Bi222F Lecture 27 Overview

Bi222F Oceanography
Lecture 27
Overview selected slides from lectures
1 Bi222F Oceanography lecture 27
Curriculum: Talley
Friday 25 April 2014 12:15-14
The unique water molecule
Bi222F Oceanography lecture 3 2
Hydrogen bonds in ice:
Solid structure with
four bonds pr molecule
larger distance between
molecules
Hydrogen bonds:
Four possible bonds pr
molecule
Hydrogen bonds in
water:
Random, unstructured
chains
100
C
4
C
0
C
Much energy required to break hydrogen bonds:
High boiling point
(Unusually wide temperature range for liquid phase)
Ice lighter than water
ice
Largest density
Water vapor
I
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From lecture 3:
Unique properties of water
NB!
Average seawater in figure refer
to typical salinity
This creates additional electronic bonds,
which increases density,
lowers melting/freezing point,
lowers maximumdensity temperature
Dissolves salt into salt iones:
Example: dissolved natrium cloride
From lecture 3:
Salt and pressure slightly lowers specific heat
capacity; (lower than 4000J/(kgC))
UNESCO 1983 polynomial varying with: (S,T,p)
Bi222F Oceanography lecture 3
4
Unique properties of water - Heat capacity
Specific heat:
Amount of energy needed to raise
temperature of 1kg of substance 1C
Water: 1calorie/(gC) = 4186J/(kgC)
Dry air: 0.24cal /(gC) = 1000J/(kgC)
Note: 1kg air is 1m

3
(1000 liters)
1kg water is 0.001m
3
(1 liter)
Upper 3.5meter of ocean contain as
much heat as the whole atmosphere
Energy SI-unit: J = Joule = kg m
2
/ s
2
Latent heat changes phase of substance
(solid/liquid liquid/gas)
Note: evaporation from ocean
surface and sublimation from
snow/ice surface happens in all
temperatures if the air is not
saturated with water vapor
From lecture 3:
Pressure illustrated visually
Note:
Increasing pressure
compresses the air in
the balloon (the volume
of the balloon decreases
and air density
increases)
From lecture 3:
Adiabatic lapse rate: temperature change pr unit pressure change
(due to the compression of the volume)
In the atmosphere, the adiabatic lapse
rate is equivalent to 10C per 1000 m
altitude.
(temperature in an air parcel decreases if
it is lifted above the ground and the
volume increases)
In the ocean, the adiabatic lapse rate is
about 0.1C per 1000 m depth.
(temperature of a water parcel will
increase as it is lowered below surface
and the volume slightly decrease)
T = in situ temperature
= potential temperature
The temperature of a parcel
with temperature T at
5000m will decrease to if
it is lifted adiabatically to
the surface
From lecture 3:
Adiabatic compression has 2 effects on density:
(1) Changes temperature (increases it)
(2) Mechanically compresses so that molecules are
closer together
As with temperature, we are not interested in this purely compressional
effect on density. We wish to trace water as it moves into the ocean.
Assuming its movement is adiabatic (no sources of density, no mixing),
then it follows surfaces that we ideally should be able to define. Potential
density is close to such a surface, but not exact because also compression
effect varies with temperature and salinity.
Potential density: compensating for compressibility
From lecture 5:
Values of density
t
(curved lines) and the loci of maximum density and freezing
point (at atmospheric pressure) for seawater as functions of temperature and
salinity. The full density is 1000 +
t
with units of kg/m
3
.
TALLEY Copyright 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved
8
Fig. 3.1
Density graphical determination
Isopycnals lines for
constant density are
curved (non-linear
dependence on
temperature and
salinity)
T-S diagram:
T-S diagram was introduced by
Helland-Hansen in 1916
These isopycnals
shows density valid
for surface water
From lecture 5:
An important nonlinearity for the EOS
Cold water is more compressible than
warmwater
Seawater density depends on both
temperature and salinity.
(Compressibility also depends, much
more weakly, on salinity.)
Constant density surfaces flatten in
temperature/salinity space when the
pressure is increased
Fig. 3.5
From lecture 5:
Surface vs ocean interior processes
Changing salinity (and temperature)
Surface
mixed
layer:
Ice
processes
Wind
mixing
evaporation
Rain/river
Sun heating
Ocean
interior:
Only transport of
water masses by
currents and
mixing/stirring of
water masses
Cooling
From lecture 4:
Figure 1.01 shows that the ocean surface receives heat from
1. incoming shortwave radiation from the Sun
2. incoming longwave radiation from the atmosphere
3. conduction of sensible heat from warmer air toward cooler water
4. gain of latent heat through condensation
5. movement (advection) of warmer water into a region (not shown)
but loses heat through
6. emitted longwave radiation from the surface to the atmosphere
7. conduction of sensible heat from warmer water toward cooler air
8. loss of latent heat through evaporation
9. movement (advection) of cooler water into a region (not shown).
Type 2
Type 1
Type 4
Type 3
http://www.ccpo.odu.edu/~lizsmith/SEES/ocean/
ocean_lectures/sst_lecture/Part_1/index.htm
The surface heat flux terms
Creates together a net
heating or net cooling of the
ocean surface layer
From lecture 8:
Light absorption depending on wavelength
In the open ocean blue light
goes deepest
In coastal zones green
light goes deepest
Ocean color: can be converted to e.g.
chlorophyll, POC (Particulate Organic
carbon) or gelbstoff
12
Photic zone = Euphotic zone : where enough light is available for photosynthesis
PAR (photosynthetically available radiation) total light available in this zone; what
has not been absorbed and heated up the water
Alternative visualization of the attenuation:
From lecture 6:
3,4a) latent and sensible heat flux depend on strength of wind
The effect of wind
Turbulence in the wind (whirls) increases the amount of air that comes in contact
with the ocean surface and receive water vapor and exchange heat
The effect is increased even more
with an unstable atmosphere:
From lecture 8:
Poleward heat transport (W) for the worlds oceans (annual mean).
Figure 5.14
14
Figure 5.13
Northward transport Southward transport
North of 20N the ocean starts losing heat through the ocean
surface, and heat transport by currents starts to decrease
From lecture 12:
What is buoyancy?
From dictionary: The power to float or rise in a fluid; relative lightness
Analogy to a floating boat: the lighter
it is the higher it floats in the water
and the more buoyant it is:
For water column: lighter water is more
buoyant than denser water, a kind of
inverse density [m
3
/kg]
(Buoyancy is large when density is small)
Buoyancy is not an intuitive measure,
however it is much used to relate
surface fluxes to howmuch they will
change the density of surface water
Simplified equation of state for surface water:

0

0
+
0
Positive surface heat flux will increase surface temperature and buoyancy (decrease density)
Processes that increase surface salinity will decrease buoyancy (increase density)
Equivalent to equation 3.9:
From lecture 12:
Relationship between buoyancy force and hydrostatic balance
16
(Hydrostatic balance)
z-direction:
w/t 0 = pressure force + gravity
(Buoyancy frequency)
z-direction:
w/t = pressure force + gravity
z
Undisturbed: Pressure force
(buoyancy)
Gravity
(weight)
Disturbed:
Oscillates with buoyancy frequency
N = sqrt[-(g/) /z]
A 1m
3
box
of density
From lecture 5: From lecture 3:
z
Pressure force
(buoyancy)
Gravity
(weight)
A 1m
3
box
of density
Undisturbed:
Hydrostatic pressure = weight of all
1m
3
boxes on top of eachother
Vertical pressure gradient force =
difference in hydrostatic pressure on
top and bottomof the 1m
3
box
From lecture 13:
Buoyancy force on water parcels
isopycnal
>
1
1
<
1
Can use buoyancy to argue that it is likely that
currents will dominantly follow isopycnals:
Static stability = E
N=Brunt-Visl frequency: N
2
= gE
Correct mathematical
expression:
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l
(
z
-
a
x
i
s
)
Horizontal (x-axis)
From lecture 5:
Factors affecting surface mixed layer depth
Deeper mixed layer:
1. Evaporation and other surface cooling increases density of surface water and
decreases stability of water column (stratification) , in strong cases to
vertical convection (overturning)
2. Wind creating waves and wind mixing that work against stability
Shallower mixed layer:
1. Precipitation and surface
heating decreases
density of surface water
and increases stability of
water column
2. Weak winds has less
power to work against
stability
From lecture 10:
Developement of a mixed layer is a struggle between a destabilizing
force (current shear) and a stabilizing force (buoyancy)
density velocity
A current shear
tend to become
instable and create
eddies/turbulence
A strong density
gradient
(pycnocline) inhibit
vertical mixing
wind
Richardson number = stabilizing force (buoyancy frequency)
destabilizing force (current shear)
Richardson number below - the current is for sure turbulent!
( )
2
2
z u N R
i
=
From lecture 7 (Mixing):
Process 2: The sharper the pycnocline is the more
energy is needed to lift the densest part up
Figure S7.3
20
Eddy (turbulent) viscosity
The green balls now represent whirls or eddies in a mean flow
with shear. The turbulence will act as friction between the
layers of mean flow exactly similarly as molecular viscosity, only
faster and over larger distance
Difference from
molecular viscosity:
The whirls or eddies are
created from the shear in
the mean flow
(they feed on the velocity of the
bigger whirls which appear to
themas a mean flow)
From lecture 7:
Friction in the ocean
In most flow in the ocean friction is dominated by eddy viscosity. Except from in the
smallest turbulence, we have to distinguish between horizontal and vertical eddy
viscosity:
A
z
vertical eddy viscosity (typical 10
-4
m
2
/s)
A
h
horizontal eddy viscosity (typical 10
2
-10
4
m
2
/s)
A
h
U/y
Vertically:
Horizontally:
z
x
x
y
A
z
U/z
From lecture 7:
Growth and decay of the seasonal
thermocline at 50N, 145W in the eastern
North Pacific as (a) vertical temperature
profiles, (b) time series of isothermal
contours, and (c) a time series of
temperatures at depths shown.
22
Figure 4.8
March-August: net heat gain each
day through ocean surface, and
mixed layer becomes gradually
warmer and shallower
(+ weaker winds)
August-March: net heat loss each
day through ocean surface, and
mixed layer becomes gradually
colder and deeper
(+ stronger winds)
Coldest ocean temperatures in March!
Seasonal variations in mixed layer seen in temperature profiles
T
h
e

s
a
m
e

s
e
a
s
o
n
a
l
v
a
r
i
a
t
i
o
n
v
i
e
w
e
d
i
n

t
h
r
e
e
w
a
y
s
:
From lecture 10:
Temperature-salinity along
surface swaths in the North
Atlantic (dots and squares), and
in the vertical (solid curves) at
stations in the western North
Atlantic (Sargasso Sea) and
eastern North Atlantic. Source:
From Iselin (1939).
23
Figure 4.6
Salinity
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
South North
vertical
Is reconned to be important in Atlantic Ocean and
for forming MODE water
Permanent thermocline: explained by horizontal fluxes
Surface values:
Vertical profiles
This process is
called subduction
From lecture 10:
(3) Planetary vorticity f (the Coriolis parameter)
f = 0
f =
Max positive
Creates a fictive force that acts only when a fluid parcel is moving:
The Coriolis force acts 90 to the right of the current (wind) in the northern
hemisphere and 90 to the left in the southern hemisphere
Coriolis force in x-direction (positive east):
= v f
Coriolis force in y-direction (positive north):
= -u f
Northward flow
Eastward flow
f =
Max negative
f has unit twice the number
of rotations per seconds of
the merry go round
From lecture 13:
25
elevated
sea
surface
Pressure gradient
force
Coriolis
force
Imagined path of a water parcel initially
rolling downslope a tilting ocean surface.
t
1
t
2
t
3
Time lapse seen from above,
northern hemisphere:
Final geostrophic balance
Geostrophic current: a result of Coriolis defection of a
current initiated by a horizontal pressure gradient force
Start
here!
The horizontal pressure gradient force will try to move water such that the
sea surface becomes flat (gravity is the source of the horizontal pressure
gradient force), however, deviation of the current to the right eventually
makes the current follow alongslope in a geostrophic balance.
http://faculty.nwfsc.edu/web/science/horrellm/currents/print.htm
From lecture 14:
Geostrophic balance: horizontal
forces
and velocity. (a) Horizontal forces
and velocity in geostrophic
balance. PGF = pressure gradient
force. CF = Coriolis force. (b) Side
view showing elevated pressure
(sea surface) in center, low
pressure on sides, balance of PGF
and CF, and direction of velocity v
(into and out of page).
Figure S7.17
(a little modified)
26
z= constant
(a horizontal plane)
= weight of this
water column
sea surface
Geostrophic surface current
f v = p/x
f u = - p/y
From lecture 14:
Figure S7.19
27
How does geostrophic flow change with depth (below the sea surface)?
Thermal wind the geostrophic method
Near the sea surface (at h
1
), there is
more mass at B than at A, so there is
higher pressure at B than at A, so there
is a westward PGF and northward flow
(northern hemisphere).
Farther down (at h
2
), the difference in
mass above h
2
at B and A is smaller
since the density at B is lower than an
A. So the PGF is smaller and the
current is weaker.
Even farther down (at h
3
), we can
have equal mass (equal pressure,
hence NO PGF) since total mass at B
and A is the SAME.
Density at A is higher than density at B
A
>
B
Analogous to Exercise 1 this lecture
From lecture 14:
The balance of forces acting on an iceberg in a wind on a rotating Earth.
Ice floe
z
Nansens original findings explained by the Coriolis
effect: Wind blows icebergs 20-40 to the right of the wind
Iceberg is balanced
by three forces:
friction Coriolis wind
F F F + =
A force is a vector with direction and
length (indicating strength of the force)
Friction drag
Wind drag
Ice floe velocity
45
Friction below the ice floe opposite
directed the iceberg velocity
From lecture 15:
Ekman layer velocities
(Northern Hemisphere). Water
velocity as a function of depth
(upper projection) and Ekman
spiral (lower projection). The
large open arrow shows the
direction of the total Ekman
transport, which is
perpendicular to the wind.
Figure S7.11
29
Simplifications:
Flat ocean surface (no other currents)
Invicid ocean surface in all directions
(no coast anywhere)
Ekman spiral The same argument applies between horizontal layers in the fluid
45
From lecture 15:
Conservation of volume in open ocean
essensial for understanding behavior of ocean currents
Ocean currents are dominantly horizontal
Conservation of volume says that divergence in a current in one direction must
be compensated with convergence in another direction.
In other words: water that is removed in one direction must be replaced from
another direction
z
x
Divergent current: velocity
increases in flow direction,
removes water from the box
z
x
Convergent current: velocity
decreases in flow direction,
adds water to the box
Wind driven Ekman currents (order 1 cm/s): divergence lead to replacement from
below; Ekman suction (opposite is Ekman pumping)
Geostrophic currents (order 5-100cm/s): are purely horizontal; divergence in x-
direction must be compensated by convergence in y-direction
Only the weakest type currents lead to vertical transport:
Final
comment:
From lecture 11:
Coastal upwelling in eastern boundary regions
Not part of the subtropical gyres; between the subtropical gyre and coast:
Allongshore winds lead the Ekman transport offshore and onshore
Wind from north
lead to
Offshore Ekman transport
Results in upwelling
(conservation of volume)
And a geostrophic
current in same
direction as the wind
z
From lecture 15:
32
No wind Wind from north
Driving force d) and e) coastal wind outside a fjord
on the west coast of Norway
Ekman
transport
away from coast
Surface
Surface along
the coast sinks
Surface layer in the fjord becomes thinner
Denser water is closer to the surface
Dense water on the coast may spill over the
sill and replace deep water in the fjord
Coastal
upwelling
From lecture 18:
(a) Vertically mixed estuary
Classification of estuary types based on stratification
and salinity structure
(b) Partially mixed estuary
(d) Salt wedge estuary
(c) Highly stratified estuary
Analogous to Figure S8.17
Strong tidal currents distribute and mix the
seawater throughout the shallow estuary. The
net flow is weak and seaward at all depths:
Typical estuarine circulation
Seawater enters below the mixed water that is
flowing seaward at the surface. Seaward
surface net flow is larger than river flow alone:
Typical for fjord-type estuary
River water flows seaward over the surface of
the deeper seawater and gains salt slowly. The
deeper layers may become stagnant due to the
slow inflow rate of salt water:
The high flow rate of the river holds back the
lesser flow of salt water. The salt water is
drawn upward into the fast-moving river flow:
From lecture 18:
We need one more dynamic principle to explain
western intensification
What we might expect: What we observe:
1. Ekman transport pile up water between the trade winds and the westerlies.
Trade
winds
Westerlies
1
1
2. The piled up water sets up a horizontal pressure gradient force from elevated area
towards north and south.
2
2
3. Currents in geostrophic balance developes going in the same direction as the wind
3
3
4. Conservation of volume completes the circle: the current flows south when it
hits the coast in the east, and flows north when it hits the coast in the west
4
4
Large distance between surface
height isolines weak pressure
gradient force weak geostrophic
current
Figure S7.33
Surface height isolines.
From lecture 16:
Mean distributions of surface dynamic height (D dyn cm)
relative to 1000 db (dyn cm) and
vertical meridional sections of zonal geostrophic flow (U in
cm/sec), temperature (T in C), and salinity (S) between
Hawaii and Tahiti, for 12 months from April 1979.
American Meteorological Society. Reprinted with
permission. Source: From Wyrtki and Kilonsky (1984).
Figure 10.19
Equatorial Currents Schematics
Indications of upwelling
Surface elevation
The eastward Equatorial
Undercurrent driven by
eastward pressure gradient
force. Persistent and strong
The eastward North Equatorial Counter
Current driven by Ekman suction circulation,
a permanent current
Westward
South
Equatorial
Current,
directly
wind
driven and
varying in
strength
and
direction
Notice the tilting isolines, implying
vertical variation in current strength
Tahiti
Hawaii
Equatorward
flow of salt
35
The westward North Equatorial Current, part
of both Sub Tropical gyre and Ekman suction
equatorial gyre, a permanent current
From lecture 17:
(a) La Nia, (b) normal, and (c) El Nio conditions. Source: From NOAA PMEL (2009b).
Figure 10.27
El Nio/ La Nia a natural climate variation
The position of the ascending air with precipitation shifts along the equator
This effects the strength of the trade winds
and the strength of the upwelling
and the upward tilt of the thermocline
From lecture 17:
Surface gravity waves
Type 1: Deep water waves; when the water is deeper than half the wave length
With wave speed
2
gL
k
g
c
p
= =
The longest waves travel fastest
(the waves disperse), and wave
energy travel with half the speed
For example: wind waves
Water particle movement in a
deep water surface wave
From lecture 19:
Surface gravity waves
Type 2: Shallowwater waves; when the water is shallower compared to wave length
Example: tsunamies, beach waves
With wave speed gd c
p
= (d= depth)
All wave lengths as well as
wave energy travel with the
same speed
From lecture 19:
Tide is generating internal waves:
Barotropic tide sloshing over topography: the flow is forced up or down, away from its
equilibrium buoyancy position.
Internal Tide:
An internal wave
with a tidal frequency, usually
once in 12.4 hours = M
2
Often generated at the continental
shelf break, with waves
propagating both on and off
shore.
(J. Nash)
From lecture 19:
Point 1: there are two
high tides each day
= Semidiurnal tide
Gravitational
effect
Centrifugal
effect
Combined
centrifugal
& gravitation
The earth and the moon rotate
around a common center of mass
with a centrifugal force equal to
gravitational pull from the center
of the earth. The centrifugal force
is the same everywhere on earth
(same as explanation in
footnote 1, page 239:)
From lecture 20:
(a) Tide-generating force due to the moon or sun. (b) Earth-moon-sunalignment during spring tide,
which also includes the case when the moon is opposite the sun Source: After NOAA (2008).
(c) Alignment during neap tide. In (a), the Fs are the net gravitational acceleration at the antipodal,
center, and sublunar points, and the Ts are the net tidal gravitational accelerations.
Figure 8.12
The equilibrium tide.
Point 3: spring and neep tide (every 14 days):
This is simply
M
2
+ S
2
The tidal constituents
From lecture 20:
Principal scetch of phase lines (cotidal lines) and
amplitude (corange lines) of a standing tidal wave
with period 12 hrs:
From lecture 20:
Convection of water column due to surface heat loss
Convection stops when all
lake water holds 4C.
Freshwater colder than that
is lighter.
Freshwater lake:
Evaporation decreases ocean
temperature and increases ocean
salinity. Both increases ocean
density and lead to sinking of
surface water (convection).
Sensible heat loss can be large.
Convection would continue
until whole water column
holds freezing temperature
(densest seawater) unless
..there is a
fresher and
lighter top layer
Ocean:
43
From lecture 9:
Deep convection chimneys including lateral scales:
Preconditioning
Deep convection
in the plumes
FIGURE S7.39
After Marshall and Schott (1999).
Lateral exchange
and spreading by
eddies
Surface heat
loss
Isopycnals
Upward motion
over larger areas
Stratification (density profile) decides howdeep the convection will be
From lecture 10:
Sea ice effect on water column
2. Salt is rejected from the sea ice
much salt is rejected but some salt gets trapped in the
ice during initial freezing
salt is consentrated in brine cells (brine pockets) with
salinity typically 200 g/kg
freezing point of brine is much lower than seawater, so
the brine melts ice and form brine channels
salt is released to water column below ice sheet,
especially during melting season
brine channels makes sea ice more elastic than lake ice
Brine channels:
5mm
From lecture 9:
Schematics of polynya formation: (a) latent heat polynya kept open by winds and
(b) sensible heat polynya kept open by tidal mixing with warmer subsurface waters
(after Hannah et al., 2009).
46
Figure 3.12
(4) - Polynyas:
ice free areas in the an ice covered ocean
or tide
From lecture 9 sea ice and 21:
Deep convection and brine rejection sites
X
X
X
X
X
X
B B
B
B
B
B B
B
B
B
B
(4) Brine rejection
in all sea ice areas
(1) Labrador Sea (3) Greenland Sea (2) Mediterranean Red Sea
(5) Weddell Sea Ross Sea
X
The densest water
from Arctic can not
pass shallow areas
(deepest 700m)
Japan Sea is
enclosed
From lecture 21:
TALLEY
Surface circulation schematic. Modified from Schmitz (1996b).
Copyright 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved
Figure 14.1
Upper ocean circulation
Remember:
Gyres (lecture 16), western boundary currents (lecture 16), eastern upwelling
systems (lecture 15), Antarctic Circumpolar Current and the equatorial current
systems (lecture 17)
This lecture
From lecture 22:
The MOD
(Meridional Overturning
Circulation)
49
Figure 14.11ab
Modern view:
ACC
Additional insight:
The ACC blends the water
masses from the adjacent
ocean basins, so for
instance, NADW is no longer
recognizable when it reaches
the Pacific Ocean
Source:
After Gordon (1991), Schmitz (1996b), and Lumpkin and Speer (2007).
From lecture 23:
Location of most major Atlantic water
masses using a meridional salinity section at
20-25W, as a function of (a) depth and (b)
neutral density (
). (Black areas at high

density are the ocean bottom. White areas
at low density [top of figure] are above the
sea surface.) Inset map in (a) shows station
locations. Acronyms are within the text and
in Table S9.4 in the online supplement. (See
also Figure 4.11b.) (World Ocean Circulation
Experiment sections A16 and A23).
Figure 9.17
1
2
=NSOW
5
4
3
6
7
8
The major Atlantic
Water Masses
3. AAIW salinity minimum
4. MW salinity maximum
5. LSW salinity minimum
7. NADW salinity maximum
8. AADW salinity minimum
Are often identified as
maxima or minima in vertical
profiles of salinity:
From lecture 24:
(a) Salinity, (b) oxygen (mol/kg), and (c)
silicate (mol/kg) along 165W. Neutral
densities 28.00 and 28.10 kg/m
3
are
superimposed. Station locations are
shown in inset in (c). Source: From WOCE
Pacific Ocean Atlas, Talley (2007).
Figure S10.28
The major Pacific
Water Masses
11. NPIW salinity minimum
3. AAIW salinity minimum
12. PDW oxygen minimum
13. UCDW high salinity
14. LCDW high salinity
9 NPCW 10 SPCW
11 NPIW
3 AAIW
12 PDW
13 UCDW
14 LCDW
51
Are often identified as
maxima or minima in vertical
profiles of salinity:
From lecture 24:
Profiles of dissolved oxygen (mol/kg) from the Atlantic (gray) and Pacific
(black) Oceans. (a) 45S, (b) 10N, (c) 47N. Data from the World Ocean
Circulation Experiment.
52
Fig. 4.21
Conveyor belt indicates why pacific water is older than Atlantic water
Oxygen as indicator of age of water mass
From lecture 4:
Arctic ice ages: (a) 2004 and (b) cross-section of ice age classes (right) as a function of time
(Hovmller diagram), extending along the transect across the Arctic from the Canadian Archipelago to the Kara Sea
shown in (a). Source: Extended from Fowler et al. (2004).
Figure 12.21
Ice age classes (in years)
The amount of old ice is decreasing
From lecture 9:

Bi222F Lecture 27 Overview

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). (Black areas at high

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