Thermal stratification in solar

storage tanks




Ph.D. Course





Literature study: Tank Inlets



















David Blandin
Centre Scientifique et Technique du Btiment
Renewable Energy CSTB ESE DE
Route des Lucioles BP 209
06904 Sophia Antipolis Cedex, France
Tel. +33 (0)4 93 95 64 43 ; Fax +33 (0)4 93 95 64 31
david.blandin@cstb.fr





Table of Content


Introduction .......................................................... 3

1- Technical Tank Inlets solutions .................................. 4
a) Inlets to support thermal stratification............................................................................. 4
b) Inlets to maintain stratification ........................................................................................ 6

2- Tank inlet modelling ............................................ 10
a) One-dimensional methods of modelling ....................................................................... 10
b) CFD methods of modelling ........................................................................................... 12
c) Future work: integrating tank inlets in a zonal model ................................................... 14

Conclusion ........................................................... 16
References .......................................................... 17
INTRODUCTION

A stratified tank is characterized by a thermocline - the zone of steepest temperature
gradient separating the hot and cold fluid zones in the tank. The thickness of the thermocline
zone is an important indicator of how well the stratified tank is designed. Several parameters
play a role in this stratification quality. Amongst them, a large ratio H/D is essential to obtain
a good stratification. Literatures advice a ratio H/D between 3 and 4 in order to enhance
storage tank performance (Lavan and Thompson 1977). Nevertheless, the Richardson number
[see the nomenclature for its formula], measuring the ratio of buoyancy forces compared with
mixing forces, is the more representative parameter during the dynamic charging and
discharging process of the storage tank (Hahne and Chen 1998). A small Richardson number
means that the storage tank is mixed whereas a bigger Richardson number indicates the
storage tank is stratified. As far as this number is concerned, the difference between inlet and
tank temperature is the most important factor (Hahne and Chen 1998). In practice, we will
reach a good thermal stratification by a charge via the top of the tank with an inlet
temperature much higher than the temperature of the surrounding water (>20C). Moreover,
we will inject a low flow in order not to disturb the low part of the store. During the dynamic
phases, stratification is influenced by the geometry of the tank, its internal equipment and its
various charge and discharge loops which condition the heat exchange that occurs:
inputs/outputs flows, water and envelope conduction, convective exchange (water/envelope,
envelope/surrounding) and radiative exchange (external envelope/walls).
We propose to focus on flows introduced to the tank. Tank inlets can be defined as direct or
indirect (via a heat exchanger) tank charge. We first describe tank inlets available in current
stock and then we will describe the different ways of modeling tank inlets.



1- TECHNICAL TANK INLETS SOLUTIONS

To have a stratified tank, we are faced with a double challenge. First, we should provide a
high level of stratification and then limit destratification in order to maintain the level of
stratification.

a) Inlets to support thermal stratification


Various techniques make it possible to
support stratification during the solar tank
charge. In the first family, three-way valves
function in all-or-nothing and are
controlled according to the outlet solar
collector temperature. The fluid is then
injected at various tank levels according to its
temperature. The number of injections is
generally lower or equal to three because of
the valve cost. Some manufacturers choose
the use of a double solar heat exchanger: the
primary fluid always goes through the lower
heat exchanger but goes through the higher
heat exchanger only if it is justified by the
levels of temperature.
Other manufacturers choose the direct
charge/discharge at various levels in the store
with an external heat exchanger associated
with an adapted regulation.

Figure 1- two solar heat-exchangers regulated by a
three way valve

Moreover, the use of three-way valves can be
associated to a mantle heat exchanger into
which the fluid is injected at the correct level.
Knudsen and Furbo (2004) advise, for this
configuration, the use of a top inlet position
for high temperatures and an intermediate
height position for moderate inlet
temperatures.


Figure 2- inlet heights in mantle tank regulated by
three way valves
To support thermal stratification, a
stratification device makes it possible to
distribute heat at the correct level by natural
convection. The fluid goes up and exits the
unit at approximately the same temperature
in the store, thus maximizing stratification
(figure 1). The importance of non-return
valves has been demonstrated (Shah et al.)
by comparison with a stratifier without flaps
which actually works more like a mixing
device than a stratifying one because cold
tank water is sucked into the stratifier.
Moreover, it has been found that the stratifier
is the most efficient for flow rates between
5L/min and 8L/min. As the investigated
stratifiers are often used for volume flow
rates much less than 5L/min, it has been
concluded that there is still a need for further
development of these stratifier designs.


Figure 3- charge via a stratification device



Andersen et al. (2007) investigate a number
of different fabric stratification pipes
compared to a rigid inlet stratifier. The
investigation shows that the performance of
fabric stratification pipes can be improved
significantly by using two fabric layers with
a distance of about 10 mm between each
fabric layer instead of using one fabric layer.
The biggest drawback of fabric stratification
pipes is the high horizontal heat transfer
through the very thin fabric. Thus, when hot
water enters a cold tank from the bottom to
the top of the fabric stratification pipe, rigid
stratifier has an advantage because of the low
horizontal heat transfer through the pipe wall.
For the cooling test, fabric layer stratification
pipe performs better than the rigid stratifier,
while the two fabric layer stratification pipe
and the rigid stratifier perform identical
during stratified heating tests.

The advantage of the double fabric layer pipe
over the solid inlet stratifier is that it
maintains stratification better for high flow
rates.

Figure 4- Picture of the double fabric layer pipe
during a heating experiment. Upper right corner:
cross section of the extended fabric pipe where
water leaves the pipe. Lower corner: cross section
of the collapsed pipe
b) Inlets to maintain stratification

In order to limit the mixing during discharge, other technologies are used. Domestic hot water
draw-offs lead to the injection of a cold water jet into the tank bottom. To limit stratification
degradation, a cold water inlet device can be used or the fluid can be instilled in the bottom of
the tank. The results of the impact of the influence of a cold water inlet device on thermal
stratification (Shah and Furbo 2003) show that entropy and exergy variations are influenced
by the Richardson number, draw-off volumes and initial conditions.


The degree of mixing produced by three
different side-inlet geometry (wedged,
perforated and slotted pipe-inlets) is found to
have an impact on the performance (Hegazy,
2007). The slotted inlet is found to be the
more efficient. The performance difference
between the different inlets is more obvious
with high flow rate.

Figure 5- side-inlet geometries tested by Hegazy




Among the three different inlets from figure 7,
half ball baffle inlet allows better stratification in
the tank.
However, large flat baffle plate above the inlet
shows the best thermal stratification in the
tank.according to figure 20. A larger half ball
baffle inlet should thus be a better inlet cold
device.

Figure 6- Model outline of the tank with the three
different inlets

Figure 7- efficiency of three different inlet cold device




Figure 8- different inlet designs for circulation pipe

Figure 9- amount of mixing for a 2,0 m3 vertical
tank with a diameter of 1,25m



Even if there is still little mixing for each
of these inlets configuration, the table
shows which configuration give the best
thermal stratification in the tank.



CFD on parallel plates (Johanes et al.) shows the improvement of stratification in comparison
with a standard inlet. It is shown that parallel plates with different geometries (square plate
above a disk one) leads to better thermal stratification.


Figure 10- temperature fields results obtained by CFD inside a solar tank with three different inlets and
two different flow rates



The ratio of Reynolds to Richardson numbers
seems to be the parameter governing the
performance (Zurigat et al. ,1988). For higher
values of Re/Ri, differences in performance
of the inlet diffusers will occur. This is
expected, because at high Re/Ri, turbulent
mixing at the inlet is dominant while at low
Re/Ri, high buoyancy forces inhibit mixing
at the inlet region.
Perforated diffuser gives the thinnest
thermocline in the tank among the three
radial diffusers tested.

Figure 11- Types of inlet configuration tested


Characterization of the mixing introduced by
these inlets was carried out using an inlet
mixing parameter introduced in a one-
dimensionnal flow model (Zurigat et al., 1991).
Impingement inlet shows to mix less the tank
than the other inlets. (see figure part 2)




Figure 12- side inlet, impingement inlet and
perforated baffle experimentally tested by Zurigat


Numerical simulations show that cold water
inlet device modify the flow inside the tank in
order to decrease the mixing inlet region.

Figure 13- inlet cold device geometry




Effect of using different obstacles on
thermal stratification in a cylindrical
hot water tank is analyzed numerically
(Altuntop et al., 2004). Amongst 12
different obstacles, the obstacle types
having gap in the center provides better
thermal stratification.

Figure 14- different obstacles geometries tested

Figure 15- temperature fields obtained by CFD for no obstacles, and obstacles having a gap in the center




Rather than injecting a cold jet directly
into the store, we can use a DHW quasi-
instantaneous heat exchanger or a smaller
tank inside a bigger one (tank in tank
solution). This will then make it possible
to eliminate mixing by the injection from
the cold jet. By this process, the DHW
does not remain stagnant in the bottom of
the tank: this avoids the proliferation of
legionella.



Figure 16- Limitation of mixing by good jet orientation (left)
or tank in tank solution (right)

On an other hand, the performance of a tank in tank solution might be not so good because of
the heat transfer from the heat exchanger to the biger tank. This solution avoids mixing by
mass transfer but might increase the one by convection. More investigations are needed to
know what is the pat of each heat transfer.

2- TANK INLET MODELLING

a) One-dimensional methods of modelling


In one-dimensional models, the turbulent mixing was accounted for by introducing an
effective diffusivity factor,
eff
who can be described according to Zurigat et al (1988) by the
knowledge of eff
in
. Despite its artificial nature, the effective diffusivity factor can represent
the modifying effect of turbulence caused by the inlet flow. Hence, this factor may be used to
characterize the inlet geometry and identify the best inlets. The variation of the inlet effective
diffusivity factor as a function of the flow parameters is shown in figure17 for three different
inlet configurations. Here, Re is based on the inlet port diameter, while Ri is based on the
height of the tank, and both are based on the inlet port flow velocity. The three inlets used are
the side inlet, the perforated inlet, and the impingement inlet (figure 12).

894 . 0
) (Re/ 344 . 0 Ri eff
in
= for the side inlet
586 . 0
) (Re/ 54 . 3 Ri eff
in
=
for the perforated inlet
522 . 0
) (Re/ 75 . 4 Ri eff
in
=
for the impingement inlet


Figure 17- inlet effective diffusivity factor variation with Re/Ri


The localized mixing as used by Wildin and Trulan (1985) and Greatarsson et al. (1994) was
also used in a different way by Nakahara et al. (1988), who assumed that the tank consist of
two regions: a fully mixed region which increases as filling proceeds, and a plug flow region
spanning the rest of the tank. The extent of the fully mixed region was expressed in terms of a
dimensionless depth
H
X
R = , where H is the tank height and X is the depth. R was assumed
to vary linearly with the dimensionless filling time t
*
( t
*
= V
t
/ H ) as:




*
0
t R R R
k
+ =
Where R0 and Rk are empirical constants. Rk was taken to be 0.4 under all conditions
whereas correlations for R0 in terms of Richardson number and the inlet length scale were
given for two different inlet types: a pipe inlet and a slot inlet. For a pipe inlet tank:



The tank solution over the time interval DT becomes:







We can also use Hollands and Lighstone who give correlation about the height L* of the inlet
mixing region in fonction of Richardson.

Figure 18- Flow in the jet mixing region ( adapted from Baines)



Figure 19- Plot of L*/L vs Richardson number. measured by Sliwinski.
) / ( 7 . 0
0
5 . 0
0
L d Ri R

=
[ ]
VR
t Q
t in in t t
e T T T T

+
= ). (
b) CFD methods of modelling


CFD Modeling, in addition to the possibility of simulating new cases, make it possible to
describe the near reality of the physical phenomena and thus to understand the flows inside
solar tanks better. In comparison with one-dimensional modeling, CFD modeling involves
less assumptions and empiricism, and thus is more realistic and accurate. A wider range of
flow thermal and hydrodynamic conditions as well as complex tank geometric parameters
may be modeled. Oliveski and al. (2005) use a two-dimensional method with finished
volumes, experimentally validated, to show stratification with an area at a constant
temperature in the higher area of the tank. It is checked numerically with conditions of natural
convection that two areas of opposite convective flows appear during the tank cooling
(Oliveski et al. 2005): an area of flow going down by thermal boundary along the wall is
opposed to the relatively slow ascending convective flow in the tank central part. The
numerical simulation then makes it possible to represent the evolution of stratification in a
more realistic way. We initially decided to reproduce a simulation met in the literature (Shah
and Furbo 2003).

Figure 20- Temperature distribution in the tank centre plane after 5 min of 10 l/min inlet flow and further
a 30 s stand still period. Left: the pipe inlet. Centre: the Metro inlet. Right: The plate inlet


The validation of three-dimensional modeling with the assumption of Boussinesq is carried
out via Fluent. We obtained the same temperature repartition than the published results of
Shah and Furbo for the 2 different inlets, we also noticed a higher hot volume for the tank
with an inlet cold device. This allows us to validate our assumptions and then simulate new
configurations. With this assumption, we simulated a relatively simple configuration of a load
of 60C to fixed height of a commercial 750-liter tank with a 1m
3
/h inlet flow. This
corresponds in practice to the reheating top of the tank via a boiler at the time of an
insufficient solar sunning. This situation is selected, because easily reproducible in
experiments and by other types of simulations. Dynamic simulation (0.5s fixed time step) uses
the k- model of turbulence by informing the hydraulic diameter of 52mm and the intensity of
turbulence (Fluent Users guide 1995) of 5.32% calculated according to the Reynolds number.
We selected an inlet of 0.1
3
m/s at 60C and benefited from the tank symmetry plane to
simulate only a half of its. Moreover, we selected thermal transfer on the walls corresponding
to a 2mm tank thickness, followed by 10cm polyurethane with h
down
=6 W/(m
2
.K), h
up
=7.5
W/(m
2
.K) and h
side
=8.5 W/(m
2
.K) as thermal transfer coefficients to the bottom, top and the
side of the solar storage.



Figure 21- 3D visualisation of a 60C charge at t=20min from a 20C initial tank


Figure 22- Dynamic temperature evolution from a direct 60C charge


Dynamic simulation of this configuration enables us to visualize the evolution of the jet
trajectory (figure 5): initially ascending because of strong difference between its inlet
temperature and the tank temperature, the jet will gradually become horizontal when its
temperature is equal to the temperature of the surrounding tank fluid. In addition to this
evolution of the jet, simulation informs us of the dynamics of the load: the effect of the piston
is quite real but the different horizontal layers are not at a uniform temperature (figure 4).

Johannes and al. (2005) compare CFD results with those obtained by multi-layer models: the
60 and 140 Types used in TRNSYS environment predict a temperature lower than CFD
simulation. This is mainly due to the fact that a layer is actually not at a uniform temperature.
An isothermal zone is influenced by the dominant flows (jet, boundary layers) but also by the
presence of obstacles (Altuntop et al. 2005) in the store (heat exchangers, inlet device, etc.).

However, CFD simulations take a considerable computing time (around 5 days for one
physical hour of simulation presented), making annual performance prediction impossible.
The main conclusion of the multi-layer models and CFD comparison with experiments
(Johannes et al. 2005) is the need to develop a zonal model, which is a compromise between a
reasonable calculation and the accuracy of the results.







c) Future work: integrating tank inlets in a zonal model


Because tank inlets effect thermal
stratification inside the tank we must
integrate a good model of them when
considered for zonal modeling. If we dont
take into account the dynamic of the jet, flow
rate will go from the inlet zone to the
adjacent zone. In airflow pressure zonal
modeling, the jet can be taken into account as
shown in figure 23.
There is then different ways to account for
this jet. Experimental validation can be a way
to find a fitting coefficient C
flow
. CFD
simulations provide a suitable way of
determining this coefficient. As this method
is proven to work for air jets in building
simulation, the transfer of this method to
water jets could also prove successful - as
long as it takes into account the inlet velocity
and the effective inlet cross section.


Figure 23- jet with entrainement into airflow zonal
model


Here we present another method from work done by Bejan on round jets.



Figure 24- The large-scale instantaneous structure of a two-dimensional turbulent jet, and the constant-
angle shape of the time averaged flow region




Navier stokes time-averaged simplification give us:

0
) ( 1
=

r
v r
r x
u

|
|

\
|

r
u
r
r r r
u
v
x
u
u
m
1

where
m
is the momentum eddy viscosity. The jet strength is defined as:

4
2
0 0
0
D U rdr u K

= =

(
(

\
|
=
2
35 . 9 exp
x
r
u u
c

( )
(
(

|
|

\
|
=

2
exp
T
c
b
r
T T T T
With
T
b the transversal lenght scale experimentally given by Fisher et al.
( )
x
D T T
T T
c
0 0
65 . 5

Figure 25- Temperature and velocity evolutions for
0
T =60C,
0
U =0.13m/s ,

T =20C ,

U =0m/s
CONCLUSION

We notice that there are lots of different inlet configurations on the market. For a
charge we should observe the Richardson number and thus the difference in inlet temperature.
Stratifier inlets are a good way to support thermal stratification in tanks, avoiding the mixing
associated with common heat exchangers. For a discharge cold inlets have to go towards the
bottom of the tank with a low velocity. Different cold inlet devices operate with varying
degrees in efficiency.
Tank inlets are not easy characterize. CFD simulations can help us to better understand
their performance but takes a lot of computing time. Integrating tank inlets into the zonal
modelling will not be an easy task and further investigations are needed to find a simple way
to model tank inlets.


REFERENCES

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doi:10.1016/j.solener.2007.01.008
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