History of AGVS

1953 First AGV

Automatic Guided Vehicles have played a role in moving material and product for more
than 4 years! "he first AGV system #as $uilt and introduced in 1953! %t #as a
modified to#ing tractor that #as used to pull a trailer and follo# an overhead #ire in a
grocery #arehouse! &y the late 5's and early ('s to#ing AGVs #ere in operation in
many types of factories and #arehouses!
History of AGVS
19)3 Volvo Assem$ly *lant
%n 19)3+ Volvo in ,almar+ S#eden set out to develop non-synchronous assem$ly
e.uipment as an alternative to the conventional conveyor assem$ly line! "he result #as
/0 computer-controlled assem$ly AGVs!
History of AGVS
19)s First 1nit 2oad
"he first $ig development for the AGV industry #as the introduction of a unit load
vehicle in the mid 19)s! "hese unit load AGVs gained #idespread acceptance in the
material handling mar3etplace $ecause of their a$ility to serve several functions4 a #or3
platform+ a transportation device and a lin3 in the control and information system for
the factory! "oday there are several hundred systems using unit load vehicles in
operation #hich #ere produced $y a num$er of manufacturers! "hese systems
transport material in #arehouses+ factories+ mills+ hospitals+ and other industrial and
commercial settings
History of AGVS
Smart Floors and 5um$ Vehicles
%n the 19)'s the principal guidance technology #as to induce an electronic fre.uency through a
#ire that #as $uried in the floor! A device called a 6floor controller' turned the fre.uency on
the #ires on and off and directed the AGV through its intended route! "he AGV #as considered
6dum$' since the vehicle #as 7ust follo#ing signals in the floor! "he intelligence for the routing of
the vehicles #as in the floor controllers! So+ the systems of this day #ere considered 8smart
floors9 and 8dum$ vehicles9!
An antenna on the AGV #ould see3 out the fre.uency and guide the vehicle $ased on the
strength of the signal! "his technology re.uired em$edding multiple #ires in the floor in order
to handle intersections or other decision points! "he system #ould energi:e the #ire that #ould
correspond to the intended direction of travel! For e;ample+ at an intersection three separate
#ires might $e re.uired!
"hese first generation navigation schemes #ere e;pensive to install! All floor cuts needed
to follo# the e;act path of the AGV! "he cut for a turn had to follo# the radius curve
that the vehicle #ould ma3e #hen turning! <any systems had to em$ed four #ires -
three for guidance and one for communications! =ften+ re$ar or electronic signals
#ould interfere #ith the guidance signals imposed on the #ires!
History of AGVS
5ead >ec3oning ?apa$ility
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As electronics and microprocessors advanced+ so did AGV applications! As the vehicles
$ecame more intelligent+ the path $ecame less sophisticated! =ne of the first ma7or
$rea3throughs #as the development of dead rec3oning capa$ilities! 5ead rec3oning is a
term that descri$es the a$ility of a vehicle to traverse steel e;pansion 7oints on the
factory floor or to cross a steel grate! "he $iggest advantage #as that dead rec3oning
eliminated the need to ma3e the cut radius turns at intersections! "he vehicles could
leave the #ire+ turn at a programmed radius+ and then pic3-up the #ire to continue its
course of travel! "he path still re.uired multiple #ires in the floor+ $ut the installation
#as greatly simplified!
History of AGVS
190s @on-Aire Guidance
5uring the late 190s+ non-#ire guidance for AGV systems #as introduced! 2aser and
inertia guidance are t#o e;amples of non-#ire guidance #hich allo# for increased
system fle;i$ility and accuracy! Ahen changes to the original guidepath are needed+
there is no need for floor alterations or production interruption! "hese and other
methods of navigation are e;plained more fully in the section on navigation!
History of AGVS
?omputer Functions
As #ith all high-technology products $ased on electronic and computer soft#are+
#ithout a dou$t+ AGVs have $een greatly influenced and have $enefited from the
advances and reductions in cost of microcomputers and microelectronics! "he
computers used in AGV systems can store instructions+ ma3e decisions and e;ecute
procedures! %n practice+ AGVs are capa$le of performing almost all of the decisions and
control functions currently controlled $y humans in managing the material handling
process! "hey can schedule factory time+ maintain inventories+ manage system details
and control many types of mechanical systems in the overall operation!
History of AGVS
Applications and ?ontrols
"he use of AGVs has evolved drastically from traditional distri$ution-oriented
applications at one end of the spectrum to comple; computer-controlled automo$ile
assem$ly systems #ith ro$otic interfaces at the other end! "hey can $e stand-alone
systems+ an integral part of another system+ or aid in pulling together islands of
automation! =riginally designed for hori:ontal transportation of palleti:ed material+ the
design and application of vehicles and controls are no# as varied as those of industrial
ro$ots!
History of AGVS
AGV <anufacturers
"he mar3et demand for AGVs can $e measured $y the increased num$er of AGV
manufacturers! 5uring the late 19)s there #ere fe#er than ( AGV vendors in the
1nited States and only 3 different types of vehicles! &y 199 there #ere more than 4
#orld#ide vendors and more than 15 vehicle types+ #ith an increasing emphasis on
standard design! "he future #ill $e mar3ed $y still more change #hich #ill $e driven
partly $y even more technological advances! &ut it #ill also $e driven $y increases in
the use of AGVS+ #hich in turn #ill foster more investment in research and
development
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Vehicle @avigation
"he principles #hich ma3e it possi$le for an AGV to navigate its #ay $et#een any t#o
locations are really .uite simple! All navigation methods use a path! "he vehicle is
instructed to F=22=A a Fi;ed *ath or "A,B an =pen *ath!
Fi;ed *ath @avigation
Follo#ing a *ath
Vehicles that F=22=A a path use the earliest methods of AGVS navigation! "he
general features of these methods areC
"he paths are #ell mar3ed on the floor
"he paths are continuous
"he paths are fi;ed+ $ut can $e changed
Fi;ed *ath @avigationC
?reating a *ath
"he principle techni.ues for creating paths are toC
1. Apply a narro# magnetic tape on the surface of the floor
2. Apply a narro# photo sensitive chemical strip on the surface of the floor
3. Apply a narro# photo reflective tape on the surface of the floor
4. &ury a #ire 7ust $elo# the surface of the floor
"he first three methods re.uire a sensor on the underside of the vehicle #hich can detect the
presence of the surface mounted path! "he sensor's mission is to 3eep the vehicle directly over
the guide path! %f the path ma3es a turn the sensor detects the turn+ provides feed$ac3 to the
on$oard vehicle controller+ #hich in turn causes the vehicle to steer in the direction of the path!
"he sensor's role in connection #ith the on$oard controller and steering mechanism is to cause
the vehicle to F=22=A the path!
&uried Aire *ath
1. Apply a narro# magnetic tape on the surface of the floor
2. Apply a narro# photo sensitive chemical strip on the surface of the floor
3. Apply a narro# photo reflective tape on the surface of the floor
4. &ury a #ire 7ust $elo# the surface of the floor
Ahen the fourth method of 8path follo#ing9 is employed using a current-carrying $uried #ire+
the under vehicle sensor ta3es the form of a small antennae consisting of magnetic coils! Aith
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current flo#ing+ a magnetic field surrounds the $uried #ire! "he closer the $uried #ire is to the
AGV antennae+ the stronger the field!
"he magnetic field is completely symmetrical around the conductor or the $uried #ire! At a
given distance from the #ire the field has the same strength on either side of the ca$le! "he field
strength is detected $y the antennae's magnetic coil and induces voltage in the coil!
Fi;ed *ath @avigationC
Steering ?orrection ?oils
2i3e the three other path follo#ing methods+ the vehicle steers itself to F=22=A the
magnetic field surrounding the $uried #ire! "o get a steering correction signal the
vehicle's sensing antennae consists of t#o coils! Ahen the vehicle is centered directly
a$ove the $uried #ires e.ual voltages are induced in the t#o coils! %f the vehicle moves a
$it to one side of the #ires+ the induced voltages #ould $e of different strength! "he
difference in signal strength in the coils is proportional to side displacement of the coil!
"his difference is amplified and fed $ac3 to control an on$oard servo motor+ #hich
turns the guide #heel or #heels until $oth coils receive e.ual signals+ and the course is
corrected!
Fi;ed *ath @avigationC
*ath Selection
%n this illustration+ a vehicle at 8A9 has t#o choices on ho# to get to 8&9! A computer
either on $oard the vehicle or at some central location selects a path $ased on
esta$lished criteria! "hat criteria may $e the shortest distance or the path #ith the least
traffic at the present time! =nce selected the vehicle is dispatched and navigation $egins!
All of the 8*A"H F=22=A%@G9 navigation methods permit routing options that
include guide path s#itching and merging!
=pen *ath @avigationC
"a3ing a *ath
@avigation methods that direct a vehicle to 8"A,B A *A"H9 employ developments that
came into their o#n in the early to mid 9's! "hey utili:e a different set of technologies!
1nli3e 8path follo#ing navigation+9 #here the guide paths are fi;ed+ and more or less
permanent+ vehicles operating in the 8"a3e a *ath9 category are actually offered more
variation if not an infinite num$er of #ays to navigate the open space $et#een t#o
points!
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=pen *ath @avigationC
@avigation >e.uirements
From a practical point of vie#+ the choices are limited $y 3no#n permanent or
temporary o$structions and the path selection criteria+ such as ta3e the shortest path!
"o navigate in an open+ unrestricted space #ithout the $enefit of a fi;ed path+ a vehicle
must have a #ay of 3no#ing #here it is and $e capa$le of ta3ing a heading to #here it
#ants to go! All open space navigation methods re.uireC
A map of the area in #hich the vehicle can operate that is contained in the
vehicle's computer memory!
<ultiple+ fi;ed reference points located #ithin the operating area that can $e
detected or 8seen9 $y the vehicle!
=pen *ath @avigationC
@avigation <ethods
"he three most common open space navigation methods are 2aser Guidance+ %nertial
Guidance+ and ?artesian Guidance! "he choice of navigation method for a particular
application is often a simple matter of preference! Bach method offers different $enefits
and costs associated #ith system set up and operation #hich is application dependent!
1nless there is a definite preference+ users should #or3 closely #ith suppliers to evaluate
the options in relation to the intended application! Bach method is $ac3ed $y a rich
history of its successful use in practice!
2aser Guidance
%nertial Guidance
?artesian Guidance
AGVS 5ispatching
AGVS dispatching is essential to every AGVS+ #hether simple or comple;! 5ispatching
AGVS is much the same as dispatching ta;i ca$s! "he dispatch function ma3es sure that
all customers get timely services from the vehicle $est a$le to service a re.uest! Aithout
a dispatching function+ nothing #ould move! Aith inefficient dispatching+ a system #ill
not o$tain ma;imum $enefits!
"he dispatch function ma;imi:es the $enefits of any AGVS and ensures that all
customers get serviced in a timely manner! >emote and local dispatch are most
commonly descri$ed as off$oard and on$oard dispatchers respectively!
>emote 5ispatching
<ethods of ?ommunication
>emote dispatch occurs #hen the AGVs receive dispatching information from a central
controller! "his type of dispatch re.uires methods of communications to send the command
from the 5ispatcher to the AGVs! "hese methods of communications includeC
An >F @et#or3 D&road$and or Spread SpectrumE including a $ase station and antennas
transmitting a signal throughout the air#aves #ith a receiver mounted a$oard each
vehicle!
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%nductive >F through a #ire in the floor #ith antennas mounted a$oard each vehicle! %n
many cases+ the guidance #ire #ill $e used as the >F communication antenna and in other
cases+ the inductive signal is communicated through a separate $uried #ire!
%nfrared communications #ith multiple %> transmitters mounted throughout a facility
#ith an %> receiver mounted a$oard the AGVS!
>emote 5ispatching
"he 5ispatcher
"he remote dispatch function generally resides in a computer D*?E+ *rogramma$le
?ontroller D*2?E+ or other microprocessor+ 3no#n as the 5ispatcher! "he 5ispatcher
accepts input from the various system components Dgenerally transport re.uestsE and
directs the AGVS to fulfill the command in the most efficient manner! "his function
directly compares to the ta;i 5ispatcher $ac3 at the terminal+ receiving calls from many
customers and then dispatching each driver via radio to the pic3up station! >emote
dispatch can occur #ith vehicles at single or various dispatch points!
>emote 5ispatching
Single *oint 5ispatch
A single dispatch point re.uires the AGVs to return to the same location every time to
receive commands and transport re.uests! Single point dispatch generally has
predetermined shortest path routings and #or3s on strict F%F= re.uests! As vehicles
are availa$le and reach the dispatch point+ they are given a transport command!
>emote 5ispatching
Vehicle <anager
1sing various dispatch locations+ vehicles are given transport commands as soon as they
complete their previous transport! "he 5ispatcher attempts to choose the closest
availa$le vehicle to fulfill the command! Should a vehicle $e given a command and a
closer vehicle $ecomes availa$le+ the more comple; 5ispatchers #ill $e a$le to reassign
the transport re.uest to the closer vehicle! "he 5ispatcher+ also 3no#n as the Vehicle
<anager+ generally includes an algorithm for priorities governing system movement!
>emote 5ispatching
5ispatcher ?ommands
"he 5ispatcher commands can also ta3e multiple forms #here an AGV can $e sent a
full command+ a half command+ or a point-to-point command!
For e;ampleC
Full command Dpic3 up at 8A9 and deliver to 8&9E
Half command Dpic3 up at 8A9E
*oint-to-point Dmove from point 1 to /+ from point / to 3+ etc!E
Aith full and half commands+ the AGV has a system map resident in its on$oard vehicle
controller! Aith point-to-point routing+ the system map is resident #ith the 5ispatcher!
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2ocal 5ispatching
Signals and =ccurances
2ocal dispatch occurs #hen an AGV is dispatched $y means of a signal or occurrence
originating at the location of the AGV! 2ocal dispatch is generally associated #ith
simpler AGV systems and #here repetitive tas3s are predominant!
"he signals and occurrences includeC
*hoto-electric or data couplers #here simple commands are given at the
point of dispatch!
Automatic %dentification #ith $arcode+ >F tag+ magnetic stripe+ etc!
=n$oard sensors for load presence+ push$utton+ 3eypad+ etc!
2ocal 5ispatching
"a;i ?a$ Analogy
2ocal dispatch is simpler $y design and nearly al#ays re.uires the system map to $e
resident in the on$oard vehicle controller! >everting $ac3 to the ta;i ca$ analogy+ local
dispatch is compara$le to a ta;i driving the streets+ pic3ing up fares as they yell for a
ca$! @o central 5ispatchers are needed and the vehicle reacts to simple+ generally single
source inputs from sensors+ 3eypads and devices!
2ocal 5ispatching
?ommon %nput Sources
"he follo#ing are more common input sources for local dispatchC
Ahen a *ush$utton is depressed+ the AGV controller is programmed to go
for#ard to stop points and a#ait release! "he release signal is an on$oard
push$utton input+ causing the AGV to dispatch itself to the ne;t stop point!
Additionally+ systems may include multiple destinations re.uiring a series
of push$uttons Done for eachE+ or a 3eypad #hich accommodates a larger
selection of origins and destinations!
2ocal 5ispatching
Signal 5etection
5ata ?ouplers or *hotoelectrics e;ternal to the vehicle can also $e used to send a signal
to the AGV vehicle controller indicating an origin andFor a destination! "hese devices
can $e in a singular location or at multiple points along the path#ay!
A load a$oard signal from a photoelectric source or pro;imity s#itch can $e used to
detect the presence of a load conveyed or placed on the AGV! "his signal may $e
enough in a simple system #ith a singular destination for each origin to cause the AGV
on$oard vehicle controller to dispatch itself!
2ocal 5ispatching
2oad %dentification
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Automatic %dentification systems can $e placed on $oard the AGV to sense the type of
product received on the vehicle! %f each load type has a particular destination+ as
determined $y height+ #eight+ si:e+ $arcode %5+ >F %5 tag+ or magnetic stripe %5+ then
the AGV on$oard vehicle controller #ill dispatch the AGV per the particular load
characteristics or identities!
"raffic ?ontrol
?rucial to all AGV systems is the automatic stopping+ starting and routing of vehicles!
"o ensure against one vehicle entering an already occupied :one or intersection of a
guidepath and to provide for orderly and efficient routing in general+ the location of
each vehicle is monitored and decisions are made $ased on this 3no#ledge! %n the
conte;t of traffic control+ all forms of automatic stopping and starting are 3no#n as
blocking!
"#o types of $loc3ing in general use are Gone &loc3ing and Accumulative &loc3ing!
AGVS Communications
?ommunications include message commands such as #here to go+ #hen to start+ #hen
to slo# do#n and #hen to stop! %t may also include fault condition reporting!
?omputer-controlled systems overseeing remote o$7ects need a means of
communicating commands+ and in many cases confirming replies+ $et#een a supervisory
computer and the o$7ects $eing controlled! 5epending on the application+ there are four
types of $asic communication media $eing used #ithin AGV Systems!
>adio ?ommunication
>adio provides ma;imum fle;i$ility in system control! Vehicles can $e programmed
8on the fly9+ ne# routings or maps can $e do#nloaded .uic3ly+ and system speed of
response to changing load movement demands is improved! %t provides almost constant
communication $et#een the vehicles and the system and ma3es the AGVS system a very
responsive tool that can react to the changing dynamics of the #or3 environment!
>adio ?ommunication
>F >adio Aaves
>adio #aves can $e used to communicate information and data+ from a fi;ed $ase
station to the modems on each vehicle! >adio #aves simply perform the function of
delivering energy to the remote receiver! "he actual information is superimposed on the
radio #ave so that it can $e accurately e;tracted from the #ave at the receiving end!
"his provides a continuous t#o-#ay data lin3 #ith the vehicles! "here are t#o $asic
systems in use today+ narro#-$and and spread spectrum! A plant survey is generally
done to determine #hat other fre.uencies are operating in the environment+ if there are
any dead :ones in the system that #ould inhi$it radio transmission and to determine the
num$er+ type and location of antennas!
>adio ?ommunication
@arro#-$and >adio System
A narro#-$and radio system transmits and receives user information on a specific radio
fre.uency! @arro#-$and radio 3eeps the radio signal fre.uency as narro# as possi$le
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to pass data! AGVS systems generally operate in the 45-<H: $and on /5-,h:
channels! 1ndesira$le crosstal3 $et#een communications channels is avoided $y
carefully coordinating different users on different channel fre.uencies! "he radio
receiver filters out all radio signals e;cept the ones on its designated channel fre.uency!
>adio ?ommunication
Spread Spectrum ?hannels
"here are Federal ?ommunications ?ommission DF??E assigned fre.uency channels
assigned to .ualified users #ho re.uest them! "his is done $y licensing that $usiness to
transmit on a given fre.uency in a given area! 2icensing has $een very effective in
providing secure communications+ $ut has placed an ever-increasing $urden on the F??
to coordinate and assign radio channels! Spread spectrum #as esta$lished $y the F??
to ease the $urden $y allo#ing unlicensed radio usage!
%nfrared ?ommunication
=ptical infrared communication is highly relia$le $ut has the disadvantage of not $eing
continuous4 it is point to point! Vehicles may $e stopped during this data e;change #hich
usually occurs at load stations #here the fi;ed and mo$ile units are aligned and in close
pro;imity! =r+ the vehicle communicates at fi;ed points along its guide path as the vehicle
travels through a given :one!
"he picture sho#s optical sensors at a conveyor pic3-upFdeposit stand! =ne sensor is
for transmitting and the other for receiving!
Vehicles are usually not dispatched from a communication point unless the path to the
ne;t destination is free of traffic! %n large systems this could present a pro$lem in meeting
throughput! Alarm conditions also cannot $e reported as they occur! As a result+ infrared
communication is $est suited for small systems #ith fe# vehicles and load stations!
Guide Aire 5ata ?ommunication
5ata transmitted on the guide #ire $y the guide line driver provides almost the same
fle;i$ility as radio+ #ith the e;ception of vehicle movement off the #ire! Since the
distance $et#een the guide #ire and the on $oard responders is constant+ there are no
transmission dead spots+ as there may $e #ith radio! "he techni.ues to accomplish this
type of data lin3 are not #idespread!
%nductive 2oops ?ommunication
%nductive loops are another means of point-to-point communication! %n-floor #ire loops
are located ad7acent to the guide #ire and connected to the central controller for data
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transmission! "hey are usually 3 to 1 feet long and must $e located at every point
#here communication #ith vehicles is desired! Blectronic messages or simple
commands in the form of prescri$ed fre.uencies are sent out via the #ire loops!
Antennas on the under side of the vehicles sense the fre.uencies #hich are then decoded
and acted on $y the vehicle! A vehicle can li3e#ise send messages $ac3 to a central
controller! "his is an ine;pensive $ut limited method of data transfer! <ost systems
using this method do not re.uire vehicles to stop #hile receiving data from inductive
loops!
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