IB 12

1
Particle Mass Electric Charge
Electron m
e
= 9.110 x 10
-31
kg
q = -e
q = -1.60 x 10
-19
C
Proton m
p
= 1.673 x 10
-27
kg
q = +e
q = +1.60 x 10
-19
C

Neutron
m
n
= 1.675 x 10
-27
kg
q = 0
q = 0 C
Electrostatics
1) electric charge: 2 types of electric charge: positive and negative


2) charging by friction: transfer of electrons from one object to another


3) positive object: lack of electrons negative object: excess of electrons

Conservation of Electric Charge: The total electric charge of an isolated system remains constant.

4) Types of materials:

a) Conductors: materials in which electric charges move freely (e.g. metals, graphite)

b) Insulators: materials in which electric charges do not move freely (e.g. plastic, rubber, dry wood, glass, ceramic)

c) Semiconductors: materials with electrical properties between those of conductors and insulators (e.g. silicon)

d) Superconductors: materials in which electrical charges move without resistance (e.g. some ceramics at very low temperatures)
Properties of Atomic
Particles
e = elementary unit of
charge (magnitude of
charge on electron)


e = 1.60 x 10
-19
C
1. A balloon has gained 2500 electrons after being rubbed with wool. What is the charge on the balloon?
What is the charge on the wool?

2. A rubber rod acquires a charge of -4.5 C. How many excess electrons does this represent?
q = -4.0 x 10
-16
C
q = +4.0 x 10
-16
C
2.8125 x 10
13
e
IB 12
2
Electric Force (Electrostatic Force, Coulomb Force)

Coulombs Law: The electric force between two point charges is directly proportional to the product
of the two charges and inversely proportional to square of the distance between them, and directed along
the line joining the two charges.
NOTE: +-F denotes direction of force not sign of charge
1 2
2
0
1 2
2
0
1
4
4
e
e
q q
r
q q
F
r
F
!"
!"
=
=
1 2
2
e
F
q q
k
r
=
k = Coulomb constant
(electrostatic constant)

k = 8.99 x 10
9
N!m
2
C
-2

k = 1/ 4"#
0


#
0
= permittivity of free space
= 8.85 x 10
-12
C
2
N
-1
m
-2

Coulomb Force
Point charge: a charged object that acts as if all its charge is concentrated at a single point
Alternate formula for
Coulomb force:
Use the Coulomb force to estimate the speed of the electron in a hydrogen atom.
IB 12
3
The Principle of Superposition
The net electric force acting on a charged particle is the vector sum of all the electric forces acting on it.
1. Determine the net electrostatic force on charge q
1
, as shown below.
2. Where can a third charge of +1.0 !C be placed so that the
net force acting on it is zero?
3. Three point charges of
-2.0 !C are arranged
as shown. Determine
the magnitude and
direction of the net
force on charge q
1
.
D = 2/3 m
IB 12
4
Electric Field
Electric field: a region in space surrounding a charged object in which a second
charged object experiences an electric force
Test charge: a small positive charge used to test an electric field
Electric Field Diagrams
1. Positively charged sphere 2. Positive point charge 3. Negative point charge
Radial Field: field lines are extensions of radii
5. Two positive charges 6. Two negative charges 7. Two unlike charges
Properties of Electric Field Lines

1. Never cross

2. Show the direction of force on a small
positive test charge

3. Out of positive, into negative

4. Direction of electric field is tangent to
the field lines

5. Density of field lines is proportional
to field strength (density = intensity)

6. Perpendicular to surface

7. Most intense near sharp points



8. Oppositely charged parallel plates
Edge Effect: bowing of field lines at edges
Uniform Field: field has same intensity at all
spots
IB 12
5
Electric Field Strength (Intensity): electric force exerted per unit charge on a small positive test charge
Electric Field Strength
Units: N/C

e
F
E
q
=
2
2 2
0
1
4
Qq
k
Q Q
r
E k
q r r !"
= = =
Electric Field: Electric Field for a Point Charge:
Point Charge Spherical
Conductor
1. a) Find the magnitude and direction of the electric field at
a spot 0.028 meter away from a sphere whose charge
is +3.54 microcoulombs and whose radius is 0.60
centimeters.
b) Find the magnitude and direction of the electric force
acting on a -7.02 nC charge placed at this spot.
c) Find the electric field strength at the surface of the sphere.
2. a) Find the magnitude and direction of the gravitational field at
an altitude of 100 km above the surface of the Earth.
b) Find the magnitude and direction of the gravitational force
exerted on a 6.0 kg bowling ball placed at this spot.
c) Find the gravitational field strength at the surface of the Earth.
Electric Force:
e
F Eq =
Units: N

IB 12
6
3. a) Find the magnitude and direction of the net electric field halfway between the two charges shown below.
b) Determine the electric force on a proton placed at this spot.
4. Two charged objects, A and B, each contribute as follows to the net electric field at point P: E
A
= 3.00 N/C directed to the right, and E
B
= 2.00 N/C directed
downward. What is the net electric field at P?

E = 3.61 N/C
Theta =33.7
0


5. a) Two positive point charges, q
1
= +16 C and q
2
= +4.0 C, are separated in a vacuum by a distance of 3.0 m.
Find the spot on the line between the charges where the net electric field is zero.

IB 12
7
6. A proton is released from rest near the positive plate. The distance between the plates is
3.0 mm and the strength of the electric field is 4.0 x 10
3
N/C.
a) Describe the motion of the proton.

constant acceleration in a straight line

b) Write an expression for the acceleration of the proton.

c) Find the time it takes the proton to reach the negative plate. d) Find the speed of the proton when it reaches the negative plate.

7. A particle is shot with an initial speed through the two parallel plates as shown.

a) Sketch and describe the path it will take if it is a proton, an electron, or a neutron.

b) Which particle will experience a greater force?


c) Which particle will experience a greater acceleration?


d) Which particle will experience a greater displacement?
8. In the figure, an electron enters the lower left side of a parallel plate capacitor and
exits at the upper right side. The initial speed of the electron is 5.50!10
6
m/s. The
plates are 3.50 cm long and are separated by 0.450 cm. Assume that the electric
field between the plates is uniform everywhere and find its magnitude.
IB 12
8
Electric Potential Energy
Gravitational Potential Energy (E
P
)
Base level
where E
P
= 0
High amount of E
P

Low amount of E
P

Reason for E
P
:

1. Test object has mass (test mass = m)

2. Test mass is in a gravitational field (g) caused by larger object (M)

3. Larger object exerts a gravitational force on test mass (F
g
= mg)

4. Test mass has tendency to move to base level due to force

5. Work done moving object between two positions is path independent.

Gravitational potential energy:
E
P
= mgh
W = !E
P
= mg !h

Electric Potential Energy (E
P
)
High amount of E
P

Low amount of E
P

Reason for E
P
:

1. Test object has charge (test charge = +q)

2. Test charge is in an electric field caused by larger object (Q)

3. Larger object exerts an electric force on test charge (F
E
= Eq)

4. Test charge has tendency to move to base level due to force

5. Work done moving object between two positions is path independent.

Electric potential energy:
E
P
= Eq h
W = !E
P
= Eq !h

Base level
where E
P
= 0
Electric Potential Energy (E
P
)- the work done in bringing a small positive test charge in from infinity to
that point in the electric field

E
P
= 0
2
cos

( )
P
P
r
P
r
P
P
E W Fs
E Eq s
kQ
E q ds
s
kQq
E
s
kQq
E
r
!
"
"
= =
= # $
= #
=
=
%
(Work done by field)
Derivation for Point Charges
Electric Potential Energy due to a point charge
P
kQq
E
r
=
Formula: Units:

J
Type:

scalar
IB 12
9
Electric Potential (V) - work done per unit charge moving a small positive test charge in from
infinity to a point in an electric field.
Electric Potential due to a point charge
0
4
P
kQq
E
r
V
q q
kQ Q
V
r r !"
= =
= =
Formula:
Units:

J/C
= volts(V)
Type:

scalar
A B
Higher potential Lower potential
Zero potential
A B
Lower potential Higher potential
Zero potential
P
E qV =
1. a) Calculate the potential at a point
2.50 cm away from a +4.8 C
charge.
b) How much potential energy
will an electron have if it is at
this spot?
3. What is the potential where a
proton is placed 0.96 m from
a -1.2 nC charge?
IB 12
10
Point Charges
+Q +Q +Q +Q
Electric Force Electric Field Electric Potential Energy Electric Potential
Two objects needed
interaction between the two

Magnitude: F = Eq

F = kQq/r
2

Units: N

Type: vector

Direction: likes repel,
unlikes attract

Sign: dont use when
calculating check frame of
reference
One object needed property of
the field

Magnitude: V = E
P
/q

V = kQ/r

Units: J/C

Type: scalar (+/-)

Sign: use sign of Q
Two objects needed quantity
possessed by the system

Magnitude: E
P
= qV

E
P
= kQq/r

Units: J

Type: scalar (+/-)

Sign: use signs of Q and q
One object needed property
of that one object

Magnitude: E = F/q

E = kQ/r
2


Units: N/C

Type: vector

Direction: away from
positive, towards negative

Sign: dont use when
calculating check frame of
reference

F = 0 where E = 0 E
P
= 0 where V = 0
IB 12
11
1. a) Calculate the net electric field at each spot (A and B):
b) Calculate the net electric force on a proton placed at each spot.
2. a) Calculate the net electric potential at each spot (A and B):
b) Calculate the electric potential energy of a proton placed at
each spot.
IB 12
12
Electric Potential and Conductors
For a hollow or solid conductor,

1. all the charge resides on the outside
surface

2. the electric field is zero everywhere within

3. the external electric field acts as if all the
charge is concentrated at the center

4. the electric potential is constant (! 0)
everywhere within and equal to the
potential at the surface
Distance
E
l
e
c
t
r
i
c

F
i
e
l
d

S
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
Value at surface = kQ/r
2

radius
Graphs for a spherical conductor
Distance
E
l
e
c
t
r
i
c

P
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
l

radius
A spherical conducting surface whose radius is 0.75 m has a net charge of +4.8 C.

a) What is the electric field at the center of the sphere?


b) What is the electric field at the surface of the sphere?








c) What is the electric field at a distance of 0.75 m from the surface of the sphere?






d) What is the electric potential at the surface of the sphere?









e) What is the electric potential at the center of the sphere?



f) What is the electric potential at a distance of 0.75 m from the surface of the sphere?
IB 12
13
Equipotential Surfaces
Equipotential surface: a surface on which the electric potential is the same everywhere
1. Locate points that are at the same
electric potential around each of
the point charges shown.

2. Sketch in the electric field lines
for each point charge.

3. What is the relationship between
the electric field lines and the
equipotential surfaces?

Perpendicular
Field lines point in direction
of decreasing potential

Electric Potential Gradient

The electric field strength is the negative of the
electric potential gradient.
Formula:
V
E
x
!
= "
!
Units: N/c or V/m
For each electric field shown, sketch in equipotential surfaces.
Sketch in equipotential surfaces for the two configurations of point charges below.
http://www.surendranath.org/Applets.html http://wps.aw.com/aw_young_physics_11/0,8076,898593-,00.html
IB 12
14
Electric Potential Difference (!V) work done per unit charge moving a small positive test charge
between two points in an electric field
P
W
V
q
E
V
q
! =
!
! =
Electric Potential Difference
Formula:
Units:
J/C = V
High and Low Potential
1. a) Which plate is at a higher electric potential? positive

b) Which plate is at a lower electric potential? negative

c) What is the electric potential of each plate? Arbitrary relative to base level

d) What is the potential difference between the plates? Not arbitrary depends
on charge, distance between, strength of electric field, geometry of plates, etc. Mark plates with example potentials, as well as
spots within field
Mark ground mark equipotentials

e) Where will: a proton have the most electric potential energy?

an electron? a neutron? an alpha particle? Not arbitrary

2. An electron is released from rest near the negative plate and allowed to accelerate until it
hits the positive plate. The distance between the plates is 2.00 cm and the potential
difference between them is 100. volts.
E
o
= E
f

E
e
= E
K

qV = ! mv
2

v = sqrt (2qV/m)
v = sqrt(2(1.6 x 10
-19
)(100 V)
/(9.11 x 10
-31
))
v = 5.9 x 10
6
m/s
b) Calculate the strength of the electric field.
a) Calculate how fast the electron strikes the positive plate.

Formula:

qV = ! mv
2

Ve = ! mv
2

Formula:

E = -"V/"x
E = V/d
P
E q V ! = !
IB 12
15

4. In Rutherfords famous scattering experiments (which led to the planetary model of the atom), alpha particles were fired toward
a gold nucleus with charge +79e. An alpha particle, initially very far from the gold nucleus, is fired at 2.00 ! 10
7
m/s directly
toward the gold nucleus. Assume the gold nucleus remains stationary. How close does the alpha particle get to the gold
nucleus before turning around? (the distance of closest approach)

2.74 x 10
-14
m
The Electronvolt
Electronvolt: energy gained by an electron moving through a potential difference of one volt
"E
e
= q"V
"E
e
= (1e)(1 V) = 1 eV
"E
e
= (1.6 x 10
-19
C)( 1 V)
"E
e
= 1.6 x 10
-19
J

Therefore:
1 eV = 1.60 x 10
-19
J

Derivation:
1. How much energy is gained by a proton moving through a potential difference of 150. V?
150 eV or 150(1.60 x 10
-19
) = 2.4 x 10
-17
J
2. A charged particle has 5.4 x 10
-16
J of energy. How many electronvolts of energy is this?
Factor-label
(5.4 x 10
-16
J) (1 eV/1.6 x 10
-19
) = 3375 eV
3. An electron gains 200 eV accelerating from rest in a uniform electric field of 150 N/C. Calculate the final speed of the electron.

IB 12
1

Universal Gravitation
Keplers Three Laws of Planetary Motion
Law 1: All planets orbit the Sun in elliptical paths with the
Sun at one focus.
Law 2: An imaginary line joining any planet to the Sun
sweeps out equal areas in equal time intervals.
Law 3: The square of the orbital period of any planet is
proportional to the cube of its average orbital radius.
Formula
2 3
2 3
3
2
T r
T kr
T r
!
!
=
Newtons Law of Universal Gravitation
Every particle in the Universe attracts every other particle with a force that is
directly proportional to the product of the masses and that is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Two approximations used in deriving the law:
1. Masses are considered to be point masses.

Point mass: infinitely small object (radius = 0) whose mass is m


2. The force between two spherical masses whose separation is large compared to their radii is the same as if
the two spheres were point masses with their masses concentrated at the centers of the spheres.
Sun
Mean radius = 6.96 x 10
8
m
Earth
Mean radius = 6.37 x 10
6
m
Mean Earth-Sun distance = 1.50 x 10
11
m
IB 12
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
2
2 2
3
2
but
2
4
4
c c
F ma
GMm mv
r r
GM
v
r
r
v
T
GM r
r T
GM r
r T
T
r GM
!
!
!
!
" =
=
=
=
# $
=
% &
' (
=
=
( )( )( )( )
( )
( )
2 2
3
2
2
3 11
11
30
30
4
1 365.25 24 3600
4
6.67 10
1.50 10
2.0 10
accepted value=1.99 10
s
S
T
r GM
year days hours s
x M
x m
M x kg
x kg
!
!
"
=
# $
% &
=
=
Newtons Derivation of Keplers Third Law
What provides the centripetal force for orbital motion? gravitation
Derivation Application weighing the Sun

Formula
1 2
2
1 2
2

=
g
g
m m
F
r
G m m
F
r
!
"
" "
Point mass Extended spherical body
Re 2Re 3Re 4Re
Gravitational Constant :
G = 6.77 x 10
-11
N m
2
/kg
2

What is the resultant gravitational force on the Earth from the Sun and Moon, as shown below?
Average Earth-Sun distance = 1.50 x 10
11
m

Average Earth-Moon distance = 3.84 x 10
8
m

Earth
Mass = 5.98 x 10
24
kg
Moon
Mass = 7.36 x 10
22
kg
Sun
Mass = 1.99 x 10
30
kg
IB 12
3
Gravitational Field Strength
Gravitational field strength at
a point in a gravitational field:
the gravitational force exerted per unit mass on a small/point mass

Symbol: g


Formula: g = F
g
/ m





Units: N/kg (m/s
2
)


Type: vector
Deriving formula for gravitational
field strength at any point above the
surface of a planet

g = F
g
/m

g = (GMm/r
2
)/m

g = GM/r
2



Deriving formula for gravitational
field strength at the surface of a planet

g = GM/r
2


g
o
= G M
p
/ R
p
2



1. What is the gravitational field strength of the Earth at its surface?
g at the surface of the Earth

g
o
= G M
E
/R
e
2


2. What is the gravitational field strength at an altitude equal to the radius of Earth?
g ratio

g/g
o
= R
E
2
/r
2



Point mass
Extended spherical body
Re 2Re 3Re 4Re
g
o

IB 12
4
3. a) What is the resultant gravitational field strength at a point midway between the Earth and Moon?
Average Earth-Moon distance = 3.84 x 10
8
m

Earth
Mass = 5.98 x 10
24
kg
Moon
Mass = 7.36 x 10
22
kg
4. a) Is there a point where the resultant gravitational field strength of the Earth and Moon is zero? If so, where?
b) What is the resultant gravitational force acting on a 1500. kg space probe at this location?
b) What is the resultant gravitational force acting on a 1500. kg space probe at this location?
Average Earth-Moon distance = 3.84 x 10
8
m

Earth
Mass = 5.98 x 10
24
kg
Moon
Mass = 7.36 x 10
22
kg
IB 12
5
Gravitational Potential Energy
Difference in gravitational potential energy between any two points in a gravitational field: !E
P
= mg!h
This difference is path independent.

1. Same !E
P
between any two points no matter what path is
taken between them.

2. Work done in moving a mass between two points in a
gravitational field is independent of the path taken.

3. !E
P
is zero between any two points at the same level no matter
what path is taken.

4. !E
P
is zero for any closed path (a path that begins and ends at
same point).

Old formula for gravitational potential energy:
E
p
= mgh
discuss 2 problems with definition
1) g varies above surface
2) arbitrary base level
Gravitational Potential Energy
of a mass at a point in a
gravitational field:
the work done in bringing a small point mass in from
infinity to that point in the gravitational field
Base level: infinity Gravitational PE at infinity: zero
E
P
= 0 E
P
= -100 J E
P
= -400 J
Derivation of gravitational potential energy formula
IB 12
6
E
p
= - GMm/r

E
P
= -Gm
1
m
2
/r
Formula not valid
inside planet
Formula:
Units: J
Type: scalar
Potential energy vs. distance:
What is the gravitational potential energy of a 5000 kg satellite:
b) orbiting the Earth at an altitude of 200 km?

a) on the surface of the Earth?

Gravitational Potential
Gravitational potential at a
point in a gravitational field:
work done per unit mass to bring a small point mass in from infinity to
that point in the gravitational field
V = E
p
/m

V = -GM/r

!V = W/m

!V = !E
p
/m



Difference in
gravitational potential:
Gravitational
potential at a point:
E
p
at surface
E
p
= -GM
p
m/R
p

Units: J/kg
Type: scalar
Gravitational Potential
vs. distance
Formulas:
Symbol: V
V at surface
V
o
= -GM
p
/R
p

Symbol: V
c) How much does the potential energy of the satellite
increase when it is put into this orbit?

IB 12
7

1. What is the gravitational potential due to the Earths gravitational field:

a) at the surface of the Earth? b) At a location three Earth radii from
the center of the Earth?

c) What is the change in potential in moving from the surface to this new location?

d) What is the minimum amount of energy needed to lift a 5000 kg satellite to this location?

2. What is the net gravitational potential at a spot midway between the Earth and the Sun?
Sun
Earth
3. Derive an expression for the gravitational potential at the surface of a planet in terms of the gravitational field strength.
IB 12
8
Escape Speed
Escape Speed: minimum initial speed an object must have at the surface of a planet in order to escape the
gravitational attraction of the planet

Planet
Travel to infinity
Just make it means velocity is zero at infinity means E
K
is zero at infinity as well as E
P

E
o
= E
p
+ E
k
E
f
= E
p

Assumptions: planet is isolated ignore air resistance
Derivation:
Note:
1. Direction of travel is irrelevant !E
p
is path independent



2. independent of mass of rocket



3. More speed (E
K
) is needed in real life since air friction is
not negligible at lower altitudes
1. What is the escape speed for Earth? 2. If the Earth became a black hole, how large would it be?
IB 12
9
Satellite Motion
Natural Satellites Artificial Satellites
Acceleration of a satellite:
a
c
= v
2
/r
a
c
= g = GM/r
2

a
c
= 4"
2
r/T
2
v = 2" r/T
Orbital speed of a satellite:
2
2
2
c c
F ma
GMm mv
r r
GM
v
r
GM
v
r
! =
=
=
=
v = 2" r/T
2. What happens to the required orbital speed if:
a) the mass of the satellite increases?

Nothing speed is independent of mass
1. Compare the motion of satellites A and B.

A faster, less time (smaller period)

B slower, more time (longer period)

T
2
/R
3
= constant true for all satellites
T = kR
3/2

b) the satellite is boosted into a higher orbit?
Satellite would orbit at a slower
(tangential) speed

Period of a satellite:
2 3
2 3
3
2
T r
T kr
T r
!
!
=
3. What would happen to a satellite if it encountered appreciable air resistance?
Slow down, drop to lower orbit, and speed up, encounter even more air molecules (denser), cycle continues spiral to Earth
Weightlessness
Free fall Orbital motion Deep space
IB 12
10
Energy of Orbiting Satellites
Gravitational Potential Energy Kinetic Energy Total Energy
Compare the energies of the two orbiting satellites.
Energy Derivations
Gravitational Potential Energy
Kinetic Energy Total Energy
Graphs of the energies of an orbiting satellite
Comparisons:
R
E

A 1500 kg satellite is to be put into orbit around the Earth at an altitude of 200 km.
a) How much potential energy will the satellite
have at this altitude?
b) How much kinetic energy will the satellite
need to orbit at this altitude?
c) What is the total amount of energy the
satellite has at this altitude?
d) What is the orbital speed of the satellite?
e) What is the minimum amount of energy needed to lift the satellite
from the surface of the Earth to this altitude?
IB 12
11
Comparisons
Equipotential surface: a surface on which the potential is the same everywhere
one point mass two point masses
1. The gravitational force does no
work as a mass moves on
along equipotential surface.

2. The work done in moving a
mass between equipotential
surfaces is path independent.

3. The work done in moving a
mass along a closed path is
zero.

IB 12
12

On the diagram at right:

a) Sketch the gravitational field around the point mass.


b) Sketch equipotential surfaces around the point mass.
What is the relationship between the
gravitational field and the equipotential
surfaces?
Perpendicular
Field lines point in direction
of decreasing potential

Gravitational Potential Gradient
derive g = -!V/!r
gravitational potential gradient: the gravitational field is the negative gradient of the gravitational
potential with respect to distance
gradient: rate of change with respect to something slope or derivative
Formula
-80 J/kg
-70 J/kg
A
B
What is the average gravitational field strength between
equipotential surfaces A and B if they are 5.0 m apart?
IB 12
13
Practice Questions
1. a) Calculate the gravitational force the Sun exerts
on the Earth.

b) Compare this to the gravitational force that the
Earth exerts on the Sun.
2. a) Calculate the strength of the gravitational field of the Sun
at a location one million kilometers from the Sun.
b) What is the Suns gravitational force at this
point?

3. a) Calculate the strength of the Suns gravitational field at
the surface of the Earth.

b) Explain why the net gravitational field strength at
the surface of the Earth can be approximated as due
solely to the Earths gravitational field.

IB 12
14
4. a) Calculate the resultant gravitational field at a spot
midway between the Earth and Sun.

b) Compare the contributions from the Sun and the
Earth to this resultant field.







c) What is the gravitational force acting on a 5000 kg
space probe at this location?

Mars
5. A 5000kg satellite orbits Mars at a distance of 1000 km.


e) What is the minimum energy needed to lift
the satellite to this altitude?
d) How much gravitational potential energy does
the satellite have at this altitude?
c) What is the gravitational potential at orbiting altitude?

b) How much gravitational potential energy does the satellite have on the surface of Mars?
a) What is the gravitational potential at the surface of Mars?

Mass of Mars: 6.42 x 10
23
kg
Mean planetary radius: 3.37 x 10
6
m
IB 12
15


6. A 5000. kg satellite is placed in a low altitude orbit.
a) If the altitude is sufficiently low, what is the approximate radius of the satellites orbit?
b) Calculate the satellites orbital speed.
c) Calculate the orbital period of the satellite.
d) Calculate the gravitational potential energy of the satellite.
e) Calculate the kinetic energy of the satellite.
f) Calculate the total energy of the satellite.
g) What is the minimum amount of energy needed to lift the satellite into this orbit?