4.1 4.9 5.5 6.3 7.2 8.7 10.8
Somalia 2.0 3.2 4.4 5.7 7.9 9.9 10.7
United Kingdom 9.0 9.4 9.8 9.9 10.2 10.5 10.7
Poland 9.3 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 10.1 10.2
Pakistan 8.4 8.5 8.7 8.9 9.1 9.4 9.7
Vietnam 6.9 7.2 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.9 8.1
Sri Lanka 5.1 5.3 5.5 5.8 6.0 6.5 6.6
United States 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.4 5.5 5.5
Other countries 58.9 61.7 65.1 68.1 73.0 79.8 84.2
Total 207.4 215.0 222.1 244.5 259.2 276.8 287.7
% of total population 4.0 4.1 4.3 4.7 4.9 5.2 5.4
1995 1996 1997 1998
Former USSR 24.8 26.4 28.8 31.4
Sweden 26.6 27.0 27.4 27.8
Estonia 5.6 6.0 6.5 7.0
Somalia 3.2 3.5 3.8 4.1
Germany 2.9 3.0 3.3 3.3
Vietnam 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.8
Iraq 1.4 1.8 2.3 2.6
Turkey 1.5 1.6 1.8 1.9
China 1.5 1.5 1.7 1.9
Iran 1.3 1.4 1.6 1.7
Thailand 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.5
Poland 1.2 1.1 1.2 1.2
Total 106.3 111.1 118.1 125.1
Statistical Annex
335
OECD 2000
Table B.1.5. NETHERLANDS, stock of foreign-born population by country of birth
Thousands
Table B.1.5. NORWAY, stock of foreign-born population by country of birth
Thousands
1. Included in former Yugoslavia in 1989.
1990 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Suriname 162.9 182.9 180.9 181.0 181.6 182.2 184.2
Turkey 149.5 166.0 166.0 167.5 169.3 172.7 175.5
Indonesia 186.1 183.7 180.4 177.7 174.8 172.1 170.3
Morocco 122.9 139.4 139.8 140.7 142.7 145.8 149.6
Germany 128.7 129.4 131.2 130.1 128.0 126.8 125.5
Belgium 42.2 44.0 43.2 43.3 43.3 44.0 44.6
United Kingdom 38.3 44.8 43.3 42.3 41.7 42.3 42.7
Iraq 1.5 4.8 7.4 10.2 14.4 20.4 27.3
Somalia 3.6 11.9 14.9 17.2 19.8 20.6 21.0
United States 14.7 17.0 17.1 17.4 17.9 18.6 19.5
China 11.8 15.2 15.2 16.1 16.9 18.0 19.4
Iran 6.3 10.8 12.7 14.9 17.3 18.5 19.3
Spain 17.3 17.5 17.5 17.4 17.4 17.6 17.9
France 13.7 15.3 15.4 15.4 15.8 16.5 17.2
Other countries 302.5 362.9 365.3 372.1 386.5 406.3 432.4
Total 1 217.1 1 375.4 1 387.4 1 407.1 1 433.6 1 469.0 1 513.9
1989 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Sweden 18.1 20.0 23.2 24.3 26.0 29.3 32.6
Denmark 20.5 20.5 21.2 20.9 20.9 21.1 21.7
United States 15.0 14.7 15.4 15.2 15.0 15.0 15.1
United Kingdom 14.3 13.4 13.7 13.6 13.5 13.6 14.1
Pakistan 10.5 11.4 11.6 11.8 12.1 12.4 12.9
Bosnia Herzegovina
1
. . 5.1 8.1 10.8 11.1 11.1 11.2
Vietnam 7.5 10.4 10.6 10.8 10.8 10.9 11.0
Germany 8.1 8.4 9.3 9.5 9.7 10.1 10.8
Iran 5.2 6.9 7.1 7.1 7.3 7.7 8.3
Sri Lanka 4.7 6.0 6.1 6.3 6.5 6.7 7.0
Turkey 5.0 5.9 6.0 6.1 6.3 6.6 6.9
Korea 4.7 5.1 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8
Poland 4.3 5.0 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6
Chile 5.5 5.3 5.2 5.2 5.2 5.3 5.4
Other countries 55.6 69.0 76.5 79.9 84.1 89.6 97.3
Total 183.3 216.2 233.4 240.3 246.9 257.7 273.2
336
OECD 2000
Table B.1.5. SWEDEN, stock of foreign-born population by country of birth
Thousands
1. Included in former Yugoslavia until 1995.
Table B.1.5. UNITED STATES, stock of foreign-born population by place of birth,
Thousands
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Finland 209.5 207.8 205.7 203.4 201.0 198.8
Iran 48.1 48.7 49.0 49.2 49.8 50.3
Bosnia Herzegovina
1
. . . . . . 46.8 48.3 50.0
Norway 47.1 45.9 53.9 43.8 42.7 41.9
Poland 38.5 39.0 39.4 39.5 39.6 39.7
Denmark 41.1 40.9 40.5 39.8 38.9 38.2
Iraq 20.2 23.4 26.4 29.0 32.7 37.9
Germany 36.6 36.5 36.5 36.5 36.8 37.2
Turkey 28.5 29.2 29.8 30.2 . . 31.0
Chile 27.7 27.2 27.0 26.9 26.7 26.6
Lebanon 21.2 21.6 . . 21.6 21.4 20.2
Hungary 15.0 14.8 14.7 14.7 14.5 14.4
United States 13.8 13.7 13.8 13.8 14.0 14.0
United Kingdom 12.5 12.6 12.7 13.1 13.3 13.7
Other countries 238.8 248.4 267.2 262.7 303.6 283.9
Total 869.1 922.1 936.0 943.8 954.2 968.7
% of total population 9.9 10.5 10.5 11.0 11.0 10.8
1970 1980 1990
Mexico 759.7 2 199.2 4 298.0
Philippines 184.8 501.4 912.7
Canada 812.4 842.9 744.8
Cuba 439.0 607.8 737.0
Germany 833.0 849.4 711.9
United Kingdom 708.2 669.1 640.1
Italy 1 008.7 831.9 580.6
Korea 88.7 289.9 568.4
Vietnam . . 231.1 543.3
China 172.2 286.1 529.8
India 51.0 206.1 450.4
Former USSR 463.5 406.0 398.9
Poland 548.1 418.1 388.3
Dominican Republic . . 169.1 347.9
Jamaica . . 196.8 334.1
Other and not stated 3 550.0 5 375.0 7 581.1
Total 9 619.3 14 079.9 19 767.3
% of total population 4.7 6.2 7.9
Statistical Annex
337
OECD 2000
Table B.1.6. BELGIUM, stock of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
Note: Data are from population registers and refer to the population on 31 December of the years indicated. For details on definitions and sources, refer to
the notes at the end of the Annex.
1. The breakdown by nationality is not available for 1998.
2. Including refugees whose stock is not broken down by nationality. In 1997, 19 700 refugees were registered.
Table B.1.6. CZECH REPUBLIC, stock of foreign residents by nationality
Thousands
Note: Data are from registers of foreigners and refer to the population on 31 December of the years indicated. For details on definitions and sources, refer to
1. Up to 1 January 1993, Slovak permanent residents were registered in the National Population Register. Since the split of the Czech and Slovak Republics,
Slovak citizens residing in the Czech Republic are subject to the same rules as any other foreign resident and they are registered in the Central Register of
Foreigners.
1985 1990 1995 1998
of which: Women
1997
1
Italy 252.9 241.2 210.7 202.6 92.8
Morocco 123.6 141.7 140.3 125.1 64.4
France 92.3 94.3 100.1 105.1 52.2
Netherlands 59.6 65.3 77.2 84.2 35.6
Turkey 74.2 84.9 81.7 70.7 38.7
Spain 51.2 52.2 48.3 46.6 23.0
Germany 24.3 27.8 31.8 34.0 15.9
United Kingdom 20.8 23.3 26.0 25.9 12.0
Portugal 9.5 16.5 23.9 25.5 12.2
Greece 19.3 20.9 19.9 18.8 9.1
Zaire 8.9 12.0 12.2 12.4 5.9
United States 11.0 11.7 12.0 12.4 6.2
Algeria 10.0 10.7 9.5 8.5 4.1
Poland . . 4.9 5.4 6.3 3.8
Tunisia 5.9 6.4 5.3 4.2 1.8
Other countries
2
83.0 90.5 105.6 109.5 54.2
Total 846.5 904.5 909.8 892.0 431.9
of which: EU 538.1 551.2 554.5 562.5 262.0
Total women 386.5 417.5 428.0 427.1
1992 1995 1998
Ukraine . . 28.2 52.7
Slovak Republic
1
. . 39.7 49.6
Vietnam 2.6 14.2 22.9
Poland 12.7 23.1 22.2
Russian Federation . . 4.4 10.0
Former Yugoslavia 2.4 6.4 6.0
Bulgaria 2.9 4.3 6.0
Germany 1.5 5.6 5.1
China 1.4 4.2 4.2
United States 1.5 4.4 3.9
Romania 0.2 1.6 2.7
Austria . . 2.2 2.3
United Kingdom . . 1.9 1.6
Other 16.1 18.8 30.7
Total 41.2 158.9 219.8
338
OECD 2000
Table B.1.6. DENMARK, stock of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
Note: Data are from population registers and refer to the population on 31 December of the years indicated.For details on definitions and sources, refer to
Table B.1.6. FINLAND, stock of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
Note: Data are from population registers and refer to the population on the 31 December ofthe years indicated. For details on definitions and sources, refer
to the notes at the end of the Annex.
1. Figures include Ingrians (ethnic Finns).
2. Included in former USSR until 1990.
1985 1990 1995 1998
of which: Women
1998
Turkey 20.4 29.7 35.7 38.1 18.8
Former Yugoslavia 7.9 10.0 28.1 34.5 16.8
Somalia . . 0.6 6.9 13.1 6.1
United Kingdom 9.7 10.2 12.1 12.9 4.6
Germany 8.2 8.4 10.6 12.4 5.7
Norway 9.8 10.2 11.1 12.2 7.1
Iraq 0.7 2.8 7.1 11.3 4.9
Sweden 8.1 8.2 9.1 10.4 5.9
Pakistan 6.6 6.2 6.6 7.1 3.8
Iran 4.7 9.0 7.4 6.3 2.9
Iceland 3.3 3.0 4.8 5.9 2.9
Poland 2.2 4.7 5.3 5.5 3.8
United States 4.3 4.5 5.1 5.2 2.3
Vietnam 3.7 3.7 5.0 5.2 2.8
Sri Lanka 0.6 5.1 5.7 5.1 2.8
Other countries 26.7 44.2 62.2 71.0 36.9
Total 117.0 160.6 222.7 256.3 128.0
of which: EU
1
37.3 38.2 46.5 53.2 23.6
Total women 54.0 75.2 109.2 128.0
1985 1990 1995 1998
of which: Women
1998
Russian Federation
1
1.6 4.2 15.9 20.5 12.4
Estonia
1, 2
. . . . 8.4 10.3 6.2
Sweden 4.9 6.1 7.0 7.8 3.5
Somalia . . . . 4.0 5.4 2.5
Former Yugoslavia . . . . 2.4 2.9 1.3
Iraq . . . . 1.3 2.7 1.2
Germany 1.6 1.6 1.7 2.1 0.7
United Kingdom 1.1 1.3 1.9 2.1 0.5
United States 1.3 1.5 1.8 2.0 0.9
Vietnam . . . . 2.1 2.0 1.0
Turkey . . 0.2 1.3 1.7 0.4
Iran . . 0.1 1.3 1.7 0.7
China . . . . 1.4 1.7 0.8
Bosnia Herzegovina
3
. . . . 0.9 1.5 0.7
Thailand . . . . 0.8 1.1 0.9
Other countries 6.6 11.8 16.4 19.7 8.2
Total 17.0 26.6 68.6 85.1 42.0
of which: EU . . . . 13.7 15.7
Total women . . 11.5 32.8 42.0
Statistical Annex
339
OECD 2000
Table B.1.6. FRANCE, stock of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
4. Data are from the population censuses. For details on definitions and sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
Table B.1.6. GERMANY, stock of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
Note: Data are from population registers and refer to the population on 31 December of the given year. For details on definitions and sources, refer to the
notes at the end of the Annex.
1. From 1993 on, Serbia and Montenegro.
3. European Union 15 for all years (except Swedish citizens before 1991).
4. Women aged 16 years and over.
1975 1982 1990
of which: Women
1990
Portugal 758.9 767.3 649.7 304.2
Algeria 710.7 805.1 614.2 253.9
Morocco 260.0 441.3 572.7 250.7
Italy 462.9 340.3 252.8 108.0
Spain 497.5 327.2 216.0 103.7
Tunisia 139.7 190.8 206.3 84.8
Turkey 50.9 122.3 197.7 87.5
Cambodia 4.5 37.9 47.4 22.6
Poland 93.7 64.8 47.1 28.9
Senegal 14.9 32.3 43.7 17.0
Vietnam 11.4 33.8 33.7 15.3
Laos 1.6 32.5 31.8 15.0
Other countries 365.4 456.1 631.0 298.0
Total 3 442.4 3 714.2 3 596.6 1 614.3
of which: EU 1 869.9 1 594.8 1 311.9 613.9
Total women 1 381.6 1 594.6 1 614.3
1985 1990 1995 1998
of which: Women
4
1998
Turkey 1 401.9 1 694.6 2 014.3 2 110.2 965.2
Former Yugoslavia
1
591.0 662.7 797.7 719.5 310.3
Italy 531.3 552.4 586.1 612.0 246.0
Greece 280.6 320.2 359.5 363.5 163.5
Poland 104.8 242.0 276.7 283.6 134.2
Croatia
2
. . . . 185.1 208.9 101.6
Bosnia Herzegovina
2
. . . . 316.0 190.1 91.5
Austria 172.5 183.2 184.5 185.2 83.5
Portugal 77.0 85.5 125.1 132.6 55.9
Spain 152.8 135.5 132.3 131.1 61.8
Iran 51.3 92.2 107.0 115.1 46.3
United Kingdom 88.1 96.5 112.5 114.1 46.1
Netherlands 108.4 111.7 113.1 112.1 51.8
United States 85.7 92.7 108.4 110.7 47.3
France 74.8 85.1 99.1 105.8 56.9
Other countries 658.7 988.3 1 656.5 1 825.1 830.6
Total 4 378.9 5 342.5 7 173.9 7 319.6 3 292.3
of which: EU
3
1 539.0 1 632.6 1 811.7 1 854.3 818.9
Total women 1 867.4 2 330.7
4
2 459.8
4
3 292.3
4
340
OECD 2000
Table B.1.6. HUNGARY, stock of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
Note: Data are from registers of foreigners and refer to the population on 31 December of the years indicated. For details on definitions and sources, refer to
Table B.1.6. ITALY, stock of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
Note: Data are from population registers and refer to the population on the 31 December of the years indicated. For details on definitions and sources, refer
1. Excluding the data for Croatia, Republic of Macedonia and Bosnia Herzegovina.
1995 1996 1997
of which: Women
1997
Romania 65.7 61.6 57.4 26.4
Ukraine 11.5 12.0 12.2 7.2
Germany 7.8 8.3 8.4 5.2
China 4.3 6.7 7.9 2.8
Poland 4.5 4.3 4.5 1.9
Greece 1.6 1.8 2.0 0.8
Vietnam 1.3 1.6 1.8 0.8
Bulgaria 1.6 1.5 1.7 0.8
Austria 0.7 0.9 1.1 0.3
Israel 0.6 0.9 1.0 0.3
Syria 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.1
Other 16.0 18.5 18.6 7.2
Total 139.9 142.5 143.8 66.7
of which: EU 13.0 14.7 15.9 7.9
Total women 65.6 66.1 66.7
1985 1990 1995 1998
Morocco 2.6 78.0 94.2 145.8
Albania . . . . 34.7 91.5
Philippines 7.6 34.3 43.4 67.6
United States 51.1 58.1 60.6 55.8
Tunisia 4.4 41.2 40.5 47.3
Former Yugoslavia
1
13.9 29.8 56.1 40.8
Germany 37.2 41.6 39.4 40.7
China 1.6 18.7 21.5 38.0
Romania . . 7.5 24.5 37.1
Senegal 0.3 25.1 24.0 35.9
Sri Lanka 2.5 11.5 20.3 31.3
France 23.7 24.4 27.3 29.5
Poland . . 17.0 22.0 28.2
Egypt 7.0 19.8 21.9 27.7
United Kingdom 27.9 26.6 27.7 27.0
Other countries 243.1 347.6 433.4 505.9
Total 423.0 781.1 991.4 1 250.2
of which: EU . . 148.6 164.0 171.6
Statistical Annex
341
OECD 2000
Table B.1.6. JAPAN, stock of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
Note: Data are based on registered foreign nationals which include foreigners staying in Japan for more than 90 days and refer to the population on the
31 December of the years indicated. For details on definitions and sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
1. Including Chinese Taipei.
Table B.1.6. KOREA, stock of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
1985 1990 1995 1998
Korea 683.3 687.9 666.4 638.8
China
1
74.9 150.3 223.0 272.2
Brazil 2.0 56.4 176.4 222.2
Philippines 12.3 49.1 74.3 105.3
United States 29.0 38.4 43.2 42.8
Peru 0.5 10.3 36.3 41.3
Thailand 2.6 6.7 16.0 23.6
Indonesia 1.7 3.6 7.0 15.0
United Kingdom 6.8 10.2 12.5 14.8
Vietnam 4.1 6.2 9.1 13.5
Canada 2.4 4.9 7.2 9.0
India . . . . 5.5 8.7
Australia 1.8 4.0 6.0 7.6
Iran . . . . 8.6 7.2
Malaysia 1.8 4.7 5.4 6.6
Total 827.2 1 075.3 1 362.4 1 512.1
1986 1990 1995 1998
of which: Women
1998
China 0.1 19.2 30.9 14.5
of which: Chinese of Korean descent 7.4 11.8 4.9
United States 8.4 14.0 22.2 26.1 12.2
Chinese Taipei 24.8 23.6 23.3 22.9 10.5
Japan 3.0 5.3 9.4 13.0 8.8
Indonesia 0.1 3.4 9.7 2.2
Vietnam 5.7 8.1 2.8
Philippines 0.2 0.6 9.0 8.0 3.3
Bangladesh 2.7 5.7
Canada 0.4 0.6 3.0 3.0 1.2
Sri Lanka 0.1 1.7 2.4 0.9
Uzbekistan 0.8 2.0 0.3
Thailand 0.1 0.5 1.6 0.5
Pakistan 0.8 1.3
Germany 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 0.4
France 0.9 0.6 0.7 1.1 0.4
Other 3.4 3.7 6.8 10.9 4.1
Total 41.6 49.5 110.0 147.9 62.2
of which: EU 3.1 3.0 3.6 4.4 1.6
Total women . . 22.6 47.0 62.2
342
OECD 2000
Table B.1.6. LUXEMBOURG, stock of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
Table B.1.6. NETHERLANDS, stock of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
1. Including Hong Kong (China).
1985 1990 1995 1998
Portugal 29.0 39.1 51.5 55.9
Italy 20.7 19.5 19.8 20.0
France 12.6 13.0 15.0 17.5
Belgium 8.5 10.1 11.8 13.8
Germany 8.9 8.8 9.7 10.3
Spain 2.2 2.5 2.8 . .
Total 97.9 113.1 138.1 152.9
1985 1990 1995 1998
of which: Women
1998
Morocco 116.4 156.9 149.8 128.6 60.0
Turkey 156.4 203.5 154.3 102.0 50.3
Germany 41.0 44.3 53.9 54.1 27.1
United Kingdom
1
38.5 39.0 41.1 38.8 15.7
Belgium 22.8 23.6 24.1 24.8 13.0
Italy 17.8 16.9 17.4 17.6 5.9
Spain 19.0 17.2 16.7 16.8 7.9
United States 10.5 11.4 12.8 13.4 6.6
Portugal 7.5 8.3 9.1 8.8 4.0
Greece 3.8 4.9 5.4 5.3 1.9
Tunisia 2.6 2.6 1.9 1.4 0.5
Other countries 104.5 150.3 205.4 228.5 112.6
Total 552.5 692.4 725.4 662.4 316.2
of which: EU
2
166.4 173.9 191.1 192.2 89.3
Total women 239.8 311.1 335.4 316.2
Statistical Annex
343
OECD 2000
Table B.1.6. NORWAY, stock of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
2. All figures include the 15 countries of the European Union.
Table B.1.6. PORTUGAL, stock of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
Note: Figures include all foreigners who hold a valid residence permit. For details on definitions and sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
1985 1990 1995 1998
of which: Women
1998
Sweden 10.0 11.7 15.4 24.0 12.5
Denmark 15.7 17.2 17.9 19.1 9.4
Bosnia Herzegovina
1
. . . . 11.2 11.8 6.0
United Kingdom 12.5 11.8 11.1 11.2 4.4
United States 10.0 9.5 9.0 8.6 4.5
Pakistan 8.4 11.4 9.7 6.9 3.7
Germany 3.7 4.3 4.8 6.0 3.1
Finland . . 3.1 3.7 5.3 3.0
Iraq . . 0.9 2.6 4.2 1.8
Somalia . . 1.7 3.7 4.1 2.0
Iceland . . 2.2 2.9 4.1 2.0
Sri Lanka 1.0 5.2 5.1 3.7 2.2
Iran 0.3 5.9 4.7 3.6 1.6
Netherlands 2.4 2.6 3.0 3.4 1.6
Other countries 35.8 51.6 49.6 43.6 23.8
Total 101.5 143.3 160.8 165.1 84.3
of which: EU
2
52.9 55.9 61.6 75.5 36.8
Total women 48.1 66.5 80.3 84.3
1988 1990 1995 1998
of which: Women
1998
Cape Verde 27.1 28.8 38.7 40.1 16.1
Brazil 9.3 11.4 19.9 19.9 9.1
Angola 4.4 5.3 15.8 16.5 6.6
Guinea-Bissau 3.1 4.0 12.3 12.9 3.5
United Kingdom 7.1 8.5 11.5 12.7 5.9
Spain 7.1 7.5 8.9 10.2 4.9
Germany 4.1 4.8 7.4 8.8 3.9
United States 6.1 6.9 8.5 8.1 3.5
France 2.8 3.2 4.7 5.8 2.8
Mozambique 2.8 3.2 4.4 4.4 2.0
Sao Tome and Principe 1.7 2.0 4.1 4.4 2.2
Venezuela 4.8 5.1 4.5 3.5 1.2
Netherlands 1.5 1.8 2.7 3.3 1.5
China 1.0 1.2 2.2 2.5 0.9
Italy 1.1 1.2 1.9 2.4 0.9
Other countries 10.6 12.7 20.7 22.4 9.9
Total 94.7 107.8 168.3 177.8 74.5
of which: EU 25.3 28.8 41.5 48.2
Total women . . . . 69.5 74.5
344
OECD 2000
Table B.1.6. SPAIN, stock of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
Note: Numbers of foreigners with a residence permit. Data refer to the population on the 31 December of the year indicated. For details on definitions and
Table B.1.6. SWEDEN, stock of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
1985 1990 1995 1998
Morocco 5.8 11.4 74.9 135.7
United Kingdom 39.1 55.5 65.3 72.5
Germany 28.5 31.2 41.9 55.9
Portugal 23.3 22.8 37.0 40.7
France 17.8 19.7 30.8 38.3
Italy 10.3 10.8 19.8 25.8
Peru 1.7 2.6 15.1 23.9
Dominican Republic 1.2 1.5 14.5 23.2
China 1.6 2.8 9.2 19.8
Argentina 9.7 12.1 18.4 16.5
Philippines 6.2 5.1 9.7 13.2
Netherlands 10.9 11.7 13.0 . .
United States 12.2 11.0 14.9 . .
Cuba 5.0 3.5 . . . .
Belgium 7.4 8.2 8.9 . .
Other countries 61.2 68.9 126.6 254.1
Total 242.0 278.8 499.8 719.6
of which: EU 143.5 164.6 235.6 295.3
1985 1990 1995 1998
of which: Women
1998
Finland 138.6 119.7 104.9 99.9 55.7
Norway 26.4 38.2 32.3 30.6 16.0
Iraq 3.5 7.7 21.3 26.6 12.0
Denmark 25.1 28.6 26.5 25.0 10.7
Iran 8.3 39.0 29.3 19.8 10.0
Turkey 21.5 25.5 20.3 17.4 8.8
Poland 15.5 15.7 16.0 15.9 10.8
Germany 12.0 13.0 13.4 15.1 7.1
United Kingdom 8.9 10.1 11.2 12.1 4.1
Chile 9.2 19.9 13.0 11.4 5.3
United States 6.4 8.0 9.2 9.5 4.2
Greece 9.4 6.5 4.6 4.4 1.6
Italy 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.3 1.3
Iceland 3.4 5.3 4.9 4.2 2.0
Other countries 58.0 101.4 182.5 177.8 91.3
Total 388.6 483.7 531.8 499.9 253.5
Total women 192.7 237.5 256.5 253.5
Statistical Annex
345
OECD 2000
Table B.1.6. SWITZERLAND, stock of foreign population by nationality
Thousands
Table B.1.6. UNITED KINGDOM, stock of foreign population by country or region of nationality
Thousands
Note: Estimated from the annual Labour Force Survey. Fluctuations from year to year may be due to sampling error. For details on definitions and sources,
refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
1. Including former USSR.
1985 1990 1995 1998
of which: Women
1998
Italy 392.5 378.7 358.9 335.4 143.6
Portugal 30.9 85.6 134.8 135.8 66.5
Germany 81.0 83.4 90.9 97.9 45.4
Spain 108.4 116.1 101.4 90.4 41.1
Turkey 50.9 64.2 78.6 79.5 36.8
France 47.1 50.0 53.6 56.1 27.0
Austria 29.2 28.8 28.1 28.6 12.8
United Kingdom 15.4 16.7 18.4 18.7 8.0
Netherlands 10.8 11.9 13.6 13.8 6.6
United States 9.1 9.7 11.4 11.1 5.6
Belgium 4.8 5.6 6.3 6.9 3.4
Greece 8.7 8.3 7.1 6.3 2.7
Sweden 3.8 4.6 5.1 5.0 2.6
Vietnam 6.8 7.2 6.1 4.9 2.5
Other countries 70.8 88.7 121.9 136.3 142.2
Total 939.7 1 100.3 1 330.6 1 347.9 625.5
of which: EU 702.7 760.2 824.9 . . . .
Total women 419.1 483.7 608.7 625.5
1985 1990 1995 1999
of which: Women
1999
Ireland 569 478 443 442 227
India 138 156 114 149 86
United States 86 102 110 123 70
Germany 36 41 51 85 51
Central and Eastern Europe
1
68 58 75 83 48
Italy 83 75 80 80 39
Bangladesh 41 38 53 78 41
Western Africa 43 37 87 77 42
Pakistan 49 56 81 73 36
France 27 38 60 68 38
Eastern Africa 28 39 40 61 32
Australia 28 44 47 55 25
Caribbean and Guyana 135 82 82 54 27
Spain 28 25 31 45 26
Portugal 21 30 44 26
Other countries 372 433 564 691 358
Total 1 731 1 723 1 948 2 208 1 172
of which: EU 796 731 902 886 476
Total women . . 910 1 036 1 172
346
OECD 2000
Table B.1.6. UNITED STATES, stock of foreign population by country of birth
Thousands
Note: Data are from 1990 population census and refer to the foreign population born overseas. For details on definitions and sources, refer to the notes at the
end of the Annex.
Table B.1.7. AUSTRALIA, acquisition of nationality by country of former nationality
1. Excluding Bosnia Herzegovina from 1997 on.
1990
Mexico 3 328.3
Philippines 420.5
El Salvador 393.9
Cuba 361.0
Canada 341.9
Korea 337.5
United Kingdom 322.3
Vietnam 311.5
China 296.4
India 293.2
Dominican Republic 252.0
Japan 208.3
Jamaica 205.9
Colombia 203.3
Germany 199.9
Other 4 294.4
Total 11 770.3
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
United Kingdom 39 495 36 488 41 963 39 876 36 401 36 134 35 431 27 294 23 080 13 529
China 3 342 1 743 5 018 4 872 5 242 5 971 4 250 16 173 21 053 10 947
New Zealand 7 538 6 562 8 502 9 772 7 786 9 033 11 724 9 982 8 764 6 320
Vietnam 8 256 6 723 9 697 12 406 10 713 7 772 7 741 5 083 4 685 3 083
India 1 933 1 960 2 130 2 645 2 836 3 107 2 638 2 563 3 358 2 695
Philippines 9 504 9 275 6 763 6 633 6 600 5 408 4 021 3 815 3 688 2 606
Former Yugoslavia
1
4 726 3 679 3 487 2 972 3 043 3 534 5 188 3 207 4 088 2 465
Bosnia Herzegovina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 637 2 728 1 841
Sri Lanka 2 516 2 576 2 003 2 104 1 691 1 730 1 644 1 620 2 049 1 707
Iraq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 591 2 877 1 698
Fiji . . . . . . . . 2 018 2 204 1 815 1 721 1 934 1 665
South Africa 3 029 2 569 2 006 1 781 1 595 1 324 1 262 1 578 1 880 1 606
Lebanon 4 090 3 405 2 585 2 976 2 122 1 392 1 105 1 076 1 364 1 091
United States . . . . . . . . 1 634 1 912 2 272 1 701 1 565 1 083
Turkey 2 331 1 910 2 500 2 252 1 728 1 468 1 307 1 064 1 029 951
Others 41 097 41 620 38 504 33 796 28 777 33 768 31 239 28 161 28 201 36 716
Total 127 857 118 510 125 158 122 085 112 186 114 757 111 637 108 266 112 343 76 474
Statistical Annex
347
OECD 2000
Table B.1.7. AUSTRIA, acquisition of nationality by country or region of former nationality
Note: Figures include naturalisations granted to persons living abroad. For details on sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
Table B.1.7. BELGIUM, acquisition of nationality by country of former nationality
Note: Data cover all means of acquiring the nationality. From 1992 on, following a change in nationality law a significant number of foreigners were granted
Belgian nationality. For details on sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
Table B.1.7. CANADA, acquisition of nationality by country of former nationality
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Turkey 723 1 106 1 809 1 994 2 688 3 379 3 209 7 499 5 068 5 683
Former Yugoslavia 2 323 2 641 3 221 4 337 5 791 5 623 4 538 3 133 3 671 4 151
Central and Eastern Europe 1 664 2 118 2 413 1 839 1 858 2 672 2 588 2 083 2 898 3 850
Germany 886 517 455 410 406 328 202 140 164 157
Others 2 874 2 817 3 496 3 340 3 659 4 268 4 772 3 388 4 473 4 480
Total 8 470 9 199 11 394 11 920 14 402 16 270 15 309 16 243 16 274 18 321
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Morocco 2 091 6 862 5 500 8 638 9 146 7 912 11 076 13 484
Turkey 879 3 886 3 305 6 273 6 572 6 609 6 884 6 177
Italy 762 22 362 1 431 2 326 2 096 1 940 1 726 1 536
Zaire 185 454 410 474 452 442 756 1 202
Algeria 191 932 543 714 780 556 608 672
Tunisia 96 486 416 573 537 406 566 585
Former Yugoslavia 211 386 353 417 416 . . 438 499
France 514 2 179 532 618 608 539 530 491
Romania 273 69 94 118 85 115 358 387
Poland 151 237 174 239 176 175 220 277
Netherlands 217 1 179 222 335 336 259 292 249
Lebanon 58 103 81 158 137 150 306 248
China 64 113 101 181 170 166 199 225
Spain 110 1 795 196 281 246 261 221 180
Greece 104 940 170 312 294 253 238 175
Others 2 551 4 385 2 848 4 130 4 078 4 798 7 269 7 647
Total 8 457 46 368 16 376 25 787 26 129 24 581 31 687 34 034
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
China 3 995 4 574 4 982 4 706 7 777 14 228 12 878 10 560 11 528 14 105
Hong Kong (China) 3 502 5 556 9 845 13 347 11 717 17 109 14 978 15 110 9 744 13 097
Philippines 3 235 3 932 5 988 6 776 9 388 11 508 12 953 9 771 12 701 11 057
India 3 284 3 893 4 297 4 946 6 306 8 953 11 677 10 754 10 760 8 800
United Kingdom 11 015 8 908 11 257 9 131 10 012 12 620 11 173 8 952 11 491 6 187
Sri Lanka 1 034 2 645 2 609 2 164 2 848 5 768 10 154 6 288 4 920 6 109
Chinese Taipei . . . . . . 1 121 1 538 2 036 2 738 3 774 4 750 4 346
Vietnam 5 884 8 527 3 744 2 623 3 833 5 223 6 426 4 579 5 519 4 146
Poland 3 674 5 853 6 270 7 155 11 528 16 384 14 011 7 879 4 859 3 051
Former Yugoslavia 716 931 1 035 1 226 1 704 2 114 1 920 2 926 4 036 2 861
Romania . . . . . . 1 521 1 814 2 288 2 489 2 294 3 297 2 848
Iran 1 621 2 462 2 214 2 329 3 229 5 124 6 457 3 226 2 601 2 630
Pakistan . . . . . . 887 1 469 2 597 3 341 2 596 2 867 2 393
United States 1 999 1 729 3 521 3 266 4 334 5 244 4 812 3 120 2 753 2 140
Lebanon 1 750 2 518 3 925 2 992 6 772 15 875 9 802 2 887 3 707 2 105
Stateless and others 45 769 52 739 58 943 52 011 66 301 90 249 101 911 60 911 59 011 48 519
Total 87 478 104 267 118 630 116 201 150 570 217 320 227 720 155 627 154 544 134 394
348
OECD 2000
Table B.1.7. DENMARK, acquisition of nationality by country of former nationality
Table B.1.7. FINLAND, acquisition of nationality by country or region of former nationality
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Turkey 195 107 376 502 560 915 797 917 1 036 1 243
Iran 21 73 989 1 083 710 491 531 829 553 969
Lebanon 12 16 44 109 234 237 216 314 160 811
Iraq 9 20 181 236 241 166 177 339 244 718
Former Yugoslavia 133 130 128 78 138 806 413 629 291 695
Sri Lanka 14 19 84 179 370 515 635 765 376 613
Vietnam 583 501 568 209 169 125 137 200 126 365
Pakistan 611 433 551 265 192 203 145 220 149 284
Morocco 109 114 202 167 168 136 122 201 110 248
Poland 120 152 317 278 219 151 175 237 130 241
Germany 175 167 231 158 134 140 118 126 138 173
Sweden 143 131 163 177 188 154 149 135 144 153
Norway 158 188 165 174 164 163 143 151 132 152
United Kingdom 121 106 133 109 85 94 82 98 96 84
Others 854 871 1 352 1 380 1 465 854 1 420 2 122 1 797 3 513
Total 3 258 3 028 5 484 5 104 5 037 4 296 5 260 7 283 5 482 10 262
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Europe 1 000 539 736 506 450 342 335 365 509 1 245
of which:
Russia/Former USSR . . 85 142 232 158 48 149 198 254 804
Nordic countries 404 240 306 162 114 94 104 111 106 148
Asia 201 130 200 140 214 152 144 328 489 1 299
Africa 80 70 101 104 67 56 81 120 180 788
North America 107 46 57 7 5 11 1 5 6 7
South America 37 41 45 48 39 32 27 30 46 70
Oceania 14 4 10 4 1 2 1 2 6
Stateless and unknown 65 69 87 66 63 58 44 132 207 602
Total 1 504 899 1 236 875 839 651 668 981 1 439 4 017
Statistical Annex
349
OECD 2000
Table B.1.7. FRANCE, acquisition of nationality by country of former nationality
Note: From 1994 onwards, data broken down by nationality include children acquiring French nationality as a consequence of the parents naturalisation. For
details on sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
1. Data exclude people automatically acquiring French nationality upon reaching legal majority (this procedure was in effect until 1993) as well as people born
in France to foreign parents who declared their intention to become French in accordance with the legislation of 22 July 1993.
2. Data include estimates of people acquiring French nationality upon reaching legal majority until 1993 as well as the number of people born in France to
foreign parents who declared their intention to become French in accordance with the legislation of 22 July 1993.
Table B.1.7. GERMANY, acquisition of nationality by country of former nationality
Note: Data include naturalisations on the basis of a claim, which concern essentially ethnic Germans. For details on sources, refer to the notes at the end of
the Annex.
1. Including in former USSR until 1994.
Table B.1.7. HUNGARY, acquisition of nationality by country of former nationality
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Morocco 5 393 7 741 10 289 12 292 13 131 22 676 12 249 15 452 16 365 16 345
Algeria 4 070 5 355 6 631 7 410 7 909 10 868 9 499 13 218 13 488 13 377
Tunisia 2 538 3 076 4 375 4 991 5 370 9 248 4 182 5 109 5 420 5 699
Turkey 921 914 1 124 1 296 1 515 3 197 2 143 3 447 3 977 4 530
Portugal 7 027 6 876 7 126 5 575 5 233 6 908 3 775 4 644 4 997 4 505
Cambodia 1 724 1 827 1 729 1 701 1 847 3 319 2 445 2 950 2 896 2 404
Vietnam 2 478 2 326 2 139 1 888 1 775 2 660 1 950 2 773 2 432 2 186
Lebanon . . 1 287 1 390 1 508 1 568 2 445 1 689 2 390 2 104 1 783
Laos 1 305 1 468 1 343 1 305 1 187 1 991 1 496 1 647 1 539 1 361
Italy 2 576 1 869 1 475 1 117 936 1 370 1 022 1 255 1 353 1 261
Poland 1 587 1 446 1 230 873 755 1 047 892 1 164 1 270 1 176
Haiti . . 626 714 678 744 1 351 962 1 202 1 174 1 145
Cameroon . . 618 625 707 729 1 271 809 973 1 027 1 002
Spain 3 320 2 868 2 317 1 528 1 385 1 514 780 924 885 732
Others 15 142 14 664 15 781 14 977 14 271 20 939 16 492 21 108 23 200 22 870
Total
1
49 330 54 366 59 655 59 246 60 007 93 082 61 884 79 978 83 676 81 912
Total (estimates)
2
82 000 88 500 95 500 95 300 95 500 126 337 92 410 109 823 116 194 122 261
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Kazakhstan
1
. . . . . . . . . . . . 101 000 94 961 88 583 83 478
Russian Federation
1
. . . . . . . . . . . . 60 000 60 662 62 641 65 868
Turkey 1 713 2 034 3 529 7 377 12 915 19 590 31 578 46 294 40 396 56 994
Romania 11 868 14 410 29 011 37 574 28 346 17 968 12 028 9 777 8 668 6 318
Poland 24 882 32 340 27 646 20 248 15 435 11 943 10 174 7 872 5 763 4 968
Former USSR 13 557 33 339 55 620 84 660 105 801 43 086 35 477 21 457 8 966 3 925
Italy 548 437 679 1 218 1 154 1 417 1 281 1 297 1 176 1 144
Austria 659 537 793 959 810 772 493 605 582 533
Others 13 223 16 198 21 520 25 542 29 741 160 020 57 952 56 938 52 754 10 198
Total naturalisations 68 526 101 377 141 630 179 904 199 443 259 170 313 606 302 830 271 773 236 147
of which: naturalisations
by discretionary decision 17 742 20 237 27 295 37 042 44 950 26 295 31 888 37 604 37 534 . .
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Romania 2 568 5 274 20 480 10 589 6 943 7 055 8 549 5 229 3 842
Former Yugoslavia 222 12 153 272 852 1 132 1 999 1 610 1 082
Former USSR 228 271 788 567 1 585 1 182 1 227 788 713
Other 152 336 459 378 525 651 491 1 030 799
Total 3 170 5 893 21 880 11 805 9 905 10 021 12 266 8 658 6 435
350
OECD 2000
Table B.1.7. ITALY, acquisition of nationality by country of former nationality
1. Russian Federation.
Table B.1.7. JAPAN, acquisition of nationality by country of former nationality
Table B.1.7. LUXEMBOURG, acquisition of nationality by country of former nationality
Note: Minor children acquiring nationality as a consequence of the naturalisation of their parents are excluded. For details on sources, refer to the notes at
the end of the Annex.
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Romania 112 194 446 521 577 639 811 222
Dominican Republic 89 133 245 375 390 468 544 151
Albania 198 72 123
Brazil 128 123 175 225 191 215 131 110
Former USSR 112 179 325 260 435 282
1
106
1
105
1
Morocco 126 141 235 295 333 323 586 97
Poland 228 211 262 211 313 302 96 76
Argentina 278 432 570 392 286 260 73 68
Iran 113 64 95 73 131 168 39 53
Philippines 164 169 222 139 177 162 32 45
Egypt 222 152 246 169 223 228 28 32
Switzerland 335 385 472 423 638 514 768 26
Vietnam 80 154 115 88 243 162 23 21
Other countries 2 555 2 071 3 077 3 442 3 505 3 040 5 928 8 714
Total 4 542 4 408 6 485 6 613 7 442 6 961 9 237 9 843
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Korea 4 759 5 216 5 665 7 244 7 697 8 244 10 327 9 898 9 678 9 561
China 1 066 1 349 1 818 1 794 2 244 2 478 3 184 3 976 4 729 4 637
Others 264 229 305 325 511 424 593 621 654 581
Total 6 089 6 794 7 788 9 363 10 452 11 146 14 104 14 495 15 061 14 779
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Italy 162 113 191 123 147 151 169 209 193 192
France 126 98 106 75 75 89 71 78 85 79
Belgium 105 78 79 76 86 63 75 67 65 64
Germany 104 84 97 54 68 78 64 70 55 60
Netherlands 29 31 30 11 13 18 16 15 20 17
Others 236 200 245 243 220 279 344 363 361 337
Total 762 604 748 582 609 678 739 802 779 749
Statistical Annex
351
OECD 2000
Table B.1.7. NETHERLANDS, acquisition of nationality by country of former nationality
1. Western Germany until 1989, Germany as a whole from 1990 onwards.
Table B.1.7. NORWAY, acquisition of nationality by country of former nationality
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Turkey 3 280 1 950 6 110 11 520 18 000 23 870 33 060 30 700 21 190 13 480
Morocco 6 830 3 030 7 300 7 990 7 750 8 110 13 480 15 600 10 480 11 250
Former Yugoslavia 520 240 520 1 060 2 090 1 880 1 700 2 240 2 830 6 670
Suriname 3 570 1 640 4 010 5 120 4 990 5 390 3 990 4 450 3 020 2 990
United Kingdom 1 880 620 900 670 490 460 820 1 170 690 580
Germany
1
670 190 380 380 330 310 500 780 560 560
Egypt . . 20 30 30 350 540 810 1 080 550 390
Italy 150 50 90 90 100 140 200 280 330 300
Portugal 220 120 140 110 130 140 190 300 300 230
Belgium 250 100 140 160 120 110 170 290 180 200
France 100 30 50 70 60 70 110 160 120 180
Greece 90 40 60 80 90 80 150 250 230 170
Spain 100 40 60 60 50 90 120 160 140 120
Stateless 510 270 360 210 180 170 610 820 680 120
Others 10 560 4 450 8 960 8 690 8 340 8 090 15 530 24 420 18 530 21 930
Total 28 730 12 790 29 110 36 240 43 070 49 450 71 440 82 700 59 830 59 170
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Pakistan 582 899 778 1 054 664 616 997 1 530 1 583 1 097
Vietnam 940 1 039 1 082 931 746 710 727 1 446 1 276 781
Turkey 280 304 474 238 393 752 793 836 837 705
Former Yugoslavia 160 111 140 201 274 659 754 554 520 560
Chile 127 106 82 81 117 310 923 531 416 240
Poland 332 264 234 215 265 275 374 267 282 192
India 131 149 166 220 242 251 346 313 274 157
Philippines 219 294 235 298 213 243 343 315 360 155
Morocco 124 128 280 299 275 257 248 318 294 154
Sweden 117 72 103 108 153 150 130 112 167 154
Denmark 200 156 108 108 119 187 102 91 143 149
Korea 149 138 95 107 105 135 121 122 109 146
United Kingdom 100 96 93 107 106 136 110 162 142 129
Colombia 211 199 270 221 217 204 143 144 130 111
Iran 23 15 39 72 317 1 287 1 419 1 154 834 . .
China 51 48 76 95 149 148 235 383 348 . .
Others 876 739 800 777 1 183 2 458 4 013 3 959 4 322 4 514
Total 4 622 4 757 5 055 5 132 5 538 8 778 11 778 12 237 12 037 9 244
352
OECD 2000
Table B.1.7. SPAIN, acquisition of nationality by country of former nationality
Note: Persons recovering their former (Spanish) nationality are not included. For details on sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
Table B.1.7. SWEDEN, acquisition of nationality by country of former nationality
Table B.1.7. SWITZERLAND, acquisition of nationality by country of former nationality
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Peru 154 242 136 212 246 468 658 1 150 1 159 1 863
Dominican Republic . . 156 105 146 298 393 499 833 1 257 1 860
Morocco 2 122 1 675 427 597 986 897 785 687 1 056 1 542
Argentina 732 1 096 639 944 1 532 1 690 1 314 1 387 1 368 1 126
Cuba 144 163 119 146 . . 172 169 250 442 773
Portugal 404 496 234 447 424 503 372 452 524 677
Colombia . . 260 174 247 433 383 364 457 478 624
Philippines 192 318 188 283 380 340 281 455 583 499
Chile 342 440 249 344 725 335 317 425 428 473
Uruguay . . 266 147 187 268 246 217 260 279 310
Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 217 . .
China . . . . . . . . . . 106 74 109 180 . .
Guinea-Bissau . . . . . . . . . . 118 118 183 . . . .
Venezuela 136 237 139 183 373 211 130 133 . . . .
India . . . . . . . . . . 129 111 128 . . . .
Others 1 692 1 684 1 195 1 544 2 747 1 811 1 347 1 396 2 338 3 430
Total 5 918 7 033 3 752 5 280 8 412 7 802 6 756 8 433 10 309 13 177
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Turkey 832 832 1 358 1 569 4 201 2 742 2 836 2 030 1 402 1 694
Finland 4 611 3 532 4 208 3 805 3 070 2 974 2 125 2 009 1 882 1 668
Poland 1 397 1 205 1 309 1 294 1 164 998 895 636 523 454
Chile 667 663 1 323 1 305 1 762 1 446 946 707 545 426
Denmark 574 397 407 418 283 345 318 272 296 272
Norway 671 480 539 445 291 450 363 276 186 208
Germany 188 130 169 141 155 137 128 154 117 111
United Kingdom 135 102 143 138 101 107 96 90 60 52
Greece 669 457 783 377 464 244 140 113 68 25
Spain 73 62 74 49 34 38 33 23 20 15
Others 6 417 7 758 14 518 15 816 20 194 19 251 20 563 16 826 17 716 32 586
Total 17 552 16 770 27 663 29 326 42 659 35 084 31 993 25 552 28 867 46 502
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Italy 2 479 1 995 1 802 1 930 2 778 3 258 4 376 5 167 4 982 5 613
Former Yugoslavia 528 552 607 936 1 454 1 821 2 491 2 783 2 956 3 311
Turkey 238 211 333 614 820 966 1 205 1 432 1 814 2 093
France 1 025 684 677 809 862 935 871 1 045 985 1 152
Spain 560 401 408 353 319 305 432 453 481 619
Germany 1 404 1 144 971 1 099 890 657 706 675 644 605
Portugal 160 170 146 101 89 119 175 262 291 421
United Kingdom 183 141 135 307 347 263 278 299 269 285
Former CSFR 344 352 362 338 415 370 385 465 272 231
Hungary 277 202 186 223 207 243 297 278 206 187
Austria 579 431 478 465 413 256 261 248 223 186
Netherlands 149 153 111 90 76 57 52 55 71 76
Others 2 416 2 222 2 541 3 943 4 258 4 507 5 266 6 213 5 976 6 501
Total 10 342 8 658 8 757 11 208 12 928 13 757 16 795 19 375 19 170 21 280
Statistical Annex
353
OECD 2000
Table B.1.7. UNITED KINGDOM, acquisition of nationality by country or region of former nationality
Table B.1.7. UNITED STATES, acquisition of nationality by country or region of former nationality
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Africa 6 304 7 452 7 877 7 940 9 162 8 018 12 941
Europe 5 253 5 475 5 165 4 615 4 650 4 330 5 938
EEA (excluding Ireland) 2 257 2 177 2 058 1 755 1 722 1 546 . .
Ireland . . 100 100 200 100 85 . .
Other European countries . . 3 198 3 007 2 660 2 828 2 699 . .
Middle East and Turkey . . 5 000 5 000 4 200 4 400 3 951 . .
America 4 562 4 828 4 531 4 096 4 266 3 544 5 224
North America . . 2 100 2 000 1 800 1 900 1 646 . .
West Indies . . 1 900 1 800 1 600 . . 1 213 . .
Other American countries . . 828 731 696 2 366 685 . .
British Dependent Territories citizens . . 1 900 2 200 2 000 2 100 2 225 . .
Oceania 1 462 1 452 1 539 1 666 1 542 1 443 1 645
Others 24 662 19 684 17 721 15 999 16 949 13 499 27 777
Total 42 243 45 791 44 033 40 516 43 069 37 010 53 525
Acquisitions of nationality in Hong Kong (China) . . 41 800 5 900 25 700 5 500 3 406 3 400
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Mexico 22 085 18 520 17 564 22 066 12 880 23 630 39 310 67 238 217 418 134 494
Vietnam 21 636 19 357 22 027 29 603 18 357 22 427 26 833 28 074 47 625 33 349
Philippines 24 580 24 802 25 936 33 714 28 579 33 864 37 304 33 634 45 210 28 075
Former USSR 5 304 3 020 2 847 2 822 1 648 2 763 6 708 16 172 36 265 25 965
Dominican Republic 5 842 6 454 5 984 6 368 8 464 12 274 11 399 9 892 27 293 19 450
India 9 983 9 833 11 499 12 961 13 413 16 506 20 454 17 880 28 932 18 812
Jamaica 6 441 6 455 6 762 6 838 6 765 7 976 12 173 10 949 24 270 18 746
El Salvador 2 291 2 001 2 410 3 653 2 056 3 057 4 998 11 505 33 240 17 818
China 10 509 11 664 13 563 16 783 13 488 16 851 20 828 20 009 30 656 17 552
Haiti 2 350 3 692 5 009 4 436 3 993 5 202 7 982 7 855 24 556 15 667
Korea 13 012 11 301 10 500 12 266 8 297 9 611 11 389 14 170 24 693 13 996
Africa 7 122 7 209 8 770 10 230 9 628 11 293 15 327 17 020 21 842 13 862
Cuba 11 228 9 514 10 291 9 554 7 763 15 109 15 896 16 994 62 168 12 860
United Kingdom 7 042 7 865 8 286 9 935 7 800 10 158 15 003 14 143 20 052 11 418
Colombia 5 021 4 736 5 540 5 513 6 439 9 976 12 067 12 333 26 115 10 911
Others 87 617 87 354 113 113 121 316 90 682 113 984 149 727 147 985 374 354 205 250
Total 242 063 233 777 270 101 308 058 240 252 314 681 407 398 445 853 1 044 689 598 225
354
OECD 2000
Table B.2.1. AUSTRALIA, foreign-born labour force by place of birth, selected years
Thousands
1. Excluding Chinese Taipei.
2. Africa (excluding North Africa) in 1986.
Table B.2.1. CANADA, foreign-born labour force by place of birth, 1991 and 1996 census results
Thousands
1986 1991 1996 1999
of which: Women
1999
Europe 1 319.2 1 342.4 1 220.8 1 179.3 463.9
United Kingdom and Ireland 670.2 703.6 660.1 656.2 262.7
Italy 153.0 139.5 95.5 93.8 31.2
Germany 69.9 70.4 59.8 61.3 26.0
Greece 86.4 81.2 59.7 56.8 21.8
Netherlands 62.9 55.8 45.0 42.6 16.1
Poland 28.9 . . . . . . . .
Malta 28.1 . . . . . . . .
Others 113.2 182.2 190.5 172.4 70.4
Asia 267.5 342.7 428.2 516.7 228.1
Vietnam . . 60.6 82.9 76.4 28.1
China
1
. . 59.3 55.5 69.8 27.2
Philippines . . 44.2 55.9 64.6 39.0
India . . 40.0 48.8 57.4 23.3
Malaysia . . 43.4 50.8 44.2 22.2
Others 267.5 95.2 134.3 204.3 88.3
New Zealand 138.1 187.8 208.6 247.3 107.6
America 55.4 76.1 96.7 115.4 53.1
North Africa and the Middle East
2
93.6 94.4 103.7 101.0 30.4
Lebanon 23.6 37.0 35.3 33.4 7.8
Others 70.0 57.4 68.4 67.6 22.6
Other and not stated 26.7 138.9 180.8 149.9 65.2
Total 1 900.5 2 182.3 2 238.8 2 309.6 948.3
% of total labour force 25.4 25.7 24.6 24.6 23.4
1991 1996
United Kingdom 422.0 372.5
Italy 214.0 166.2
India 127.0 158.3
United States 144.0 142.0
Hong Kong (China) 96.0 129.4
Philippines . . 126.7
China 90.0 113.8
Portugal 111.0 101.0
Germany 115.0 100.7
Poland 89.0 98.0
Vietnam . . 85.8
Jamaica . . 79.5
Netherlands 82.0 70.5
Other Countries 1 191.0 1 094.7
Total 2 681.0 2 839.1
% of total labour force 18.5 19.2
Statistical Annex
355
OECD 2000
Table B.2.1. UNITED STATES, foreign-born labour force by place of birth, census results of 1990
Thousands
Table B.2.2. AUSTRIA, stock of foreign labour by nationality
Thousands
Note: Annual average. Data by nationality are from valid work permits. Figures may be over-estimated as a result of persons holding more than one permit.
The self-employed are excluded. For more details on sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
1. Data not corrected (data for Table A.2.3. have been corrected. See the note attached to the series).
5. From 1994 on, EEA members no longer need work permits.
6. From 1994 on, data on employed foreigners are stock of workers registered with Social Security offices (including EEA nationals).
Mexico 2 630.9
Philippines 629.0
Cuba 459.2
Germany 378.3
Canada 371.8
United Kingdom 349.4
Korea 328.7
China 313.6
El Salvador 308.8
India 308.6
Vietnam 303.7
Italy 266.0
Jamaica 232.3
Dominican Republic 195.4
Colombia 192.5
Other countries 4 296.4
Total 11 564.6
% of total labour force 9.4
1988 1990
1
1995 1999
of which: Women
1999
Turkey 34.2 50.6 55.7 47.7 12.7
Bosnia Herzegovina
2
. . . . 22.8 34.2 12.9
Croatia
3
. . . . 16.0 23.2 8.6
Hungary . . . . 9.6 9.0 1.8
Poland . . . . 10.8 8.7 2.3
Romania . . . . 9.3 7.5 2.5
Slovenia . . . . 5.8 6.0 1.6
Slovak Republic . . . . 2.9 4.0 1.2
Former Yug. Rep. of Macedonia
2
. . . . 1.9 4.0 0.7
Czech Republic . . . . 3.6 3.9 1.2
China
4
. . . . 2.0 1.5 0.5
Bulgaria . . . . 1.5 1.1 0.4
Philippines . . . . 2.1 1.1 0.7
India . . . . 1.8 1.0 0.3
Other countries 33.6 56.5 15.9 9.0 2.3
Total 150.9 217.6 269.7 239.1 82.6
of which: EU
5
. . . .
Total women 57.9 76.4 89.5 82.6
Total including foreign unemployed
6
160.9 236.0 325.2 . .
356
OECD 2000
Table B.2.2. BELGIUM, stock of foreign workers by nationality
Thousands
Note: Data are estimates on the basis of MET, INASTI and ONEM data. They include self-employed and unemployed. For more details on sources, refer to
Table B.2.2. DENMARK, stock of foreign labour by nationality
Thousands
Note: Data are from population registers and give the count as of the end of the given year (end of November until 1991, end of December from 1992). For
1990 1995 1997 1998
Italy 94.4 100.7 102.5 . .
France 42.9 50.9 56.4 . .
Morocco . . 44.3 44.3 . .
Netherlands 22.5 29.5 32.2 . .
Turkey . . 29.9 29.9 . .
Spain 21.7 22.6 23.1 . .
Portugal 5.5 10.4 11.7 . .
Germany 6.8 8.2 8.8 . .
United Kingdom 6.4 8.1 8.4 . .
Greece 6.2 6.8 6.9 . .
Zaire . . 3.6 4.1 . .
Algeria . . 3.4 3.3 . .
Tunisia . . 2.3 2.2 . .
Luxembourg 1.4 1.5 1.5 . .
Ireland 0.9 1.0 1.0 . .
Others 78.1 34.3 37.9 . .
Total 286.9 357.6 374.2 375.4
1985 1990 1995 1997
of which: Women
1997
Turkey 10.1 12.8 13.5 14.0 5.4
United Kingdom 5.9 6.2 7.2 7.6 2.2
Germany 4.8 5.1 5.9 6.5 2.7
Norway 5.7 5.8 6.0 6.2 3.5
Sweden 4.7 4.6 5.0 5.5 3.1
Iceland 1.4 1.3 2.3 2.9 1.4
Pakistan 2.5 2.2 2.4 2.5 0.9
Finland 1.1 1.0 1.0 1.1 0.8
Other countries 16.1 25.0 34.2 38.3 16.1
Total 56.5 68.8 83.8 93.9 39.7
of which: EU 14.8 16.7 26.5 28.9 11.5
Total women 23.6 28.3 35.2 39.7
Statistical Annex
357
OECD 2000
Table B.2.2. FINLAND, stock of foreign workers by nationality
Thousands
1. Figures are estimated.
For more details on sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
Table B.2.2. FRANCE, stock of foreign labour by nationality
Thousands
Note: Data are derived from the Labour Force Survey and refer to the month of March. For more details on sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Note:
Former USSR 6.0 6.6 7.2 8.0 8.6
Estonia 3.0 3.3 3.7 4.1 4.3
Sweden 2.5 2.7 2.8 3.0 3.1
United Kingdom 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.2
Somalia 0.8 0.9 0.9 1.1 1.1
Germany 0.8 0.9 0.9 1.0 1.1
Turkey 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.9
Vietnam 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.7
United States 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.7
Iraq 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.6
China 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6
Bosnia Herzegovina . . 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.5
Iran 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5
Thailand 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4
Others 6.6 7.1 7.9 8.7 9.2
Total 24.4 26.9 29.7 33.0 34.7
1985 1990 1995 1999
of which: Women
1999
Portugal 456.8 428.5 375.0 325.7 143.2
Algeria 279.0 248.5 245.6 237.2 83.7
Morocco 186.4 168.1 197.5 226.9 65.0
Spain 117.8 108.5 82.1 86.5 32.0
Tunisia 75.1 74.7 81.0 83.9 20.7
Turkey 41.6 53.9 66.4 76.1 21.4
Italy 125.9 96.9 76.6 75.6 22.0
Poland 14.2 15.1 7.1 14.0 7.1
Other countries 308.3 325.6 409.6 436.5 178.5
Total 1 649.2 1 549.5 1 573.3 1 593.9 588.9
of which: EU
1
771.6 716.2 629.1 589.5 241.7
Total women 495.8 484.7 553.6 588.9
358
OECD 2000
Table B.2.2. GERMANY, stock of foreign labour by nationality
Thousands
Note: Data are for 30 September of each year and include cross-border workers but not the self-employed. Data cover only western Germany for all years. For
Table B.2.2. HUNGARY, stock of foreign labour by nationality
Thousands
Table B.2.2. JAPAN, stock of foreign labour by nationality
Thousands
Note: Foreigners whose activity is restricted according to the Immigration Act (revised in 1990). For more details on sources, refer to the notes at the end of
the Annex.
1985 1990 1995 1997
of which: Women
1997
Turkey 589.0 680.2 752.0 745.2 232.9
Italy 232.8 199.8 245.1 246.5 70.9
Greece 115.4 117.8 139.4 134.2 52.2
Portugal 38.3 45.5 58.1 58.9 20.9
Spain 73.7 66.3 56.4 52.5 19.9
Other countries 449.3 576.5 849.4 936.5 335.2
Total 1 823.4 2 025.1 2 569.2 2 521.9 863.3
Total women 578.5 668.6 873.8 863.3
1990 1995 1998
Romania 26.2 9.8 10.6
China . . 2.6 2.8
Slovak Republic . . 0.9 1.1
Former USSR 3.0 1.4 1.0
Poland . . 1.4 1.0
Former Yugoslavia . . 0.7 0.5
Vietnam . . 0.2 0.3
Other 2.5 4.0 5.2
Total 31.7 21.0 22.4
1986 1992 1995 1998
China
1
. . 17.1 23.3 32.6
Philippines . . 21.3 13.7 25.7
United States . . 18.3 17.5 17.2
Korea . . 5.5 6.4 8.2
United Kingdom . . 5.2 5.6 7.0
Canada . . 3.3 4.1 5.2
Australia . . 2.0 2.4 3.5
India . . 1.3 1.7 2.9
France . . 1.3 1.4 1.7
Germany . . 1.3 1.3 1.4
Other . . 8.8 10.6 13.7
Total 30.6 85.5 88.0 119.0
Statistical Annex
359
OECD 2000
Table B.2.2. LUXEMBOURG, stock of foreign labour by nationality
Thousands
Note: Data are for 1 October of each year and cover foreigners in employment, including apprentices, trainees and cross-border workers. The unemployed
are not included. For more details on sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
Table B.2.2. NETHERLANDS, stock of foreign labour by nationality
Thousands
Note: Estimates are for 31 March and include cross-border workers, but exclude the self-employed, family workers and the unemployed. From 1990 onwards,
foreigners legally residing in the Netherlands but working abroad are excluded. For more details on sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
Table B.2.2. NORWAY, stock of foreign labour by nationality
Thousands
Note: Data are for the 2nd quarter (except for 1995 and 1996: 4th quarter). The unemployed and the self-employed are not included. For more details on
1985 1990 1995 1997
France 11.2 21.2 33.2 39.7
Portugal 15.7 22.8 27.3 28.3
Belgium 8.9 14.6 19.6 22.4
Germany 5.5 9.1 12.7 14.6
Italy 8.5 8.5 7.7 7.7
Spain 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.0
Total 55.0 84.7 111.8 124.8
of which: EU 52.3 79.8 105.4 118.0
Total women 18.4 29.4 39.9 44.8
1985 1990 1995 1997
of which: Women
1997
Morocco 25 27 32 35 8
Turkey 35 41 39 29 4
Belgium 21 24 22 23 10
United Kingdom 15 18 22 23 8
Germany 16 18 15 14 4
Spain 8 8 7 11 3
Total 166 197 221 208 66
of which: EU 65 88 98 96 36
Total women 40 53 69 66
1988 1990 1995 1998
Sweden 6.2 5.5 7.8 12.9
Denmark 9.2 8.6 9.0 9.9
Germany 1.9 1.9 2.2 3.0
Finland 1.8 1.5 1.9 2.8
Netherlands 1.2 1.2 1.4 1.7
Pakistan 2.6 2.2 1.9 1.7
Sri Lanka 1.5 1.9 2.0 1.5
Chile 1.0 1.3 1.3 1.3
Turkey 1.6 1.4 1.0 1.0
India 1.2 1.2 1.0 0.9
Poland 0.9 0.8 0.6 0.7
Total 49.5 46.3 52.6 66.9
360
OECD 2000
Table B.2.2. PORTUGAL, stock of foreign labour by nationality
Thousands
Note: Workers who hold a valid residence permit (including the unemployed). For more details on sources,refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
1. Figures include workers benefiting from the 1992-1993 regularisation procedure.
Table B.2.2. SPAIN, stock of foreign labour by nationality
Thousands
Note: Data are for 31 December of each year and are counts of valid work permits. From 1992 onwards, workers from the EU are not included. For more details
on sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
1. Provisional data (including work permits delivered following the 1996 regularisation programme).
1991 1995
1
1998
Cape Verde 16.9 21.8 21.9
Brazil 5.4 9.6 9.6
Angola 1.7 7.9 8.2
Guinea-Bissau 2.3 7.0 7.2
United Kingdom 4.2 5.4 6.0
Spain 3.9 4.7 5.5
Germany 3.0 4.1 4.8
France 2.1 2.8 3.5
United States 2.7 3.0 3.1
Mozambique 1.6 1.8 1.9
Venezuela 1.0 0.7 0.4
Other countries 10.1 15.5 16.5
Total 54.9 84.3 88.6
1988 1990 1995 1998
1
of which: Women
1998
1
Morocco 5.0 8.8 51.6 73.3 13.0
Peru 0.6 0.9 11.4 15.9 10.7
Dominican Republic 0.5 0.7 9.7 13.1 11.2
China 1.3 1.7 6.2 11.6 4.1
Philippines 3.3 4.1 7.1 8.3 5.5
Ecuador . . . . 1.4 7.3 5.4
Argentina 3.5 6.3 7.5 4.7 1.8
Senegal . . . . 3.4 4.5 . .
Colombia 0.8 1.2 3.1 4.2 3.0
Algeria . . 0.2 2.7 3.7 . .
Poland . . . . 2.6 3.7 1.3
Gambia . . 0.9 2.7 3.2 . .
Cuba . . . . 1.4 2.9 1.2
Romania . . . . 0.9 2.4 . .
Chile 1.3 1.7 2.5 . . 1.0
Other countries 42.1 58.9 24.7 31.8 11.6
Total 58.2 85.4 139.0 190.6 69.8
of which: EU 31.4 34.8 . . . . . .
Total women 21.5 29.8 46.1 69.8
Statistical Annex
361
OECD 2000
Table B.2.2. SWEDEN, stock of foreign labour by nationality
Thousands
Note: Annual average. Estimates are from the annual Labour Force Survey. For more details on sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
Table B.2.2. SWITZERLAND, stock of foreign labour by nationality
Thousands
1. Data as of 31 December of each year and are counts of the number of foreigners with an annual residence permit or a settlement permit (permanent permit),
who engage in gainful activity. Cross-border workers and seasonal workers are excluded.
2. Data as of 31 August of each year, when seasonal work is at its peak.
1985 1990 1995 1998
of which: Women
1998
Finland 85 72 56 52 29
Former Yugoslavia 22 21 15 31 12
Norway 14 20 19 17 9
Denmark 15 17 13 13 5
Iran . . . . 15 9 3
Poland . . 8 9 7 4
Turkey . . 11 7 5 1
Total 216 246 220 219 98
Total women 100 114 98 98
1985 1990 1995 1998
of which: Women
1998
A. Resident workers
1
Italy 228.7 234.3 214.3 184.4 61.4
Portugal 20.9 55.2 80.5 76.6 32.7
Germany 46.8 53.6 56.3 58.7 21.6
Spain 68.7 75.1 63.5 53.7 21.0
Turkey 26.0 33.2 35.6 32.8 11.7
France 27.2 31.5 32.3 30.7 12.1
Austria 19.7 20.9 19.4 17.8 6.4
United Kingdom 7.6 9.2 9.9 10.0 2.9
Netherlands 5.6 7.0 8.1 7.8 3.0
United States 3.8 4.8 5.4 5.6 1.9
Other countries 47.1 60.5 68.7 70.2 29.8
Total 549.3 669.8 728.7 691.1 256.8
of which: EU . . 476.1 499.2 452.8 166.5
Total women 185.1 228.7 261.3 256.8
B. Seasonal workers
2
Portugal 26.2 40.5 23.8 16.6 4.4
Italy 17.8 13.5 6.1 3.7 0.5
Spain 21.9 14.6 4.1 2.1 0.4
Germany 1.9 2.4 2.3 2.1 1.1
France 2.0 2.5 2.0 1.8 0.7
Austria 1.9 2.5 1.6 1.3 0.8
Former Yugoslavia 29.7 44.5 12.2
Turkey 0.2
Other countries 1.2 1.3 1.7 1.3 0.6
Total 102.8 121.7 53.7 28.8 8.5
Total women 17.4 20.3 12.7 8.5
362
OECD 2000
Table B.2.2. UNITED KINGDOM, stock of foreign labour by country or region of nationality
Thousands
Note: Estimates are from the Labour Force Survey. The unemployed are not included. The symbol indicates that figures areless than 10 000. For more
details on sources, refer to the notes at the end of the Annex.
1. Including New Zealand until 1991.
2. Including Bangladesh until 1991.
3. Including former USSR.
1985 1990 1995 1999
of which: Women
1999
Ireland 269 268 216 220 101
Africa 51 59 83 120 50
India 66 84 60 66 29
United States 37 50 49 55 30
France 17 24 34 44 25
Germany 18 22 27 44 25
Italy 56 48 43 43 17
Australia
1
23 39 34 36 14
Pakistan
2
27 27 20 27 4
Central and Eastern Europe
3
25 20 23 25 17
Spain 14 16 17 25 12
Caribbean and Guyana 77 48 38 24 11
New Zealand . . . . 19 23 12
Portugal 11 18 20 10
Bangladesh . . . . 17 2
Total 808 882 862 1 005 465
of which: EU 382 419 441 453 224
Total women . . 393 421 465
Statistical Annex
363
OECD 2000
Notes related to tables A.1.1. to A.1.3. and B.1.1. to B.1.3.
Migration flows in selected OECD countries
Flow data based on Population Registers
Types of migrant recorded in the data Other comments Source
Belgium Criteria for registering foreigners: holding
a residence permit and wishing
to stay in the country for at least
3 months.
Outflows include administrative
corrections.
Until 1994, some asylum seekers were
included in the Population Register.
Since 1995 then they have been
recorded in a separate register.
Population Register, Institut national
de la statistique.
Denmark Criteria for registering foreigners: holding
3 months. However, the data only
count immigrants once they have
lived in the country for 1 year.
corrections.
Excluded from inflows are asylum
seekers, and all those with temporary
residence permits (this includes
some war refugees).
Central Population Register,
Danmarks Statistik.
Finland Criteria for registering foreigners: holding
1 year.
Inflows of those of Finnish origin
are included.
Central Population Register, Finnish
Central Statistical Office.
Germany Criteria for registering foreigners: holding
3 months.
Includes asylum seekers living
in private households. Excludes
inflows of ethnic Germans. The figures
represent Germany as a whole from
1991.
Population Register, Statistisches
Bundesamt.
Hungary Criteria for registering foreigners: holding
a long-term residence permit (valid
for up to 1 year).
Data for 1997 are preliminary. Register of long-term residence
permits, Ministry of the Interior.
Japan Criteria for registering foreigners:
remaining in the country for more
than 90 days.
Excluding temporary visitors
and re-entries.
Register of foreigners, Ministry
of Justice, Immigration Office.
Luxembourg Criteria for registering foreigners: holding
3 months.
In 1998, flows of foreigners were
deduced with reference to the total
flows by making the assumption that
flows of nationals did not change
between 1997 and 1998.
Central Population Register, Service
central de la statistique et des tudes
conomiques.
Netherlands Criteria for registering foreigners: holding
6 months.
corrections.
Inflows include some asylum seekers
(except those staying in reception
centres).
Population Registers, Central Bureau
of Statistics.
Norway Criteria for registering foreigners: holding
to stay in the country for at least 6
months.
From 1987 includes asylum seekers
waiting decisions on their application
for refugee status.
Central Population Register, Statistics
Norway.
Sweden Criteria for registering foreigners: holding
1 year.
Asylum seekers and temporary
workers are not included in inflows.
Population Register, Statistics
Sweden.
Switzerland Criteria for registering foreigners: holding
a permanent or an annual residence
permit.
Inflows do not include conversions
from seasonal permits to non-
seasonal permits.
Register of Foreigners, Federal
Foreign Office.
364
OECD 2000
Notes related to tables A.1.1. to A.1.3. and B.1.1. to B.1.3.
Migration flows in selected OECD countries (cont.)
Inflow data based on residence and work permits
Types of migrant recorded in the data Other comments Source
Australia A. Permanent migrants: Issues
of permanent residence permits
(including accompanying
dependents).
Data refer to the fiscal year (July
to June of the year indicated). Data
do not include persons granted
permanent residence whilst already
temporary residents in Australia.
Department of Immigration
and Population Research
B.Temporary residents: entries
of temporary residents (i.e. excluding
students). In 1997, data include 17 049
holders of a Temporary Business entry
(TBE) visa (long stay).
Canada Issues of permanent residence
permits.
Data include those already present
in Canada, and also those granted
residence in a programme
eliminating a backlog of applications.
Statistics Canada
France Until 1989 the data consist of those
entering as permanent workers,
those with provisional work
permits and those entering under
family reunification.
Entries from the EU are not counted,
except permanent workers (including
entries from the EEA since 1994) who
are included through declarations
made by employers to the
authorities. From 1994 on, figures
include estimates of some
unregistered flows (inflows of family
members of EEA citizens
for example).
Office des migrations internationales
Since 1990, those with provisional
work permits are not included.
Those entering as self employed
and additional permits relating
to family reunification have been
added to the figures.
Greece Issues of residence permits Excluding ethnic Greeks. Ministry of Public Order
Ireland Estimates on the basis of 1996 Census
results.
Data on 1998 are preliminary. Central Statistics Office
Italy Issues of residence permits
(excluding renewals).
Ministry of the Interior
New Zealand Permanent and long-term arrivals/
departures.
Statistics New Zealand
United Kingdom Passengers, excluding EEA nationals,
admitted to the United Kingdom.
Data exclude visitors, passengers
in transit or returning on limited leave
or who previously settled. Students
and au pair girls are excluded.
Home Office
United States Issues of permanent residence
permits.
The figures include those persons
already present in the United States:
those who changed status and those
benefiting from the 1986 legalisation
program. Data cover the fiscal year
(October to September of the year
indicated).
US Department of Justice
Statistical Annex
365
OECD 2000
Notes related to tables A.1.4. and B.1.4. Inflows of asylum seekers
Comments Source
Australia Excluding accompanying dependents. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.
Austria Excluding de facto refugees from Bosnia Herzegovina. sterreichisches Statistisches Zentralamt.
Belgium Institut national de statistique, Office des trangers,
Commissaire gnral aux rfugis et aux apatrides.
Canada United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.
Czech Republic Ministry of the Interior.
Denmark Danmarks Statistik.
Finland Ministry of the Interior.
France Excluding accompanying dependents. Office franais de protection des rfugis
et des apatrides.
Germany Bundesministerium des Innern.
Greece Ministry of the Interior.
Hungary United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.
Ireland Department of Justice.
Italy Excluding accompanying dependents. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.
Luxembourg Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Ministry of Justice.
Netherlands Ministry of Justice.
New Zealand United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.
Norway Immigration Directorate.
Poland Department for Migration and Refugee Affairs,
Ministry of the Interior.
Portugal Ministry of the Interior.
Spain Excluding accompanying dependents. Officine de Asilo y Refugio.
Sweden Swedish Immigration Board.
Switzerland Office fdral des rfugis.
United Kingdom Breakdown by country excludes accompanying
dependents.
Home Office.
United States Excluding accompanying dependents. Fiscal years
(October to September of the years indicated). From 1993
on, figures include applications reopened during year.
US Department of Justice.
366
OECD 2000
Notes related to tables A.1.5. and B.1.5. Foreign-born population
Comments Source
Australia Quinquennial censuses, Australian Bureau of Statistics.
Canada Quinquennial censuses, Statistics Canada.
Denmark Coverage: Immigrants defined in Danish statistics
as foreign-born citizens to parents born abroad
or in the country.
Danmarks Statistik.
Finland Coverage: Stock of foreign-born citizens recorded
in Population Register. Includes those who are of Finnish
origin.
Central Population Register, Finnish Central Statistical
Office.
Netherlands Reference date: 31 December. Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS).
Norway Reference date: 31 December. Statistics Norway.
Sweden Reference date: 31 December. Statistics Sweden.
United States Coverage: Persons born overseas whose parents
are US citizens are not included in the 1980
and 1990 census figures. Note that estimates by country
of birth are not sufficiently accurate in the Current
Population Survey and are not shown in the tables.
Decennial censuses, US Department of Commerce,
Current Population Survey (1994-1996) Department
of Commerce, Bureau of the Census.
Statistical Annex
367
OECD 2000
Notes related to tables A.1.6. and B.1.6. Foreign population
Comments Source
Austria Coverage: Stock of foreign citizens recorded in Population Register.
Reference date: Annual average
Other comments: The data were revised following the 1991 Census. A breakdown
by nationality is not available.
Population Register,
sterreichisches Statistisches
Zentralamt.
Belgium Coverage: Stock of foreign citizens recorded in Population Register. Until 1994,
asylum seekers were included in the Population Register. Since 1995 then they
have been recorded in a separate register.
Reference date: 31 December.
Other comments: There are two breaks in the series between 1984-1985 and 1991-
1992, due to important changes in the law on nationality in June 1984
and September 1991.
Population Register, Institut
national de la statistique.
Czech Republic Coverage: Holders of a permanent residence permit (mainly for family reasons) or a
long-term residence permit (1-year permit, renewable).
Other comments: 1992 data cover former Czech and Slovak Federal Republic.
Register of Foreigners,
Denmark Coverage: Stock of foreign citizens recorded in Population Register. Excludes
asylum seekers and all those with temporary residence permits (this includes
some war refugees).
Danmarks Statistik.
Finland Coverage: Stock of foreign citizens recorded in Population Register. Includes
inflows of those who are of Finnish origin.
Reference date: 30 September.
Finnish Central Statistical Office.
France Coverage: Foreigners with permanent residence in France. Comprises
of permanent workers, trainees, students and their dependent families. Seasonal
and frontier workers are not included.
Reference dates: 4 March 1982, 6 March 1990.
Census (25 per cent sample),
Institut national de la statistique
et des tudes conomiques.
Germany Coverage: Stock of foreign citizens recorded in Population Register. Includes
asylum seekers living in private households. Excludes foreign citizens of German
origin (ethnic Germans).
Other comments: Since 1992, disaggregation by sex and nationality covers only
those aged 16 and over. Figures represent Germany as a whole from 1991.
1987-1989 figures are adjusted to take into account results of the 1987 census.
Statistisches Bundesamt.
Hungary Coverage: Holders of a permanent or a long-term residence permit.
Ireland Coverage: Special Survey.
Other comments: The only significant distinction between nationalities is between
EU/non-EU and the United States (not published in this Annex).
Labour Force Survey,
Central Statistical Office (CSO).
Italy Coverage: Holders of residence permits on Population Register. Minors registered
in the permits of their parents are not counted in the figures.
Figures include results of the 1987-88, 1990 and 1995-96 regularisation
programmes.
Other comments: The falls in stocks in 1989 and 1994 are the result of a clean-up
of the Register of Foreigners.
Japan Coverage: Foreigners staying in Japan more than 90 days and registered
in Population Registers as stated by the law.
Ministry of Justice,
Office of Immigration.
Korea Coverage: Foreigners staying in Korea more than 90 days and registered
in Population Registers as stated by the law.
Ministry of Justice.
Luxembourg Coverage: Stock of foreign citizens recorded in Population Register. Does
not include visitors (less than three months) or frontier workers.
Other comments: Figures have been revised from 1987 on to take into account
the effects of the change in the legislation on naturalisation which took place
at the end of 1986.
Service central de la statistique
368
OECD 2000
Notes related to tables A.1.6. and B.1.6. Foreign population (cont.)
Comments Source
Netherlands Coverage: Stock of foreign citizens recorded in Population Register. Figures include
administrative corrections and asylum seekers (except those staying in reception
centres).
Other comments: The fall in stocks between 1994 and 1995 is due to revision
of estimates. Figures for 1997 are provisional.
Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS).
Norway Coverage: Stock of foreign citizens recorded in Population Register. From 1987
includes asylum seekers waiting decisions on their application for refugee status.
CPR, Statistics Norway.
Portugal Coverage: Holders of a valid residence permit. Data take into account the 1992-93
and 1996 regularisation programmes.
Slovak Republic Coverage: Holders of a long term or a permanent residence permit. Register of Foreigners,
Spain Coverage: Holders of residence permits. Does not include those with temporary
permits (less that six months duration) and students. The figures for 1992 include
108 372 permits issued following a regularisation program held in 1991.
Other comments: The fall in figures between 1988 and 1989 is due to a clean-up
of the Population Register.
Sweden Coverage: Stock of foreign citizens recorded in Population Register.
Statistics Sweden.
Switzerland Coverage: Stock of all those with annual or settlement permits. Does not include
seasonal or frontier workers.
Reference date: 31 December
Federal Foreign Office.
United Kingdom Coverage: Foreign residents. Those with unknown nationality from the New
Commonwealth are not included (around 10 to 15 000 persons).
Other comments: Figures are rounded and not published if less than 10 000.
Labour Force Survey, Home
Office.
United States Coverage: Foreign-born persons who are not American citizens. Table B.1.6. gives
a breakdown by country of birth.
Reference date: April 1990.
1990 Census,
US Department of Commerce,
Statistical Annex
369
OECD 2000
Notes related to tables A.1.7. and B.1.7. Acquisition of nationality
Comments Source
Australia Department of Immigration and Ethnic Affairs.
Austria sterreichisches Statistisches Zentralamt.
Belgium Significant numbers of foreigners were naturalised as a result
of changes to the law on nationality in June 1984 and September 1991.
Institut national de statistique and Ministry
of Justice.
Canada Statistics Canada.
Denmark Danmarks Statistik.
Finland Includes naturalisations of those of Finnish origin. Central Statistical Office.
France Excludes minors who were automatically naturalised on reaching
adulthood under legislation existing prior to 1 January 1994
and those under new legislation (July 1993) requiring minors to state
their intention to become French citizens.
Ministre de lEmploi et de la Solidarit.
Germany Includes naturalisations of those of German origin. Statistisches Bundesamt.
Hungary Including ethnic Hungarians mainly from former Yugoslavia
and Ukraine.
Italy Ministry of the Interior.
Japan Ministry of Justice, Civil Affairs Bureau.
Korea Ministry of Justice
Luxembourg Excludes children acquiring nationality as a consequence
of the naturalisation of their parents.
Ministry of Justice.
Netherlands Central Bureau of Statistics.
Norway Statistics Norway.
Spain Excludes individuals recovering their former (Spanish) nationality. Ministry of Justice and Ministry of the Interior.
Sweden Statistics Sweden.
Switzerland Office fdral des trangers.
United Kingdom Home Office.
United States Data refer to fiscal years (October to September of the year indicated). US Department of Justice.
370
OECD 2000
Notes related to table A.2.1. Inflows of foreign workers
Types of workers recorded in the data Source
Australia A. Permanent settlers
Skilled workers including the following categories of visas:
Employer nominations, Business skills, Occupational Shares System, special
talents, Independent. Including accompanying dependents.
Period of reference: fiscal years (July to June of the given year).
B. Temporary workers
Skilled temporary resident programme (including accompanying dependents).
Including Long Stay Temporary Business Programme from 1995/1996. Including
accompanying dependents.
Period of reference: fiscal years (July to June of the given year).
Department of Immigration, Local
Government
and Ethnic Affairs.
Austria Data for all years cover initial work permits for both direct inflows from abroad
and for first participation in the Austrian labour market of foreigners already
present in the country. Seasonal workers are included.
Ministry of Labour, Health
and Social Affairs.
Belgium Work permits issued to first-time immigrants in wage and salary employment.
Citizens of European Union (EU) Member states are not included, except
for those of Greece until 1987, and of Spain and Portugal until 1992.
Ministre de lEmploi et du
Travail.
Canada Grants of work permits. Citizenship and Immigration
Canada.
Denmark Residence permits issued for employment. Nordic and EU citizens
are not included.
Danmarks Statistik.
France 1. Permanent workers
"Permanents are foreign workers subject to control by the Office
des Migrations Internationales (OMI). Certain citizens of EU Member states
employed for short durations may not be included.
Resident family members of workers who enter the labour market for the first
time are not included
2. Provisional work permits (APT)
Provisional work permits (APT) cannot exceed six months, are renewable
and apply to trainees, students and other holders of non-permanent jobs.
Office des migrations
internationales.
Germany New work permits issued. Data include essentially newly entered foreign
workers, contract workers and seasonal workers.
Citizens of EU Member states are not included, except those of Greece until
1987, and of Spain and Portugal until 1992.
Data refer to western Germany up to 1990, to Germany as a whole from 1991 on.
Bundesanstalt fr Arbeit.
Hungary Grants of work permits (including renewals). Ministry of Labour.
Ireland Work permits issued (including renewals). EU citizens do not need a work permit. Ministry of Labour.
Italy New work permits issued to non-EU foreigners. Ministry of Labour and ISTAT.
Luxembourg Data cover both arrivals of foreign workers and residents admitted for the first
time to the labour market.
Inspection gnrale de la scurit
sociale.
Spain
Data include both initial B work permits, delivered for 1 year maximum
(renewable) for a specific salaried activity and D work permits (same type
of permit for self employed).
Since 1992, EU citizens do not need a work permit.
Ministry of Labour and Social
Security.
Switzerland
Data cover foreigners who enter Switzerland to work and who obtain an annual
residence permit, whether the permit is renewable or not (e.g. trainees).
The data also include holders of a settlement permit returning to Switzerland after
a short stay abroad. Issues of an annual permit to persons holding a seasonal one
are not included.
Office fdral des trangers.
United Kingdom Grants of work permits. Most long-term permits are delivered to highly qualified
workers. Short duration permits are for students doing temporary or part-time
jobs, or taking training with a firm.
Citizens of EU Member states are excluded. First permissions (issued
to foreigners already residents and now entering the labour market) are included.
Department of Employment.
Statistical Annex
371
OECD 2000
Notes related to table A.2.1. Inflows of foreign workers (cont.)
Types of workers recorded in the data Source
United States A. Permanent settlers
Prior to fiscal year 1992, data include members of the professions or persons
of exceptional ability in the sciences and arts, skilled and unskilled workers
in short supply, and special immigrant visas.
Data include immigrants issued employment-based preference visas from
fiscal year 1992 on.
Period of reference: fiscal years (October to September of the given year).
B. Temporary residence permits
Including trainees, excluding intra-company transferees and treaty traders/
investors.
Period of reference: fiscal years (October to September of the given year).
Figures may be overestimated because of multiple entries by the same person.
US Department of Justice.
372
OECD 2000
Notes related to table A.2.2. Inflows of seasonal workers
Comments Source
Australia WHM programme (Working Holiday Makers) for young persons aged
18 to 25. The duration of stay is restricted to 1 year (not renewable).
Period of reference: fiscal year (July to June of the given year).
Department of Immigration and Ethnic Affairs.
Canada Caribbean and Mexican Seasonal Agricultural Workers Programme. Citizenship and Immigration Canada
France Number of contracts with the Office des migrations internationales
(OMI). European Union nationals are not subject to OMI control.
Office des migrations internationales.
Germany Workers recruted under bilateral agreements. From 1991 on, data
cover Germany as a whole.
Italy Agricultural seasonal workers entered in Italy with a work authorisation. Ministry of Labour.
Netherlands CBS.
Norway Not renewable work permits granted. Issued for 3 months mostly
to Polish nationals.
Statistics Norway.
Switzerland Offic fdral des trangers.
United Kingdom Seasonal workers under the special Agricultural Workers Scheme.
Including readmissions.
Department of Employment.
United States Agricultural workers with a H-2A visa (non-immigrants). US Department of Justice.
Statistical Annex
373
OECD 2000
Notes related to tables A.2.3., B.2.1. and B.2.2. Foreign and foreign-born labour
Foreign labour
Comments Source
Austria Annual average. The unemployed are included and the self-employed
are excluded.
Data on employment by nationality are from valid work permits. Figures may
be overestimated as a result of persons holding more than one permit. In Table
A.2.3., data for 1990 and 1991 have been adjusted to correct for a temporary
over-issue of work permits relative to the number of jobs held by foreigners,
between August 1990 and June 1991.
From 1994 on, data on employment are from Social Security records and include
EEA nationals.
Ministry of Labour, Health
and Social Affairs.
Belgium Data are estimates on the basis of MET (for salaried workers), INASTI
(for unemployed) and ONEm data (for self employed).
Reference date: 30 June.
Ministre de lEmploi
et du Travail (MET), Office
national de lEmploi (ONEm),
Institut national dAssurances
sociales pour les Travailleurs
indpendants (INASTI).
Denmark Data are from Population Registers
Reference date: 30 November until 1991; 31 December from 1992 on.
Danmarks Statistik.
Finland All foreigners working in Finland (holders of a work permit and workers exempted
from a permit after two years legally residing in the country.
Statistics Finland.
France Labour Force Survey.
Reference date: March of each year.
Institut national de la statistique
Germany Number of work permits. Including cross-border workers but not self-employed.
Figures cover western Germany for all years.
Reference date: 30 September.
Hungary Number of valid work permits
Ministry of Labour.
Ireland Estimates are from the Labour Force Survey. Central Statistical Office.
Italy Figures refer to number of foreigners with a valid work permit (including
self-employed). Data exclude unemployed. EU citizens do not need a work permit.
ISTAT.
Japan Foreigners whose activity is restricted according to the Immigration Act
(revised in 1990). Permanent resident, spouse or child of Japanese national,
spouse or child of permanent resident and long term resident have no restriction
imposed to the kind of activities they can engage in Japan and are excluded
from these data.
Ministry of Justice, Service
of Immigration.
Luxembourg Number of work permits. Data cover foreigners in employment, including
apprentices, trainees and cross-border workers. The unemployed
are not included.
Reference date: 1 October.
Inspection gnrale de la scurit
sociale.
Netherlands Estimates include cross-border workers, but exclude the self-employed, family
workers and the unemployed. From 1990 onwards, foreigners legally residing
in the Netherlands but working abroad are excluded.
Reference date: 31 March.
Central Bureau of Statistics.
Norway Data are from Population Registers. Excluding unemployed and self-employed.
Reference date: second quarter of each year (except in 1995 and 1996: 4th quarter).
Statistics Norway.
Portugal Workers who hold a valid residence permit (including the unemployed).
Including foreign workers who benefited from the 1992-1993 and 1996
regularisation programmes.
Spain Number of valid work permits. From 1992 on, EU workers are not included.
From 1991 to 1993, the data include work permits delivered following the 1991
regularisation programme. The data for 1997 are provisional.
Ministry of Labour and Social
Security.
Sweden
Annual average from the Labour Force Survey.
Statistics Sweden.
374
OECD 2000
Notes related to tables A.2.3., B.2.1. and B.2.2. Foreign and foreign-born labour (cont.)
Foreign labour (cont.)
Comments Source
Switzerland Data are counts of the number of foreigners with an annual residence permit
or a settlement permit (permanent permit), who engage in gainful activity.
Reference date: 31 December (resident workers); 31 August (seasonal workers).
Office fdral des trangers.
United Kingdom Estimates are from the Labour Force Survey. The unemployed are not included. Employment Department.
Foreign-born labour
Comments Source
Australia Labour force aged 15 and over.
Reference date: August 1986; June 1993; June 1994; August 1995; August 1996.
Labour Force Survey (ABS).
Canada Labour force aged 15 and over. 1991 Census.
United States Coverage: Labour force aged 15 and over. Foreign-born citizens with American
parents are not included in the immigrant population (foreign-born).
1990 Census (US Department
of Commerce).
375
OECD 2000
LIST OF SOPEMI CORRESPONDENTS
Mr. A. RIZVI Department of Immigration and Ethnic Affairs, Canberra, Australia
Ms G. BIFFL Austrian Economic Institute, Vienna, Austria
Ms A. SIPAVICIENE Lithuanian Institute of Philosophy and Sociology, Vilnius, Lithuania
Mrs. F. LANNOY University of Liege, Belgium
Ms D. BOBEVA Black Sea Trade and Development Bank, Thessalonika, Greece (Bulgarian
Correspondent)
Ms E. RUDDICK Citizenship and Immigration Canada, Ottawa
Ms J. MARESOVA University of Prague, Czech Republic
Ms D. ELTARD Directorate General for Employment, Placement and Vocational Training,
Copenhagen, Denmark
Mr. S. LARMO Ministry of Labour, Helsinki, Finland
Mr. A. LEBON Ministre de lEmploi et de la Solidarit, Paris, France
Ms B. FRHLICH Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs, Berlin, Germany
Mr. N. PETROPOULOS Pedagogical Institute of Greece, Athens, Greece
Ms J. JUHASZ Hungarian Central Statistical Office, Budapest, Hungary
Mr. J.J. SEXTON The Economic and Social Research Institute, Dublin, Ireland
Ms C. COLLICELLI CENSIS, Rome, Italy
Mr. R. SAPIENZA CENSIS, Rome, Italy
Mr. K. OIKAWA Ministry of Labour, Tokyo, Japan
Mr. T. KAMITANI Ministry of Justice, Tokyo, Japan
Mr. Soo-Bong UH Korea Labour Institute, Seoul
Mr. P. JAEGER Commissaire du gouvernement aux trangers, Luxembourg
Mr. J.A. BUSTAMANTE El Colegio de la Frontera Norte, Tijuana, Mexico
Mr. P. MUUS ERCOMER, University of Utrecht, Netherlands
Ms. M. LITTLE New Zealand Immigration Service, Wellington, New Zealand
Mr. M. HOLTER Royal Ministry of Local Government and Labour, Department of Immigrant
and Refugee Affairs, Oslo, Norway
Mr. M. OKOLSKI University of Warsaw, Institute for Social Studies, Poland
Mr. J. ROSARIO Ministre des Affaires trangres, Secrtariat dtat aux Communauts
portugaises, Lisbon, Portugal
Mr. D. GHEORGHIU National Institute for Statistics and Economic Studies, Bucarest, Romania
Ms M. LUBYOVA Slovak Academy of Sciences, Institute of Forecasting, Bratislava, Slovak
Republic
Mr. A. IZQUIERDO ESCRIBANO Facult des Sciences politiques et de sociologie, La Coruna, Spain
Ms B. ORNBRANT Ministry of the Interior, Stockholm, Sweden
376
OECD 2000
Mr. P. CHATELAIN Office fdral des trangers, Berne, Switzerland
Mr. A. GOKDERE University of Ankara, Turkey
Mr. J. SALT University College London, Department of Geography, London, United
Kingdom
Mr. R. KRAMER US Department of Labor, Bureau for International Labor Affairs, Washington,
United States
OECD PUBLICATIONS, 2, rue Andr-Pascal, 75775 PARIS CEDEX 16
PRINTED IN FRANCE
(81 2001 01 1 P1) ISBN 92-64-18612-3 No. 51533

OECD 2000 Trends in International Migration

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

OECD 2000 Trends in International Migration

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ISBN 92-64-18612-3

You might also like