A Review of the Literature on School Design

IntroductionSome Guiding Principles

It seems axiomatic to state that school design is governed by both physical and
metaphysical factors. In the physical realm the availability of financial resources, the
restrictions of the proposed site, the nature of the program to be offered and the age of the
children to be served are obvious influences that will affect the final outcome. Of a more
metaphysical nature (but just as critical) is the importance of preliminary and on-going
consultations among all interest groups. These stake-holders are not just the
designers/architects and board administrators but also school administrators, teachers,
parents and, depending on maturity, students as well.

C. William Brubaker, a principal with the architecture firm of Perkins & Will in Chicago,
writes the following:

The most important people are the clients, who have a program of space
needsalong with their ideas, understandings and dreams. This is especially
important for schools, which are planned with many clients in mind: students,
teachers, administrators, board members, and increasingly, the community. An
architect cannot design and complete a good school without a good client, and the
administrators determine the flavour and fate of the school design process more
than anyone else with the possible exception of an outstanding board member, a
brilliant teacher who recognizes the importance of good design, or a local citizen
who works with the district to achieve better schools for the community.
1

Anne Taylor is Professor and Director of The Institute for Environmental Education,
University of New Mexico, and co-founder (with architect George Vlastos) of the School
Zone Institute, a body created in order to combine the curricular and child development
goals of education with the design elements of architecture. In a recent paper she pointed
out that the prime focus of the School Zone model is that the physical setting of the
learning environment does make a difference in, and directly contributes to, a childs
behavior and learning. Equally important is that this physical setting is not just based on
predetermined square footage needs as part of an educational specification, but rather
includes students and community input throughout the planning process, from setting
goals and collecting data to determining needs and identifying the problem to be solved.
2


In keeping with this co-operative effort between clients and architect, Mark Dudek, who
is a practicing architect and associate with the School of Architecture, University of
Sheffield, outlines a two-stage, six-month development program in which a focus group
of teachers design and model the ideal classroom.
3
(See Appendices A and B of this
report). It should be noted that ideal classroom is not an absolute concept. That is, the

1
Brubaker, et al., pp. xii, xiii.
2
http://www.designshare.com/Research/Taylor/Taylor_Programming_1.htm
3
Dudek, pp. 50-57.
ideal classroom for a primary school will not be the ideal classroom for senior high
school students. In fact, the ideal classroom for any one teacher and class at one point in
time may not be the ideal classroom 5 or 10 years into the future. To a greater or lesser
degree a similar statement can be made about all the physical features of a new school.
Obviously, an overriding principle, as the various parties consult, is that school planning
and construction incorporate flexibility and adaptability features.
4


While school designers necessarily place much emphases on the layout of classrooms,
laboratories, gymnasiums, etc., other attributes are considered to be very important. For
example, the provision of an area that allows students to socialize with friends and
siblings is seen as a worthwhile feature. Also, for primary and elementary level pupils
especially, the provision of a safe playground is paramount. Moreover, even when
building in a city, it is recommended that, if at all possible, the school grounds
incorporate a wooded, natural area.
5
An added bonus would be access to a nearby
pond and marsh. Not only would such features play a role in the affective development
of studentsthe life and earth sciences would have access to an outdoor laboratory to
further the cognitive realm of learning as well.

Designers are becoming cognizant of the wow factor that can be elicited by a well-
planned atrium or entrance area. This is especially effective where the foyer is two or
three stories tall and students can experience indoor gardens and larger than life art-
work as they move to and fro in the school (Dudek, p. 96). The same writer points out
the importance of playful architecture, especially for young children. This can be
achieved without resorting to Disney-esque plastic egg cups and teddy bear doors.
(See Dudek, pp. 75-76).

As already alluded to, schools are being used more and more by the community. This is
manifested in the public use of the gymnasium, the IT facilities, and, in some instances,
access to the school as a church. It is imperative, then, that school planners design
buildings which allow for after-hours security while portions of the structure are being
used by parents and the public in general.

Ideally, the community school is not just defined as one where the community uses the
school, but also one where the school reaches out to use the resources of the community.
According to Brubaker (p. 185):

The schools of the twenty-first century will not be walled off from community life
as they sometimes were in the past. A school is a part of its community, not apart
from it.


4
While it may be overly simplistic to point out the value of having furniture that is not fixed, allowing for
changes in the size and shape of a room requires more planning. On the matter of access to plumbing and
electricity, one writer advocates raised flooring to accommodate wiring, cabling and connection boxes.
(See Gayeski, ed., p. 57)
5
For example, if no other green area is available, consider the possibility of building near a park.
The Master Plan

The master plan, as the name suggests, shows the size, shape, and nature of the property.
While it is different from the detailed drawings of the building interiors, it shows the
outline of all structures, and much detail on the physical features of the school
surroundings. According to Brubaker (p. 167) the plan shows outdoor requirements that
might include:

the building footprint (with number of stories indicated)
the main entrance area, including landscaped areas
visitor parking, drop off curbs, and shelter waiting area
secondary entrance area
loading curbs for school buses
service and receiving areas, loading docks, dumpsters
air conditioning chillers, electrical transformers
entrance driveways, fire lanes, service drives
student parking, community parking, faculty and staff parking
baseball and softball fields, playground
soccer field, tennis courts, basketball courts, handball courts
stadium, track, seating, concessions, restrooms, bicycle paths
wetlands and woodlands preservation, nature study area
storm water retention, lake and/or ponds
legal setback requirements/easements


The master plan should serve one other very important purpose: it shows how the site
and the buildings can be expanded and where future structures can be located. That is,
the master plan guides future development and gives future school administrators and
architects the guidelines and rationale which governed the original planning decisions
(Brubaker, p. 163 and Appendices C1 and C2 of this report).


School Design

The following steps in the planning and building process are a synopsis of the
information given by Brubaker (see chapter 8) and Gayeski (see chapter 2):

1. select members of the planning and design team
2. do an inventory of existing resources
3. carry out a survey of needs with all interested parties (see Gayeski, chapter 2, for
an extensive needs assessment worksheet.)
4. develop the educational specifications (the program). According to Brubaker (p.
171) the educational specifications should include a summary of recent
demographic trends, the philosophy and goals of the school, the curriculum, the
desired relationships between the components of the program, the organization of
the administrative spaces, a detailed summary of all the required spaces and their
sizes, a description of how each space works, and a list of equipment required.
5. select the site
6. select the design. At this stage the processes may be considered to be
macroscopic. That is to say, the planning and design team determine the position
of the main blocks of the school in relation to each other. The main blocks are the
classroom area, the laboratories, the resource/media centre, the kitchen/dining
area, the gymnasium, the administrative and staff offices, and so on. There is no
one best design and to a large extent the design might depend on the available
sites. For example, where land is at a premium, the design may be vertical,
while an abundance of land would allow horizontal expansion. However,
decisions should be informed decisions. For example, if the school is to be a
community school, then the layout should facilitate the use of certain areas of the
school by the public while other areas can be secured. Again, with respect to
classroom areas, there is a design continuum which, on the one end of the
continuum, would place all classrooms in a single block, while on the other end of
the continuum the classes may be in clusters or houses
6
around a central block
that includes commonly used rooms such as the resource centre, and the
administrative and staff rooms. The design and planning committee will have to
consider the pros and cons of each possibility as they apply to the program to be
delivered. (See Appendix E for access to 92 school plans at the primary/
elementary, junior and senior high school levels).
7. develop the design (thousands of details which are eventually drawn on plans and
written to building construction specificationsthese processes are more
microscopic). Design development is the time when all spaces are studied,
discussed and reviewed, showing all building forms, complete floor plans, inside
and outside wall elevations, and details. At the conclusion of this phase all

6
For example, houses may be determined by grade level, or, in the higher grades there may be a social
studies house, mathematics house, etc. One compromise in the small school/big school debate is to have
houses that are actually small schools clustered around certain shared facilities. This is the schools-
within-a-school concept. (See Brubaker, p. 40 and also a similar Campus Model for elementary schools
described by Dr. Kenneth Tanner, School Design & Planning Laboratory, University of Georgia at
htp://www.coe.uga.edu/sdpl/researchabstracts/designarticle.pdf).
drawings should be examined by all stake-holders. Teachers and department
heads should assist in making the final design decisions on room layouts, storage,
and working walls (as oppose to passive walls which just block sound and
views). As far as the teacher is concerned, the classroom will be of primary
importance. See Appendix B for one possibility of a single classroom layout.
Brubaker (pp. 44-46) gives no fewer that twelve designs for blocks of classrooms.
These vary all the way from the traditional double-loaded corridor with the
typical row of square/rectangular classrooms on each side of the corridor, to the
wall-less open area with small spaces for individual study. Perusal of the twelve
designs well show that the different layouts are a function of the extent to which
classrooms are clustered (as opposed to being in a straight line), and the degree to
which walls number more than the typical 4 per room, and are movable or are
altogether non-existent.
8. produce the contract documents
9. advertise for bids, receive bids, award contracts
10. the construction phase
11. moving in
12. evaluate the new school


Much detail on school planning and design may be found in Appendices D1 to D5.

The Implications of ICT in New School Design

It is realistic (if not alarming) to propose that by the time a new school is occupied some
of the selected hardware and software will be obsolete. For example, school designers
and educators must at least be aware of the ramifications of wireless systems in a school
that has already been wired with copper or fibre optics. Maybe the greatest impact will
be felt in the use, or, more correctly lack of use, of school facilities as more and more
courses become available on-line. Will students stay at home and come to school only
occasionally for tutorial and laboratory services? (Brubaker, p. 186).

An awareness of the rapid pace of ICT innovations will have to be translated into on-
going action. Not surprisingly, maintaining a cutting edge will be expensive. Gayeski
(pp. 142-143) makes the following suggestions:

Budget for hardware maintenance and upgrades. While such a budget would
cover the cost of additional memory, faster chips, and special boards or cards,
the greatest financial impact will be related to the acquiring of palm (hand-
held) devices, portables, remote networking access, and new operating
systems.
Budget for software upgrades.
Realizing that programs and files are dramatically increasing in size, it is
important that networking and data storage capabilities be in place and
maintained so that administrators and teachers are not restricted just to the use
of files that reside on their own hard drives.
Ensure that support people are in place to design and implement ICT
classrooms. These people will also support the maintenance and daily
operation of the classroom, and train and help teachers in the use of
technology in the classrooms.

While in the past much of the ICT access has been mainly available in the media or
resource room of the school, indications are that there is a move to decentralize such
facilities so that each classroom can become an electronic classroom. Obviously, the
expense of such a move must be weighed against the desirability of having more
immediate access for all students. Brubaker (p. 53) states:

The emerging information technologies are affecting instruction methods and
curriculum delivery systems and changing the school learning environment,
giving rise to a new type of high-tech classroom. The role of the teacher has
shifted from one of delivering education to one of facilitating learning.
Multimedia teaching and learning tools that require the inclusion of computers
affect the size and shape of the standard classroom. Telecommunication and
the information superhighway require on-line capabilities which can expand the
boundaries of the classroom indefinitely.

As a dream classroom is being designed, it would be good to keep in mind the
following: PLAN THE IDEAL. BUILD DOWN TO THE REAL. (Gayeski, p. 119). From
an ICT point of view, the ideal classroom would have ready access to the Internet for
individual students, and an LCD panel would allow the teacher to use the Internet or
other inputs (e.g., slide show, videodisc) to teach the class as a whole.

The ultimate in course delivery is what Gayeski calls the intelligent lectern system
(presently used in the Dow Chemical Learning Centre, Midland, Michigan). This lectern
of the future holds a keyboard and two computer monitorsone displays what is
currently projected on the large screen and the other is used for running pre-designed
courses or for controlling room environment equipment. There is also a telephone
connected directly to the help desk located elsewhere in case a technical problem arises.
The teacher can control all audio-visual components and lights in the room from the
lectern or from anywhere in the room via a remote control (Gayeski, p. 131).
Air Quality

In the past the only the H and to some extent the V in HVAC systems (heating,
ventilating and air conditioning) have received attention in our province. In recent years,
however, air quality control has become both a health and political issue. New schools
should be designed and built to minimize related problems in the future. There are
obvious financial implications, but planners should be mindful than well-built windows
can often provide the cheapest air conditioning. According to Brubaker,

With the advent of air conditioning, windowless classrooms were too often
incorporated to save energy, a misleading concept because the fans have to run
forever to make some spaces habitable. A more enlightened concept is to provide
most or all of the school with windows and air conditioning and then use
judgment in deciding whether to air-condition learning spaces or simply open
windows and use natures own climate controlnatural ventilationon many
days of the year. (Brubaker, p. 127)

According to Gayeski (p. 50), a good ventilation system allows for six to eight air
changes per hour.

The American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers
(ASHRAE) recommends at least 15 cubic feet per minute of outside air for each student
in a classroom. (College Planning & Management, March 1999, via the WWW)
7

Again, from School Planning & Management, December 2001 (via the WWW):
"Concerns that carpeting in schools is contributing to an increase in respiratory
problems, allergies and asthma in schools are unfounded," says Alan Hedge,
professor of design and environmental analysis at Cornell University in Ithaca,
N.Y. "As long as schools keep floors clean and use high-efficiency microfiltration
vacuum bags, carpets can be a healthy, safe and economical floor covering in
schools and day-care centers. Microfiltration bags will trap very small particles,
such as dust mites and feces, so that these will not become airborne."
8
He points out that Sweden, which banned carpeting in schools in the late 1980s, has
experienced skyrocketing childhood asthma rates ever since, contrary to expectations.
Research studies suggest many reasons for this including children who are genetically
predisposed to developing asthma, becoming allergic to other allergens, especially from
cats and dogs. In addition, Hedge says, "Carpets eliminate slip hazards, reduce the
severity of falls and provide a more comfortable surface to stand, walk and sit on.
Carpeting improves the acoustics in a classroom by minimizing impact noise and
reducing reverberating sounds, and this reduces background noise that can interfere with
children's learning and increase stress."

7
http://www.peterli.com/cpm/
8
http://www.peterli.com/spm/index.htm
The best design solution for classrooms, Hedge says, is to combine the strengths and
benefits of carpeting for areas under desks and where sitting and teaching activities occur,
but to use smooth floorings around wet sink areas and boot/shoe storage. But, says
Hedge, "Whatever the floor covering, it's critical that it be kept clean and dry to eliminate
any IAQ risks from biological contaminants such as bacteria, fungi and dust mites."
For more detail on air pollutants and control see Appendix D5.
Client Space

The clients (in addition to parents and the community in general) are students, teachers,
administrators/counselors/therapists, and staff (secretarial, custodial, kitchen).

StudentsOf primary importance to the student is the degree of crowdedness in the
classroom. Table 1 on page 12 summarizes related information from 20 schools around
the world. (For more detail see Dudek, pp. 133-233).

Omitting the three highlighted schools in Table 1 on p. 12, the average classroom floor
area is 67 m
2
.
9

While only a few of the 20 schools in Table 1 provided information that allows the
calculation of a typical class size, those that did indicated class sizes ranging from 20 to
36 pupils with the number most often falling between 25 and 30.

Gayeski (p. 160) suggests a minimum classroom area of 56 m
2
for a class of 30 students.

The Area Guidelines for Schools published by DfEE Publications of Nottingham,
England and referred to by Dudek (p. 44) repeats the refrain:

Whole class teaching spaces for up to 30 children can only be effective if they are
at least 55m
2
in plan form. However, this figure should be seen as an absolute
minimum, and an area double that would, if used in a purposeful way, be a more
appropriate yardstick.

In as much as Gayeski is writing out of America and Dudek is writing out of England,
and the schools of Table 1 represent many areas of the globe, it can be said with some
confidence that 55m
2
should indeed be considered as a minimum floor space for a class
of 25 to 30 students. (See optimum, theoretical floor areas in Appendix D2)

While Brubaker also mentions 30 as being a regular class size (see Brubaker, p. 44),
he seems more inclined to support the research of Dr. Lloyd Trump who found that
students learned best in small groups of 5 to 20 students or in large groups of 60 to 100
students. (See Brubaker, p. 43). To the extent that this research is valid, the implications
for classroom size are obvious: schools should be designed with classrooms of various

9
The first and third of the highlighted schools are omitted because the clients are all special needs students.
The second highlighted school is omitted because the classroom floor area is expressed as a range.
sizes, but the least important, according to Trumps research, is the provision of rooms to
specifically accommodate 30 students! It is interesting to note that the L-shaped room as
described in Appendix B allows for the teaching of small groups, but, unless the overall
floor space is much larger than the typical classroom, larger groups of 60 to 100 cannot
be accommodated.

Related to Trumps idea of learning best in small groups, Dudek makes the following
comment (see p. 49):

It is clear that the strategies for reading development range from whole class
groups focusing on a white board, through to smaller groups reading to each
other, to one-on-one sessions either in the classroom or in a separate reading
room. Reading niches off the main classroom enable better concentration and
audibility. If this is not possible, adapting existing classrooms by the introduction
of temporary screens which provide some visual and acoustic separation can be a
very effective alternative. As a separate resource, a mini-library within or close to
the classroom is highly desirable.

As a more permanent fixture in the construction stage of a school, Dudek offers the
following suggestion especially for younger children (see p. 50):

by creating special areas with dropped ceilings and a more enclosed feeling, the
my house effect can often be triggered which can give children intense feelings
of value and comfort, essential aids to concentration.

On the matter of floor area per student (and keeping in mind the cautionary point in the
first footnote of Table 1 on p. 12) it is interesting to note that the two American schools
(in Chicago and Fort Myers) are among those with the largest floor space per student. In
keeping with this finding, the Ohio School Facilities Commission reports 1990 average
figures as follows:

Elementary School to be 9 square metres per student.
Middle School to be 14 square metres per student.
High School to be 15 square metres per student.
10

10
See http://www.osfc.state.oh.us/bap/bapstandards.htm. From the information provided, it cannot be said
for certain that these areas include the gymnasium.
Table 1 Total floor area and classroom floor area in twenty schools.


Description

Location
Total
Area
1
(m
2
)
Popu-
lation
2
Area /
Student
1
(m
2
)
Classroom
Area
(m
2
)
Speech & Learning Centre
(pre-school to 5 years)
London,
England
380 unknown 13
3
Seabird Island School
(K to Grade 10)
Agassiz
British Columbia
2190 400 6 74
Strawberry Vale School
(5 years 11 years)
Victoria
British Columbia
3172 448 7 73
Westborough Primary School
(4 years to 11 years)
Westcliff-on-Sea
Essex
2464 686 4 34 - 81
Woodlea Primary School
(5 years to 11 years)
Bordon
Hampshire
1157 245 5 42
Anne Frank School
(4 years to 12 years)
Papendrecht
The Netherlands
1200 224 5 50
The Bombardon School
(pupils with learning difficulties)
Almere
The Netherlands
2910 unknown 102
Pokesdown Primary School
(4 years to 11 years)
Bournemouth 2118 420 5 59
Ranelagh Multi-Denominational
(4 years to 12 years)
Dublin 1142 250 5 69
Little Village Academy
(K to Grade 8)
Chicago 6637 688 10 84
St. Benno Catholic School
(11 years to 18 years)
Dresden 10771 720 15 54
Haute VallJe school
(11 years to 18 years)
J ersey 9293 750 12 52
Elementary School
Morella
Spain
1820 320 6 78
Admiral Nelson Secondary Sch.
(11 years to 18 years)
Portsmouth
Hampshire
8620 900 10 70
Heinz Galinski School
(Primary Grades)
Berlin
4898 800 6 70
North Fort Myers High School
(Grade 9 to Grade 12)
Fort Myers
Florida
16965 1600 11 79
Albert Einstein Oberschule
(12 years 19 years)
Berlin
unknown
1000 74
Barnim Gymnasium
(11 years to 19 years)
Berlin 15800 unknown 63
Odenwaldschule
(11 years to 16 years)
Frankfurt
unknown
unknown 80
Waldorf Private School Cologne 6150 unknown 68
1
Total Area and Area/Student are not reliable as it is not clear for some schools if the gymnasium is
included. Also see footnote 2.
2
In some cases Population may be recommended and not actual.
3
In this school, due to the nature of the student, there is a very high teacher to pupil ratio of 1:3.

TeachersWhile increased accountability and responsibility may result in teachers being
perceived in a more professional light, the design of the work place will also be an
important factor in teacher morale. Teachers should be provided with a professional
work space with areas to keep personal belongings and to conduct private meetings with
parents and/or students. Preparation for teaching and planning with colleagues should be
supported by well-equipped spaces for working and conferencing. Resource rooms with
staff libraries and computer equipment to access educational data bases and student
records should be commonplace. (Brubaker, p. 156)

In the Educational Specifications written for the new Champlain Valley Union High
School (Vermont) it is proposed that teacher work spaces be placed throughout the
building near classrooms where teachers will be teaching. Such a layout also helps
provide for supervision through the building.
11
Where space permits, a small work room
adjoining each classroom with an observation/supervision window wall between the two
is a feature much favoured by teachers.

AdministratorsIn addition to offices for the principal and vice-principal(s), the
administrative block should include a comfortable, well-appointed room for meetings
with individuals or small groups. Consideration should be given to the provision of a
waiting area so that parents and other visitors can be isolated from the general traffic of
the typical school day.

Counselors/therapists--Design standards should include counselor-identified design
items for counseling offices, reception areas, conference rooms, playrooms, career rooms,
storage areas, and the location of the counseling facility.
12
A similar statement can be
made for therapists/itinerant specialists keeping in mind that it may be possible to share
certain facilities. Some thought should also be given to the provision of a private area
with bed(s) to accommodate sick children on a temporary basis.

Secretarial, custodial, kitchen staff SeeAppendix D2 for detail on theoretical floor
areas (based on current thinking, 1996) for all support staff and for students, teachers,
administrators and counselors/therapists as well.


Miscellaneous Jottings on New School Design
13

Very little detail is available on the design and use of the multipurpose room. In
most of the accessible research material the information dwells more on the use of
the multipurpose room than on the design. For example, a joint school

11
See http://www.cvu.cssd.k12.vt.us/bond/edspecs6.doc
12
http://www.coe.uga.edu/sdpl/researchabstracts/booher.htm Available at the primary source but not from
the WWW are architectural drawings for elementary, middle/jr. high and high school counseling facilities.
(See Booher in the list of references).

13
These jottings are no particular order as regards priority. Effort has been made to group the jottings
according to topic. Most of the information comes from the list of references. For example, B =Brubaker,
D =Dudek, G =Gayeski.
committee of the elementary schools in Santa Cruz and Scotts Valley, California,
believes that appropriately sized multipurpose rooms are necessary to provide
quality educational programs while simultaneously creating an atmosphere for
healthy and safe lunches as well as physical education. Multipurpose rooms are
necessary in order to provide quality student assemblies, student performances
and other school functions. As well, an alternative teaching space for large groups
was seen as an immediate requirement.
14
In keeping with the principles of
adaptability and flexibility, the multipurpose room should have movable
partitions/interior walls to facilitate gatherings of various sizes. (See more detail
in Appendix D4)

There is by no means a consensus on the use of multipurpose rooms as dining
areas and for physical education. The arguments against such set-ups refer to the
lingering smells of food and the characteristic aroma of a well-used gym!
(Dudek, p. ix). There was the suggestion from one school planning committee
that a dedicated ventilation system for the multipurpose room might diminish or
eliminate the unwanted smells.

Especially for younger children it is good to have washrooms/cloakrooms
adjacent to or very near the classroom. (D, p. ix)

Will there be a pre-school program and after school program to allow young
parents to attend school and/or to be employed? The pre-school facility should
have some architectural autonomy to distinguish it from the main areas of the
school. Be mindful of the needs of young children. (D, p. xiv, pp. 75-76)

Minimize the use of hard, reverberating surfaces in order to enhance the acoustic
qualities of classrooms. (D, p. 48). Generally, designers are concerned with two
aspects of acoustics: eliminating unwanted outside noises, and creating an
environment where the desired sounds are heard clearly. In rough order of
effectiveness (from greatest to smallest) the following factors are the ones that
affect the acoustics of a room: the type and height of ceiling, the type of flooring,
the shape and size of the room, wall hangings/coverings/panels, the type and
placement of furniture. (G, pp. 75-76)

Factors to keep in mind when designing sound systems: a PA (voice) system does
not require the same frequency range as a music system; the type, number and
placement of microphones and speakers should be governed by the activities that
will be taking place in the room. (G, p.76)

Classroom design should allow optimal use of daylight and electric light during
daylight hours. (D, p. 67) One school board went so far as to regulate that there

14
Report Of The Scotts Valley Unified School District (Svusd) Facility Master Plan Committee, October
11, 1999 http://www.svusd.santacruz.k12.ca.us/comits/facility.pdf

be a direct line of sight to the exterior from 90% of all regularly occupied spaces
either by windows, skylights, or interior block glass walls. (See Appendix C2)

In the northern hemisphere, south-facing and north-facing windows are the best.
East-facing windows provide early morning warmth, but west-facing windows are
sometimes difficult to control. Interior window walls can be architecturally
pleasing and can sometimes be used to share light from another room as well as
allow for teacher supervision in certain instances. (On the horizon is the ultimate
electronic thin-panel wall which will allow the display of images.) (B, pp. 32, 48-
49)

At least two decisions must be made with respect to electric lighting: the type of
light source for a particular area, and the location of the source in the room.
Tungsten halogen and quartz iodide lamps strike a good balance between the
common incandescent bulb and the energy efficient, but generally not
controllable, fluorescent tubes. The placement of a particular light source will
depend on the use of the room. For example, the base lighting in a projection
room should not spell over on to the screen. (G, p. 72)

According to Peter Murphy in the November 2001 issue of College Planning and
Management the evidence on lighting is clear: direct-indirect (D/I) suspended
fluorescent lighting systems provide the highest quality illumination for most
learning or work environments. First introduced a decade ago, D/I has now
become a preferred choice for offices, classrooms, libraries and laboratories.
Suspended from the ceiling, D/I systems combine the ambience of indirect
illumination (bounced up and off the ceiling) with energy-efficient direct
illumination (aimed downward to the desktop to provide visibility for reading and
writing).
15


Ceilings are generally white and have very high light reflectance value (LRV).
For floors the LRV should be 20% to 30%. Walls typically have a range from
40% to 60%. For furniture, equipment, doors, and door frames the LRV should
be between 40% and 50%. The primary teaching wall (behind the teacher) and
other accent walls may have an accent colour that results in an LRV between 45%
and 50%. (G, p. 159; B, pp. 148-149)

Colours should not be selected because someone likes it or because they are
trendy. Colours can be warm or cool. Generally, cool colours permit better
concentration and are appropriate for secondary grades in libraries, study places
and areas where individual tasks are the focus. On the other hand, bright warm
colour schemes work well for elementary school students. (B, p. 149)


15
http://www.peterli.com/cpm/index.htm
There should be reasonable accommodations and accessibility for the disabled
physically disabled, hearing and visually impaired, special needs in general. (G,
ch. 4)

There is a myriad of display surfaces (Gayeski describes eleven) that can be
incorporated into school planningfrom the ubiquitous chaulk board to magnetic
boards to video display terminals and LCD panels. (G, ch. 9)

Students enrolled in distance education will require facilities/equipment to access
the on-line courses, storage space for materials (e.g., software, audio-visual
materials, science equipment/supplies), and space designated for group work (e.g.,
laboratory activities).

Build for flexibility and adaptability. A space is flexible when it is by nature open
and not irrevocably committed to only one plan of rooms and when mechanical
and electrical systems are easily modified to satisfy new needs. (B, p. 33)


Closing

The consensus of the available research material is that the most important first step is to
involve all those who will have any connection with the new or renovated school. Such
action is most likely to result in a sustainable school that is both flexible and adaptable.
Special care should be taken to ensure that the finished building and surroundings result
in an integrated, attractive site that promotes learning and that teachers, community
members and (even) students look forward to attending.

References


Brubaker, C. W., Bordwell, R., & Christopher, G. (1998). Planning and designing
schools. Toronto: McGraw-Hill.

Colvin Booher, C. A. (August 2001) Design Standards for Elementary, Middle/J unior
High, and High School Counseling Facilities, University of Georgia
http://www.coe.uga.edu/sdpl/researchabstracts/booher.htm (Available October 4,
2003)

Dudek, M. (2000). Architecture of schools: The new learning environment. Boston:
Architectural Press.

Educational specifications for Champlain Valley Union High School District #15
http://www.cvu.cssd.k12.vt.us/bond/edspecs6.doc (Available August 29, 2002)

Gayeski, D.M., (Ed.). (1995). Designing Communication and Learning Environments.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ : Educational Technology Publications.

Lang, S.S. ( December 2001). The Real Dirt on Carpets. School Planning and
Management http://www.peterli.com/spm/index.htm (Available August 29, 2002)

Monk, B. (March 1999). Improving IAQ Via Air Filtration. College Planning &
Management, http://www.peterli.com/cpm/ (Available October 4, 2003)

Murphy, P. Trends in Educational Lighting Systems. College Planning & Management,
November 2001 http://www.peterli.com/cpm/index.htm (Available August 29,
2002)

Ohio School Design Manual. http://www.osfc.state.oh.us/bap/bapstandards.htm.
(Available August 29, 2003)

Scotts Valley Unified School District (SVUSD) Facility Master Plan Committee Report.
(October 11, 1999) Scotts Valley, California
http://www.svusd.santacruz.k12.ca.us/comits/facility.pdf (Available October 4,
2003)

Tanner, K. ( ). School design factors for improving student learning. The University of
Georgia http://www.coe.uga.edu/sdpl/researchabstracts/designarticle.pdf
(Available October 4, 2003)

Taylor, A. (May, 2000). Programming and design of schools within the context of
community. Design Share
http://www.designshare.com/Research/Taylor/Taylor_Programming_1.htm
(Available October 4, 2003)