Journal of Marketing Management, 2006, 22, 489-504

ISSN1472-1376/2006/5-6/00489 + 15 Westburn Publishers Ltd.

Simon Hudson
1

and David Hudson
2

Branded Entertainment: A New
Advertising Technique or
Product Placement in Disguise?



Haskayne School of Business,
University of Calgary

Leicester Business School,
De Montfort University
In the last few decades product placement has
matured and become more sophisticated.
Branded products are no longer just placed;
they are woven into entertainment content
making a stronger emotional connection with
the consumer. The outcome is a concept the
advertising industry is calling branded
entertainment, a convergence of advertising and
entertainment. This article considers whether or
not branded entertainment is a new technique,
or just another form of product placement. By
tracking the evolution of product placement and
from an analysis of the two concepts, it is
suggested that branded entertainment is a new
term to describe a more contemporary,
sophisticated use of product placement. A
conceptual framework for understanding the
various forms of product placement is presented,
and this highlights the key influences on the
effectiveness of this fast-growing marketing
phenomenon. The important management issues
related to product placement are considered;
issues related to measurement, control, and
ethics. The article then concludes with
recommendations for further research.


Keywords: product placement, branded entertainment, advertising


1
Correspondence: Dr Simon Hudson, Associate Professor, Haskayne School of
Business, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive NW, Calgary, Alberta,
Canada, T2N 1N4, Tel: +1 (403) 220 8738, Fax: +1 (403) 282 0095, E-mail:
simon.hudson@haskayne.ucalgary.ca
2
Dr David Hudson, Principal Lecturer, Department of Marketing, Leicester
Business School, De Montfort University, Bosworth House, The Gateway, Leicester,
England LE1 9BH, Tel: +44 (116) 257 7224, Fax: +44 (116) 251 7548, E-mail:
dhmar@dmu.ac.uk

490 Simon Hudson and David Hudson

Introduction

Several researchers have indicated the importance of product placement as
an additional element of the promotional mix, and there is a growing body of
research concerning its practice. However, academics have yet to
conceptualise branded entertainment and document its impact on the
marketing landscape. This is surprising, given the level of interest in the
subject area within the industry. In 2005 alone, there were no less than 251
unique articles on the subject of branded entertainment or branded content
published in the marketing and media trade magazines (Business Source
Premier 2005; Proquest 2005). This article opens the dialogue on branded
entertainment, and begins by showing how product placement as a practice,
and by definition, has evolved over the years. A conceptual framework is
presented, with the difference between pure product placement and branded
entertainment illustrated by using a continuum that expresses the level of
brand integration with the storyline or plot. The key influences on the
effectiveness of product placement and branded entertainment are then
highlighted and discussed. The important management issues related to
branded entertainment are considered, issues related to measurement,
control, and ethics. The effectiveness of branded entertainment is a prime site
for theoretical development and the conceptual model presented in the
article identifies many research opportunities. The article therefore concludes
with recommendations for further research.

The Evolution of Product Placement

The origins of product placement can be traced back to the start of motion
pictures itself in the 1890s where Lever Brothers secured the placement of
their branded soaps in some of the earliest films made. Certainly from the
1930s onwards film producers and brand owners actively engaged in
product placement deals. Buick, for example, had a 10 picture deal with
Warner Brothers in the 1930s and US tobacco companies often paid movie
stars to endorse their brands. The advent of television in the 1950s gave
brand owners another avenue for product placement deals. Early TV
programs were often sponsored by and named after brands, like The Colgate
Comedy Hour and Kraft Television Theatre, and within these programmes
presenters would often promote the virtues of the brands. From the early
1930s until the 1980s, barter-style arrangements were in operation, whereby
the brand owner would provide free props to the production set and often
lend advertising support to promoting the film. However, the nature of these
arrangements changed in the mid-1980s with the establishment of specialist
product placement agencies, who negotiated agreements between suppliers
Branded Entertainment 491

and movie makers. The former would benefit from brand exposure and the
latter would obtain much needed financial support and gain a level of
authenticity in the production.
The more recent wave of product placement began in 1982, when Reeses
Pieces were used to lure a lumbering little alien out of hiding in the film E.T.
The placement proved profitable for the candys manufacturers, Hershey,
who saw a 65% rise in sales following the films release. Ever since, the
placement of products in movies and television has become an important
element of consumer marketing programs and has seen considerable growth
in the last 10 years (Kaikati and Kaikati 2004). Spending on this type of
marketing reached a record $4.25 billion in 2005, an increase of 22.8% from
the $3.46 billion spent in 2004 (PQ Media 2005). This growth has been
influenced by the growth of the entertainment industry. Traditionally,
advertising was placed adjacent to entertainment in order to capitalise on the
audiences the entertainment attracted. However, over the last few decades,
the entertainment industry has proliferated and entertainment is now
distributed and consumed through a variety of media. These changes have
opened the door to integrated advertising, with marketers realising that
communications via product placement can be an effective part of the
promotional mix. This type of integrated product placement has been
labelled branded entertainment by the industry and can be illustrated as a
convergence between advertising and entertainment (see Figure 1).














Figure 1. Branded Entertainment: The Convergence of Advertising and
Entertainment

For the advertiser, product placement may lead to increased awareness, a
more positive attitude towards that product, and ultimately, as in the case of
Reeses Pieces, a purchase (Karrh 1995). It is also one way of combating

ADVERTISING
ENTERTAINMENT
BRANDED
ENTERTAINMENT







492 Simon Hudson and David Hudson

growing consumer resistance to advertising and new technologies that allow
people to avoid watching commercials. For the entertainment industry, a key
objective behind using product placement is financial (Russell and Belch,
2005). Production budgets have shrunk to a point where production
companies are increasingly forced to look to alternative funds for funding.
Product placement also offers a level of authenticity for producers by adding
realism to film or television programs (Johnstone and Dodd, 2000).

Product Placement and Branded Entertainment Defined

Definitions of product placement, like its practice, have changed over the
years. An early definition that is often used is the one by Balasubramanian
(1991), who defined it as the planned entries of products into movies or
television shows that may influence viewers product beliefs and/or
behaviours favourably. Since then there have been a number of definitions
from different scholars. One key change in these definitions is the
acknowledgment that product placement occurs in media other than film or
television. However, more significantly, since dAstous and Sgun (1999)
attempted to classify different types of product placement, scholars have
used the word integration in their definitions. As for definitions of branded
entertainment, in the UK the Branded Content Marketing Association
(BCMA 2005) defines it as where advertisers create or distribute entertainment to
communicate with their customers. In the US it is defined by the Association of
National Advertisers (ANA 2005) as the integration of a product within an
appropriate context. If the academic definitions of product placement from
the last five years or so are compared to these definitions of branded
entertainment, there is a clear overlap between the two, with integration
being a common theme. It would appear that the advertising industry has
created a new term to define the more contemporary use of product
placement.
For the purposes of this article, branded entertainment is defined as the
integration of advertising into entertainment content, whereby brands are embedded
into storylines of a film, television program, or other entertainment medium. This
involves co-creation and collaboration between entertainment, media and brands.
Examples of brands creating entertainment are Coca-Cola, BMW, and Ford,
who have adopted the role of program producer (Karrh, McKee and Pardun
2003). Also, specialist agencies like 1
st
Approach in Hollywood have been set
up to assist advertisers in creating their own media productions. Others, like
The WB, have created special programs through which advertisers can pick a
scripted show and become the exclusive product-integration partner of that
show.


Branded Entertainment 493

The Institutionalisation of Branded Entertainment

Despite confusion over terminology, it is clear that branded entertainment is
an established advertising technique and an indication of its growing
importance can be seen in the increasing institutionalisation of branded
entertainment in recent years. In 1991 the Entertainment Resources and
Marketing Association (ERMA) was formed to represent the corporations
and agencies providing entertainment resources to the filmed entertainment
community. In 2003, the BCMA was launched to provide a forum for
advertising and entertainment professionals and organisations who are
involved in creating branded entertainment. In the last few years all the
major global marketing communications agency groups have set up
dedicated brand entertainment divisions. These include Omnicoms Media
Group, IPGs Magna Global, WPP Groups Mindshare, Publicis Groupes
Starcom, Interpublic Groups Initiative and Aegis Groups Carat Americas.
Branded entertainment has become a key method for multinational agencies
to penetrate certain countries like China, India, the Philippines, and Africa.
These changes in agency structures and the services they offer have come
at a time when some of the worlds leading advertisers are questioning the
future of the traditional advertising model. In the last few years some of the
worlds leading brand advertisers, such as Procter & Gamble and Coca-Cola
have called on agency and media owners to think differently about how
brands might connect with consumers in the future. Steven Heyer, Coca-
Colas president and chief operating officer, said in 2003 that he was moving
away from advertising spots and traditional product placement towards
ideas that bring entertainment value to our brands, and ideas that integrate our
brands into entertainment (Aitchison 2004).

The Product Placement-Branded Entertainment Continuum

The difference between pure product placement and branded entertainment
can be illustrated by way of a continuum that expresses the level of brand
integration with the storyline or plot. Figure 2 is an illustration of this
continuum along with the key influences on product placement effectiveness
(discussed in the next section). At one end of the continuum with no brand
integration, there is passive product placement, such as the prominent
depiction of the Coca Cola name in the program American Idol. Such
placements are less effective than other types of placement (Gupta and Lord
1998). At the other end of the continuum, the product is integrated into the
storyline for the program or film. An episode of the CTC drama The Eleventh
Hour, for example, featured Nicorettes woven into a story about a character
trying to stop smoking. Making brands intrinsic elements of plot lines like
this, distinguishes branded entertainment from the traditional use of product
494 Simon Hudson and David Hudson

placement. In the past, advertisers sought to place products in shows as soon
as they became hits. Now, advertising deals are happening alongside the
creative development. Programming sponsored by and produced for single
advertisers offers them benefits like exclusivity, reduced clutter and the
ability to incorporate products into scenes in ways that do not seem blatant
or contrived (Elliott 2006).
Branded entertainment coincides with the rise of reality television, where
a lack of scripts and a focus on real world situations lend themselves to the
integration of products and brand names. Colgate-Palmolive for example,
provided a $50,000 budget for each team on the reality show The Apprentice
whose task it was to launch Crests latest flavoured toothpaste. Branded
entertainment is now commonplace in reality shows and is seeping into
scripted shows, where products are woven in during series development
(Romano 2004). Branded entertainment in video games is also becoming
more prevalent. It is predicted that more than one-third of product
placement in video games by 2009 will be in the form of advergaming,
where advertisers create a game around a product rather than place their
brands within a well-known title (Financial Post 2005).

Key Influences on Product Placement Effectiveness

A review of the academic and practitioner literature related to the various
forms of product placement suggests that there are certain key factors that
influence the effectiveness of these marketing initiatives (see Figure 2).

Media Used
The product placement phenomenon is penetrating every form of media.
Friedman (1991), for example, has documented the wide use of brand names
to create humour in popular writings such as novels, plays, songs, and mass-
circulation newspapers and magazines. Marketers are also using the Internet
to place products. Many websites have branded computer games, cartoons,
and free graphics or offer branded animations available to download.
Similarly, BMW has expanded the boundaries of advertising formats on the
web where their short films featuring BMW automobiles are the attraction,
not an advertising distraction (Urbach et al. 2004). Movies are now littered
with product placement. Will Smiths recent film Hitch contained no fewer
than 52 featured brands including Altoids, Fritos, Citibank and Yoga
magazine. But nowhere has this practice become more prevalent or
controversial than on television. A recent ANA survey revealed that 85% of
marketers who participated in branded entertainment used commercial TV
programming. Magazines (34%), movies (31%) and video games (24%) are
the other main types of media marketers are using for branded entertainment
projects (ANA 2005).
Branded Entertainment 495



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496 Simon Hudson and David Hudson

However, several differences among the types of media must be
considered. For example, the advantages of brand placement in video games
over other media include its capacity to increase involvement due to the
reception context (active versus passive), its ability to target specific
consumer markets, and its longer shelf-life (Nelson 2002). Placement
decisions ultimately depend on the advertisers marketing goals. For an
advertiser trying to reach an international market, films may be the best
option. A typical movie with international distribution can now reach over
one hundred million consumers as it moves from box office, to video/DVD
to TV. Advertisers with more tactical objectives prefer television. TV offers a
variety of options for placement: daytime or primetime, broadcast, cable, or
syndication; comedy, drama, reality or game shows.

Brand Characteristics
Some brands lend themselves more to placement than others. In a survey
of marketers attitudes toward branded entertainment half of the
respondents who did not participate said it was because their brands did not
lend themselves to meaningful integration (ANA 2004). Many traditional
business-to-business marketers express little interest in brand placement in
TV or films, whereas fast-moving-consumer-good manufacturers like Coca-
Cola, Pepsi, Procter & Gamble, Nike Inc. and Motorola Inc. are much more
active. It has also been suggested that brand placement only works for
established brand names that are easily identifiable (Ephron 2003). However,
some research suggests that novel or atypical brands will get more notice
from viewers (Karrh 1998), a theory supported by the number of new brands
like Junior Mints and Snickers launched as a result of placements in the TV
sitcom Seinfeld. Other research suggests that ethically-charged products, such
as alcohol, cigarettes, and guns, are perceived by consumers as less
acceptable than others (Gupta and Gould 1997).

Supporting Promotional Activity
Some believe that it is impossible to achieve a call to action unless there is
a promotional campaign around the brand integration (Sauer, 2005). Firms
that buy advertising time are increasingly including product placements in
their advertising deals with networks. For example, Havas SAs MPG media-
buying arm placed Tyson Foods Incs chicken nuggets on an episode of Still
Standing on CBS, as part of an airtime package that included traditional
commercials as well as a sponsorship deal (Vranica 2004a). According to
Norm Marshall, President of NMA Entertainment & Marketing, you can
achieve reach and awareness with branded integration, but it is impossible to
inspire a call to action unless there is a promotional campaign around the
brand integration (Vranica 2004b). It is now common for companies to put
significant advertising and promotional weight behind brand placements.
Branded Entertainment 497

Successful placement and marketing campaigns include the James Bond
launch of BMW's Z3, Jeeps support of the movie Sahara, and Mattels
partnership with the Cartoon Network.

Consumer Attitudes to Product Placement
Prior research in this area indicates that consumers have a positive view
towards product placement and it seems to increase brand loyalty by
validating the purchase decisions of the consumer (Nebenzahl and Secunda
1993). Research also suggests that brand placement can have greater impact
with consumers than is typically found with comparable advertising
exposures (Karrh et al. 2003). However there are demographic and cross-
cultural differences in consumer responses to brand placement. For example,
studies show that viewers aged 15-34 exhibit a high tolerance for the
communication method, and are more likely to notice it than other age
groups (Hall 2004). There are also geographical differences in responses to
brand placement. European movie watchers object more than North
Americans to brand placement (Hall 2004), but there is a general acceptance
of brand placement in Asia-Pacific (McKechnie and Zhou 2003).

Placement Characteristics
Some researchers have examined the different types of brand placements
and how audiences process them. They agree on a hierarchy of memory
effects according to placement modality of a visual-verbal combination,
followed by a verbal only and then visual-only placements (Russell 2002;
Karrh et al. 2003). When and how products are woven into the story line can
be more important for effectiveness than the number of viewers (Friedman
2003). Research suggests that memory of the placement is likely to be higher
if the placement is meaningful and that there is a connection with the plot
(Russell 2002). Many product placement professionals believe that the best
placements are subtle ones, and the seamlessness of the product placement is
an important factor in judging its success (Cowlett 2000). Other researchers
have found that recall and recognition are better for prominently placed
products rather than those simply appearing in the background (Gupta and
Lord 1998). For television, the link between sponsor and program is very
important for brand recall. The stronger the link, the greater the impact will
be on the sponsors image and the attitudes towards the sponsor itself
(Tiwsakul et al. 2005; dAstous and Sgun 1999). In addition, how a product
is used and by whom is important (Morton and Friedman 2002). Characters
on the screen that share brand use with viewers can contribute to the
relationship between audiences and characters (DeLorme et al. 1994), and
product placements association with celebrity can increase its credibility
(Morton and Friedman 2002).

498 Simon Hudson and David Hudson

Regulations
Although brand placement is prevalent in the US, stricter regulations
make it less common in other parts of the world. All broadcasters in the
European Union are forced to adhere to the European Commissions TV
Without Frontiers Legislation. This is only the minimum requirement
nations can also impose additional restrictions. In France, for example, brand
placement on television is illegal. In the UK, producers and broadcasters
cannot take inducements as regulators attempt to enforce clear distinctions
between programming and advertising. And in Italy, laws that ban
surreptitious advertising look unkindly on product placement. In Asia
however, less rigid regulations have allowed branded entertainment to
develop rapidly, with India, China, New Zealand, Australia, and the
Philippines leading the pack. There is the possibility that regulations will
effect the future growth of branded entertainment. However, such laws are
more likely to be relaxed than get stricter.

Key Management Issues Related To Product Placement And Branded
Entertainment

Measurement
The measurement of brand placement has been the subject of much
discussion. Just like advertising, the effectiveness of brand placement as a
communications strategy must be gauged against the specific objectives of
decision-makers (dAstous and Chartier 2000). Academics suggest that
message impact should be assessed at recall, persuasion, and behavioural
levels (Balasubramanian 1994). Amongst brand placement practitioners,
measuring placements effectiveness is still a rough-and-ready art, but
unaided recall and brand recognition are the two most popular means of
assessing placements (Karrh et al. 2003). Nielson Media Research has recently
established a product placement measurement service and tracking system.
In its first full season, the system ranked Coca-Cola as the champion of
product inclusions, with products or mentions appearing 2,260 times,
followed by Nike apparel products which appeared 1,048 times (Atkinson
2004). Two New York-based companies, Intermedia Advertising Group and
Itvx, have also developed product placement measuring tools to measure
recall and strategic fit.
However, there are still some critics that question the high investment that
branded entertainment requires. Certainly, entertainment costs are
escalating. Even the cheapest channel on multi-channel TV demands a
programming budget of $30,000 an hour (Reid, 2004). BMW recently
discontinued its branded entertainment efforts due to rising costs and a lack
of effective measurement (Halliday and Graser 2005). As Russell and Belch
(2005) surmise, as the product placement industry matures and attracts ever
Branded Entertainment 499

larger communications budgets, it is critical that a more formalised model be
established to allow accountability.

Control
Marketers have far less control over most brand placement efforts than
they have with traditional advertising (Kaikati and Kaikati 2004).
Advertisers representatives, accustomed to buying time in specific slots and
filling them with commercials over which they had complete control, are
now faced with dealing directly with Hollywoods creative talent. Control
over content is not something Hollywood will surrender lightly, even if it is
able to. If the plot takes a wrong turn, or the subject matter is inappropriate,
the brand exposure can backfire. Reebok, for example, filed a breach of
contract suit in 1996 against TriStar Pictures in connection with the movie
Jerry Maguire. Under an agreement, Reebok asked for a full-length TV
commercial for the brand to be part of the movie. The commercial was
eventually cut from the final film, but a scene in which a character shouted
obscenities at Reebok remained. The two sides eventually settled out of
court.
In order to have more control over placements, an increasing number of
marketers are creating entertainment themselves. Already, Coca-Cola,
General Motors, JetBlue Airways, Meow Mix, Pepsi-Cola, Procter & Gamble,
Unilever, BMW, and Ford, have adopted the role of program producer
(Elliott, 2006). Others, like The WB, have created special programs through
which advertisers can pick a scripted show and become the exclusive
product-integration partner of that show. And recently, Sony Pictures re-
edited an existing series episode of The King of Queens to add a product
placement, incorporating a plug for Dr. Scholls Massaging Gel Insoles
(Lafayette 2004). This means that any current or past series could in theory be
re-edited to add other placements in the future.

Ethical Issues
Finally, brand managers have to consider emerging ethical and legal
issues (Karrh et al. 2001). Research has confirmed that consumers are
concerned about the subliminal effects of brand placement (Tiwsakul et al.
2005). Others fear that brand placements influence on the content of movies
and television will seep into news magazines, where editorial content is seen
by many as inviolate. Critics also claim that the trend of embedding products
into songs is an invasion of music lovers privacy, and some have expressed
concerns over the loss of artistic freedom resulting from the increased use of
brands in video games (Nelson 2002). Concern has been cited for product
placements of ethically charged products (Gupta and Lord 1998) (guns,
alcohol and tobacco for example), and others question the use of brand
placement in childrens programming (Avery and Ferraro 2000).
500 Simon Hudson and David Hudson

Despite these concerns, the future for branded entertainment looks
positive, and spending on brand placements is expected to continue to
outpace that of traditional advertising (PQMedia 2005). Some marketing
executives predict that within three to four TV seasons, up to 75% of all
scripted, prime-time network shows in the US will include products or
services paid for by advertisers (George 2005). Brand placement in video
games will continue to grow, rising to about $800-million in 2009 from nearly
$120-million in 2004 (Financial Post 2005). Placement in magazines is also
likely to become more prevalent. Business-to-business marketers will have
the most desire for product placements in print, specifically in trade
publications, where most of their marketing communication is focused.

Future Research
The effectiveness of branded entertainment is a prime site for theoretical
development, and the conceptual model presented in this article identifies
many research opportunities. Both qualitative and quantitative studies have
a role to play in such research. To begin with, much empirical research in this
area fails to distinguish between the various brand placement techniques,
such as those proposed by dAstous and Sgun (1999). Previous studies have
generally ignored how the characteristics of brand placements impact
differently on consumer reactions and memory. Such research would be of
great benefit to a firm wishing to invest in branded entertainment when
deciding how its product or brand is going to be presented. There is also a
general failure to differentiate between media vehicles. Future research
should explore and compare consumers reactions to product placement
across different types of media. For example, how consumers will react to the
increased use of branded entertainment in magazines is unknown (Fine
2004).
Another area that should be investigated is consumers degree of
acceptance and attitude toward branded entertainment in different product
categories. Such research should be conducted using larger, more diverse
samples (rather than just students) and could measure important variables
such as the impact of prior familiarity with the brand or the effectiveness of
supporting promotional activity. The interest in the implementation of
globally integrated marketing communications strategy has raised the issue
of how consumers in different cultures perceive, and form attitudes towards,
branded entertainment. More cross-cultural research is needed therefore to
generate deeper knowledge of the diverse factors that might impact the
effectiveness of branded entertainment.
Ethical issues related to product placement and branded entertainment
also warrant further investigation. Some researchers have suggested that
product placements are often more effective than traditional advertising
techniques because they are deceptive.


Branded Entertainment 501

Nebenzahl and Jaffe (1998) propose that product placement is the least
ethical of all forms of advertising since it is both high on source concealment
and obtrusiveness. Future research should include the influence of branded
entertainment on vulnerable groups, as well as consumer responses to the
placement of ethically charged products. In particular there have been calls
for more research that focuses on the influence of product placement on
children (Tiwsakul et al., 2005).
Finally, as mentioned previously, there is a need to determine whether
consumer response to branded placements will change over time. As
branded entertainment becomes an increasingly pervasive form of marketing
communication, it may lose its novelty and become subject to the clutter that
has characterised advertising over the last few decades. It will require the
monitoring of the effectiveness of the strategy over time to determine
whether and how such developments come to affect viewer attention, recall
and attitude. As one critic has observed, the infuriating paradox of product
placement is that if you notice it, it is bad. But if you dont notice it, it is worthless.
It is such a narrow line that either the viewer or the advertiser feels betrayed
(Ephron 2003, p. 20).

References

Aitchison, Jim (2004), Making The Move From Commercials to Content,
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Anon (2005), Advertising in Video Games Forecast Near US$2.5B
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Association of National Advertisers (2005), ANA Survey Finds Majority of
TV Advertisers are Participating in Branded Entertainment Projects, at
http://www.ana.net/news/ (accessed 13 April 2005).
dAstous, Alain, and Sgun, Nathalie (1999), Consumer Reactions to
Product Placement Strategies in Television Sponsorship, European Journal
of Marketing, Vol. 33, No. 9/10, pp. 896-910.
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About the Authors

Simon Hudson Ph.D., M.B.A., B.A., Dip.M. is an associate professor in the
Haskayne School of Business at the University of Calgary in Canada. He has
held previous academic positions at Universities in the U.K., and has also
worked as a visiting professor in Austria, Switzerland, Fiji, New Zealand,
Spain, the U.S., and Australia. Prior to working in academia, Dr. Hudson
spent several years working in the tourism industry in Europe, and now
consults for the industry in Alberta and British Columbia. The marketing of
tourism is the focus of his research, and his work has resulted in over 30
refereed journal articles and three books: Marketing for Tourism and
Hospitality: A Canadian Perspective, Snow Business, and Sport and Adventure
Tourism.

David Hudson Ph.D., M.B.A., B.A., Dip.M. is a principal lecturer in
marketing at De Montfort University in England. Prior to joining academia
he worked as a marketing practitioner for several companies in the travel
and tourism industry. David's main teaching area is in advertising and
marketing communications at both postgraduate and undergraduate level,
and he has taught at universities in the UK, Europe, the USA and south-east
Asia. His main focus of research has been in the areas of sports marketing
and marketing communications, and has worked with governing bodies such
as FIFA, The Premier League and The Football League. He has made several
contributions to academic texts and has presented at a number of
international conferences.