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BoL
= 4000 / 0.85 = 4706 watts
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Q6) In Q4 If the drum covered in solar cells of the spinner design had been
replaced by solar sails that rotated to face the sun at all times, what area of
solar sails would have been needed? Assume that cells on solar sails generate
only 90% percent of the power of cells on a spinner due to their higher
operating temperature.
Using the end of life output of 4000 W, the efficiency of the solar cells on the
sails is ss = 0.9 19.18 = 17.26 %. The area of solar sails required is A where A
= 4000 / (0.1726 1390) = 16.67 m2
Q7) What are spot beam antennas ?
Ans) A spot beam, antenna emits a satellite signal that is specially
concentrated in power so that it will cover only a limited geographic area on
Earth.
Multiple Spot beams for satellite antenna.
8) What is space qualification?
Ans) Space qualification involves detailed procedures undertaken to ensure
that all, components, systems and the satellite as a whole are invoked after
careful screening and testing. The satellite so constructed is measured for its
reliability using the reliability theory.
9) What are the different kinds of antennas used for satellite communication?
Ans)
1) A Horn antenna or microwave horn is an antenna that consists of a flaring
metal waveguide shaped like a horn to direct radio waves in a beam. Horns are
widely used as antennas at UHF and microwave frequencies, above 300 MHz
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They are used as feeders (called feed horns) for larger antenna structures such
as parabolic antennas, as standard calibration antennas to measure the gain of
other antennas.
2) An Reflector antenna is an antenna that reflects electromagnetic waves.
Antenna reflectors can exist as a standalone device for redirecting radio
frequency (RF) energy, or can be integrated as part of an antenna assembly.
The function of a standalone reflector is to redirect electro-magnetic (EM)
energy, generally in the radio wavelength range of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
3) An Array antenna is a set of individual antennas used for transmitting
and/or receiving radio waves, connected together in such a way that their
individual currents are in a specified amplitude and phase relationship. This
allows the array to act as a single antenna, generally with improved directional
characteristics (thus higher antenna gain) than would be obtained from the
individual elements
4) Wire antennas are also used widely in satellite communication
Q10) The earth subtens an angle of 17
o
when viewed from geo stationary orbit.
What should be dimensions of such an antenna? Assume frequency of
operation to be 4GHz.
Ans) D/= 75/
3dB
= 4.4 Hence at 4GHz we may choose =0.075m so D=0.33m.
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Q11) Explain the bath-tub curve in light of satellite reliability. Explain its three
regions of operation.
Ans) The bathtub curve is a plot of failure rate vs. time. It is characterized by
three regions in time: an initial region of decreasing failure rate, and
intermediate region of relatively constant failure rate, and a final region of
increasing failure rate. The bathtub curve is actually a composite curve, made
up of the sums of three smaller curves: infant mortality, random failures, and
wear out. Infant mortality failures are caused by defects in the product which
cause it to fail early in its lifetime. They are also called intrinsic failures, since
they are due to causes internal to the product. This type of failures decrease
sharply with time. Random failures occur at a somewhat constant rate over the
entire life of the product. Ideally, in a mature product, where the design and
processes are good, the failures are usually due to forces external to the
product, such as mishandling, external interface failures, or accidents. They are
therefore called extrinsic failures. In the time period after infant mortality, but
before the beginning of wear out, random failures dominate. This region is also
called the useful life region of the product.
The final region of the bathtub curve represents the time when the product
begins to wear out because it has reached the end of its useful life. There is
usually only a few wear out failure mechanisms, which results from the
stresses accumulated over the life of the product. These failures are intrinsic,
and the failure rate increases in this region.
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Q12) A geostationary satellite provides service to a region which can be covered
by the beam of an antenna on the satellite with a beamwidth of 1.8
o
. The
satellite carries transponders for Ku band and Ka band, with separate antennas
for transmit and receive. For center frequencies of 14.0/11.5 GHz and 30.0/20.0
GHz, determine the diameters of the four antennas on the
satellite. Find the diameters of the two transmitting antennas. Specify the
diameter and calculate the
gain at each frequency.
Ans) beamwidth: q3 dB = 75 / D.
Hence D = 75 / q3 dB. Gain = 33,000 / (q3 dB)
2
The transmitting antennas on the satellite operate at the lower frequency
(downlink) in each
band.
For 11.5 GHz: l = 0.02609 m, D = 75 0.02609 / 1.8 = 1.087 m
For 20 GHz: l = 0.015 m, D = 75 0.015 / 1.8 = 0.625 m
G = 33,000 / 1.82 = 10.185 or 40.1 dB
Q13) What is meant by the term MTBF ? What is difference between MTBF and
MTTF?
Ans) Mean time between failures (MTBF) is the predicted elapsed time between
inherent failures of a system during operation. MTBF can be calculated as the
arithmetic mean (average) time between failures of a system. The MTBF is
typically part of a model that assumes the failed system is immediately repaired
(mean time to repair, or MTTR), as a part of a renewal process. This is in contrast
to the mean time to failure (MTTF), which measures average time to failures
with the modelling assumption that the failed system is not repaired (infinite
repair time).
Q14) Suppose in a satellite communication system it is observed that in a time t
36 out of 800 components have failed. Calculate failure rate
Ans ) Failure rate = No. of components Failed during time t / No.of Components
Survived = 36/764= 0.0471.
Q15) In the above problem also calculate MTBF.
Ans) MTBF of a satellite = 1/ Failure rate = 1/0.0471 = 21.23