What is Cyber Security?

Cyber security, which can be defined as the protection of systems, networks and data in cyber
space, is a critical issue for all businesses.
Rapid technological developments have provided vast areas of new opportunity and potential
sources of efficiency for organisations of all sizes. These new technologies which we all rely upon have,
however, also brought with them unprecedented threats.
This page will introduce you to some of these threats, including cyber crime, cyber war, and
cyber terror, and explain the precautions you should take against them.

20 Critical Controls/Consensus Audit
Guidelines (CAG)
The Twenty Critical Security Controls for Cyber Security: Consensus Audit Guidelines
The 20 Critical Security Controls were developed, in the USA, by a consortium led by the Center for
Strategic and International Studies (CSI). The history of the Security Controls describes how they have
been widely adopted across the US Federal Government as well as by the UKs CPNI (Centre for
Protection of the National Infrastructure). The US State Department claims to have achieved a 94%
reduction in measured risk through the rigorous adoption of these controls.
The 20 Critical Controls are specifically technical controls; there are a number of additional areas that
should also be addressed as part of a robust security posture, including information security policy,
physical security, staff training and awareness, organisational structure, documented policies and
procedures, and so on. ISO27001 is the best practice international standard for an Information Security
Management System that enables organisations to comprehensively secure information and provide
independent assurance that this has been done.
Each of the 20 listed critical controls (all of which can be cross-mapped to controls in Annex A of
ISO27001, and thus seamlessly integrated into any ISO27001 ISMS) is supported by detailed
implementation, automation, measurement and test/audit guidance which reflects a consensus of
multiple security experts on the most effective ways to mitigate the specific attacks which these controls
are designed to deal with.
The OWASP Top Ten Project continues to identify and list the Top 10 Web Application vulnerabilities and
organisations that operate websites should also ensure that their web applications are, as a minimum,
secure against these publicly identified vulnerabilities.
A growing range of software solutions and professional services are available to help organisations
implement and audit these controls.
The Twenty Critical Security Controls themselves are published by the CSI and are maintained on th
Boardroom Cyber Watch 2014 Survey




Cyber Security Consultancy Services
In most cases, organisations simply do not have the adequate in-house skills and competence in place to
identify and assess todays multi-level, multi-channel, variably sophisticated cyber security threats and
the range of vulnerabilities they target, or apply the most appropriate mitigation and remediation
strategies.

In response to the ever-changing cyber security landscape, IT Governance offers independent,
professional services tailored to your organisation. Our services are delivered by our in-house
consultants who have a comprehensive and deep experience of cyber security risk management and will
work with you to provide the best possible solutions.


Why use IT Governance?
IT Governance brings a wealth of experience in the cyber security and risk management sector. As part
of our work with hundreds of private and public organisations in all industries, we have been carrying
detailed risk assessments for more than 10 years. All our consultants are qualified and experienced
practitioners.

Cyber Security Risk Assessments (10 Steps To Cyber Security)



Todays attacks are multi-level and multi-channel by default. According to the most current UK
government research, 87% of small firms in the UK experienced a cyber security breach last year, and
93% of large firms were also targeted. Some incidents caused more than 1 million in damages.

A cyber security risk assessment is necessary to identify the gaps in your organisations critical risk areas
and determine actions to close those gaps. It will also ensure that you invest time and money in the right
areas and do not waste resources where there is no need for it.
Even if you have implemented an ISO 27001Information Security Management System, you may want to
check if your cyber security hygiene is up to standard with the UK governments guidelines.

What does a cyber security risk assessment include?
Our risk assessment takes into account the UKs Cyber Security Framework for Business (jointly
published by the Department for Business, Innovation and Skills (BIS) and CESG, the security arm of
GCHQ), which suggests a ten-step approach to cyber security.

We will send a qualified and experienced consultant who will work on site with you and your team to
examine each of the ten risk areas (described below) in sufficient detail to identify the strengths and
weaknesses of your current security posture. All this information will be consolidated into a tailored,
immediately usable action plan that will help you close the gap between recognised good practice and
what you are actually doing.

Why use IT Governance?
IT Governance brings a wealth of experience in the cyber security and risk management domain. As part
of our information security work with hundreds of private and public organisations in all industries, we
have been delivering comprehensive risk assessments for more than ten years. All our consultants are
qualified and experienced practitioners.
Getting Cyber Secure
Cyber security is about far more than investing in hardware and software. First and foremost, cyber
security is a business matter. This means that top management is accountable for ensuring its
organisations cyber security strategy meets business objectives. In fact, organisations need competent
people and effective processes in order to maximise the value of security technology.
A cohesive cyber security approach
In order to achieve real cyber security, todays organisations have to recognise that expensive software
alone is not enough to protect them from cyber threats. For example, the deployment of anti-malware
software requires peoples skills and has to be managed by a process. Organisations who fail to
understand these interdependencies wont withstand the ever-growing onslaught of cyber attacks.

Additionally, just trying to prevent an attack is no longer a solution. Organisations need to be prepared
for rebuffing, responding to, and recovering from a range of possible attacks. This can only be achieved
if people, process and technology are taken into account.




Assess your cyber security risk
There are ten key areas that should form part of an effective cyber security strategy. The principle
of people, process and technology also applies to these areas, which are as follows:
Board-led Information Risk Management Regime
Secure Home and Mobile Working
User Education and Awareness
User Privilege Management
Removable Media Controls
Activity Monitoring
Secure Configurations
Malware Protection
Network Security
Incident Management
Assess your organisation against the above critical risk areas by completing our free online Cyber
Security Self-Assessment Questionnaire. We will provide you with a high-level cyber security report.

Alternatively, contact us for an in-depth cyber security risk assessment which will enable you to identify
your weakest areas and take measures. A risk assessment looks at what might happen, works out the
probabilities and the impacts and then selects controls to deal with it. It is a classic example of the
connectivity between people, process and technology.

You can use existing cyber security standards and frameworks to achieve cyber security. In order to do
this you also need a coherent set of products and servces that will help you do this effectively
Certificated Cyber Security Training
Cyber security skill any organisation committed to addressing the rising cyber threat. For information
security professionals, developing knowledge and skills in this area through certificated training is crucial
to future career development.

Our Cyber Security Learning Pathway provides opportunities to develop expertise and gain industry-
standard certifications.
Cyber security






Cyber Security Learning Pathway
Develop skills in cyber security strategy development, as well as the practical expertise required to
implement plans effectively through our Cyber Security Learning Pathway.

Define your strategy


Deliver your strategy

Cyber
Resilience



Cyber Security









Data
Compliance





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PAS 555: cyber security risk management
PAS 555 clearly defines the required outcomes of an effective cyber security strategy. The advanced
level Cyber Security Risk Management Course explores the outcomes specified in PAS 555 and how to
implement standards and frameworks that are appropriate to achieving cyber security risk management
in your organisation.
ISO 27001: cyber security risk management
ISO/IEC 27001 forms the backbone of every intelligent cyber security risk management strategy. Gaining
knowledge and experience in implementing and auditing an ISO 27001 compliant information security
management system (ISMS) will deliver cyber security objectives and enhance your information security
career.
The ISO 27001 Certified ISMS Lead Implementer Masterclass provides the skills required to plan and
implement an effective ISO 27001 compliance project and is part of the wider ISO 27001 Learning
Pathway.
ISO 22301: cyber resilience
ISO/IEC 22301 defines the requirements of a business continuity management system (BCMS). Planning
to ensure that your business can continue to operate, in the event of a cyber security incident is a key
part of a complete cyber security strategy.
The ISO22301 Certified BCMS Lead Implementer course will enable you to plan and implement an
ISO22301 compliant BCMS and is part of the wider ISO 22301 Learning Pathway.
ISO 20000: cyber secure service delivery
ISO/IEC 20000, the IT service management standard, can be integrated into a broader cyber security
strategy. The ISO 20000 Practitioner certificate provides an overview of ISO 20000 and how it applies to
service management. This course forms part of our wider Service Management Learning Pathway.
Data compliance (PCI DSS, DPA)
The PCI DSS (Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard) aims to increase credit card data security.
For organisations that store, transmit, or process card-holder data, PCI DSS compliance forms a key part
of an effective cyber security strategy. PCI DSS Implementation and Maintenance training will enable
you to develop the skills to plan and implement a cost-effective route to compliance.
All UK organisations must comply with the Data Protection Act (DPA). With the increasing at risk of
hacking, data breaches and data loss, the DPA Foundation Course will provide you with a clear overview
of the DPA and its application.
Cyber security professional certifications
IT Governance offers an unrivalled portfolio of training courses leading to industry-standard professional
certifications.
Certificated ISO 27001 training and development
We deliver the worlds first certificated programme of ISO27001 education, which leads to the following
cyber security certifications, awarded by the International Board for IT Governance Qualifications
(IBITGQ):

Certified ISMS Foundation (CIS F)
Certified ISMS Lead Implementer (CIS LI)
Certified ISMS Lead Auditor (CIS LA)
Certified ISMS Risk Management (CIS RM)


CISA, CISM, CGEIT, CRISC, CISSP and CISMP certifications
(ISC) and ISACA awarded certifications are globally accepted with the CISA, CISM, CGEIT, CRISC and
CISSP qualifications which are already recognised as the must-have requirements for a career in
cybersecurity, audit and IT governance management.
With over 150,000 qualified professionals worldwide, (ISC) and ISACA certifications demonstrate
proven experience, and are key to a higher earning potential in the future.
(ISC) and ISACA Exam Preparation courses include:
CISA - Certified Information Systems Auditor Training Course
CISM - Certified Information Security Manager Training Course
CGEIT - Certified in the Governance of Enterprise IT Training Course
CRISC - Certified in Risk and Information Systems Control Training Course

Cyber Crime Landscape
Cyber threats are very real and can have a serious impact on organisations of all types and sizes. The
Internet is beyond any agencys control and, as such, security in cyberspace doesnt exist.

The latest surveys on data breaches show that the threat of cyber crime is becoming ever more wide-
spread. On this page we explore the most common threats and targets.

Cyber crime is a global phenomenon which affects everyone, from individuals and employees to small
and large organisations. The majority of cyber crimes are perpetrated overseas, beyond the jurisdiction
of the victims country, meaning that, for example, a financial institution in London can be attacked from
China and theres nothing the British authorities can do about it.

According to the 2013 Norton Report, the highest numbers of cyber crime victims globally were to be
found in Russia (85%), China (77%) and South Africa (73%); the cost of consumer cyber crime was found
to be highest in the USA ($38bn), Europe ($13bn) and China ($37bn).

According to the BIS Information Security Breaches Survey 2013, 87% of small firms and 93% of large
firms in the UK experienced a cyber security breach in 2012. Some incidents caused more than 1
million in damages. The median number of breaches suffered by large organisations rose from 71 the
previous year to 113 and, for small firms, from 11 to 17. The average cost of a serious cyber security
breach for a small firm is between 35,000 and 65,000.

The True Cost of Information Security Breaches and Cyber Crime (Pocket Guide) sets out a sensible,
realistic assessment of the actual costs of a data or information breach and explains how managers can
determine the business damage caused.

What information do cyber criminals target?

The mostly targeted information is commercial, including intellectual property, customer lists and
related information, business and commercial strategy and financially sensitive information.

Data assets such as banking information, payment card details, PII (personally identifiable information)
and contact details are also on the top of cyber criminals agenda.

According to The Global State of Information Security

Survey 2014, compromise of employee and

customer records remain the most cited impacts, potentially jeopardizing an organisations most
valuable relationships. The survey, which included more than 9,600 responses from across the globe,
found that:
in 35% of cases, employee records were compromised;
in 31% of cases, customer records were compromised or unavailable;
in 29% of cases, internal records were lost or stolen; and
in 29% of cases, identity theft occurred (client or employee data was stolen).

What types of cyber crime are most widespread?

Cyber crime is continually evolving, and it is becoming ever easier for cyber criminals to commit attacks.
While advanced persistent threats (APTs) continue to be a serious issue on a nation-state level, most
organisations are likely to be hit by other outsiders.

The Global State of Information Security

Survey 2014 found that hackers represent the most likely

source of cyber attacks (32%), followed by competitors (14%) and organised crime (12%). Only 4% of the
respondents reported security incidents perpetrated by foreign nation-states.

The Eurobarometer Cyber Security Report 2013 provides comprehensive statistics based on the
experiences of EU citizens of various types of cyber crime. It shows that internet users in the EU are very
concerned about cyber security: 52% were concerned about experiencing identity theft, 49% about
being the victim of banking fraud and 45% about having their social media or email account hacked.

An Introduction to Hacking & Crimeware - A Pocket Guide provides a foundation-level overview of the
dark world of cybercrime.

With the advancement of communications technologies, hackers are exploiting the weaknesses of
mobile devices, software and applications to access information assets. More importantly, they
themselves have access to unlimited information on hacking software and techniques.
The most widely-spread and evolving threats to be aware of are:

Social engineering attacks
Social engineering entails exploiting an individuals weakness by making them click on malicious links, or
by physically gaining access to their computer through deception.

A typical social engineering attack was carried on GoDaddy in 2014. The company admitted that one of
its employees was socially engineered into giving out additional information which allowed a hacker to
gain access to Naoki Hiroshimas GoDaddy account.

Pharming and phishing are other examples of social engineering.
Pharming aims to redirect a websites traffic to a different, fake website, where the individual's
information is then compromised.
Phishing attempts to acquire user information by masquerading as a legitimate entity, through the use
of such as spoof emails or websites.
Password theft
Using inadequate passwords leaves you open to attack, especially when those with malicious intent
have access to lists of likely passwords to make it easy for them to get access to others accounts. Mark
Burnett, the author of Perfect Passwords, has compiled a list of popular passwords, which is available
online. According to his research, 8.5% of passwords are password or 123456. Using such simple
passwords or using the same password on multiple accounts makes it easy for criminals: once they gain
control of one account they can easily gain control of others.

Website hacking
Almost all websites have vulnerabilities that can be exploited by hackers. IT Governances own
Penetration Testing Service has found that, on average over the last six tests carried out, there were 19
high-level threats, 26 medium-level threats, and 34 low-level threats. These are not isolated cases, and
many of these vulnerabilities will have been easily accessible by cyber criminals.

Hackers have access to online tutorials which list known software vulnerabilities, making it easy to know
where to start with their new-found skills. Automated software is available for those who need it, and
support packages are available in case hackers need guidance.

Fraud as a Service (FaaS)
Fraud-as-a-Service (FaaS) offerings are now more widely accessible than ever before. FaaS first appeared
with the release of the first commercial banking Trojan, Zeus, in 2007 and was largely offered through
postings in secret hacking forums. However, FaaS is now offered through social media platforms
including Facebook (Source: Infosecurity Magazine).

Citadel is a typical example of FaaS. It is the most advanced crimeware tool money can buy and is the
only crimeware of its grade being marketed to fraudsters in open underground venues. It even has its
own dedicated customer relationship management system where clientele can congregate, raise issues,
get support and request new modules be implemented.

Theft of mobile devices
Almost half of the respondents to the 2013 Norton Report dont use basic precautions such as
passwords, security software or back-up files for their mobile devices. 38% of mobile users experienced
mobile cybercrime last year, and 27% of adults lost their mobile device or had it stolen. Only 26% of
smartphone users have mobile security software with advanced protection.

The perils of social media
The 2013 Norton Report also found that 12% of social media users claim someone has hacked into their
social network account and pretended to be them. 39% of social media users dont log out after each
session, a quarter of users share their social media passwords with others, and 31% connect with people
they do not know.

Internet of Things increases threats The so-called Internet of Things will make it easier for hackers to
take control of devices as they are being connected to the Internet in increasing numbers. A recently
discovered botnet was even found to have a fridge on its list of infected devices. As more and more
devices are equipped with chips and are connected to the Internet, so this will become an increased
source of threat. A hacker could soon control every part of your life. (Source: The Independent).

How to combat cyber crime?

No single standalone solution is sufficient to combat cyber crime.

Todays organisations need to recognise that expensive software alone is not enough to protect them
from cyber threats. Cyber security technology is only effective when processes are in place to keep it
that way. Processes on the other side are dependent upon the skills of the people who implement them
and the awareness of those who need to adhere to them.


Cyber-security regulation

In the United States government, cybersecurity regulation comprises directives from the
Executive Branch and legislation from Congress that safeguards information technology and
computer systems. The purpose of cybersecurity regulation is to force companies and
organizations to protect their systems and information from cyber-attacks. Cyber-attacks include
viruses, worms, Trojan horses, phishing, denial of service (DOS) attacks, unauthorized access
(stealing intellectual property or confidential information) and control system attacks.
[1]
There
are numerous measures available to prevent cyber-attacks. Cyber-security measures include
firewalls, anti-virus software, intrusion detection and prevention systems, encryption and login
passwords.
[2]
Federal and state governments in the United States have attempted to improve
cybersecurity through regulation and collaborative efforts between government and the private-
sector to encourage voluntary improvements to cybersecurity.

Reasons for cybersecurity
The United States government believes the security of computer systems is important to the
world for two reasons. The increased role of Information Technology (IT) and the growth of the
e-commerce sector, have made cybersecurity essential to the economy. Also, cybersecurity is
vital to the operation of safety critical systems, such as emergency response, and to the
protection of infrastructure systems, such as the national power grid
[3]
.
[1]

Cyber attacks against our nation continue to occur across our networks. Based on DHS Secretary
Janet Napolitanos testimony to the Senate in 2012, in 2011 alone, the DHS U.S. Computer
Emergency Readiness Team (US-CERT) received more than 100,000 incident reports, and
released more than 5,000 actionable cybersecurity alerts and information products.
[2]
In January
2013, Twitter, the Wall Street Journal, New York Times, and the Department of Energy each
reported that their systems had been breached.
[3]
So far as we know, these attacks have only been
successful at probing our systems and compromising data. However, a successful attack on our
critical infrastructures could be devastating to the public. Richard Clarke, the former special
advisor on cybersecurity to George W. Bush, stated that within the first 48 hours of a cyber
attack, the United States could experience, among other things: classified and unclassified
network failures, large oil refinery fires and gas pipeline explosions, financial system collapse
with no idea of who owns what, trains and subways derailing, and a nationwide blackout leaving
cities in the dark.
[4]
Defense Secretary Leon Panetta stated in October 2012 that, a cyber attack
perpetrated by nation states or violent extremist groups could be as destructive as the terrorist
attack of 9/11Such a destructive cyber terrorist attack could paralyze the nation.
[5]

Federal government regulation
There are few federal cybersecurity regulations, and the ones that exist focus on specific
industries. The three main cybersecurity regulations are the 1996 Health Insurance Portability
and Accountability Act (HIPAA), the 1999 Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act, and the 2002 Homeland
Security Act, which included the Federal Information Security Management Act (FISMA).
These three regulations mandate that healthcare organizations, financial institutions and federal
agencies protect their systems and information.
[4]
For example, FISMA, which applies to every
government agency, requires the development and implementation of mandatory policies,
principles, standards, and guidelines on information security. But, these regulations do not
address numerous computer related industries, such as Internet Service Providers (ISPs) and
software companies.
[5]
Furthermore, these regulations do not specify what cybersecurity
measures must be implemented and require only a reasonable level of security. The vague
language of these regulations leaves much room for interpretation. Bruce Schneier, founder of
Cupertinos Counterpane Internet Security, argues that companies will not make sufficient
investments in cybersecurity unless government forces them to do so.
[6]
He also states that
successful cyber-attacks on government systems still occur despite government efforts.
[7]

It has been suggested that the Data Quality Act already provides the Office of Management and
Budget the statutory authority needed to implement critical infrastructure protection regulations
through the Administrative Procedure Act rulemaking process. This idea has not been fully
vetted and would require additional legal analysis before a rulemaking could begin.
State government regulation
State governments have attempted to improve cybersecurity by increasing public visibility of
firms with weak security. In 2003, California passed the Notice of Security Breach Act which
requires that any company that maintains personal information of California citizens and has a
security breach must disclose the details of the event. Personal information includes name, social
security number, drivers license number, credit card number or financial information.
[8]
Several
other states have followed Californias example and passed similar security breach notification
regulations.
[9]
These security breach notification regulations punish firms for their cybersecurity
failures while giving them the freedom to choose how to secure their systems. Also, this
regulation creates an incentive for companies to voluntarily invest in cybersecurity to avoid the
potential loss of reputation and the resulting economic loss that can come from a successful
cyber-attack.
In 2004 the California State Legislature passed California Assembly Bill 1950 which also applies
to businesses that own or maintain personal information for California residents. This regulation
dictates that businesses maintain a reasonable level of security and that these required security
practices also extend to business partners.
[10]
This regulation is an improvement on the federal
standard because it expands the number of firms required to maintain an acceptable standard of
cybersecurity. However, like the federal legislation, it requires a reasonable level of
cybersecurity, which leaves much room for interpretation until case law is established.
[11]

Other government efforts
In addition to regulation, the federal government has tried to improve cybersecurity by allocating
more resources to research and collaborating with the private-sector to write standards. In 2003,
the Presidents National Strategy to Secure Cyberspace made the Department of Homeland
Security (DHS) responsible for security recommendations and researching national solutions.
The plan calls for cooperative efforts between government and industry to create an emergency
response system to cyber-attacks and to reduce the nations vulnerability to such threats.
[12]
In
2004, Congress allocated $4.7 billion toward cybersecurity and achieving many of the goals
stated in the Presidents National Strategy to Secure Cyberspace.
[13]
Some industry security
experts state that the Presidents National Strategy to Secure Cyberspace is a good first step but
is insufficient.
[14]
Bruce Schneier stated that The National Strategy to Secure Cyberspace hasnt
secured anything yet.
[15]
However, the Presidents National Strategy clearly states that the
purpose is to provide a framework for the owners of computer systems to improve their security
rather than the government taking over and solving the problem.
[16]
Yet, companies that
participate in the collaborative efforts outlined in the strategy are not required to adopt the
discovered security solutions.
In the European Union, draft legislation would "require all companies to report attacks on and
breaches of their networks to local authorities, which would be obliged to make them public".
[6]

Business lobbyists, however, believe that such laws would sully brand reputations and burden
companies with high compliance costs.
[6]

In the United States, Congress is trying to make information more transparent after the Cyber
Security Act of 2012, which would have created voluntary standards for protecting vital
infrastructure, failed to pass through the Senate.
[6]
In February 2013, the White House issued an
executive order, titled "Improving Critical Infrastructure Cybersecurity," which allows the
Obama Administration to share information about threats with more companies and
individuals.
[6][7]
In April 2013, the House of Representatives passed the Cyber Intelligence
Sharing and Protection Act (CISPA), which calls for protecting against lawsuits aimed at
companies that disclose breach information.
[6]
The Obama Administration said it may veto the
bill.
[6]

Proposed regulation
The U.S. Congress has proposed numerous bills that expand upon cybersecurity regulation. The
Consumer Data Security and Notification Act amends the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act to require
disclosure of security breaches by financial institutions. Congressmen have also proposed
expanding Gramm-Leach-Bliley to all industries that touch consumer financial information,
including any firm that accepts payment by a credit card.
[17]
Congress has proposed
cybersecurity regulations similar to Californias Notice of Security Breach Act for companies
that maintain personal information. The Information Protection and Security Act requires that
data brokers ensure data accuracy and confidentiality, authenticate and track users, detect and
prevent unauthorized activity, and mitigate potential harm to individuals.
[18]

In addition to requiring companies to improve cybersecurity, Congress is also considering bills
that criminalize cyber-attacks. The Securely Protect Yourself Against Cyber Trespass Act (SPY
ACT) is a bill of this type. This bill which focuses on phishing and spyware bill that was passed
on May 23, 2005, in the United States House of Representatives and is currently in committee in
the Senate. This bill makes unlawful the unauthorized usage of a computer to take control of it,
modify its setting, collect or induce the owner to disclose personally identifiable information,
install unsolicited software, and tamper with security, anti-spyware, or anti-virus software.
[19]

On May 12, 2011, U.S. President Obama proposed a package of cybersecurity legislative
reforms to improve the security of U.S. persons, the federal government, and critical
infrastructure. A year of public debate and U.S. Congress hearings followed, resulting in the U.S.
House of Representative passing an information sharing bill and the U.S. Senate developing a
compromise bill seeking to balance national security, privacy, and business interests.
In July 2012, the Cybersecurity Act of 2012 was proposed by Senators Joseph Lieberman and
Susan Collins.
[20]
The bill would have required creating voluntary "best practice standards" for
protection of key infrastructure from cyber attacks, which businesses would be encouraged to
adopt through incentives such as liability protection.
[21]
The bill was put to a vote in the Senate
but failed to pass.
[22]
President Obama had voiced his support for the Act in a Wall Street Journal
op-ed
[23]
and it also received support from officials in the military and national security including
John O. Brennan, the chief counterterrorism adviser to the White House.
[24][25]
According to The
Washington Post, experts said that the failure to pass the act may leave the United States
"vulnerable to widespread hacking or a serious cyberattack".
[26]
The act was opposed by
Republican senators including John McCain who was concerned that the act would introduce
regulations that would not be effective and could be a "burden" for businesses.
[27]
After the
senate vote, Republican senator Kay Bailey Hutchison stated that the opposition to the bill was
not a partisan issue, but rather that the Act did not take the right approach to cybersecurity.
[28]
The
senate vote was not strictly along partisan lines, six Democrats voted against the Act, while five
Republicans voted in favor.
[29]
Critics of the bill included the U.S. Chamber of Commerce,
[30]

advocacy groups including the American Civil Liberties Union and the Electronic Frontier
Foundation,
[31]
cybersecurity expert Jody Westby and The Heritage Foundation, both of whom
argued that although the government does need to act on cybersecurity, the 2012 bill was flawed
in its approach and represented "too intrusive a federal role".
[32]

In February 2013, President Obama proposed the Executive Order Improving Critical
Infrastructure Cybersecurity. It represents the latest iteration of policy, but is not considered to be
law as it hasnt been addressed by Congress yet. It seeks to improve existing public-private
partnerships by enhancing timeliness of information flow between DHS and critical
infrastructure companies. It directs federal agencies to share cyber threat intelligence warnings to
any private sector entity identified as a target. It also tasks DHS with improving the process to
expedite security clearance processes for applicable public and private sector entities to enable
the federal government to share this information at the appropriate sensitive and classified levels.
It directs the development of a framework to reduce cyber risks, incorporating current industry
best practices and voluntary standards. Lastly, it tasks the federal agencies involved with
incorporating privacy and civil liberties protections in line with Fair Information Practice
Principles.
[8]

Pro-regulation opinions
While experts agree that cybersecurity improvements are necessary, there is disagreement about
whether the solution is more government regulation or more private-sector innovation. Many
government officials and cybersecurity experts believe that the private-sector has failed to solve
the cybersecurity problem and that regulation is needed. Richard Clarke states that, industry
only responds when you threaten regulation. If industry does not respond [to the threat], you
have to follow through.
[33]
He believes that software companies must be forced to produce more
secure programs.
[34]
Bruce Schneier also supports regulation that encourages software companies
to write more secure code through economic incentives.
[35]
U.S. Rep. Rick Boucher (DVA)
proposes improving cybersecurity by making software companies liable for security flaws in
their code.
[36]
In addition, to improving software security, Clarke believes that certain industries,
such as utilities and ISPs, require regulation.
[37]

Anti-regulation opinions
On the other hand, many private-sector executives believe that more regulation will restrict their
ability to improve cybersecurity. Harris Miller, president of the Information Technology
Association of America, believes that regulation inhibits innovation.
[38]
Rick White, President
and CEO of TechNet, also opposes more regulation. He states that, the private-sector must
continue to be able to innovate and adapt in response to new attack methods in cyber space, and
toward that end, we commend President Bush and the Congress for exercising regulatory
restraint.
[39]
Another reason many private-sector executives oppose regulation is because it is
costly. Firms are just as concerned about regulation reducing profits as they are about regulation
limiting their flexibility to solve the cybersecurity problem efficiently.
Cyber security standardsComputer security
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Computer security (also known as cybersecurity or IT security) is information security as
applied to computers and computer networks.
The field covers all the processes and mechanisms by which computer-based equipment,
information and services are protected from unintended or unauthorized access, change or
destruction. Computer security also includes protection from unplanned events and natural
disasters.
The worldwide security technology and services market is forecast to reach $67.2 billion in
2013, up 8.7 percent from $61.8 billion in 2012, according to Gartner, Inc.
[1]



Vulnerabilities
Main article: Vulnerability (computing)
To understand the techniques for securing a computer system, it is important to first understand
the various types of "attacks" that can be made against it. These threats can typically be classified
into one of these seven categories:
Backdoors
A backdoor in a computer system (or cryptosystem or algorithm) is a method of bypassing
normal authentication, securing remote access to a computer, obtaining access to plaintext, and
so on, while attempting to remain undetected. The backdoor may take the form of an installed
program (e.g., Back Orifice), or could be a modification to an existing program or hardware
device. A specific form of backdoor is a rootkit, which replaces system binaries and/or hooks
into the function calls of an operating system to hide the presence of other programs, users,
services and open ports. It may also fake information about disk and memory usage.
Denial-of-service attack
Main article: Denial-of-service attack
Unlike other exploits, denial of service attacks are not used to gain unauthorized access or
control of a system. They are instead designed to render it unusable. Attackers can deny service
to individual victims, such as by deliberately entering a wrong password three consecutive times
and thus causing the victim account to be locked, or they may overload the capabilities of a
machine or network and block all users at once. These types of attack are, in practice, very hard
to prevent, because the behavior of whole networks needs to be analyzed, not only the behaviour
of small pieces of code. Distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks are common, where a large
number of compromised hosts (commonly referred to as "zombie computers", used as part of a
botnet with, for example; a worm, trojan horse, or backdoor exploit to control them) are used to
flood a target system with network requests, thus attempting to render it unusable through
resource exhaustion. Another technique to exhaust victim resources is through the use of an
attack amplifier, where the attacker takes advantage of poorly designed protocols on third-party
machines, such as FTP or DNS, in order to instruct these hosts to launch the flood. There are also
commonly found vulnerabilities in applications that cannot be used to take control over a
computer, but merely make the target application malfunction or crash. This is known as a
denial-of-service exploit.
Direct access attacks


Common consumer devices that can be used to transfer data surreptitiously.
Someone who has gained access to a computer can install different types of devices to
compromise security, including operating system modifications, software worms, key loggers,
and covert listening devices. The attacker can also easily download large quantities of data onto
backup media, for instance CD-R/DVD-R, tape; or portable devices such as keydrives, digital
cameras or digital audio players. Another common technique is to boot an operating system
contained on a CD-ROM or other bootable media and read the data from the harddrive(s) this
way. The only way to defeat this is to encrypt the storage media and store the key separate from
the system.
Eavesdropping
Eavesdropping is the act of surreptitiously listening to a private conversation, typically between
hosts on a network. For instance, programs such as Carnivore and NarusInsight have been used
by the FBI and NSA to eavesdrop on the systems of internet service providers. Even machines
that operate as a closed system (i.e., with no contact to the outside world) can be eavesdropped
upon via monitoring the faint electro-magnetic transmissions generated by the hardware such as
TEMPEST.
Exploits
Main article: Exploit (computer security)
An exploit (from the same word in the French language, meaning "achievement", or
"accomplishment") is a piece of software, a chunk of data, or sequence of commands that take
advantage of a software "bug" or "glitch" in order to cause unintended or unanticipated behavior
to occur on computer software, hardware, or something electronic (usually computerized). This
frequently includes such things as gaining control of a computer system or allowing privilege
escalation or a denial of service attack. Many development methodologies rely on testing to
ensure the quality of any code released; this process often fails to discover unusual potential
exploits. The term "exploit" generally refers to small programs designed to take advantage of a
software flaw that has been discovered, either remote or local. The code from the exploit
program is frequently reused in trojan horses and computer viruses. In some cases, a
vulnerability can lie in certain programs' processing of a specific file type, such as a non-
executable media file. Some security web sites maintain lists of currently known unpatched
vulnerabilities found in common programs (see "External links" below).
Indirect attacks
An indirect attack is an attack launched by a third-party computer. By using someone else's
computer to launch an attack, it becomes far more difficult to track down the actual attacker.
There have also been cases where attackers took advantage of public anonymizing systems, such
as the tor onion router system.
Social engineering and human error
Main article: Social engineering (security)
See also: Category:Cryptographic attacks
A computer system is no more secure than the human systems responsible for its operation.
Malicious individuals have regularly penetrated well-designed, secure computer systems by
taking advantage of the carelessness of trusted individuals, or by deliberately deceiving them, for
example sending messages that they are the system administrator and asking for passwords. This
deception is known as social engineering.
In the world of information technology there are different types of cyber attacklike code
injection to a website or utilising malware (malicious software) such as virus, trojans, or similar.
These kind of attacks are counteracted managing or improving the damaged product. But there is
one last type, social engineering, which does not directly affect the computers but instead their
users, which are also known as "the weakest link". This type of attack is capable of achieving
similar results to other class of cyber attacks, by going around the infrastructure established to
resist malicious software; since being more difficult to calculate or prevent, it is many times a
more efficient attack vector.
The main target is to convince the user by means of psychological ways to disclose his or her
personal information such as passwords, card numbers, etc. by, for example, impersonating the
services company or the bank.
[2]

Vulnerable areas
Computer security is critical in almost any technology-driven industry which operates on
computer systems. The issues of computer based systems and addressing their countless
vulnerabilities are an integral part of maintaining an operational industry.
[3]

Cloud computing
Security in the cloud is challenging,
[citation needed]
due to varied degrees of security features and
management schemes within the cloud entities. In this connection one logical protocol base
needs to evolve so that the entire gamut of components operates synchronously and
securely.
[original research?]

Aviation
The aviation industry is especially important when analyzing computer security because the
involved risks include human life, expensive equipment, cargo, and transportation infrastructure.
Security can be compromised by hardware and software malpractice, human error, and faulty
operating environments. Threats that exploit computer vulnerabilities can stem from sabotage,
espionage, industrial competition, terrorist attack, mechanical malfunction, and human error.
[4]

The consequences of a successful deliberate or inadvertent misuse of a computer system in the
aviation industry range from loss of confidentiality to loss of system integrity, which may lead to
more serious concerns such as data theft or loss, network and air traffic control outages, which in
turn can lead to airport closures, loss of aircraft, loss of passenger life. Military systems that
control munitions can pose an even greater risk.
A proper attack does not need to be very high tech or well funded; for a power outage at an
airport alone can cause repercussions worldwide.
[5]
One of the easiest and, arguably, the most
difficult to trace security vulnerabilities is achievable by transmitting unauthorized
communications over specific radio frequencies. These transmissions may spoof air traffic
controllers or simply disrupt communications altogether. These incidents are very common,
having altered flight courses of commercial aircraft and caused panic and confusion in the
past.
[citation needed]
Controlling aircraft over oceans is especially dangerous because radar
surveillance only extends 175 to 225 miles offshore. Beyond the radar's sight controllers must
rely on periodic radio communications with a third party.
Lightning, power fluctuations, surges, brownouts, blown fuses, and various other power outages
instantly disable all computer systems, since they are dependent on an electrical source. Other
accidental and intentional faults have caused significant disruption of safety critical systems
throughout the last few decades and dependence on reliable communication and electrical power
only jeopardizes computer safety.
[citation needed]

Financial cost of security breaches
Serious financial damage has been caused by security breaches, but because there is no standard
model for estimating the cost of an incident, the only data available is that which is made public
by the organizations involved. Several computer security consulting firms produce estimates of
total worldwide losses attributable to virus and worm attacks and to hostile digital acts in
general. The 2003 loss estimates by these firms range from $13 billion (worms and viruses only)
to $226 billion (for all forms of covert attacks). The reliability of these estimates is often
challenged; the underlying methodology is basically anecdotal.
[6]

Insecurities in operating systems have led to a massive black market
[citation needed]
for rogue
software. An attacker can use a security hole to install software that tricks the user into buying a
product. At that point, an affiliate program pays the affiliate responsible for generating that
installation about $30. The software is sold for between $50 and $75 per license.
[7]

Reasons
There are many similarities (yet many fundamental differences) between computer and physical
security. Just like real-world security, the motivations for breaches of computer security vary
between attackers, sometimes called hackers or crackers. Some are thrill-seekers or vandals (the
kind often responsible for defacing web sites); similarly, some web site defacements are done to
make political statements. However, some attackers are highly skilled and motivated with the
goal of compromising computers for financial gain or espionage.
[citation needed]
An example of the
latter is Markus Hess (more diligent than skilled), who spied for the KGB and was ultimately
caught because of the efforts of Clifford Stoll, who wrote a memoir, The Cuckoo's Egg, about his
experiences.
For those seeking to prevent security breaches, the first step is usually to attempt to identify what
might motivate an attack on the system, how much the continued operation and information
security of the system are worth, and who might be motivated to breach it. The precautions
required for a home personal computer are very different for those of banks' Internet banking
systems, and different again for a classified military network. Other computer security writers
suggest that, since an attacker using a network need know nothing about you or what you have
on your computer, attacker motivation is inherently impossible to determine beyond guessing. If
true, blocking all possible attacks is the only plausible action to take.
Computer protection
There are numerous ways to protect computers, including utilizing security-aware design
techniques, building on secure operating systems and installing hardware devices designed to
protect the computer systems.
Security and systems design
Although there are many aspects to take into consideration when designing a computer system,
security can prove to be very important. According to Symantec, in 2010, 94 percent of
organizations polled expect to implement security improvements to their computer systems, with
42 percent claiming cyber security as their top risk.
[8]

At the same time, many organizations are improving security and many types of cyber criminals
are finding ways to continue their activities. Almost every type of cyber attack is on the rise. In
2009 respondents to the CSI Computer Crime and Security Survey admitted that malware
infections, denial-of-service attacks, password sniffing, and web site defacements were
significantly higher than in the previous two years.
[9]

Security measures
A state of computer "security" is the conceptual ideal, attained by the use of the three processes:
threat prevention, detection and response. These processes are based on various policies and
system components, which include the following:
User account access controls and cryptography can protect systems files and data, respectively.
Firewalls are by far the most common prevention systems from a network security perspective
as they can (if properly configured) shield access to internal network services, and block certain
kinds of attacks through packet filtering. Firewalls can be both hardware- or software-based.
Intrusion Detection Systems (IDSs) are designed to detect network attacks in progress and assist
in post-attack forensics, while audit trails and logs serve a similar function for individual systems.
"Response" is necessarily defined by the assessed security requirements of an individual system
and may cover the range from simple upgrade of protections to notification of legal authorities,
counter-attacks, and the like. In some special cases, a complete destruction of the compromised
system is favored, as it may happen that not all the compromised resources are detected.
Today, computer security comprises mainly "preventive" measures, like firewalls or an exit
procedure. A firewall can be defined as a way of filtering network data between a host or a
network and another network, such as the Internet, and can be implemented as software running
on the machine, hooking into the network stack (or, in the case of most UNIX-based operating
systems such as Linux, built into the operating system kernel) to provide real time filtering and
blocking. Another implementation is a so-called physical firewall which consists of a separate
machine filtering network traffic. Firewalls are common amongst machines that are permanently
connected to the Internet.
However, relatively few organisations maintain computer systems with effective detection
systems, and fewer still have organised response mechanisms in place. As result, as Reuters
points out: Companies for the first time report they are losing more through electronic theft of
data than physical stealing of assets.
[10]
The primary obstacle to effective eradication of cyber
crime could be traced to excessive reliance on firewalls and other automated "detection" systems.
Yet it is basic evidence gathering by using packet capture appliances that puts criminals behind
bars.
Difficulty with response
Responding forcefully to attempted security breaches (in the manner that one would for
attempted physical security breaches) is often very difficult for a variety of reasons:
Identifying attackers is difficult, as they are often in a different jurisdiction to the systems they
attempt to breach, and operate through proxies, temporary anonymous dial-up accounts,
wireless connections, and other anonymising procedures which make backtracing difficult and
are often located in yet another jurisdiction. If they successfully breach security, they are often
able to delete logs to cover their tracks.
The sheer number of attempted attacks is so large that organisations cannot spend time
pursuing each attacker (a typical home user with a permanent (e.g., cable modem) connection
will be attacked at least several times per day, so more attractive targets could be presumed to
see many more). Note however, that most of the sheer bulk of these attacks are made by
automated vulnerability scanners and computer worms.
Law enforcement officers are often unfamiliar with information technology, and so lack the skills
and interest in pursuing attackers. There are also budgetary constraints. It has been argued that
the high cost of technology, such as DNA testing, and improved forensics mean less money for
other kinds of law enforcement, so the overall rate of criminals not getting dealt with goes up as
the cost of the technology increases. In addition, the identification of attackers across a network
may require logs from various points in the network and in many countries, the release of these
records to law enforcement (with the exception of being voluntarily surrendered by a network
administrator or a system administrator) requires a search warrant and, depending on the
circumstances, the legal proceedings required can be drawn out to the point where the records
are either regularly destroyed, or the information is no longer relevant.
Reducing vulnerabilities
Computer code is regarded by some as a form of mathematics. It is theoretically possible to
prove the correctness of certain classes of computer programs, though the feasibility of actually
achieving this in large-scale practical systems is regarded as small by some with practical
experience in the industry; see Bruce Schneier et al.
It is also possible to protect messages in transit (i.e., communications) by means of cryptography.
One method of encryptionthe one-time padis unbreakable when correctly used. This method
was used by the Soviet Union during the Cold War, though flaws in their implementation
allowed some cryptanalysis; see the Venona project. The method uses a matching pair of key-
codes, securely distributed, which are used once-and-only-once to encode and decode a single
message. For transmitted computer encryption this method is difficult to use properly (securely),
and highly inconvenient as well. Other methods of encryption, while breakable in theory, are
often virtually impossible to directly break by any means publicly known today. Breaking them
requires some non-cryptographic input, such as a stolen key, stolen plaintext (at either end of the
transmission), or some other extra cryptanalytic information.
Social engineering and direct computer access (physical) attacks can only be prevented by non-
computer means, which can be difficult to enforce, relative to the sensitivity of the information.
Even in a highly disciplined environment, such as in military organizations, social engineering
attacks can still be difficult to foresee and prevent.
In practice, only a small fraction of computer program code is mathematically proven, or even
goes through comprehensive information technology audits or inexpensive but extremely
valuable computer security audits, so it is usually possible for a determined hacker to read, copy,
alter or destroy data in well secured computers, albeit at the cost of great time and resources.
Few attackers would audit applications for vulnerabilities just to attack a single specific system.
It is possible to reduce an attacker's chances by keeping systems up to date, using a security
scanner or/and hiring competent people responsible for security. The effects of data loss/damage
can be reduced by careful backing up and insurance.
Security by design
Main article: Secure by design
Security by design, or alternately secure by design, means that the software has been designed
from the ground up to be secure. In this case, security is considered as a main feature.
Some of the techniques in this approach include:
The principle of least privilege, where each part of the system has only the privileges that are
needed for its function. That way even if an attacker gains access to that part, they have only
limited access to the whole system.
Automated theorem proving to prove the correctness of crucial software subsystems.
Code reviews and unit testing, approaches to make modules more secure where formal
correctness proofs are not possible.
Defense in depth, where the design is such that more than one subsystem needs to be violated
to compromise the integrity of the system and the information it holds.
Default secure settings, and design to "fail secure" rather than "fail insecure" (see fail-safe for
the equivalent in safety engineering). Ideally, a secure system should require a deliberate,
conscious, knowledgeable and free decision on the part of legitimate authorities in order to
make it insecure.
Audit trails tracking system activity, so that when a security breach occurs, the mechanism and
extent of the breach can be determined. Storing audit trails remotely, where they can only be
appended to, can keep intruders from covering their tracks.
Full disclosure of all vulnerabilities, to ensure that the "window of vulnerability" is kept as short
as possible when bugs are discovered.
Security architecture
The Open Security Architecture organization defines IT security architecture as "the design
artifacts that describe how the security controls (security countermeasures) are positioned, and
how they relate to the overall information technology architecture. These controls serve the
purpose to maintain the system's quality attributes: confidentiality, integrity, availability,
accountability and assurance services".
[11]

Hardware protection mechanisms
See also: Computer security compromised by hardware failure
While hardware may be a source of insecurity, such as with microchip vulnerabilities
maliciously introduced during the manufacturing process,
[12][13]
hardware-based or assisted
computer security also offers an alternative to software-only computer security. Using devices
and methods such as dongles, trusted platform modules, intrusion-aware cases, drive locks,
disabling USB ports, and mobile-enabled access may be considered more secure due to the
physical access (or sophisticated backdoor access) required in order to be compromised. Each of
these is covered in more detail below.
USB dongles are typically used in software licensing schemes to unlock software capabilities,
[14]

but they can also be seen as a way to prevent unauthorized access to a computer or other
device's software. The dongle, or key, essentially creates a secure encrypted tunnel between the
software application and the key. The principle is that an encryption scheme on the dongle, such
as Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) provides a stronger measure of security, since it is
harder to hack and replicate the dongle than to simply copy the native software to another
machine and use it. Another security application for dongles is to use them for accessing web-
based content such as cloud software or Virtual Private Networks (VPNs).
[15]
In addition, a USB
dongle can be configured to lock or unlock a computer.
[16]

Trusted platform modules (TPMs) secure devices by integrating cryptographic capabilities onto
access devices, through the use of microprocessors, or so-called computers-on-a-chip. TPMs
used in conjunction with server-side software offer a way to detect and authenticate hardware
devices, preventing unauthorized network and data access.
[17]

Computer case intrusion detection refers to a push-button switch which is triggered when a
computer case is opened. The firmware or BIOS is programmed to show an alert to the operator
when the computer is booted up the next time.
Drive locks are essentially software tools to encrypt hard drives, making them inaccessible to
thieves.
[18]
Tools exist specifically for encrypting external drives as well.
[19]

Disabling USB ports is a security option for preventing unauthorized and malicious access to an
otherwise secure computer. Infected USB dongles connected to a network from a computer
inside the firewall are considered by Network World as the most common hardware threat
facing computer networks.
[20]

Mobile-enabled access devices are growing in popularity due to the ubiquitous nature of cell
phones. Built-in capabilities such as Bluetooth, the newer Bluetooth low energy (LE), Near field
communication (NFC) on non-iOS devices and biometric validation such as thumb print readers,
as well as QR code reader software designed for mobile devices, offer new, secure ways for
mobile phones to connect to access control systems. These control systems provide computer
security and can also be used for controlling access to secure buildings.
[21]

Secure operating systems
Main article: Security-focused operating system
One use of the term "computer security" refers to technology that is used to implement secure
operating systems. Much of this technology is based on science developed in the 1980s and used
to produce what may be some of the most impenetrable operating systems ever. Though still
valid, the technology is in limited use today, primarily because it imposes some changes to
system management and also because it is not widely understood. Such ultra-strong secure
operating systems are based on operating system kernel technology that can guarantee that
certain security policies are absolutely enforced in an operating environment. An example of
such a Computer security policy is the Bell-LaPadula model. The strategy is based on a coupling
of special microprocessor hardware features, often involving the memory management unit, to a
special correctly implemented operating system kernel. This forms the foundation for a secure
operating system which, if certain critical parts are designed and implemented correctly, can
ensure the absolute impossibility of penetration by hostile elements. This capability is enabled
because the configuration not only imposes a security policy, but in theory completely protects
itself from corruption. Ordinary operating systems, on the other hand, lack the features that
assure this maximal level of security. The design methodology to produce such secure systems is
precise, deterministic and logical.
Systems designed with such methodology represent the state of the art
[clarification needed]
of
computer security although products using such security are not widely known. In sharp contrast
to most kinds of software, they meet specifications with verifiable certainty comparable to
specifications for size, weight and power. Secure operating systems designed this way are used
primarily to protect national security information, military secrets, and the data of international
financial institutions. These are very powerful security tools and very few secure operating
systems have been certified at the highest level (Orange Book A-1) to operate over the range of
"Top Secret" to "unclassified" (including Honeywell SCOMP, USAF SACDIN, NSA Blacker
and Boeing MLS LAN). The assurance of security depends not only on the soundness of the
design strategy, but also on the assurance of correctness of the implementation, and therefore
there are degrees of security strength defined for COMPUSEC. The Common Criteria quantifies
security strength of products in terms of two components, security functionality and assurance
level (such as EAL levels), and these are specified in a Protection Profile for requirements and a
Security Target for product descriptions. None of these ultra-high assurance secure general
purpose operating systems have been produced for decades or certified under Common Criteria.
In USA parlance, the term High Assurance usually suggests the system has the right security
functions that are implemented robustly enough to protect DoD and DoE classified information.
Medium assurance suggests it can protect less valuable information, such as income tax
information. Secure operating systems designed to meet medium robustness levels of security
functionality and assurance have seen wider use within both government and commercial
markets. Medium robust systems may provide the same security functions as high assurance
secure operating systems but do so at a lower assurance level (such as Common Criteria levels
EAL4 or EAL5). Lower levels mean we can be less certain that the security functions are
implemented flawlessly, and therefore less dependable. These systems are found in use on web
servers, guards, database servers, and management hosts and are used not only to protect the data
stored on these systems but also to provide a high level of protection for network connections
and routing services.


Secure coding
Main article: Secure coding
If the operating environment is not based on a secure operating system capable of maintaining a
domain for its own execution, and capable of protecting application code from malicious
subversion, and capable of protecting the system from subverted code, then high degrees of
security are understandably not possible. While such secure operating systems are possible and
have been implemented, most commercial systems fall in a 'low security' category because they
rely on features not supported by secure operating systems (like portability, and others). In low
security operating environments, applications must be relied on to participate in their own
protection. There are 'best effort' secure coding practices that can be followed to make an
application more resistant to malicious subversion.
In commercial environments, the majority of software subversion vulnerabilities result from a
few known kinds of coding defects. Common software defects include buffer overflows, format
string vulnerabilities, integer overflow, and code/command injection. These defects can be used
to cause the target system to execute putative data. However, the "data" contain executable
instructions, allowing the attacker to gain control of the processor.
Some common languages such as C and C++ are vulnerable to all of these defects (see Seacord,
"Secure Coding in C and C++").
[22]
Other languages, such as Java, are more resistant to some of
these defects, but are still prone to code/command injection and other software defects which
facilitate subversion.
Another bad coding practice occurs when an object is deleted during normal operation yet the
program neglects to update any of the associated memory pointers, potentially causing system
instability when that location is referenced again. This is called dangling pointer, and the first
known exploit for this particular problem was presented in July 2007. Before this publication the
problem was known but considered to be academic and not practically exploitable.
[23]

Unfortunately, there is no theoretical model of "secure coding" practices, nor is one practically
achievable, insofar as the code (ideally, read-only) and data (generally read/write) generally
tends to have some form of defect.
Capabilities and access control lists
Main articles: Access control list and Capability (computers)
Within computer systems, two security models capable of enforcing privilege separation are
access control lists (ACLs) and capability-based security. Using ACLs to confine programs has
been proven to be insecure in many situations, such as if the host computer can be tricked into
indirectly allowing restricted file access, an issue known as the confused deputy problem. It has
also been shown that the promise of ACLs of giving access to an object to only one person can
never be guaranteed in practice. Both of these problems are resolved by capabilities. This does
not mean practical flaws exist in all ACL-based systems, but only that the designers of certain
utilities must take responsibility to ensure that they do not introduce flaws.
[citation needed]

Capabilities have been mostly restricted to research operating systems, while commercial OSs
still use ACLs. Capabilities can, however, also be implemented at the language level, leading to
a style of programming that is essentially a refinement of standard object-oriented design. An
open source project in the area is the E language.
The most secure computers are those not connected to the Internet and shielded from any
interference. In the real world, the most secure systems are operating systems where security is
not an add-on.
Hacking back
There has been a significant debate regarding the legality of hacking back against digital
attackers (who attempt to or successfully breach an individual's, entity's, or nation's computer).
The arguments for such counter-attacks are based on notions of equity, active defense,
vigilantism, and the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (CFAA). The arguments against the practice
are primarily based on the legal definitions of "intrusion" and "unauthorized access", as defined
by the CFAA. As of October 2012, the debate is ongoing.
[24]

Notable computer breaches
Several notable computer breaches are discussed below.
Rome Laboratory
In 1994, over a hundred intrusions were made by unidentified crackers into the Rome
Laboratory, the US Air Force's main command and research facility. Using trojan horses,
hackers were able to obtain unrestricted access to Rome's networking systems and remove traces
of their activities. The intruders were able to obtain classified files, such as air tasking order
systems data and furthermore able to penetrate connected networks of National Aeronautics and
Space Administration's Goddard Space Flight Center, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, some
Defense contractors, and other private sector organizations, by posing as a trusted Rome center
user.
[25]

Robert Morris and the first computer worm
One event shows what mainstream generative technology leads to in terms of online security
breaches, and is also the story of the Internet's first worm.
In 1988, 60,000 computers were connected to the Internet, but not all of them were PCs. Most
were mainframes, minicomputers and professional workstations. On November 2, 1988, the
computers acted strangely. They started to slow down, because they were running a malicious
code that demanded processor time and that spread itself to other computers. The purpose of
such software was to transmit a copy to the machines and run in parallel with existing software
and repeat all over again. It exploited a flaw in a common e-mail transmission program running
on a computer by rewriting it to facilitate its entrance or it guessed users' password, because, at
that time, passwords were simple (e.g. username 'harry' with a password '...harry') or were
obviously related to a list of 432 common passwords tested at each computer.
[26]

The software was traced back to 23 year old Cornell University graduate student Robert Tappan
Morris, Jr. When questioned about the motive for his actions, Morris said 'he wanted to count
how many machines were connected to the Internet'.
[26]
His explanation was verified with his
code, but it turned out to be buggy, nevertheless.
Legal issues and global regulation
Some of the main challenges and complaints about the antivirus industry are the lack of global
web regulations, a global base of common rules to judge, and eventually punish, cyber crimes
and cyber criminals. In fact, nowadays, even if an antivirus firm locates the cyber criminal
behind the creation of a particular virus or piece of malware or again one form of cyber attack,
often the local authorities cannot take action due to lack of laws under which to prosecute.
[27][28]

This is mainly caused by the fact that many countries have their own regulations regarding cyber
crimes.
"[Computer viruses] switch from one country to another, from one jurisdiction to another
moving around the world, using the fact that we don't have the capability to globally police
operations like this. So the Internet is as if someone [had] given free plane tickets to all the
online criminals of the world."
[27]
(Mikko Hyppnen)
Businesses are eager to expand to less developed countries due to the low cost of labor, says
White et al. (2012). However, these countries are the ones with the least amount of Internet
safety measures, and the Internet Service Providers are not so focused on implementing those
safety measures (2010). Instead, they are putting their main focus on expanding their business,
which exposes them to an increase in criminal activity.
[29]

In response to the growing problem of cyber crime, the European Commission established the
European Cybercrime Centre (EC3).
[30]
The EC3 effectively opened on 1 January 2013 and will
be the focal point in the EU's fight against cyber crime, contributing to faster reaction to online
crimes. It will support member states and the EU's institutions in building an operational and
analytical capacity for investigations, as well as cooperation with international partners.
[31]




Computer security policies
Country-specific computer security policies are discussed below.
United States
See also: Cyber security standards
Cybersecurity Act of 2010
On July 1, 2009, Senator Jay Rockefeller (D-WV) introduced the "Cybersecurity Act of 2009 -
S. 773"
[32]
in the Senate; the bill, co-written with Senators Evan Bayh (D-IN), Barbara Mikulski
(D-MD), Bill Nelson (D-FL), and Olympia Snowe (R-ME), was referred to the Committee on
Commerce, Science, and Transportation, which approved a revised version of the same bill (the
"Cybersecurity Act of 2010") on March 24, 2010.
[33]
The bill seeks to increase collaboration
between the public and the private sector on cybersecurity issues, especially those private entities
that own infrastructures that are critical to national security interests (the bill quotes John
Brennan, the Assistant to the President for Homeland Security and Counterterrorism: "our
nations security and economic prosperity depend on the security, stability, and integrity of
communications and information infrastructure that are largely privately owned and globally
operated" and talks about the country's response to a "cyber-Katrina"),
[34]
increase public
awareness on cybersecurity issues, and foster and fund cybersecurity research. Some of the most
controversial parts of the bill include Paragraph 315, which grants the President the right to
"order the limitation or shutdown of Internet traffic to and from any compromised Federal
Government or United States critical infrastructure information system or network."
[34]
The
Electronic Frontier Foundation, an international non-profit digital rights advocacy and legal
organization based in the United States, characterized the bill as promoting a "potentially
dangerous approach that favors the dramatic over the sober response".
[35]

International Cybercrime Reporting and Cooperation Act
On March 25, 2010, Representative Yvette Clarke (D-NY) introduced the "International
Cybercrime Reporting and Cooperation Act - H.R.4962"
[36]
in the House of Representatives; the
bill, co-sponsored by seven other representatives (among whom only one Republican), was
referred to three House committees.
[37]
The bill seeks to make sure that the administration keeps
Congress informed on information infrastructure, cybercrime, and end-user protection
worldwide. It also "directs the President to give priority for assistance to improve legal, judicial,
and enforcement capabilities with respect to cybercrime to countries with low information and
communications technology levels of development or utilization in their critical infrastructure,
telecommunications systems, and financial industries"
[37]
as well as to develop an action plan and
an annual compliance assessment for countries of "cyber concern".
[37]

Protecting Cyberspace as a National Asset Act of 2010
On June 19, 2010, United States Senator Joe Lieberman (I-CT) introduced a bill called
"Protecting Cyberspace as a National Asset Act of 2010 - S.3480"
[38]
which he co-wrote with
Senator Susan Collins (R-ME) and Senator Thomas Carper (D-DE). If signed into law, this
controversial bill, which the American media dubbed the "Kill switch bill", would grant the
President emergency powers over the Internet. However, all three co-authors of the bill issued a
statement claiming that instead, the bill "[narrowed] existing broad Presidential authority to take
over telecommunications networks".
[39]

White House proposes cybersecurity legislation
On May 12, 2011, the White House sent Congress a proposed cybersecurity law designed to
force companies to do more to fend off cyberattacks, a threat that has been reinforced by recent
reports about vulnerabilities in systems used in power and water utilities.
[40]

Executive order 13636 Improving Critical Infrastructure Cybersecurity was signed February 12,
2013.
Germany
Berlin starts National Cyber Defense Initiative
On June 16, 2011, the German Minister for Home Affairs, officially opened the new German
NCAZ (National Center for Cyber Defense) Nationales Cyber-Abwehrzentrum, which is located
in Bonn. The NCAZ closely cooperates with BSI (Federal Office for Information Security)
Bundesamt fr Sicherheit in der Informationstechnik, BKA (Federal Police Organisation)
Bundeskriminalamt (Deutschland), BND (Federal Intelligence Service)
Bundesnachrichtendienst, MAD (Military Intelligence Service) Amt fr den Militrischen
Abschirmdienst and other national organisations in Germany taking care of national security
aspects. According to the Minister the primary task of the new organisation founded on February
23, 2011, is to detect and prevent attacks against the national infrastructure and mentioned
incidents like Stuxnet.
South Korea
Following cyberattacks in the first half of 2013, whereby government, news-media, television
station, and bank websites were compromised, the national government committed to the training
of 5,000 new cybersecurity experts by 2017. The South Korean government blamed its northern
counterpart on these attacks, as well as incidents that occurred in 2009, 2011, and 2012, but
Pyongyang denies the accusations.
[41]

Seoul, March 7, 2011 - South Korean police have contacted 35 countries to ask for cooperation
in tracing the origin of a massive cyber attack on the Web sites of key government and financial
institutions, amid a nationwide cyber security alert issued against further threats. The Web sites
of about 30 key South Korean government agencies and financial institutions came under a so-
called distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attack for two days from Friday, with about 50,000
"zombie" computers infected with a virus seeking simultaneous access to selected sites and
swamping them with traffic. As soon as the copies of overseas servers are obtained, the cyber
investigation unit will analyse the data to track down the origin of the attacks made from
countries, including the United States, Russia, Italy and Israel, the NPA noted.
[42]

In late September 2013, a computer-security competition jointly sponsored by the defense
ministry and the National Intelligence Service was announced. The winners will be announced
on September 29, 2013 and will share a total prize pool of 80 million won (US$74,000).
[41]

The cyber security job market
Cyber Security is a growing field. This field is one that many other people are not aware of and
the jobs are increasing throughout the years. Since technology is improving every year, the
number of jobs in cybersecurity is increasing as well. Cyber security has to do with making sure
that hackers and data breaches do not happen. These are things that could cause a serious threat
to our government and it is important to keep files disclosed. These threats happen everyday, the
most common is probably identity theft. There are many cybersecurity student programs out
there that can help one pursue a career.
[43]

Below are job titles and descriptions to give one an idea of the job roles:
[44]

Security Analyst
Analyzes and assesses vulnerabilities in the infrastructure (software, hardware, networks),
investigates available tools and countermeasures to remedy the detected vulnerabilities, and
recommends solutions and best practices. Analyzes and assesses damage to the
data/infrastructure as a result of security incidents, examines available recovery tools and
processes, and recommends solutions. Tests for compliance with security policies and
procedures. May assist in the creation, implementation, and/or management of security
solutions.
Security Engineer
Performs security monitoring, security and data/logs analysis, and forensic analysis, to detect
security incidents, and mounts incident response. Investigates and utilizes new technologies and
processes to enhance security capabilities and implement improvements.
Security Architect
Designs a security system or major components of a security system, and may head a security
design team building a new security system.
Security Administrator
Installs and manages organization-wide security systems. May also take on some of the tasks of
a security analyst in smaller organizations.
Chief Information Security Officer
A high-level management position responsible for the entire information security division/staff.
The position may include hands-on technical work.
Security Consultant/Specialist
Broad titles that encompass any one or all of the other roles/titles, tasked with protecting
computers, networks, software, data, and/or information systems against viruses, worms,
spyware, malware, intrusion detection, unauthorized access, denial-of-service attacks, and an
ever increasing list of attacks by hackers acting as individuals or as part of organized crime or
foreign governments.

Terminology
The following terms used with regards to engineering secure systems are explained below.
Access authorization restricts access to a computer to group of users through the use of
authentication systems. These systems can protect either the whole computer such as through
an interactive login screen or individual services, such as an FTP server. There are many
methods for identifying and authenticating users, such as passwords, identification cards, and,
more recently, smart cards and biometric systems.
Anti-virus software consists of computer programs that attempt to identify, thwart and
eliminate computer viruses and other malicious software (malware).
Applications with known security flaws should not be run. Either leave it turned off until it can
be patched or otherwise fixed, or delete it and replace it with some other application. Publicly
known flaws are the main entry used by worms to automatically break into a system and then
spread to other systems connected to it. The security website Secunia provides a search tool for
unpatched known flaws in popular products.
Authentication techniques can be used to ensure that communication end-points are who they
say they are.
Automated theorem proving and other verification tools can enable critical algorithms and code
used in secure systems to be mathematically proven to meet their specifications.
Backups are a way of securing information; they are another copy of all the important computer
files kept in another location. These files are kept on hard disks, CD-Rs, CD-RWs, tapes and more
recently on the cloud. Suggested locations for backups are a fireproof, waterproof, and heat
proof safe, or in a separate, offsite location than that in which the original files are contained.
Some individuals and companies also keep their backups in safe deposit boxes inside bank
vaults. There is also a fourth option, which involves using one of the file hosting services that
backs up files over the Internet for both business and individuals, known as the cloud.
o Backups are also important for reasons other than security. Natural disasters, such as
earthquakes, hurricanes, or tornadoes, may strike the building where the computer is
located. The building can be on fire, or an explosion may occur. There needs to be a
recent backup at an alternate secure location, in case of such kind of disaster. Further, it
is recommended that the alternate location be placed where the same disaster would
not affect both locations. Examples of alternate disaster recovery sites being
compromised by the same disaster that affected the primary site include having had a
primary site in World Trade Center I and the recovery site in 7 World Trade Center, both
of which were destroyed in the 9/11 attack, and having one's primary site and recovery
site in the same coastal region, which leads to both being vulnerable to hurricane
damage (for example, primary site in New Orleans and recovery site in Jefferson Parish,
both of which were hit by Hurricane Katrina in 2005). The backup media should be
moved between the geographic sites in a secure manner, in order to prevent them from
being stolen.
Capability and access control list techniques can be used to ensure privilege separation and
mandatory access control. This section discusses their use.
Chain of trust techniques can be used to attempt to ensure that all software loaded has been
certified as authentic by the system's designers.
Confidentiality is the nondisclosure of information except to another authorized person.
[45]

Cryptographic techniques can be used to defend data in transit between systems, reducing the
probability that data exchanged between systems can be intercepted or modified.
Data integrity is the accuracy and consistency of stored data, indicated by an absence of any
alteration in data between two updates of a data record.
[46]



Cryptographic techniques involve transforming information, scrambling it so it becomes unreadable
during transmission. The intended recipient can unscramble the message; ideally, eavesdroppers
cannot.
Encryption is used to protect the message from the eyes of others. Cryptographically secure
ciphers are designed to make any practical attempt of breaking infeasible. Symmetric-key
ciphers are suitable for bulk encryption using shared keys, and public-key encryption using
digital certificates can provide a practical solution for the problem of securely communicating
when no key is shared in advance.
Endpoint security software helps networks to prevent data theft and virus infection at network
entry points made vulnerable by the prevalence of potentially infected portable computing
devices, such as laptops and mobile devices, and external storage devices, such as USB drives.
[47]

Firewalls are an important method for control and security on the Internet and other networks.
A network firewall can be a communications processor, typically a router, or a dedicated server,
along with firewall software. A firewall serves as a gatekeeper system that protects a company's
intranets and other computer networks from intrusion by providing a filter and safe transfer
point for access to and from the Internet and other networks. It screens all network traffic for
proper passwords or other security codes and only allows authorized transmission in and out of
the network. Firewalls can deter, but not completely prevent, unauthorized access (hacking)
into computer networks; they can also provide some protection from online intrusion.
Honey pots are computers that are either intentionally or unintentionally left vulnerable to
attack by crackers. They can be used to catch crackers or fix vulnerabilities.
Intrusion-detection systems can scan a network for people that are on the network but who
should not be there or are doing things that they should not be doing, for example trying a lot of
passwords to gain access to the network.
A microkernel is the near-minimum amount of software that can provide the mechanisms to
implement an operating system. It is used solely to provide very low-level, very precisely defined
machine code upon which an operating system can be developed. A simple example is the early
'90s GEMSOS (Gemini Computers), which provided extremely low-level machine code, such as
"segment" management, atop which an operating system could be built. The theory (in the case
of "segments") was thatrather than have the operating system itself worry about mandatory
access separation by means of military-style labelingit is safer if a low-level, independently
scrutinized module can be charged solely with the management of individually labeled
segments, be they memory "segments" or file system "segments" or executable text
"segments." If software below the visibility of the operating system is (as in this case) charged
with labeling, there is no theoretically viable means for a clever hacker to subvert the labeling
scheme, since the operating system per se does not provide mechanisms for interfering with
labeling: the operating system is, essentially, a client (an "application," arguably) atop the
microkernel and, as such, subject to its restrictions.
Pinging The ping application can be used by potential crackers to find if an IP address is
reachable. If a cracker finds a computer, they can try a port scan to detect and attack services on
that computer.
Social engineering awareness keeps employees aware of the dangers of social engineering
and/or having a policy in place to prevent social engineering can reduce successful breaches of
the network and servers.