12 J. BAKER ET AL.

12
JOURNAL OF APPLIED SPORT PSYCHOLOGY, 15: 1225, 2003
Copyright 2003 by the Association Ior Advancement oI Applied Sport Psychology
1041-3200/03 $12.00 .00
DOI:10.1080/10413200390180035
Sport-Specific Practice and the Development
of Expert Decision-Making in Team Ball Sports
JOSEPH BAKER AND JEAN CTE
School of Phvsical and Health Education
Queens Universitv
BRUCE ABERNETHY
School of Human Movement Studies
The Universitv of Queensland
The role oI sport-speciIic practice in the development oI decision-making expertise in the
sports oI Iield hockey, netball, and basketball was examined. FiIteen expert decision-makers
and 13 experienced non-expert athletes provided detailed inIormation about the quantity and
type oI sport-speciIic and other related practice activities they had undertaken throughout their
careers. Experts accumulated more hours oI sport-speciIic practice Irom age 12 years onwards
than did non-experts, spending on average some 13 years and 4,000 hours on concentrated
sport-speciIic practice beIore reaching international standard. A signiIicant negative correla-
tion existed between the number oI additional activities undertaken and the hours oI sport-
speciIic training required beIore attaining expertise, suggesting a Iunctional role Ior activities
other than sport-speciIic training in the development oI expert decision-making.
In their seminal study oI chess, Simon and Chase (1973) suggested that a minimum oI 10
years oI preparation was necessary to reach the expert level. Since that time, this '10-year
Received 24 September 2001; accepted 4 June 2002.
During the completion oI this research the Iirst author was with the School oI Human Movement
Studies, University oI Queensland and the second author was on research leave at the School oI
Human Movement Studies, University oI Queensland.
The authors would like to extend appreciation to Dr. Deborah Hoare, Dr. Ross Smith, and the
coaches and athletes oI the Australian national men`s basketball, women`s netball and men`s and
women`s Iield hockey teams Ior their support and patience during the completion oI this study. The
authors would also like to thank Steve Cobley and other colleagues Ior helpIul comments on an earlier
version oI this manuscript. This research was Iunded by the Australian Sports Commission and a
standard research grant Irom the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council oI Canada (SSHRC
# 410-99-0525).
Address correspondence to Joseph Baker, School oI Physical and Health Education, Queen`s
University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6. Email: 9jrbqlink.queensu.ca
13 SPORT-SPECIFIC PRACTICE AND EXPERTISE
rule has been shown to also apply to the development oI expertise in other domains including
music (Ericsson, Krampe, & Tesch-Rmer, 1993; Hayes, 1981; Sosniak, 1985), mathematics
(Gustin, 1985), swimming (Kalinowski, 1985), distance running (WallingIord, 1975), tennis
(Monsaas, 1985), soccer, and Iield hockey (Helsen, Starkes, & Hodges, 1998).
The theory oI deliberate practice, developed by Ericsson and colleagues (e.g., Ericsson &
Charness, 1994; Ericsson et al., 1993), is predicated on the notion that it is not simply training
oI any type, but rather a minimum oI 10 years engagement in deliberate practice that is the
necessary condition Ior the attainment oI expertise. Deliberate practice reIers to practice ac-
tivities done with the speciIic instrumental goal oI improving perIormance and which (a) are
perIormed in a daily, work-like manner; (b) require eIIort and attention; (c) do not lead to
immediate social or Iinancial rewards; and (d) are Irequently not enjoyable to perIorm. While
the notion oI deliberate practice was developed through research with musicians, Ericsson and
his colleagues have indicated that it has applicability to the acquisition oI expertise in all areas
oI human endeavor, including sport (Ericsson, 1996; Ericsson et al., 1993).
To date, research examining the application oI the theory oI deliberate practice to sport in
general and team sports in particular has been limited. Researchers have examined Iigure
skating (Starkes, Deakin, Allard, Hodges, & Hayes, 1996), karate (Hodge & Deakin, 1998),
wrestling (Hodges & Starkes, 1996), middle distance running (Young & Salmela, in press),
soccer (Helsen et al., 2000; Helsen et al., 1998), and Iield hockey (Helsen, Starkes, & Hodges,
1998). These studies provide support Ior many oI the contentions oI Ericsson and his col-
leagues, including the strong relationship between accumulated hours oI practice and level oI
perIormance. For instance, expert athletes and musicians perIormed similar amounts (around
25 hours) oI deliberate practice per week. However, these studies also indicate that some oI the
original tenets oI the theory oI deliberate practice may be too inIlexible Ior direct application
to sport settings. For example, all oI the examinations oI deliberate practice perIormed to date
in sport have Iound that, contrary to one oI the key components oI Ericsson`s deIinition oI
deliberate practice, the athletes systematically rate many speciIic practice activities as being
very enjoyable.
Examination oI the application oI the theory oI deliberate practice to team sport settings has
been more diIIicult. While Ericsson and his colleagues indicated that practice alone was the
most important activity Ior developing musical proIiciency, the development oI expertise in
team sport settings requires mastery oI a wide range oI skills extending Irom very general
elements such as physical Iitness to very speciIic elements such as team strategies. To master
these components athletes undertake a variety oI Iorms oI training, all oI which are believed to
be relevant to the improvement oI their overall individual and/or team perIormance. Cross-
training (i.e., training using other sports or activities) is routinely used to improve physiologi-
cal conditioning (Moran & McGlynn, 1997) whereas skills training is typically done in a very
sport-speciIic manner. PerIormance in team sports is also dependent upon the cohesive inter-
action among members oI the sports team unit, thereby necessitating training as a group in
addition to training alone. ThereIore, unlike the Ericsson et al. (1993) study oI musicians
where only practice alone was examined, all Iorms oI practice must be considered when exam-
ining deliberate practice in team sports (Helsen et al., 2000). In the Helsen et al. (1998, 2000)
investigation oI deliberate practice in the team sports oI Iield hockey and soccer, they noted
that athletes had perIormed approximately 10,000 hours oI training at the time oI data collec-
tion and that this accumulated training was a key distinguishing Iactor between athletes at
various levels oI expertise (i.e., international, national, and provincial level oI play). This
value is quite similar to the near 10,000 hours oI training indicated by the musicians in the
Ericsson et al. study.
Unsurprisingly, the attainment oI expertise is much more complex than simply accumulat-
14 J. BAKER ET AL.
ing a required number oI hours oI deliberate practice. For instance, key developmental periods
may occur in the development oI sporting expertise where the inIluence oI participation in a
wide range oI activities, and not just the sport oI prime interest, is important. Cte and col-
leagues (Cte, 1999; Cte, Baker, & Abernethy, in press; Cte, Baker, & Abernethy, 2001;
Cte & Hay, 2002), in their investigations oI elite Australian and Canadian athletes, have
identiIied three distinct stages oI sport participation that athletes pass through prior to the
attainment oI expert perIormance: the sampling years (512), the specializing years (1315),
and the investment years (16). The sampling years are typiIied by the athlete participating in
a wide range oI diIIerent sports. It is during this period that skills such as running, jumping,
and throwing that are Iundamental to perIormance in many sports are acquired and reIined. In
the specializing years, athletes begin to narrow their Iocus and participate in Iewer activities.
In the investment years, athletes become devoted to a single sport by making maximal perIor-
mance in this sport their primary liIe Iocus. In their study oI expert team sport athletes, Helsen
et al. (1998) Iound that at a time around 9 years into their career expert soccer and Iield hockey
players increased both training duration and intensity and they suggested that this was a neces-
sary requirement Ior reaching expert level perIormance (i.e., international level oI competi-
tion). Moreover, research on the hierarchy oI motor skill development (e.g., SeeIeldt, 1980,
1982) supports the approach that sport involvement should progress Irom a Iocus on Iunda-
mental motor skills in early childhood to more sport-speciIic skills in adolescence and early
adulthood. Moreover, the development oI Iundamental motor skills may be transIerable across
sports and activities that share similar general capacities.
Most theories oI child development (e.g., Piaget, 1962; Vigotsky, 1978) hold that play
activities provide a medium Ior useIul development. In an in-depth analysis oI play theories,
Sutton-Smith (1997) discussed the diIIerent kinds and levels oI playIul behavior and recog-
nized that the various levels oI play merit as much attention Irom researchers as the distinction
between play and non-play. Consequently, based on the work oI Denzin (1975), Cte and
colleagues (Cte, 1999; Cte et al., in press; Cte & Hay, 2002) diIIerentiated among the
various kinds oI play and suggested the concept oI deliberate plav as a key component oI
children`s early involvement in sport. Contrary to practice activities where the goal is to im-
prove perIormance, the goal oI deliberate play is to have Iun. Deliberate play activities have a
structure modiIied Irom the structure oI existing sports and in that sense are also diIIerent Irom
Iree play activities (e.g., children playing Ireely with toy cars). Cte et al. (in press) recently
suggested an activity scale oI involvement in sport ranging Irom the most elementary activity
(i.e., Iree play) to the most complex (i.e., deliberate practice). The activity-scale levels pro-
posed were (a) Iree play, (b) deliberate play, (c) structured practice, and (d) deliberate practice.
Cte and colleagues (Cte et al, in press; Cte & Hay, 2002) also proposed that as the athlete
progresses in sport there is a marked shiIt Irom activities Iocused on pleasurable participation
and play during the sampling years to a Iocus on activities designed to optimize perIormance
improvements through practice during the investment years. The virtue oI such a scale is that
it is Iounded on the notion that expertise in sport does not develop Irom engagement in only
one type oI activity as it has been suggested in music (Ericsson et al., 1993). Cte et al. advo-
cated that more attention needed to be Iocussed on developmental issues and the speciIic
nature oI the play and practice activities that athletes engaged in at various stages oI their
involvement in sport.
Accordingly, a more comprehensive understanding oI the practice base essential Ior expert
perIormance, especially team ball sports, requires consideration oI not only the sport-speciIic
practice activities undertaken by players but also the nature and extent oI practice and experi-
ence accumulated in other related activities. A key characteristic underlying expert perIor-
mance in team ball sports is decision-making, that is, the ability to perceive essential inIorma-
15 SPORT-SPECIFIC PRACTICE AND EXPERTISE
tion Irom the playing environment, correctly interpret this inIormation, and then select the
appropriate response. While expert superiority in these diIIerent components oI decision-mak-
ing has been consistently demonstrated (see Abernethy, 1991, Ior a review) little is yet known
about how such abilities develop. This study examined the quantity and type oI both sport-
speciIic and non-sport-speciIic practice accumulated throughout the careers oI expert deci-
sion-makers Irom three diIIerent team sports and contrasted these with the practice experi-
ences oI less accomplished athletes. The purpose oI examining the quantity oI sport-speciIic
practice was to (a) ascertain whether this conIormed to the general rules Ior expertise estab-
lished in other domains (i.e., 10 years/10,000 hours oI training) and (b) determine iI the amount
oI sport-speciIic practice was a key Iactor discriminating expert decision-makers Irom lesser
skilled athletes. The purpose oI examining the quantity and type oI other (non-sport-speciIic)
practice activities undertaken was to (a) identiIy commonalities in the backgrounds oI expert
decision-makers Irom diIIerent sports that may have contributed to their unique expertise and,
in particular, (b) determine the extent to which expert athletes` participation in other sports
was a distinguishing attribute oI their development.
METHODS
Participants
Twenty-eight athletes served as participants. The expert group consisted oI 15 players cho-
sen Irom the Australian national women`s netball team (n 3), national men`s basketball team
(n 4), national men`s Iield hockey team (n 4), and national women`s Iield hockey team (n
4). At the time oI data collection, each oI the teams was highly ranked internationally. The
women`s netball and Iield hockey teams were world champions, while the men`s Iield hockey
and basketball teams were ranked second and Iourth in the world respectively. Each athlete
was nominated by their respective national team coaches as being amongst the best decision-
makers internationally in their particular sports. All coaches Irom each respective national
team agreed unanimously on the athletes` selection Ior the present study (i.e., athletes chosen
Ior inclusion in the study were uniIormly regarded as expert decision-makers by the entire
national team coaching staII rather than simply by each head coach). Expert decision-making
was operationally deIined to the coaches in terms oI superior capabilities to 'read the play
and select the most appropriate option under the pressure oI game play rather than in terms oI
athleticism or sheer physical skill. The sample oI expert decision-makers had a mean age oI
27.6 years (SD 4.3) and had been playing their primary sport Ior an average oI 20.7 years
(SD 5.3). These experts played in a variety oI diIIerent positions on each team with no
evidence oI potential positional conIounds (e.g., selecting only expert point guards in basket-
ball and comparing them to centers).
A sample oI 13 non-expert decision-makers (4 Irom men`s basketball and 3 each Irom
women`s netball, men`s Iield hockey and women`s Iield hockey) provided important com-
parative data. The non-expert decision-makers all had greater than 10 years experience in their
sport but had not participated beyond the state or provincial level. The average age Ior this
non-expert group was 23.2 yrs (SD 4.6) with an average involvement oI 12.2 years (SD
1.7) in their sport. A general limitation oI studies examining the diIIerences between experts
and novices/non-experts is that comparisons are oIten conIounded by years oI playing experi-
ence. Experts typically have greater experience than non-experts and thereIore it is diIIicult to
distinguish whether expert/non-expert diIIerences are a constituent or a by-product oI that
expertise (e.g., see Abernethy, Thomas, & Thomas, 1993). In order to address this issue, our
intent was to obtain athletes who had extensive experience in their sport but who did not reach
16 J. BAKER ET AL.
the same level oI playing proIiciency as the expert group. Both expert and non-expert athletes
provided inIormed consent beIore participating in the study.
Procedures
Each participant completed a structured interview speciIically developed to examine the
practice activities oI elite athletes (Cte, Ericsson, & Beamer, 2002).
1
Interviews were con-
ducted one-on-one in a quiet environment with each interview lasting approximately 2 to 3
hours. The purpose oI the interview was to develop a detailed longitudinal account oI each
athlete`s involvement in sports and other extra-curricular activities. The interview used charts
to systematically record the types oI activity that participants engaged in throughout their
development and evaluated various conditions associated with each activity.
The initial part oI the interview was devoted to the establishment oI a comprehensive set oI
extra-curricular activities undertaken by the athlete in either a Iormal or inIormal way. The
speciIic instructional set used to elicit inIormation during this phase oI data collection was
I would like you to Iocus on the activities that you were involved in when you were young. I
would like you to list your involvement outside oI mandatory school activities, Ior example
music, dance, play, and other domains oI activity. I am also interested in your early sport
involvement. Looking back over your entire liIe please tell me oI any type oI activity that you
engaged in on a regular basis beIore you decided to specialize in basketball |or Iield hockey or
netball|. What musical, sport, play, and artistic activities, iI any, were you participating in
beIore becoming seriously involved in your main sport? Please list all oI these activities, such
as piano, dance, drawing, etc.
For each oI the activities listed, athletes were then asked the Iollowing questions:
'How old were you when you Iirst got started? How long did you keep up the involvement?
Please tell me oI any periods when your involvement was stopped.
The second part oI the interview assessed the amount oI time participants spent in their
main sport(s) throughout their development. The Iollowing instructional set was used to elicit
this inIormation:
For each oI the years listed in the chart can you provide the number oI hours per week and
number oI months per year that you were involved in your main sport? This includes practices,
games, and speciIic training activities Ior your main sport such as organized training, selI-
initiated training, and individualized instruction.
This inIormation was categorized as 'sport-speciIic training.
To examine the quantity and type oI practice needed to acquire expert level perIormance it
was necessary to deIine a standard criterion Ior determining when expert status was achieved.
While the identiIication oI such a discrete milestone can be contentious and somewhat arbi-
trary the advantage is that it provides a consistent point Ior the comparison oI Iindings both
within and between studies. In this study expertise was deIined as the time when the athletes in
the expert decision-making group were Iirst selected to their respective national open-age
team. The average age Ior reaching the national open-age team was 18.6 years oI age (SD 2.4
years).
1
A copy oI the interview guide is available upon request to the second author.
17 SPORT-SPECIFIC PRACTICE AND EXPERTISE
RESULTS
Reliability of Retrospective Information
As the interview task relied extensively on the retrospective recall oI the athletes involved,
and because oI the complexity and depth oI inIormation the athletes were required to recall,
measures were taken to cross-validate the data provided by the athletes. Previous research has
relied largely upon the use oI one-week training diaries to validate retrospective inIormation
provided by athletes (Helsen et al., 1998; Hodges & Starkes, 1996). This inIormation, while
providing an adequate validation oI the inIormation provided by the athlete Ior more recent
events, may not provide an accurate validation oI the retrospective recall oI activities under-
taken much earlier in the athlete`s development.
Validation oI the number and type oI early activities and hours oI practice provided by the
expert athletes was done by interviewing a sample oI their parents, speciIically the parent
deemed by each athlete as most knowledgeable about their sporting career. To examine the
correspondence between the number oI activities reported by the athletes and the number oI
activities reported by their parents (n 10) the percent agreement (Bahrick, Hall, & Berger,
1996) was computed. There was a complete agreement (i.e., 100) between the total number
oI activities reported by the expert athletes and the total reported by the parents. To validate
the athletes` selI-reported practice hours, a Pearson product moment correlation analysis was
perIormed between the number oI practice hours per year estimated by the athlete and the
comparable estimate provided by their parent. The correlation coeIIicient Ior these two sources
was r .59 (p .05). Reliability oI the athletes` estimates oI hours spent in practice activities
was also examined through the use oI a redundant item built into the interview protocol. The
protocol elicited inIormation regarding the number oI practice hours through two separate
questions. An initial question required athletes to indicate the total number oI hours oI practice
they perIormed each week while the second question had the athletes indicate the number oI
hours practice spent in each speciIic activity. The practice hours in each activity were then
summated and compared to the overall training hours estimate provided by the athlete. The
correlation between these two estimates was r .73 (p .05). Although this coeIIicient is
slightly lower than the one presented by Helsen et al. (1998) this was not surprising given that
the recall in this study was Ior events that were, in some cases, up to 30 years in the past.
Collectively, these results indicate the data are reasonably valid and reliable.
Sport-Specific Practice Activities
The total number oI years and hours oI sport-speciIic practice prior to achieving expert
perIormance (i.e., national open-age team selection) was computed. This inIormation, as well
as the number oI other sporting activities in which each athlete participated, is presented in
Table 1.
The number oI years spent in practice prior to national team selection ranged Irom 7 to 20
years. All but one oI the expert athletes had a minimum oI 10 years oI involvement beIore
achieving expertise (M 12.9, SD 2.9). However, the number oI hours spent in practice Ior
their sport prior to national team selection varied considerably within the sample oI expert
decision-makers. The range oI practice hours prior to the achievement oI expert perIormance
ranged Irom 600 hours to 6026 hours (M 3939, SD 1769.8). Basketball players reported
signiIicantly greater sport speciIic training hours prior to national team selection than the netball
and Iield hockey players, F (2, 12) 7.9, p .05.
Figure 1 presents the distribution oI cumulated hours spent in sport-speciIic practice and
practice hours per week Ior the expert and non-expert athletes by year oI involvement. Figure
18 J. BAKER ET AL.
2 presents expert and non-expert practice hours per week and involvement in other activities
by chronological age. Experts accumulated similar hours oI sport-speciIic training to non-
experts until approximately 11 years oI involvement in their sport. At this point, the rate oI
sport-speciIic practice accumulation by experts escalated dramatically, such that aIter 15 years
oI sport involvement the number oI hours oI practice accumulated by experts was nearly twice
that undertaken by the non-experts.
Figures 1 and 2 provide a comparison oI the hours oI training per week Ior the experts and
non-experts according to both year oI sport involvement and chronological age. For the year
oI sport involvement examination, statistical analyses aIter 15 years oI involvement were not
possible due to an insuIIicient number oI non-expert athletes reporting data aIter 15 years. A
two-way repeated measures ANOVA on training hours per week measured at 3-year intervals
revealed main eIIects Ior both level oI expertise (F (1, 24) 6.9, p .05) and time (each 3-year
epochs; F (1, 24) 52.9, p .05), as well as a signiIicant interaction between these two Iactors
(F (1, 24) 22.3, p .05). The interaction was attributable to the number oI hours oI sport-
speciIic practice undertaken by the expert group being greater than that Ior the non-experts at
12 and 15 years aIter commencing the activity. For the chronological age analysis, a statistical
comparison oI the two skill groups was only possible aIter 12 years oI age because non-ex-
perts typically did not begin their involvement in basketball, netball, or Iield hockey until
later. This analysis revealed a main eIIect Ior both level oI expertise (F (1, 24) 6.7, p .05)
and time (F (1, 24) 14.2, p .05), as well as a signiIicant interaction between these two
Iactors (F (1, 24) 5.3, p .05). The interaction is attributed to the signiIicant diIIerence
between hours per week Ior experts and non-experts aIter 18 years oI age.
Other Activities
The number oI additional sporting activities (organized and unorganized physical activity)
athletes participated in ranged Irom 3 to 14 activities (M 8.6, SD 3.6). Those athletes that
Table 1
Descriptive Statistics for Practice Years, Hours and Number of Other Activities
Prior to Reaching National Team
Sport Yrs of Involvement # Practice Hrs # Other Sport Activities
Basketball players 11.0 (3.2) 5908.5 (104.9) 4.8 (2.2)
Range 7 14 5772 6026 3 8
Netball players 13.3 (1.5) 2260.0 (1479.6) 11.7 (2.1)
Range 12 15 600 3440 10 14
Field hockey players 13.8 (3.0) 3583.3 (1437.0) 9.4 (3.0)
Range 10 20 864 5164 5 14
Females 12.6 (1.5) 2543.4 (1448.5) 11.0 (2.4)
Range 10 15 600 4336 7 14
Males 13.3 (3.8) 5159.5 (903.4) 6.5 (3.1)
Range 7 20 3634 6026 3 12
Entire group 12.9 (2.9) 3939 (1769.8) 8.6 (3.6)
Range 7 20 600 6026 3 14
19 SPORT-SPECIFIC PRACTICE AND EXPERTISE
required Iewer hours oI sport-speciIic practice to attain expertise had typically experienced a
larger number oI other sporting activities, while those athletes that perIormed the greatest
amount oI sport-speciIic practice prior to attaining expertise reported Iewer other activities.
This observation was conIirmed by correlation analysis. A partial correlation between the
number oI prior activities and the number oI sport-speciIic practice hours prior to expertise,
while controlling Ior type oI sport, indicated a negative relationship between these two vari-
ables (r .54, p .05). Engagement in a large number oI other sporting activities was asso-
ciated with a relatively small number oI sport-speciIic practice hours required beIore attaining
expert level perIormance and vice versa.
Table 2 contains a list oI the additional activities that the expert decision-making athletes
participated in prior to attaining national team selection. Activities were categorized into Iour
groups: team sports, individual sports, unorganized sporting activities, and artistic/musical
activities. The most commonly experienced other team sport activities included basketball,
Iootball (including rugby, Aussie Rules, and touch Iootball), cricket and soItballsports that
involve skills (e.g., working with teammates, anticipating opponent`s actions) that may be
transIerable to other similar sports. Athletics (i.e., track and Iield) was the most commonly
perIormed individual sporting activity. Other individual sport activities that were commonly
reported were tennis, squash, and golI. The expert decision-making athletes also reported par-
ticipating in a wide range oI sport activities that were not organized by an adult (i.e., activities
that might constitute deliberate play). These deliberate play activities (such as backyard games,
pick-up games) were perIormed in inIormal atmospheres that were not part oI an organized
sporting system. The most commonly reported deliberate play activities were Iorms oI Ioot-
ball, cricket and cycling. Experts reported minimal participation in artistic/musical activities,
with the most common activities being drama, guitar, piano, choir and dance.
Iigure 1. Conparison of expert and non-expert cunulative training hours and training hours per
week by year of involvenent.
20 J. BAKER ET AL.
Figure 2 illustrates the pattern oI participation in musical, team and individual sporting
activities, and unorganized activities Ior each year oI involvement. For the expert athletes
there is an increase in the number oI activities they participated in until approximately 12 years
oI age. This is Iollowed by a decrease in involvement Irom 12 to 17 years oI age. Finally, at
approximately 17 years oI age there is a leveling oII oI involvement Ior the expert athletes. For
the non-experts, a similar pattern is evident Ior the Iirst Iew years oI involvement, although
their mean involvement in other activities is somewhat less than that undertaken by the expert
decision-makers. As with the experts, non-experts demonstrate an increase in activity involve-
ment until approximately 12 years oI age. However, aIter 12 years oI age, non-experts main-
tain a broader participation in a number oI activities while experts begin to decrease their
broad sports involvement to Iocus their energies toward their specialist sport and directly re-
lated practice activities.
DISCUSSION
The data collected in this study suggest that the '10-year rule presented by Simon and
Chase (1973) remains a good 'rule oI thumb with respect to the minimal sport-speciIic prac-
tice base needed Ior the development oI expertise in team sports. With only one exception, the
expert athletes in the present study were involved in their primary sport Ior, at least, a mini-
mum oI 10 years; nearly 13 on average beIore reaching national, open-age, team selection.
Further, the number oI accumulated hours oI sport-speciIic practice suggested that this is also
an important indicator oI expertise in sport decision-making, supporting previous Iindings Ior
Iigure 2. Conparison of expert and non-expert participation in other activities and training hours per
week by chronological age.
21 SPORT-SPECIFIC PRACTICE AND EXPERTISE
team sport athletes (Helsen et al., 1998, 2000). However, the number oI hours oI repeated
sport-speciIic practice was Iar short oI the 10,000 hours oI deliberate practice reported Ior
expert musicians by Ericsson et al. (1993) and expert soccer and Iield hockey players by
Helsen et al. (1998, 2000), being 4,000 hours, on average.
2
The diIIerence in the number oI hours invested in sport speciIic training (i.e., deliberate
practice) reported by athletes in this study and other studies oI athletes in team sports (Helsen
et al., 1998, 2000) is likely to be the result oI the diIIerent time Irames used to calculate
accumulated hours oI training. The speciIic criteria used in the current study to deIine exper-
tise (i.e., being chosen Ior the national open-age team) signiIied that deliberate practice hours
were counted Irom Iirst involvement in sport to national team selection (a deIinite criteria oI
Table 2
Additional sporting activities of expert decision-makers
Activity N Activity N
Team Sports Unorganized Sporting Activities
Netball 1 * Aerobics 1
Volleyball 1 Pickup Basketball 1
Soccer 3 Squash 1
Basketball 8 * Football 7
Cricket 5 Cycling 4
SoItball 6 Cricket 6
Football 6 Soccer 2
Swimming 2
Individual Sports Table Tennis 2
Athletics (track and Iield) 8 Volleyball 1
Tennis 4 Chase 1
Karate 1 Badminton 2
Running 2 Gymnastics 1
Squash 4
GolI 4 Artistic/Musical Activities
Swimming 3 Organ 1
Dance 2
Drama 4
Choir 2
Guitar 3
Piano 2
Trumpet 1
Recorder 1
Flute 1
CraIts 1
Note. * this number does not include expert athletes Irom this sport (e.g., basketball n 8 does not include the 4
basketball expert athletes).
2
It is plausible that the expert players reached an elite status because oI better practice opportunities
during their development. However, in a subsequent analysis it was Iound that the quality oI resources
was similar between experts and non-experts during the sampling and specializing years. The quality oI
training Iacilities, equipment, coaching, and social support was signiIicantly better Ior the expert players
when compared to the non-expert players only during the investment years (Abernethy, Cte, & Baker,
2002).
22 J. BAKER ET AL.
expertise attainment in team sports). The metric used to calculate number oI hours invested in
deliberate practice was the same Ior all expert players independent oI their age at data collec-
tion. Because the Iocus oI this study was on the development oI expertise and not on the
maintenance oI expertise (i.e., years on the national team), counting deliberate practice hours
up to national team selection presents an actual account oI deliberate practice hours during
development and is not inIlated by the report oI older athletes who may have invested a large
number oI deliberate practice hours after reaching an international level oI perIormance. In
the present study the addition oI training done while on the national team, a time Irame ac-
counted Ior in Helsen et al. studies (1998, 2000), may have produced an estimate oI accumu-
lated hours in deliberate practice comparable to the 10,000 hours typically reported in other
studies.
An important Iinding unique to this study is that the range oI accumulated hours reported
by the expert athletes was highly variable both within and between sports, suggesting Iactors
additional to the total hours oI accumulated sport-speciIic practice inIluence expertise attain-
ment in team sports. Related practice, in other non-sport-speciIic contexts, emerges as a prime
candidate as an additional Iactor critical to the acquisition oI decision-making expertise in
sport. The involvement oI expert athletes in other activities prior to expertise attainment has
not been examined in other retrospective studies oI expert team sport athletes (Helsen et al.
1998, 2000) yet examination oI other related sporting activities is important as these may
provide an alternative to early specialization in sport speciIic deliberate practice activities.
A signiIicant negative correlation was Iound between the number oI prior sporting activi-
ties experienced by the expert decision-makers and the number oI hours oI sport-speciIic prac-
tice required beIore national team selection. This suggests that participation in other activities
may indeed be a Iunctional element in the development oI expert decision-making skill. Expo-
sure to practice in other sport settings, especially in generic aspects oI pattern recognition and
decision-making, may circumvent the need Ior, or perhaps partially substitute Ior, some oI the
many hours oI sport-speciIic practice needed to become an expert in team ball sports. Perhaps,
unlike the domain oI music, within which Ericsson et al. (1993) developed their theory oI
deliberate practice, sport expertise in team sports may be suIIiciently multi-Iaceted to permit
beneIicial learning to occur through settings other than deliberate, task-speciIic practice.
Two oI the activities commonly reported as early activities by the expert athletes were
Iootball (including Aussie Rules, rugby, and touch Iootball) and basketballsports that share
a number oI characteristics in common with the sports in which these participants became
experts. For example, all require repeated, dynamic decision-making during play; all are played
in a conIined space that necessitates well-developed pattern recognition and spatial awareness
skills to know where teammates and opponents are at all times; and all require a high degree oI
physical ability Ior success. The sports oI cricket and soItball were also commonly reported
and may contribute to developing hand-eye coordination. This may be particularly relevant
Ior Iield hockey, another striking game. In addition, athletes also indicated running and cy-
cling as common activities in which they were engaged. Participation in these Iorms oI aerobic
activity could provide beneIicial cardiovascular eIIects enhancing perIormance in sports such
as basketball, netball, and Iield hockey, which place heavy demands on aerobic energy sys-
tems.
These suppositions suggest that in a practical context, very signiIicant transIer oI learning
may take place Irom one sport to another. Prior research examining transIer oI learning would
suggest that in all probability transIer occurs more in general cognitive/perceptual capacities
and physiological adaptations than in the skill-speciIic execution elements oI movement. Fur-
thermore, it is likely that this transIer occurs earlier rather than later in the athlete`s develop-
ment (Schmidt & Wrisberg, 2000).
23 SPORT-SPECIFIC PRACTICE AND EXPERTISE
Perhaps the most signiIicant implication that can be drawn Irom the present study is that
early specialization may not be a necessary requirement Ior expert level perIormance in deci-
sion-making sports. This is an implication consistent with the work oI Carlson (1988, 1997),
who showed that an all-round sport engagement beIore adolescence was a key ingredient in
the development oI elite tennis players in Sweden, and Hill (1993), who Iound that diversiIied
youth sport participation was the norm among U.S. proIessional baseball players. While ex-
pert athletes clearly reported more years oI involvement in their primary sport than did non-
experts, the total hours spent doing sport-speciIic practice was highly variable. In keeping
with the premises within Cte`s stages oI sport participation model (Cte, 1999; Cte et al., in
press; Cte & Hay, 2002), there was a broad range oI activities perIormed in the sampling
years by experts (age 612), a decrease in other activity involvement in the specializing years
(age 1315), Iollowed by devotion to primarily one activity in the investment years (age 16).
Moreover, during the investment years the number oI training hours per week Ior experts was
signiIicantly higher than those Ior non-experts.
The signiIicant negative correlation observed between breadth oI sport exposure and the
hours oI sport-speciIic practice needed to acquire expertise suggests that it may be possible to
accumulate useIul practice Irom an early age without the need Ior early sport specialization
and a singular Iocus on sport-speciIic practice. Indeed, up until the specialization years, ex-
perts engaged in as many or more activities additional to their principal sport, than do non-
experts. As the existing theory oI deliberate practice advocates the relentless accumulation oI
task-speciIic practice as essential Ior the development oI expertise, and hence, by inIerence,
early specialization, it is our contention that modiIication to this theory is needed in order to
Iully encapsulate the learning to become an expert that occurs within the domain oI team ball
sports. Furthermore, we contend that expertise in team sports may be meaningIully investi-
gated by examining changes in Iorms oI practice and associated activities throughout the de-
velopmental career span oI expert athletes.
Unlike most other study areas, the retrospective study oI expertise has a number oI unique
limitations. The study oI genuine expertise is necessarily limited by the Iact that the number oI
experts is, by deIinition, small and this makes the establishment oI large sample sizes with
strong statistical power extremely diIIicult. The study oI the practice histories oI established
experts is also necessarily limited by the accuracy with which individuals can recall time spent
in activities undertaken up to one or two decades earlier. The current study recognizes these
diIIiculties and, while unable to eliminate them, has attempted to work within these constraints
to establish as large a cohort oI expert decision-makers as it is Ieasible to assemble without
compromising on the quality criteria used to deIine an expert and by attempting to cross-
validate the retrospective inIormation provided by the athletes with that Irom other credible
sources. The discussions and conclusions are thereIore based on the highest Iidelity data ac-
cessible to the research group to address the questions oI interest. Future research should ex-
tend the current Iindings by examining sports where expert perIormance occurs at younger
ages (e.g., gymnastics, diving, Iigure skating) to investigate the importance oI early special-
ization in these domains. Furthermore, domains where the capacities underlying perIormance
may be more specialized (e.g., chess, music) should be investigated to determine whether the
Iindings Irom this study are speciIic to sports such as basketball, netball, and Iield hockey or
general to all domains oI human endeavor.
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