INSTRUMENT QUESTION & ANSWERS

INTRODUCTION:
It is the branch of engineering which deals with the measurement, monitoring, display etc.
of the various of energy exchanges which take place during process operations. "In short
Instrumentation is the study of Instrument."
INSTRUMENT:
Instrument is a device which is used to measure, monitor, display etc. of a process
variable.

1. What is the process Variabe!
The process Variable is:
low.
!ressure.
Temperature.
"evel.
#uality i. e. $ %
&
, '%
&
, p( etc.
". De#i$e a the process Variabe a$% state their &$it o# 'eas&re'e$t. !
(o): )efined as volume per unit of time at specified temperature and pressure
'onditions, is generally measured by positive*displacement or rate meters.
U$its: kg + hr , litter + min, gallon + min , m
,
+ hr , -m
,
+ hr. . gases /
*ress&re: orce acting per unit 0rea. ! 1 +0
U$its : bar, !ascal, kg + cm
&
, lb + in
&
.
+e,e: )ifferent between two heights.
U$its: 2eters, mm, cm, percentage.
Te'perat&re: It is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body.
U$its : )egree 'entigrade, )egree ahrenheit, )egree 3elvin, )egree 4ankine.
Q&ait-: It deals with analysis.. p(, $ '%
&
, $ 5
&
, 'onductivity, Viscosity /
(+OW
.. What are the pri'ar- ee'e$ts &se% #or #o) 'eas&re'e$t !
The primary elements used for flow measurement are :
%rifice !late.
Venturi tube.
&&6578,,&.doc
!age 9 of ,9
:
!itot tube.
0nnubars.
low -o;;le.
<eir = lumes.
/. What are the %i##ere$t t-pes o# ori#ice pates a$% state their &ses !
The different types of orifice plates are :
'oncentric.
>egmental.
?ccentric.
#uadrant ?dge.
Co$ce$tric :
The concentric orifice plate is used for ideal li@uid as well as gases and steam service. This
orifice plate beta ratio fall between of 5.9A to 5.8A for li@uids and 5.&5 to 5.85 for gases,
and steam. Best results occur between value of 5.C and 5.6. beta ratio means ratio of the
orifice bore to the internal pipe diameters.
.CA: beveled edges are often used to minimi;e
friction resistance to flowing fluid /
flow
d
:


. fig 9/

Ecce$tric:
The eccentric orifice plate has a hole eccentric. Dse full for measuring containing solids,
oil containing water and wet steam. ?ccentric plates can use either flange or vena
contracta taps, but the tap must be at 9E5: or 75: to the eccentric opening.

?ccentric orifices have the bore offset from center to
2inimi;e problems in services of solids*containing
materials.

. fig & /
Se0'e$ta:
The segmental orifice place has the hole in the form segment of a circle. This is used for
colloidal and slurry flow measurement. or best accuracy, the tap location should be 9E5:
from the center of tangency.
&&6578,,&.doc
!age & of ,9
:
:
>egmental orifices provide another version of plates
useful for solids containing materials.
. fig , /
Q&a%ra$t E%0e:
It common use in ?urope and are particularly useful for pipe si;es less than & inchs.
#uadrant edge orifices produce a relatively constant
coefficient of discharge for services with low
4eynolds numbers in the range from 955,555 down
to A,555.
. fig C /
1. 2o) %o -o& i%e$ti#- a$ ori#ice i$ the pipe i$e. !
0n orifice tab is welded on the orifice plate which extends our of the line giving an
indication of the orifice plate.
3. Wh- is the ori#ice tab pro,i%e%. !
The orifice tab is provided due to the following reasons.
Indication of an orifice plate in a line.
The orifice diameter is marked on it.
The material of the orifice plate.
The tag no. of the orifice plate.
The mark the inlet of an orifice.
4. What is 5er$o&i6s theore' a$% )here it is appicabe. !
BernoulliFs theorem states the "total energy of a li@uid flowing from one point to another
remains constant." It is applicable for non compressible li@uids.
7. 2o) %o -o& i%e$ti#- the 2. *. si%e or i$et o# a$ ori#ice pate i$ i$e. !
The marking is always done (. !. side of the orifice tab which gives an indication of the
(. !. side.
8. 2o) %o -o& caibrate a D. *. tra$s'itter. !
The following steps are to be taken which calibrating :
9. 0dGust ;ero of the Hmtrs.
&. >tatic pressure test : Iive e@ual pressure on both sides of the transmitter. Jero should
not shift. If it is shifting carry out static alignment.
,. Vacuum test: 0pply e@ual vacuum to both the sides. The ;ero should not shift.
C. 'alibration !rocedure:
&&6578,,&.doc
!age , of ,9
:
:
Iive &5 psi air supply to the transmitter.
Vent the ".!. side to atmosphere.
'onnect output of the Instrument to a standard test gauge. 0dGust ;ero.
A. 0pply re@uired pressure to high pressure side of the transmitter and adGust the span.
6. 0dGust ;ero again if necessary.
19. What is the sea i:&i% &se% #or #ii$0 i'p&se i$es o$ cr&%e a$% ,isco&s i:&i% !
Ilycol.
11. 2o) %o -o& carr- o&t pipi$0 #or a Di##ere$t press&re #o) tra$s'itter o$ i:&i%s;
<as a$% stea' ser,ices! Wh-!
+i:&i% i$es: %n li@uid lines the transmitter is mounted below the orifice plate because
li@uids have a property of self draining.
Ori#ice pate
(o) %irectio$
*ri'ar- isoatio$ ,a,e
=+IQUID SERVICE>
. )a- 'a$i#o% ,a,e

(o) tra$s'itter
K *
<as Ser,ice: O$ gas service the transmitter is mounted above the orifice plate because
Iases have a property of self venting and secondly condensate formation.
K * (o) tra$s'itter

. )a- 'a$i#o% ,a,e
=<AS SERVICES>
&&6578,,&.doc
!age C of ,9
*ri'ar- isoatio$ ,a,e
(o) %irectio$

Ori#ice pate
Stea' Ser,ice: O$ steam service the transmitter is mounted below the orifice plate with
condensate pots. The pots should be at the same level.
Ori#ice pate
(o) %irectio$
*ri'ar- isoatio$ ,a,e
Co$%e$sate pot
. )a- 'a$i#o% ,a,e

? @ (o) tra$s'itter

1". Dra) a$% eApai$ a$- #o) co$tro oop!
cB,
*ositio$er
Ori#ice pate



*ri'ar- isoatio$ ,a,e
AIR SU**+C (RC
. )a- 'a$i#o% ,a,e
(o) tra$s'itter
AIR SU**+C
&&6578,,&.doc
!age A of ,9
1.. A$ operator tes -o& that #o) i$%icatio$ is 'ore! 2o) )o&% -o& start
checDi$0!
irst flushing the transmitter. lush both the impulse lines. 0dGust the ;ero by
e@uali;ing if necessary. If still the indication is more then.
'heck ".!. side for choke. If that is clean then.
'heck the leaks on ".!. side. If not.
'alibrate the transmitter.
1/. 2o) %o -o& %o a Eero checDs o$ a D.*. tra$s'itter!
'lose one of the valve either (.!. or ".!. open the e@uali;ing valve. The %+! should read
;ero.
11. 2o) )o&% -o& %o <-co #ii$0 or #i sea i:&i%s i$ sea pots 4 Dra) a$%
eApai$.
The procedure for glycol filling is :
'lose the primary isolation valves.
%pen the vent on the seal pots.
)rain the use glycol if present.
'onnect a hand pump on ".!. side while filling the (.!. side with glycol.
3eep the e@uali;er valve open.
3eep the ".!. side valve closed.
>tart pumping and fill glycol.
>ame repeat for ".!. side by connecting pump to (.!. side, keeping e@uali;er open
and (.!. side isolation valve closed.
'lose the seal pot vent valves.
'lose e@uali;er valve.
%pen both the primary isolation valves.
13. 2o) %o -o& cac&ate $e) #actor #ro' $e) ra$0e &si$0 o% #actor a$% o% ra$0e!
#
9
L M!
9
#
9
1 %ld flow.factor/
F #
&
1 -ew flow.factor/
#
&
L M!
&
L M!
9
1 %ld range
L M!
&
F -ew range
#
&
L M!
9
1 #
9
L M!
&
#
9
L M!
&
#
&
F
L M!
9

%ld factor L -ew range
-ew factor 1
L %ld range

&&6578,,&.doc
!age 6 of ,9
14. 2o) )i -o& ,e$t air i$ the D.*. ce! What i# sea pots are &se%!
0ir is vented by opening the vent plugs on a li@uid service transmitter.
%n services where seal pots are used isolate the primary isolation valves and
open the vent valves. ill the line from the transmitter drain plug with a pump.
17. Wh- #o) is 'eas&re% i$ s:&are root!
low varies directly as the s@uare root of different pressure 1 3 s@uare root of 0!.
>ince this flow varies as the s@uare root of differential pressure the pen does not directly
indicate flow. The flow can be determined by taking the s@uare root of the pen. >ay the
pen reads A5$ of chart.
18. What is abso&te press&re!
0bsolute pressure is the total pressure present in the system
0bs. pressure 1 Iauge pressure K 0tm. pressure.
"9. What is abso&te Eero press&re!
0bsolute ;ero 1 865 mm (g Vacuum.
"1. What is the 'aAi'&' Vac&&'!
The maximum Vacuum 1 865 mm (g.
"". What is Vac&&' !
0ny pressure below atmospheric pressure is vacuum.
At' F 439 '' Gero Vac&&'
Gero <a&0e

Gero abso&te MaA.,acc&' F 439''20
".. What are the pri'ar- ee'e$ts #or 'eas&ri$0 press&re!
The primary elements used for measuring pressure are:
Bourdon tube.
)iaphragm.
&&6578,,&.doc
!age 8 of ,9
'apsule.
Bellows.
!ressure >prings.
The above are known as elastic deformation pressure elements.
Type of Bourdon tubes.
N' F type.
>piral.
(elix.
Diaphra0': The diaphragm is best suited for low pressure measurement.
Caps&es : Two circular diaphragms are welded together to form a pressure capsule.
2aterial Dsed: phosphor bron;e, -i*spanc stainless steel.
5eo)s : Bellows is a one * piece, collapsible, seamless metallic unit with deep folds
ormed from very tin walled tubing.
2aterial used: Brass, phosphor bron;e, stainless steel. Dsed for high
!ressure.
*re.spri$0 : !ressure springs of helical or spiral shape used for measuring high pressures.
"/.2o) )i -o& caibrate a$ abso&te press&re tra$s'itter &si$0 ,ac&&'
'a$o'eter Ra$0e 9@/99'' abs. !
The procedure for calibration is as follows:
'onnect air supply to the transmitter.
'onnect a test gauge of 5*9.C 3g+cm& to the output.
'onnect Vacuum pump with tee off to the manometer.
0pply 865 mm Vacuum .or nearest/ and adGust ;ero.
0pply ,65 mm Vacuum adGust span. .865 * ,65 1 C55 mm abs./
"1. Co& are 0i,e$ a 'erc&r- 'a$o'eter ra$0e 9 @439 ''! A ,ac&&' 0a&0e rea%s
39 '' ,ac&&'. The test 'a$o'eter rea%s 19 ,ac&&'s! Which o# the t)o i$
correct!
The transmitter is correct because 865 * A5 1 895 mm abs.
"3. Wh- is a$ i$ci$e% 'a$o'eter &se%!
It is used to extend the scale of the instrument. Because the manometer is at an angle to
the vertical.
"4. What is the pri$cipe o# a press&re 0a&0e!
!ressure works on (ooks law.
!rinciple: "2easuring the stress in an elastic medium"
"7. Dra) a$% eApai$ a press&re 0a&0e ! What is the &se% o# a 2air spri$0 !
The parts of a pressure gauge are :
9. F'F type Bourdon tube.
&. 'onnecting link.
,. >ector gear.
C. !inion gear.
A. (air >pring.
6. !ointer.
&&6578,,&.doc
!age E of ,9
8. )ial.
Uses o# 2air Spri$0 : (air spring serves two purposes namely
To eliminate any play into linkages.
It serves as a controlling tor@ue.
+EVE+
"8. 5rie#- eApai$ the %i##ere$t 'etho%s o# e,e 'eas&re'e$t !
There are two ways of measuring level :
9. )irect
&. Indirect.
T0!? 2?0>D4?
9.)irect level measurement :
. a / Bob and tape:
TANH
(eighest point reached by
0 bob weight and measuring li@uid
tape provide the most simple
and direct method of
measuring li@uid livel. )istance to be measured
+IQUID after tape is taken out of
Tank.
Bob .weight/
. b / >ight glass :
This consists of a graduated glass tube mounted on the side of the vessel. 0s the level of
the li@uid in the vessel change, so does the level of the li@uid in the glass tube.
Indirect level measurement :
. a / !ressure gauge :
This is the simplest method, for pressure gauge is located at the ;ero level of the li@uid
in the vessel. 0ny rise in level causes an increase of pressure which can be measured by a
gauge.
. b / !urge system :
In this method a pipe is installed vertically with the open and at ;ero level. The other end
of the pipe is connected to a regulated air r supply and to a pressure gauge. To make a
level measurement the air supply is adGusted so that pressure is slightly higher than the
pressure due to height of the li@uid. This is accomplished by regulating the air pressure
until bubbles cab be seen slowly leaving the open end of the pipe.
*ress&re 0a&0e
As e,e 0a&0e

&&6578,,&.doc
!age 7 of ,9
Air re0&ator
N
"
p&r0e
Air s&pp- rota'eter
The air pressure to the bubbler pipe is minutely in
excess of the li@uid pressure in the vessel, so that
air pressure indicated is a measure of the level in
the tank.
The method above are suitable for open tank applications. when a li@uid is in a pressure
vessel, the li@uid column pressure canFt be used unless the vessel pressure is balanced out.
This is done through the use of different pressure meters.
. c / )ifferential pressure meter :
'onnection are made at the vessel top and bottom, and to the two columns of the ).!.
meter. The top connection is made to the ".!. column of the transmitter and the bottom to
(.!. column of the transmitter. The difference in pressure in the vessel is balanced out,
since it is fed to both the column of the meter. The difference in pressure deducted by the
meter will be due only to the changing, level of the li@uid.
. d / )isplacer type level measurement :
The leveltrol is one of the most common instruments used measuring level in closed tanks.
This instrument works of 0rchimedes principle. The displacer in immersed in the li@uid
due to which there is loss of weight depending on the specified gravity of the li@uid. This
displacer hangs freely on a knife transmitted to the pneumatic or electronic counterpart at
the other end.
.9. EApai$ ho) -o& )i 'eas&re e,e )ith a %i##ere$t press&re tra$s'itter.
The bottom connection of the vessel is connected to high pressure side of the transmitter.
)ifferent !ressure 1 ( H )
2
%
&&6578,,&.doc
!age 95 of ,9
2* +*
K *
D B * TRANSMITTER
This difference pressure is applied to (.!. side of the transmitted and calibrated.
.1. 2o) is D.*. tra$s'itter appie% to a cose ta$D !
In close tank the bottom of the tank is connected to the high pressure side of the
transmitter and top of the tank in connected to ".!. side of the transmitter. In this way the
vessel pressure is balanced.
.".2o) is D.*. tra$s'itter appie% to a$ ope$ ta$D !
%n an open tank level measurement the ".!. side is vented to atmosphere. <hatever
pressure acts is on the (.!. side which is a measure of level.
>!0- 1 . H / .>p. Irav/
J?4% >D!!4?>>I%- 1 . O / . >p.Irav > I
2* +*
C ? @
... 2o) is D.* tra$s'itter appie% to a cose ta$D & ope$ ta$D )ith Dr- e0!

>pan 1 . H / . I
"
/
(
<
at minimum level 1 . J / . I
>
/ K . O / . I
"
/
(
<
at maximum level 1 . J / . I
>
/ K . H K O / . I
"
/
<here :
I
"
1 >pecific gravity of tank li@uid.
I
>
1 >pecific gravity of seal li@uid.
(
<
1 ?@uivalent head of water.
H, O = J are shown in fig .9.9/

Ope$ ta$D Cose ta$D )ith %r- e0

20H."?V?"
I
&&6578,,&.doc
!age 99 of ,9
20H
"?V?"
I
C
2I-
"?V?"
2I-."?V?"
C
G G
?xample :
%pen tank with H 1 ,55 inches
O 1 A5 inches
J 1 95 inches
I
"
1 5.E
I
>
1 5.7
>pan 1 . ,55 / . 5.E / 1 &C5 inches
(
<
at minimum level 1 . 95 / . 5.7 / K . A5 / . 5.E / 1 C7 inches
(
<
at maximum level 1 .95 / . 5.7 / K . A5 K ,55 / . 5.E / 1 &E7 inches
'alibrated range 1 C7 to &E7 inches head of water
Cose ta$D )ith )et e0:
>pan 1 . H / . I
"
/
(
<
at minimum level 1 . O / . I
"
/ P . d /. I
>
/
(
<
at maximum level 1 . H K O / . I
"
/ P . d / . I
>
/
<here : I
"
1 >pecific gravity of tank li@uid
I
>
1 >pecific gravity of tank li@uid
(
<
1 ?@uivalent head of water
H, O and J are shown in fig.


%
?xample :
&&6578,,&.doc
!age 9& of ,9
20H
"?V?"
I
2I-
"?V?"
C
H 1 ,55 inches
O 1 A5 inches
d 1 A55 inches
I
"
1 5.E
I
>
1 5.7
>pan 1 . ,55 / . 5.E / 1 &C5 inches
(
<
minimum level 1 . A5 / . 5.E / * . A55 / . 5.7 / 1 * C95 inches
(
<
maximum level 1 . ,55 K A5 / . 5.E / P . A55 / . 5.7 / 1 * 985 inches
'alibrated range 1 * C95 to P985 inches head of water.
. minus sings indicate that the higher pressure is applied to the low pressure side of the
transmitter /
./. What is p&r0e e,e s-ste' !
This method is also known as bubbler method of level measurement. 0 pipe is installed
vertically with its open end at the ;ero level. The other end of the pipe is connected to a
regulated air supply and to a pressure gauge or to Q! transmitter. To make a level
measurement the air supply is adGusted so that pressure is slightly higher than the pressure
due to the height of the li@uid. This is accomplished by regulating the air pressure until
bubbles can be seen slowly leaving the open end of the pipe. The gage then measures the
air pressure needed to over come the pressure of the li@uid.
+R ! 1 ( H )
USE : %n for corrosive li@uids where the transmitter cannot be directly connected to
process eg... 0cids, >ome organic li@uids.
.1. EApai$ the )orDi$0 o# a e,etro.
The leveltrol is used for measuring level of li@uids in a closed vessel.
9. !4I-'I!"?. : It works on 0rchimedes principle "The loss in weight of a body
immersed in a li@uid is e@ual to amount of li@uid displaced by the body". The leveltrol
basically consists of the following :
&. )I>!"0'?4 : It is consists of a cylindrical shape pipe sealed and filled inside with
sand or some weight. The purpose of this is to convert change in level to primary
motion. The variation in buoyancy resulting from a change in li@uid level varies the net
weight of the displacer increasing or decreasing the load on the tor@ue arm. This
change is directly proportional to change in level and specific gravity of the li@uid.
,. 4?"0O : 0mplifies pressure variations at the no;;les.
C. 4?V?4>I-I 04' : It is used for the following purposes.
2otion take of from Tor@ue tube.
2eans of reverse control action.
0dGustment for specific gravity.
A. !4%!?4TI%-0" D-IT. : 'onverts primary motion to a proportional output air
pressure.
6. '%-T4%" >?TTI-I D-IT : !rovides a motions of varying the set point.
.3. EApai$ the )orDi$0 a$ eectro$ic e,etro.

4?I
K
4V)T )' 2%)
%>'
&&6578,,&.doc
!age 9, of ,9
%!
0
2!
K K
* * )' 02!"II?4
>!0-

S J?4%
The variation in buoyancy resulting from a change in li@uid level, varies the net weight of
the displacer increasing or decreasing the load on the tor@ue arm. This change is directly
proportional to the change in level and specific gravity of the li@uid. The resulting tor@ue
tube movement varies the angular motion of the rotor in the 4V)T .4otary Variable
)ifferential. Transformer/ providing a voltage change proportional to the rotor
displacement, which is converted and amplified to a ).'. current.
.4. 2o) )i -o& re,erse a$ actio$ o# the e,etro.!
The reversing are serves as motion take off arm from the tor@ue tube. It is provided with a
slot on each side of the center so that link can be connected either for reverse or direct
action.
.7. What is i$ter#ace e,e ! 2o) %o -o& cac&ate it !
<hen a vessel is filled with two li@uids of two different specific gravities the level
measurement refers to as interface level.
)! 1 ( . ) * d /
)?->ITO d

)?->ITO )
%n a level set the difference of two specific gravities.
.8. 2o) )i -o& caibrate a e,etro i$ the #ie% !
)isplacer chamber
"evel transmitter.
&&6578,,&.doc
!age 9C of ,9
(! "!
Transparent !.V.' tube
9. irst close both the primary isolation valves and drain the li@uid inside the chamber.
&. 0dGust the ;ero to get 5$ output.
,. 'onnect a transparent !V' tube to the drain point as shown in hook up.
C. ill it to the center of the top flange.
A. 0dGust the specific gravity or span adGustment . ?lectronic "evel /.
6. ill it up to A5 $, check linearity.
/9. 2o) )i -o& caibrate o$ i$ter#ace e,e co$tro. !
%n an interface leveltrol there are two li@uid of two different specific gravities.
9. The level will be ;ero when it is full of lighter li@uid.
Jero $ level 1 ( H d.
( 1 )isplacer length
d 1 >pecific gravity of lighter li@uid.
& The level will be 955 $ when it is full of heavier li@uid.
955 $ level 1 ( H ).
) 1 >pecific gravity of heavier li@uid.
'alibration with water :
9. ill ( H d level with water adGust ;ero.
&. ill ( H ) level with water adGust >p. gravity or span.
,. 'heck linearity.
/1. 2o) )i -o& app- )t. est caibratio$ to a e,etro.
<t. test calibration method :
9. 4emove the displacer from the tor@ue arm.
&. 0pply e@uivalent weight on the tor@ue arm that is e@ual to the wt. of the displacer.
0dGust ;ero $ output.
,. or >pan : V 1 r
&
h
"oss in weight 1 <t. of float * wt. of the float immersed in li@uid
"oss in weight 1 T wt. of float * Vol. x d U
>pan wt. 1 .wt. of float * "oss in wt./
r 1 radius of the displacer.
h 1 ht. of displacer.
C. 0pply e@uivalent wt. e@ual to the .<t. of float * "oss in weight/. 0dGust >pan to
get 955 $ out put.
A. To check linearity apply average of the two weights.
/". What )i happe$ i# the %ispacer has #ae$ %o)$ )hie i$ i$e !
The output will be maximum.
/.. What )i happe$ i# the %ispacer has a hoe i$ it )hie i$ i$e !
The output will be minimum.
&&6578,,&.doc
!age 9A of ,9
//. What is the &se% o# S&ppressio$ a$% ee,atio$ !
>uppression and elevation are used on "evel applications where .9/ transmitters are not
mounted on some level .&/ <et leg. i.e. condensable vapors are present.
/1. What are the i'itatio$s o# e,etro !
The limitations of a level control that it cannot be used for lengths more than 8& inches.
/3. 2o) )i -o& co''issio$ D.*. tra$s'itter i$ #ie% i$ press&riEe% ,esse.
9. 'lose both the isolation valves, Vent the (.!. side.
&. ill it with the sealing li@uid.
,. %pen the ".!. side vent valve.
C. 0dGust ;ero with suppression spring.
A. 'lose the ".!. side vent valve.
6. %pen both the isolation valves.
/4. 2o) )i -o& checD Eero o# a e,e D.*. tra$s'itter )hie is i$e !
9. 'lose both the isolation valves.
&. %pen the vent valve on ".!. leg and (.!. leg drain.
,. 'heck and adGust ;ero if necessary.
/7.EApai$ the )orDi$0 o# a$ E$ra# e,e 0a&0e!
The ?nraf precise level gauge are based on servo powered null*balance techni@ue. 0
displacer serves as a continuous level sensing element.
!rinciple:
0 displacer with a relative density higher than that of the product to be measured, is
suspended from a stainless steel wire B, that is attached to a measuring drum. 0 two phase
servo meter controlled by a capacitive balance system winds or unwinds the measuring
wire until the tension in the weighing springs is in balance with the weight of the displacer
partly immersed in the li@uid. The sensing system in principle measures the two
capacitance formed by the moving center sensing rod ? provided with two capacitor
plates and the side plates. In balance position the capacitances are of e@ual value. 0 level
variation will a difference in buoyancy of the displacer. The center sensing rod will move
in the direction of one of the side capacitor plates. This causes a difference in value of
these capacitances. By an electronic circuit this change is detected and integrated. )uring
the rotation of the servo motor the cam driven transmitter continuously change the voltage
pattern to a remote indicator of which the receiver motor drives a counter indicating level
variation.
TEM*RETURE
/8. What are the %i##ere$t 'etho%s o# te'perat&re 'eas&re'e$t ! EApai$.
The different methods of temperature measurement are :
9. 2echanical &. ?lectrical.
Mecha$ica 'etho%s:
1. Merc&r- i$ 0ass ther'o'eters : This consists of a glass tube of very fine bore Goined
to a reservoir at the bottom and sealed at the top. 0 measured @uantity of mercury is the
enclosed. <hen the thermometer is heated the mercury expands much more than the glass
and is therefore forced to rise up in the tubing 0 scale is fixed at the side.
&&6578,,&.doc
!age 96 of ,9
". 5i'etaic Ther'o'eter : Two metals whose coefficient of linear expansion is
different are welded and rolled together to the desire thickness. The actual movement of a
bimetal is its flexivity with one end fixed, a straight bimetal strip %e#ects i$ proportion to
its temperature, to the s@uare of its length and inversely with its thickens.
..*ress&re Spri$0 Ther'o'eters :There are four classes of pressure spring
thermometers.
9. "i@uid filled 1 class 9
&. Vapor pressure 1 class &
,. Ias filled 1 class ,
C. mercury filled 1 class C
+i:&i% #ie% & Merc&r- #ie% :
Both type, operate on the principle of thermal expansion. <here the bulb is immersed in a
heated substance. The li@uid expands causing the pressure spring to unwind. The
indicating, recording or controlling mechanisms are attached to pressure spring.
'ompensated Thermometer >ystem :
'ompensations are provided in order to nullify the effect of changes in ambient
temperature. The compensation in li@uid filled expansions thermal system consists of the
second tubing and helical element, both li@uid filled. The two elements are so constructed
that the measuring helical floats on a movable base the position of which is governed by
the compensating helical. The two tubing and helicals are matched in volume so that
variation in temperature at the instrument case and along the capillary tubing produce
e@ual motion from both helicals. >uch motion nullity each other so that only motion
produced by varying the bulb temperature actuates the recorder pen.
<as #ie% Ther'o'eters :
This type depends upon the increase in pressure of a confirm gas .constant volume/ due to
temp. increase. The relate between temp. and pressure in this kind of system follow
'harles law and may be expressed.
!
9
T
9
!
&
T
&

The system is filled under high pressure. The increase pressure for each degree of
temperature rise is therefore greater than if the filling pressure were low. -itrogen the gas
most after used for such systems, because it chemically insert and possesses a favorable
coefficient thermal expansion.
Vapor @ *ress&re Ther'o'eters :
Vapor pressure thermometers depend upon vapor pressure of li@uid which only partially
fills the system. 0t low temperatures the vapor pressure increase for each unit temperature
charge is small, at higher temperature the vapor pressure change is much greater.
Eectrica 'etho% o# te'perat&re 'eas&re'e$t:
9. Thermocouples: It is a simple device consisting of a dissimilar metal wires Goined at
their ends. when an of each wire is connected to a measuring instrument thermocouples
becomes an accurate and sensitive temperature measuring device.
cold or reference
Gunction
(ot or measuring
Gunction
&&6578,,&.doc
!age 98 of ,9
Ther'oco&pes T-pes a$% Ra$0e:
Type T+' !ositive wire = color -egative wire = color 4ange
. V / Iron = <hite 'onstantan = 4ed *,55 to9C55
. 3 / 'hromel = Oellow 0lumel = 4ed *,55 to&,55
. ? / 'hromel = !urple 'onstantan = 4ed *,55 to9655
. T / 'opper = Blue 'onstantan = 4ed *,55 to 6A5
. 4 / !latinum and 95$4hodium = Black !latinum = 4ed ,& to &855
. > / !latinum and 9,$4hodium = Black !latinum = 4ed ,& to &855
4esistance P Temperature )etectors .4T)/:
4T)Fs are generally used for precise temperature measurement. It consists of a five wire
wrapped around an insulator and enclosed in a metal. The most sheath of a resistance
thermometer resembles that of bimetallic thermometer bulb.
!4I-'I!"? : "4esistance increases as temperature increase"
Rt. F Ro =1 ? J t >
4t. 1 4esistance of Temperature to measured.
4o. 1 4esistance of ;ero temperature.
W 1 'o. off of thermal .expansion/.
t 1 Temperature to be measured.
These metals have a positive temperature co*efficient of expansion. Therefore resistance
increases as the temperature increases.
Types of material used: .9/ !latinum .&/ -ickel
These metals have a positive temperature co*efficient of expansion. Therefore resistance
increases as the temp. increases.
'alculation of 4esistance or !t955.
4o. 1 955
x for platinum 1 5.55,EA +c.
To calculate 4esistance at 955Fc.
4955 1 955 T 9K . ,E.A x 95 C x 955 / U
1 955 K .955 x 5.,EA/
4955 1 9,E.A
Resista$ce at 1996c F 1.7.1
19. What is *t 199 'ea$. !
!t955 means 955 %(2> at 5F' for a platinum resistance bulb.
11. What is t)o )ire a$% three )ire R.T.D. s-ste' !
Two wire 4 .T .). system :
Two wire 4T) system use for short distance like a compressor field local panel.
Three wire >ystem :
Three wire system use for long distance coke a field to control 4un.
The third wire is used for compensation of lead wire resistance.
&&6578,,&.doc
!age 9E of ,9

T)o@)ire R.T.D Three@)ire R.T.D

? @ ? @
R
1
R
"
R
1
R
"
R
.
R
.
R.T.D R.T.D

1". Dra) a pote$tio'eter te'p. 'eas&ri$0 circ&its a$% eApai$ its!
Ther'o
co&pe
T)o %i##ere$t si0$a AM*
U$ D$o)
si0$a
Ser,o baa$ci$0 'otor
Meas. Co$sta$t ,ota0e H$o)$
circ&it si0$a si0$a
O*ERATION :
The input to the instrument is a measurement of some in the processes using a sensing
element . such as thermocouple / or a device to produce direct voltage, which is the
voltage .signal/. This voltage is subtracted from a voltage developed by a known constant
voltage in a potentiometer measuring circuit. The subtraction occurs by connecting two
voltages in series with the opposing polarity, difference between these two voltages
produces signal, the voltage going to the amplifier. The error will positive or negative
depending on which of the two voltages greater. <hen amplified, the error signal will
drive servo balancing motor in appropriate direction to adGust circuit . actually drive the
&&6578,,&.doc
!age 97 of ,9
I
al
I
al
slide wire / until the difference between the feedback voltage and the input voltage is
balance out. 0n error signal e@ual to ;ero results . null point / the balancing . servo motor
is be longer driven /
1.. What is the co$sta$t ,ota0e &$it !
4
&
1&7.C 4
2
4c
'r
9
4
9
K
&k 'r
C
'
9
4
,
'r
,
*
86CX 4esistance lead of
'4
T
1 ,C,.,,
The constant voltage circuit consists of a rectifier, '4, a filter capacitor '9, followed by
two stages of ;ener regulation. 0bridge configuration is provided to 9amp line voltage
regulation ;ener '4,, 49 and 4& combine provide relatively constant current to ;ener
'4C, Thus variations. 4esisters 4& and 4, form a bridge that any remoment line voltage
effects.
1/. EApai$ the )orDi$0 o# a baa$ci$0 'otor.
>ignal in control winding appears as due tank circuit formed by winding
and capacitor of amp. board.
4?)
'ontrol signal
winding
from
amplifier
I4??-
Kve signal : It lags 75F from due to line phase capacitor amp. board.
*ve signal : "eads 75F from line due to line phase capacitor of amp. board.
The servo . balancing / motor is an induction motor that functions by creating a rotating
magnetic field in the stator.
The rotor . armature / turns by following this field. The field is developed by the use of
two windings in the stator.
It has got two windings, one of which is continuously energi;ed by the line voltage. The
other winding is energi;ed by the power amplifier, with a current whose phase with
respect to line current determines the direction of rotation of motor.
&&6578,,&.doc
!age &5 of ,9
11. What is b&r$o&t #eat&re ! EApai$.
Burnout provides the warning feature of driving indicator the end of scale if the input
circuit should open.
0 burnout resistor is provided which develops a voltage drop between the measuring
circuit and the amplifier. The polarity of the signal determines the direction of the servo
drive upon an open circuit in the input.
Dpscale burnout : 4 value 95 2
)ownscale burnout : 4 value &.& 2
14. Wh- is a co$,erter &se% i$ a te'p. recor%er !
The converter is designed to convert ). '. input voltage into an 0. '. input voltage
proportional in amplitude to the input.
17. Wh- are Ther'o)es &se% !
In numerous application it is neither desirable nor practical to expose a temperature sensor
directly to a process material. <ells are therefore used to protect against damage
corrosion, erosion, abrasion and high pressure processes. 0 thermowell is also useful in
protecting a sensor from physical damage during handling and normal operation.
Seecti$0 a ther'o)e :
The significant properties considered in selecting a material for the well are as follows :
9. 4esistance to corrosion and oxidation.
&. 4esistance to mechanical and thermal shock.
,. "ow permeability .4esistance to gas leakage/.
C. 2echanical strength.
A. Thermal conductivity.
Materia #or Wes :
9. >tainless steal.
&. Inconel.
,. 2onel.
C. 0lloy steal.
A. (astelloy F'F.
18. 2o) )i -o& caibrate a te'p. recor%er &si$0 a pote$tio'eter !
'onnect the potentiometer output to the input of temp. recorder.
9. 'onnect the . Kve / to the . Kve / and . *ve / to the . *ve /.
&. If ambient compensation is provided in potentiometer set it to the correct ambient temp.
,. If no ambient compensation is provided take a thermometer and measure the correct
ambient temp.. ind out the corresponding mV s for that temp. for the given input type of
thermocouple.
C. <hile feeding subtract the ambient temp. m v s from the corresponding temp. every
time.
A. 0dGust the necessary adGustments.
2easuring Temperature <ith a !otentiometer:
9.'onnect the input of the potentiometer to the thermocouple.
&.If no ambient compensation is provided find out the corresponding millvolts for that
ambient temp. for the type of thermocouple used.
,.0dd the ambient temp. millvolts to the corr. input millvolts measured. ind out from the
&&6578,,&.doc
!age &9 of ,9
chart the corresponding temperature.
39. What t-pe o# se$si$0 ee'e$t )o&% -o& &se to 'eas&re ,er- o) te'perat&re !
The sensing element used for measuring very low temperature is 4. T. ).
. 4esistance Temperature )etector /
31. What are sDi$ te'perat&re ther'oco&pes !
>kin thermocouples are those which are directly connected to the process without any
thermowell.
Dsed for measuring the skin temperature of heaters furnaces, flue gas etc.
3". What is the speciat- o# ther'oco&pes ea% )ires !
They should be of the same material as the thermocouple.
3.. What is the %i##ere$ce the a )heatsto$e bri%0e a$% a pote$tio'eter !
The difference between a potentiometer and a wheatstone bridge measuring instrument is
that potentiometer is a voltage measuring instrument and wheatstone bridge is a current
measuring instrument.
3/. EApai$ the co$ti$&os baa$ce pote$tio'eter s-ste' &si$0 R. T. D.6s.
Voltage !ower
'onverter amplifier amplifier
?nergi;ing coil
>lide wire

Balancing motor
R.T.D
In a balance wheatstone bridge resistance thermometer a resistance bulb is connected into
one branch of a d.c. bridge circuitY in another branch is a variable resistance in the form of
a calibrated slidewire. Variations in temp. of the measured medium cause a change in
resistance of the bulb and a conse@uent unbalance of the bridge circuit. 0 self balancing
wheatstone bridge recogni;es the condition of unbalance, determines its direction and
magnitude and position the slidewire contractor to rebalance the bridge and indicate the
temp. on the scale.
The ). '. potential appearing at 00 is converted by the converting stage to an 0. '.
voltage appearing at BB and is multiplied by the voltage amplifier to a large value at cc. It
is then used to control the power amplifier output )) which drives the balancing motor in
the proper direction to balance the bridge.
The polarity of the signal at 00 determines the phase of the alternating voltage at BB
which in turn determines the direction of rotation of the balancing motor.
&&6578,,&.doc
!age && of ,9
31. 2o) is a&to'atic Re#ere$ce K&$ctio$ co'pe$satio$ carrie% o&t i$ te'p.
recor%ers !
Rheostat
K *
scale
Variabe
Resistor
K *
Re#ere$ce 2ot
K&$ctio$ K&$ctio$
L*
or automatic reference Gunction compensation a variable nickel resister is used. 0s the
temperature changes, so does its resistance. This reference Gunction compensatory is
located, so that it will be at the temperature of the reference Gunction. The reference
Gunction is at the position where the dissimilar wire of the thermocouple is reGoined, which
invariably is at the terminal strip of the instrument.
CONTRO+ SCSTEMS
33. EApai$ the appicatio$ o# proportio$a i$te0ra a$% %eri,ati,e actio$!
*roportio$a co$tro o$- :
!roportional control only attempts to return a measurement to the set point after a load
upset has occurred. (ow ever it is impossible for a proportional controller to return the
measurement exactly to the set point.
Use : It is normally used for level controls. It reduces the effect of a load change but it can
not eliminate it.
*roportio$a p&s reset co$tro:
4eset action is introduced to eliminate offset. It will integrate any difference between
measurement and setpoint and cause the controllerFs output to change until the difference
between the measurement and set point is ;ero. 4eset will act as long as the error exists.
Use: !roportional K 4eset controllers are by far the common types used in industrial
process control and where predominate dead times occur.
*roportio$a p&s reset p&s %eri,ati,e:
)erivative or rate action helps the controller overcome system inertia and result in faster,
more precise control. )erivative action occurs whenever the measurement signal changes.
Dnder study conditions the rate action does not act. )erivative allows the controller to
inGect more corrective action.
&&6578,,&.doc
!age &, of ,9
<
Use : %n temperature controls.
34. What is %i##ere$ce 0ap co$tro !
)ifferential gap control is similar to on off control except that a band or gap exists around
the control point.
Use: In industry differential gap control is often found in non critical level control
applications where it is desirable only to prevent a tank from flooding or drying. Whe$ a
measured variable exceeds the upper gap the control valve will open fully or be closed
fully. >imilarly when it exceeds the lower gap it will open or close fully.
37. Where is o$ o## co$tro &se% !
%n off control is used when
9. !recise control is not needed.
&. !rocesses that have sufficient capacity to allow the final operator to keep up with the
measurement cycle.
,. It is mainly used in refrigeration and are conditioning systems.
38. What is reset@)i$% &p!
<hen reset action is applied in controllers <here the measurement is away from the set
point for long periods the rest may drive the output to its maximum resulting in rest wind
up. <hen the process starts again the output will no come off its maximum until the
measurement crosses the so point causing large overshoots. This problem can be avoid by
including anti*reset wind up circuit which eliminates the problem of output saturation.
49. Wh- is reset cae% i$te0ra a$% Rate %eri,ati,e !
4eset is called integral because of the mathematical relationship to the output.
4ate is called derivative because

t 1 i
%i 1 f e . dt / K %
5
%i 1 r . de + dt / K %
5

t 1 o
r 1 is the rate time
%i 1 is the %utput at any given time
%
5
1 is the out put at time ;ero or ;ero error.
e 1 is the error signal
t 1 is time.
f 1 is the reset rate in respects per minute.
41. EApai$ t&$i$0 o# co$troers.
Tuning basically involves adGustment of proportional. Integral and derivative parameters
to achieve good control. The gain, time constants, and dead times around the loop will
dictate the settings of various parameters of the controller.
T&$i$0 'etho%s are broa%- cassi#ie% i$to t)o :
9. 'losed "oop 2ethod : e.g. Dltimate Iain 2ethod.
&. %pen "oop 2ethod : e.g. process 4eaction curve.
Uti'ate 0ai$ 'etho%:
The term ultimate gain was attached to this method because its use re@uire the
determination of the ultimate gain .sensitivity/ and ultimate period. The ultimate sensitivity
3u is the maximum allowable value of gain .for a controller with only !roportional mode/
&&6578,,&.doc
!age &C of ,9
for which the system is stable. The ultimate period is the period of the response with the
gain set at its ultimate value.
*rocess reactio$ c&r,e :
To deter mine the process reaction curve, the following steps are recommended. :
9. "et the system come to steady state at the normal load level.
&. !lace the controller on manual.
,. 2anually set the output of the controller at the value at which it was operating in the
automatic mode.
C. 0llow the system to reach the steady state.
A. <ith controller on manual, impose a step changes in the output of controller, which is
an signal to value.
6. 4ecord the response of controlled variable.
8. 4eturn the controller output to its previous value and return the controller to auto
operation.
4". EApai$ the )orDi$0 o# a$ eectro$ic *.I.D. co$troer.
Input from the measurement transmitter is compared with the set point voltage to produce
a deviation signal. The deviation signal is combined with a characteri;ed feed back signal
to provide the input for the function generator amplifier. This amplifiers output is
delivered to the feed back network, and to the final output which is a 95*A5m.a. do signal
for actuation of final operators.
>et
2anual
2easurement )eviation 0mplifier 2anual
0utomatic
Iain To final operator
*roportio$a actio$: It is a obtained by adGusting the magnitude of feed back signal. 0n
increase in negative feed back means less effective gain and thus a broader proportional
band.
Reset actio$s: It is obtained by charging the reset capacitor at a rate determined by the
value of reset resister. The reset resister is variable, and constitutes reset adGustment.
Deri,ati,e actio$: The connection of a derivative capacitor across the feedback circuit
delays feedback until the capacitor is charged to a value approaching amplifier output.
This delay is controlled by value of derivative resister. This resister is variable and
constitutes derivative adGustment.
4.. What is a$ a$ao0&e i$te0rator a$% a$ a$ao0&e %i##ere$tiator !
A$ao0 i$te0rator:
&&6578,,&.doc
!age &A of ,9
R C
Vi$ ?
AV
@1 @ Vo&t
V
9
F V
i$
%t
RC
A$ao0 %i##ere$tiator:
R
C
% ?
V
9
F @ RC V
i$
V
i$
AV
%t @ Vo&t
4/. What is a$ti reset )i$% &p !
If the limit acts in the feed back section of the control amplifiers integral circuit, the
controller output will immediately begin to drive in the opposite direction as soon as the
process signal crosses the set point. This approach is referred to as antireset wind up.
41. What are De@sat&rators !
<hen, in some processes, e.g. batch process, long transient responses are expected during
which a sustained deviation is present the controller integral action continuously drives the
output to a minimum or maximum value. This phenomenon is called "integral saturation of
the control unit". <hen this condition.
43.What is the e##ect o# )eep hoe o$ cac&atio$ o# ori#ice bore!
=%'>
"
)here: %' F Meas&re% %ia'eter o# ori#ice.
% F %' M 1 ? 9.11 N %h F Drai$ hoe %ia'eter.
%h % F Correcte% %ia'eter ori#ice siEe.
44. EApai$ the )orDi$0 o# Rota'eter!
OUT +ET
The flow rate varies directly
Tapered glass tube as the float rises and falls in
>cale the tapered tube.
&&6578,,&.doc
!age &6 of ,9
IN +ET
Variable area meters are special form of head meters. <here in the area of flow restrictor
is varied. >o as to hold the differential pressure constant. The rotameters consists of a
vertical tapered tube through which the metered fluid flows in upward direction. 0 "float"
either spherical or cone shaped, actually more dense than the fluid being measured, creates
an annular passage between its maximum circumference and the weight of the tapered
tube. 0s the flow varies the "float" rises or falls to vary the area of the passage so that the
differential across it Gust balances the gravitational force on the "float" i.e. the differential
pressure is maintained constant. The position of the "float" is the measured of the rate of
flow.
47. EApai$ the )orDi$0 o# a 'a0$etic 'eter.
0n electric potential is developed when a conductor is moved across the magnetic field. In
most electrical machinery the conductor is a "wire"Y the principle is e@ually applicable to a
moving, electrically conductive li@uid. The primary device of commercial magnetic meters
consists of a straight cylindrical electrically insulated tube with a pair of electrodes nearly
flush with the tube wall and located at opposite ends of a tube diameter. 0 uniform a.c.
magnetic field is provided at right angles to electrode diameter and to the axis of the tube.
The a.c. voltage developed at the electrodes is proportional to the volume flow rate of
fluid, and to a magnetic field strength. This device is limited to electrically conducting
li@uids. The magnetic meter is particularly suited to measurement of slurries and dirty
fluids, since there are no location for solids to collect except the walls of the tube itself.
48. EApai$ the )orDi$0 o# a t&rbi$e 'eter.
Turbine meters consist of a straight flow tube within which a turbine or fan is free to
rotate, about its axis which is fixed along the center line of the tube. >traightening vanes
upstream of the turbine minimi;es possible rotational components of fluid flow. In most
units a magnetic pick*up system senses the rotation of the rotor through the tube wall. The
turbine meter is a flow rate device, since the rotor speed is directly proportional to flow
rate. The output is usually in the form of electrical pulses from the magnetic pick*up with
a fre@uency proportional to flow rate. Turbine meter are primarily applied to measurement
of clean and non*corrosive hydrocarbons.

79. EApai$ the )orDi$0 o# a *itot t&be.
The pitot tube measures the velocity at point in the conduct. If @uantity rate measurement
is desired, it must be calculated from the ratio of average velocity to the velocity at the
point of measurement.
*ri$cipe : If a tube is placed with its open and facing into a stream of fluid, then the fluid
impinging on the open end will be brought to rest, and the kinetic energy converted to
pressure energy. This the pressure built up in the tube will be greater than that in the free
stream by the impact pressure or pressure produced by loss of kinetic energy. The increase
in pressure will depend upon the s@uare of the velocity of the stream. The difference is
measured between the pressure in the tube and static pressure of the stream. The static
pressure is measured by a tapping in the wall of the main or by a tapping incorporated in
the pitot static tube itself. The difference between the pressure in the tube and static
&&6578,,&.doc
!age &8 of ,9
pressure will be a measure of the impact pressure and therefore of the velocity of the
stream oil.
71. Where is the i$te0ra ori#ice &se% !
Integral orifice is used to measure small flow rates. It is mounted directly on the secondary
device. The integral orifice diameter varies between 5.5&5 inch and 5.&A5 inch diameter.
The integral orifice finds considerable use in laboratory and pitot plants.
'alculation of flow rate :
Q$ B (c F Hs A C)i A (a A (' A <p B <e ; h)
7". EApai$ the )orDi$0 o# a tar0et 'eter.
The target meter combines in a single unit both a primary element and a force balance flow
rate transmitter. 0 circular disc .or target/ supported concentrically in the pipe carrying
the flowing fluid results in an annular orifice configuration. !ressure difference developed
by the fluid flow through this annular orifice produces a force on target proportional to the
s@uare of the flow rate. This force is carried out of the pipe through a rod passing through
a diaphragm seal, and is measured by a pneumatic or electronic force balance system
identical with the mechanism of the force balance ).!. cell. The advantages of the target
meter lies primarily in its single unit construction the primary device and responsive
mechanism in a single structure. This eliminates the diff. pressure fluid connections in most
heads meters. This is particularly used for sticky and dirty material which may plug up
differential connections and for li@uids which re@uire elevated temperatures to avoid
solidification, this elimination of li@uid connection is useful.
<m &
1
'st a m c rf
7.. Where is a :&a%ra$t ori#ice &se% !
If the fluid is viscous and the operating 4eynolds number is low @uadrant orifice is
preferred
7/. What are t-pes o# taps &se% #or ori#ices !
1. (a$0e taps:
This are most commonly used on pipe si;es of & inches or larger. They are located in the
orifice flange & inch from upstream and 9 inch downstream from the faces 5 orifice plate.
". Cor$er taps:
%n pipe si;es less than & inches corner taps located directly at the face of the orifice plate.
.. Ve$a co$tracta a$% ra%i&s taps:
Vena contracta taps located at 9 pipe diameter upstream and at point of minimum pressure
downstream. There are mostly widely used for measurement of steam.
4adius taps are located 9 pipe diameter upstream and Z pipe diameter downstream for the
inlet face of the orifice are a close approximation to vena contracta taps upto 5.8&
d + ).
/. (& #o) taps:
ace flow taps are located at &Z pipe diameter upstream and B pipe diameter
downstream. ull flow taps at &Z and B pipe diameter have the same advantage as vena
contracta or radius taps.
71. What is Re-$o%s $&'ber !
&&6578,,&.doc
!age &E of ,9
)ynamic similarity implies a correspondence of fluid forces in two systems. In general
situation there are many classes of forces that influence the behavior of fluids. >ome of
these are inertial viscous, gravitational, compressibility, pressure and elastic forces.
'ertain dimensionless ratio are developed based on fluid properties. Velocities and
dimension, which are essentially force ratio.
The more important of these are 4eynolds number
V F ,eocit-
, D O D F i$si%e %ia'eter o# pipe
R F O F #&i% %e$sit-
P P F ,iscosit-
or most applications in practical flow measurement the 4eynolds number is taken to be
sufficient criterion of dynamic similarly. The magnitude of 4eynolds number not only
indicates whether the flow is laminar or turbulent but also furnishes the probable shape of
velocity profile. )ue to the strong role it plays as an indicator of varying flow
characteristics, many of the deviation from the theoretical e@uations are called 4eynaldo
number effects.
73. 2o) )o&% -o& choose %i##ere$tia ra$0e !
The most common diff. range for li@uid measurement is 5*955" (
&
%. This range is high
enough to minimi;e the errors caused by une@ual heads in the seal chambers, differences in
temps. of load lines etc. The 955" range permits an increase in capacity up to C55" and a
decrease down up to &5" by merely changing range tubes or range adGustments.
74. What is positi,e Dispace'e$t 'eters !
pri$cipe: The principle of measurement is that as the li@uid flows through the meter it
moves a measuring element which seals off the measuring chamber into a series of
measuring compartments each holding a definite volume. 0s the measuring element
'o,es; these compartments are successively filled and emptied. Thus for each complete
of the measuring element a fixed @uantity of li@uid is permitted to pass from the inlet to
the outlet of the meter. The seal between measuring element and the measuring chamber is
provided by a film of measured li@uid. The number of cycle of the measuring element is
indicated by means of a pointer moving over the dial, a digital totali;er or some other form
of register, driven from the measuring element through an adGustable gearing.
The 'ost co''o$ #or's o# positi,e %ispace'e$t 'eters are :
9. 4eciprocating !iston type.
&. 4otating or %scillating !iston type.
,. -utating )isc type.
C. luted >piral 4otor type.
A. >liding vane type.
6. 4otating vane type.
8. %val Iear type.
77. Wh- are t)o p&0s pro,i%e% o$ a D.* tra$s'itter!
9.The top plug is a vent plug for venting the air entrapped inside the cell.
&.The bottom plug is a drain plug for draining the li@uid accumulated inside the cell.
CONTRO+ VA+VES
&&6578,,&.doc
!age &7 of ,9
78. What is a co$tro ,a,es !
0 control valve is the final control element, which directly changes the valve of the
manipulated variable by changing the rate of flow of control agent.
0 control valve consists of an operator and valve body. The operator provides the power
to vary the position of the valve plug inside the body. The plug is connected to the
operator by a stem, which slides through a stuffing box. The air signal from the controller
is applied above the diaphragm. The increasing air signal from the controller is applied
above the diaphragm. 0n increasing air signal will push the operator stem downwards
against the force exerted by the spring on the diaphragm plate. The valve is adGusted in
such a way that the plug starts moving when , psi is applied to the diaphragm and touches
the seat when 9A psi is applied to the diaphragm. Thus an increase in air pressure will
close the valve. (ence the home "0ir to 'lose". 0nother type is "0ir to open", such that ,
psi on the diaphragm the value is closed and 9A psi air signal it in fully open.
89. What are the %i##ere$t t-pes o# co$tro ,a,es !
The commonly used control valves can be divided as follows.
9. )epending on 0ction.
&. )epending on the Body.
1. Depe$%i$0 o$ actio$:
)epending on action there are two types of control valves, .9/ 0ir to close, .&/ 0ir to
open.
". Depe$%i$0 o$ bo%-:
9. Ilobe valves single or double seated.
&. 0ngle valves.
,. Butterfly valves.
C. Three way valves.
81. What is the &se o# si$0e seate% ,a,e !
The single seated valve is used on smaller si;es, and in valve of larger si;es, where an
absolute shut off is re@uired. The use of single seated valve is limited by pressure drop
across the valve in the closed or almost closed position.
8". What is the &se o# %o&be seate% ,a,e !
In double seated valves the upward and downward forces on the plug due to reduction of
fluid pressure are nearly e@uali;ed. It is generally used on bigger si;e valves and high
pressure systems. 0ctuator forces re@uired are less i.e. 0 small si;e actuator.
8.. What is C, o# a ,a,e !
'v is the capacity of a valve and is defined as :
"-o of gallons per minute of water which passes through a fully open valve at a pressure
drop of 9 psi.
'
V
1 @ . [! + I /


<here: 'v 1 Valve co*efficient
@ 1 Volumetric flow rate . gallons minute /
[! 1 !ressure drop across the valve in psi.
I 1 >pecific gravity of flowing fluid.

The valve coefficient 'v is proportional to the area F0F between the plug and valve seat
measured perpendicularly to the direction of flow.
&&6578,,&.doc
!age ,5 of ,9
8/. What are the %i##ere$t t-pes o# act&ators !
The different types of actuators are :
9. )iaphragm %perated.
&. !iston %perated.


81. What t-pes o# bo$$ets )o&% -o& &se o# hi0h te'p. a$% ,er- o) te'p. !
2i0h te'perat&re: Bonnets are provided with radiation fins to prevent glad packing from
getting damaged.
O$ ,er- o) te'perat&re: ?xtended bonnets are used to prevent gland packing from
getting free;ed.
83. 2o) )i -o& )orD o$ a co$tro ,a,e )hie it is i$e !
&&6578,,&.doc
!age ,9 of ,9
<hile the control valve is in line or in service, it has to be by passed and secondly the line
to be depressuri;ed and drained.
84. What is the &se o# a ,a,e positio$er !
The valve positioner is used for following reasons :
9. #uick 0ction control valve.
&. Valve hysteresis.
,. Valves used on viscous li@uids.
C. >plit 4ange.
A. "ine pressure changes on valve.
6. Valve Bench set not standard.
8. 4eversing valve operation.
87. Whe$ ca$ a b- pass be $ot &se% o$ a positio$er !
0 by pass on a positioner cannot be used when :
9. >plit 4ange operation.
&. 4everse 0cting !ositioner.
,. Valve bench set not standard.
88. What is the &se o# b&tter#- ,a,es !

Butterfly valves are used only in systems where a small pressure drop across the valve is
allowed. The butterfly is fully open when the disc rotates by 75. 0 %ra)bacD o# this valve
is that even a very small angular displacement produces a big change in flow.
199. What is the &se o# three )a- ,a,es !
Three way control valves are only used on special systems, where a dividing or mixture of
flows according to a controlled ratio is re@uired.
191. What are the %i##ere$t t-pes o# p&0s !
The different types of plugs are generally used are :
. 9 / V. port plug . & / 'ontoured plug
&&6578,,&.doc
!age ,& of ,9
V@port p&0:
!orted plug are generally used on double seated valves. This is because ported plugs, have
a more constant off balance area.
Co$to&re% p&0:
'ontoured plugs are generally used on single seated valve with small trim si;es.
19". What is a ca0e ,a,e!
0 cage valve uses a piston with piston ring seal attached to the single seated valve "plug".
(ere the hydrostatic forces acting on the top or the piston or below the valve plug tend to
cancel out. The seat ring is clamped in by a cage. 'age valves are generally used for noise
reduction.
19.. What are the a%,a$ta0es o# Ca' #eA ,a,es!
'am flex valves are intermediates between globe valve and butterfly valve. The plug
rotates 65F for full opening.
A%,a$ta0es:
9. 0ctuator forces re@uired are very less.
&. ?xtended bonnet and hence can be used on any service i.e. on high temp. and very low
Temperature.
,. Variations in flow.
C. "ight weight.
19/. What is the &se o# i$D co$$ecte% to the ,a,e positio$er !
The link serves as the feed back to the value. 0nt valve movement is sensed by this link.
>ometimes due to line pressure changes on (.!. service the valve position may be
changed, the link in turn senses this change and the positioner will produce an output
which will operate the valve to the original position.
191. What is the &se o# booster rea-s!
Booster relays are essentially air load, self contained pressure regulators. They are
classified into three broad groups:
1. Vo&'e 5oosters : These are used to multiply the available volume of air signal.
". Ratio Rea-s : Dse to multiply or divide the pressure of an input signal.
.. Re,ersi$0 Rea-s : This produces a decreasing output signal for an increasing input
signal.

193. What is the &se o# A$0e ,a,es !
0ngle valves are used where very high pressure drops are re@uired and under very severe
conditions. <here the conventional type of valve would be damaged by erosion.
194. What are the %i##ere$t ,a,e characteristic !
The different types of valve characteristic are :
9. "inear &. ?@ual !ercentage ,. #uick %pening.
&&6578,,&.doc
!age ,, of ,9

1.+i$ear: The valve opening to flow rate is a linear curve
".E:&a perce$ta0e: or e@ual increments of valve opening it will give e@ual increment in
flow rate range. 0t small opening the flow will also be small.
..Q&icD ope$i$0: 0t small opening the increments in flow rate is more. 0t higher opening the flow
rate becomes steady.
197. What is a soe$oi% ,a,e ! Where it is &se% !

0 solenoid is electrically operated valve. It consist of a solenoid . coil / in which a
magnetic plunger moves which is connected to the plug and tends to open or close the
value. There are two types of solenoid valves :
9. -ormally open &. -ormally closed
USE : It is used for safety purpose.
198. 2o) )i -o& cha$0e the ,a,e characteristics )ith positio$er !
The positioner contains different types of came in it. selection of the proper cams in it.By
selection of the proper cam the valve opening characteristics can be changed.
&&6578,,&.doc
!age ,C of ,9
119.2o) )i -o& cha$0e the actio$ o# a co$tro ,a,e !
9. If the control valve is without bottom cap. The actual needs to be changed.
&. If bottom cap is provided.
a/ )isconnect the stem from the actuator stem.
b/ >eparate the body from the bonnet.
c/ 4emove the bottom cap and the plug from body.
d/ )etach the plug from the stem by removing the pin.
e/ ix the stem at the other end of the plug and fix the pin back.
f/ Turn the body upside down. 'onnect it to the bonnet after inserting the plug and stem.
g/ 'onnect back the stem to the actuator stem.
h/ ix back the bottom cap.
i/ 'alibrate the valve.
111. 2o) )i -o& seect the co$tro ,a,e characteristics !
The graphic display of flow various lift shows then the )esired or inherent characteristic is
changed by variations pressure drop. This occurs as the process changes from condition
where most of pressure drop takes place at the control valve is a condition where most of
the pressure drop is generally distributed through rest of the system.
Q (o) : This variation in where most of the total drop take place is one of the most
important aspects is choosing the proper valve characteristics for give process.
(o) co$tro : -ormally ?@ual percentage valve is used.
*ress&re Co$tro : -ormally linear valve is used to maintain a constant pressure drop.
Te'p. Co$tro : -ormally e@ual percentage valve is used.
+i:&i% +e,e Co$tro : -ormally linear valve is used.
Basically in selecting a valve characteristic two important point have to be taken into
account.
a/ There should be a linear relationship between the position of the plug and the flow
through the valve in a wide range of change in the pressure drop across the valve.
b/ The pressure drop across a valve should be as low as possible.
Co$tro ,a,e siEi$0
11". What is the e##ect o# pipe re%&cers o$ ,a,e capacit-!
<hen control valves are mounted between pipe reducers, there is a decrease in the actual
valve capacity. The reducers create an additional pressure drop in the system by acting as
contractions of enlargements in series with the valve.
2etric formula: for inlet and outlet reduces.

"
%
"
C,
"
R F 1 R 1.1 1 @
D
"
9.9/%
"
or outlet reducer only or inlet reducer with entrance angle less than C5 inches.
"
&&6578,,&.doc
!age ,A of ,9
%
"
C,
"
R
"
F 1 R 1.1 1 @
D
"
9.9/%
"

% F ,a,e siEe ''. D F i$e siEe ''. C, F re:&ire% ,a,e co@e##icie$t.
To compensate for reducer losses at sub*critical flow, divide 'v calculated by 4.
11.. A$ operator tes -o& that a co$tro ,a,e i$ a st&cD ! 2o) )i -o& start
checDi$0 !
9. irst of all get the control valve is passed from operation.
&. 'heck the lingual to the diaphragm of the control valve.
,. )isconnect it possible the actuator stem from the control valve stem.
C. >troke the actuator and see whether the actuator operates or not. It not then the
diaphragm may be punctured.
A. If the actuator operates connect it back to the plug stem stroke the control valve. If it
does not operate loosen the gland nuts a bit and see if it operates. If it does not then
the control valve has to be removed from the line to w+shop.
11/. Where is a$ Air to cose a$% Air to ope$ co$tro ,a,es &se% !
Air to cose:
9. 4eflux lines.
&. 'ooling water lines.
,. >afety 4elief services.
Air to ope$:
9. eed lines.
&. >team >ervice.
111. Wh- %oes co$tro ,a,e operate at IS psi !
%n higher pressure the actuator si;es becomes bigger in area. The actual force produced
by the actuator.
orce 1 !ressure x 0rea.
1 9A psi x 0rea, If 0rea 1 9A"
orce produced 1 9A psi x &A in
&
1 ,8A pounds.
0ctual force acting on a control valve 1 ,8A pounds.
<ENERA+ QUESTIONS
113. EApai$ Casca%e Co$tro s-ste' )ith a %ia0ra'. What )o&% happier i# a
si$0e co$troer )ere &se% !
TT TIC
&&6578,,&.doc
!age ,6 of ,9
Master co$troer Sa,e or
seco$%ar-
Stea' Co$troer
*T

(ee% )ater
(&e 0as

*V
'ascade means two controllers is series. %ne of them is the 2aster or !rimary and the
second is the secondary of slave controller. The output of the secondary controller
operates the final control element, that is the valve.
+oop eApa$atio$:
The output of the temp. transmitter goes as measurement signal to the TI' which is the
master controller. >imilarly the output of pressure transmitter goes as measurement signal
to the !I' which is the secondary controller.
The output of TI' comes at set point to !I' which is turn operates the valve. The re@d.
temp. is set on the TI'.
Use o# casca%e s-ste':
'ascade loops are invariably installed to prevent outside disturbances from entering the
process. The conventional single controller as shown in the diagram cannot responds to a
change in the fuel gas pressure until its effect is felt by the process temp. sensor. In other
words an error in the detected temperature has to develop before corrective action can be
taken. The cascade loop in contrast responds immediately correcting for the effect of
pressure change, before it could influence the process temperature. The improvement in
control @uality due to cascading is a function of relative speeds and time lags. 0 slow
primary .2aster/ variable and a secondary .>lave/ variable which responds @uickly to
disturbances represent a desirable combination for this type of control. If the slave can
respond @uickly to fast disturbances then these will not be allowed to enter the process
and thereby will not upset the control of primary .master/ variable. It can be said that use
of cascade control on heat transfer e@uipment contributes to fast recovery from load
changes or other disturbances.
114. EApai$ ratio co$tro s-ste'.
U$ co$troe% #o)
. 0 /
(T Ratio co$troer
(
1
? (
"

Seco$%ar- co$troer
&&6578,,&.doc
!age ,8 of ,9
. B / (T
Co$troe% #o) (V

0 ratio control system is characteri;ed by the fact that variations in the secondary variable
do not reflect back on the primary variable. In the above diagram 5 a ratio control system
the secondary flow is hold in some proportion to a primary uncontrollable flow.
If we assume that the output of primary transmitter is 0, and the output of the secondary
transmitter is B, 0nd that multiplication factor of the ratio relay is 3, then for e@uilibrium
conditions which means set valve is e@ual to measured valve, we find the following
relation :
30 * B 1 5
or B+0 1 3, where F3F is the ratio setting of the relay.
117. EApai$ #&e to air ratio co$tro o# #&r$aces.
Air
(RC Master stea'
(RC (C
(T (RC
RS* pri'ar-
seco$%ar-
(V RR (T
Ratio co$troer
(&e 0as
118. What is (&r$ace Dra#t co$tro !
Balanced draft boilers are generally used negative furnace pressure. <hen both forced
draft and induced draft are used together, at some point in the system the pressure will be
the same as that of atmosphere. Therefore the furnace pressure must be negative to
prevent hot gas leakage. ?xcessive vacuum in the furnace however produces heat losses
through air infiltration. The most desirable condition is that the one have is a very slight
.about 5.9" (
&
5 / negative pressure of the top of furnace.
1"9. What is #ee% bacD co$tro! What is #ee% #or)ar% co$tro! Disc&ss its
appicatio$ !
(ee% bacD co$tro:
Co$troer=(IC>
Meas&ri$0 ee'e$t
Set poi$t Tra$s'itter
Co$tro ,a,e Ori#ice pate
&&6578,,&.doc
!age ,E of ,9
*ROCESS
eed back control involves the detection of the controlled variable and counteracting of
charges its it\s value relative to set point, by adGustment of a manipulated variable. This
mode of control necessities that the disturbance variable must affect the controlled
variable itself before correction can take place. (ence the term FfeedbackF can imply a
correction FbackF in terms of time, a correction that should have taken place earlier when
the disturbance occurred.
(ee% #or)ar% co$tro :
Ori#ice
O&tp&t
(T

Co$troer A%%iti,e re0&ator
eed forward control system is a system in which corrective action is based on
measurement of disturbances inputs into the process. This mode of control responds to a
disturbance such that is instantly compensates for that error which the disturbance would
have otherwise caused in the controlled variable letter in time.
eed forward control relies on a prediction. 0s can be seen from the figure of feed
forward control a necessary amount of input goes to the process. This measurement goes
to the controller which gives output to the control valve. The control valve regulates the
flow.

(ee% bacD co$tro:

In feed forward control no difference between the desired result and actual result need
exist before corrective action is taken in feed back control a difference must exist. (ence,
open loop or feed forward control is capable of perfect control, but feed back is not. )ue
to economic impartibility of precision , predicting the amount of correction necessary to
achieve satisfactory results with feed forward control, feed back control is most often
used. In order to properly choose the type of feed back controller for a particular process
application, two factors time and gain must be considered.
1"1. EApai$ three ee'e$t #ee% )ater co$tro s-ste'!
&&6578,,&.doc
!age ,7 of ,9
*ROCESS
(ee% )ater co$tro Dr&' e,e co$tro Stea' co$tro

*
"
*
1
*
/


S:&are root S:&are root eAtractor
EAtractor *
.

Co'p&ti$0 e:&atio$:
*
.
F R = *
"
@ *
1
@ H > ? *
/
? H
9
*
.
F O&tp&t.
*
1
; *
"
& *
/
F I$p&t
H
1
F A%K&stabe s&ppressio$.
H
9
F A%K.5ias.
1"". EApai$ A$ti@s&r0e co$tro!
Co'pressor

*DT
*
i$et
*
o&tet

Ratio
(T (C (RC
= (o) co$,erter>
5-@*ass ,a,e
This method of surge control uses the ratio of compressor pressure rise to inlet flow rate
to set the flow in by*bass loop. <hen the suction pressure drops and discharge shoots up,
&&6578,,&.doc
!age C5 of ,9
2
the compressor starts surging. The pdt senses this and gives the signal to the 4' which
will open the by*pass valve.
<ENERA+ QUESTION @ II
Q&e. : Dra) a$ eectro$ic t)o )ire s-ste' co$tro oop.
A$s. :
Q&e. : What are I$tri$sica- sa#e s-ste' !
A$s. : Intrinsic safety is a techni@ue for designing electrical e@uipment for safe use in
locations made ha;ardous by the presence of flammable gas or vapors in air.
")efn. :" Intrinsically safe circuit is one in which any spark or thermal effect produce
either normally or under specified fault conditions is incapable of causing ignition of a
specified gas or vapor in air mixture at the most easily ignited concentration.
2AGARDOUS AREAS :
The specification of products or systems sold as intrinsically safe must state in what
ha;ardous areas they are infect intrinsically safe. Dniversal cooling of ha;ardous areas has
not, unfortunately, been adopted in all countries. (owever two sets of codes in common
use are.
Q&e. : What %oes a tra$s'itter o&tp&t start #ro' .@11 psi or =9." @ 1 H0BC'"> or / @
"9 'a. etc. !
A$s. : The transmitter output stance from what is known as "live ;ero". This system has
specific advantages :
9. The systems automatically alarms when the signal system becomes inoperative.
&. The output areas is linear . 4atio of 9 : A /.
DEAD GERO SI<NA+ :
&&6578,,&.doc
!age C9 of ,9
The advantage is that it does not have to be biased to true ;ero. 0 ""ive ;ero" gives the
computer additional information, so that it can takes appropriate alarm action in case of a
measurement failure, because it can discriminate between a transmitter operating, but
transmitting a ;ero measurement and a failure, in the signal system.
Q&e. : What is #orce baa$ce a$% 'otio$s baa$ce pri$cipe !
A$s. :
(ORCE 5A+ANCE *RINCI*+E :
"0 controller which generates and output signal by opposing tor@ue\s".
The input force is applied on the input bellows which novas the beam. This crackles no;;le
back pressure. The no;;le back pressure is sensed by the balancing bellows which brings
the beam to balance. The baffle movement is very less about 5.55&" for full scale output.
MOTION 5A+ANCE *RINCI*+E:
"0 controller which generates an output signal by motion of its parts".
The increase in input signal will cause the baffle to move towards the no;;le. The no;;le
back pressure will increase. This increase in back pressure acting on the balancing bellows,
will expands the bellows, there by moving the no;;le upward. The no;;le will move untill
motion .almost/ e@uals the input .baffle/ motion.
A%,a$ta0es o# #orce 5aa$ce:
9. 2oving parts are fever.
&. Baffle movement is negligible.
,. rictional losses are less.
AUTOMATIC CONTRO++ER:
It is a device which measured the value of variable @uantity or condition and operates to
correct or lie it deviation of this measured value from a selected reference.
AUTOMATIC CONTRO+ SCSTEM:
It is any operable arrangement of one or more automatic controllers in closed loops with
one or more processes.
SE+( O*ERATED CONTRO++ER:
It is one in which all the energy needed to operate the final control element is derived from
the controlled medium through the primary element.
RE+AC O*ERATED CONTRO++ER:
It is one in which the energy transmitted through the primary element is either
supplemented or amplified for operating the final control element by employing energy
from another sources.
*ROCESS:
&&6578,,&.doc
!age C& of ,9
0 process comprises the collective function performed in and by the e@uipment in which a
variable is to be controlled.
SE+( RE<U+ATION:
It is an inherent characteristic of the process which aids in limiting the deviation of the
controlled variable.
CONTRO++ED VARIA5+E :
The controlled variable is that @uantity and condition which is measured and controlled.
CONTRO++ED MIDIUM :
It is that process energy or material in which a variable is controlled. The controlled
variable is a condition or characteristic of the controlled medium. or e.g. where
temperature of water in a tank is automatically controlled, the controlled variable is
temperature and controlled medium is water.
MANI*U+ATED VARIA5+E :
It is that @uantity or condition which is varied by the automatic controller so as to affect
the value of the controlled variable.
CONTRO+ A<ENT :
It is that process energy or material of which the manipulated variation is a condition or
characteristic. The manipulated variable is a condition or characteristic of the control
agent. or e.g. when a final control element changes the fuel gas flow to burner the
manipulated variable is flow the control agent is fuel gas.
ACTUATIN< SI<NA+ :
The actuating signal is the difference at anytime between the reference input and a signal
related to the controlled variable. This basically known as error signal.
DEVIATION :It is the difference between the actual value of the controlled variable and
the value of the controlled variable corresponding with set point.
O((SET :
It is the steady state difference between the control point and the value of the controlled
variable corresponding with setpoint
CORRECTIVE ACTION :
It is the variation of the manipulated variable produced by the controlling means. The
controlling means operates the final control element . control value / which in turn varies
the manipulated variable.
RE(ERENCE IN*UT :
It is the reference signal in an automatic controller.
SET *OINT :
It is the position to which the control point setting mechanism is set.
CONTRO+ *OINT :
&&6578,,&.doc
!age C, of ,9
It is the value of the controlled variable which under any fixed set of conditions the
automatic controller operates to maintain.
.
DE(INATION
ACCURACC:
0 number or @uantity which defines the limit of error under reference conditions.
ATTENUATION:
0 decrease in signal magnitude between two points, or between two fre@uencies.
DEAD TIME :
The interval of time between initiation of an impact change or stimulus and the start of the
resulting response.
DRI(T :
0s undesired change in output over a period of time, which change is unrelated to input,
operating conditions, or load.
ERROR :
The difference between the indication and the true value of the measured signal.
S*AN ERROR :
It is the difference between the actual span and the specified span and is expressed as the
percent of specified span.
GERO ERROR :
It is the error of device operating under the specified conditions of use when the input is at
the lower range value.
STATIC <AIN :
It is the ratio of the output change to an input been change after the steady state has been
reached.
2CSTERESIS :
The maximum difference between the upscale and downscale indications of the measured
signal during a full range traverse for the same input.
INTER(ERENCE :
Interference is any spurious voltage or current arising from external sources and appearing
in the circuits of a device.
&&6578,,&.doc
!age CC of ,9
COMMON MODE INTER(ERENCE :
It is the form of interference which appears between the measuring circuit terminals and
ground.
NORMA+ MODE INTER(ERENCE :
It is the form of interference which appears between measuring circuit terminals.
+INEARITC :
The closeness to which a curve approximate a straight line.
RAN<E :
The region between the limits within which a @uantity is measured received or transmitted,
expressed by stating the lower and upper range values.
RE*EATA5I+ITC :
The closeness of agreement among a number of consecutive measurements of the output
for the same value of the measured signal under the same operating conditions.
RE*RODUCI5I+ITC :
The closeness of agreement among repeated measurements of the output for the same
value of the input made under the same operating conditions.
RES*ONSE :
It is the general behavior of the output of a device as a function of input both with respect
to time.
SI<NA+ TO NOISE RATIO :
4atio of signal amplitude to noise.
TIME CONSTANT :
The time re@uired for the output to complete 6,.& $ of the total rise or decay.
S*AN :
The algebraic difference between upper and lower range values.
GERO S2I(T :
0ny parallel shift of the input output curve.
*RESSURE
&&6578,,&.doc
!age CA of ,9
*RESSURE CONVERSIONS:
1psi F "4.4/ S 2"O
1
H0Bc'"
F
1/."". psi
1 5ar F 1/.19/ psi
1 Hpa F 9.1/1 psi
1
H0Bc'"
F
19.999'' o#
2"9
1 5ar F 1.9184
H0Bc'"
1
H0Bc'"
F
9.87 5ar
1 Torr F 1 '' o# 20.
Q&e. : EApai$ the )orDi$0 o# a$ E$ra# e,e 0a&0e !
A$s. : The ?nraf level precise level gauges are based on servo powered null balance
techni@ue. 0 displacer serves as continuos level sensing element.
*ri$cipe :
0 displacer 0 with a relative density higher than that of a product to be measured, is
suspended from a stainless steal wire B tat is attached to a measuring drum. 0 two phase
servo motor controlled by a capacitive balance system winds unwinds the measuring wire
until the tension on the weight springs is in balance with the wt. of the displace part
immersed in the li@uid. The sensing system in principle measures the two capacitance
formed by the moving central sensing rod ? provided with two capacitor plates and the si
plates. In balance position the capacitance are of e@uip value. 0 level variation will cause a
difference in buoyancy of the displacer. The center sensing rod will move in to direction of
one of the side capacitor plates. This causes difference in value of this capacitance. By an
electrolyte rotation of the servo motors the can driven transmitter continuously change the
voltage pattern to remote indicate of which the receiver motor drives a counter indicating
low variation.
*RIMARC (EED5ACH :
It is the signal which is related to the
bV-trV(]^,_`adbacdef]NSgSSShigS(gjkSlbSm2Sith the reference input to
obtain the actuating signal. >imply stated primary feedback is the actual measurement of
the controlled variable which when compared with the desired measurement of the
controlled variable produces the actuating signal.
&&6578,,&.doc
!age C6 of ,9
*OSITIONIN< ACTION :
It is that in which there is a predetermined relation between the value of the controlled
variable and the position of the final control element.
*RO*ORTIONA+ ACTION :
It is that in which there is a continuous linear relationship between the value of the actual
measurement of the controlled variable and the value position.
(+OATIN< ACTION :
It is that in which there is a predetermined relation between the deviation and speed of
final control element.
DERIVATIVE ACTION :
It is that in which there is a predetermined relation between a time derivative of the
controlled variable and position of final control element.
REST ACTION :
It is the value movement at a speed proportional to the magnitude of deviation.
RATE ACTION :
It is that in which there is a continuos linear relation between the rate of change of
controlled variable and position of final control element. 4ate action produces value
motion proportional to the rate of change of actual measurement.
*RO*ORTIONA+ 5AND :
It is the range of values of the controlled variable which correspond to the full operating
range of the final control element.
RESET RATE :
It is the number of times+minute that the effect of proportional position action upon the
final control element is repeated by proportional speed floating action.
There are two ways of expressing reset action :
9. 4eset time and &. 4eset 4ate
1. Reset Rate : It is commonly expressed as a number of "repeats" per minute. It is
determined by dividing.
a/ Travel of final control element . Value stroke / in one minute as a result of the effect of
proportional speed floating action.
b/ The travel as a result of the effect of proportional position action with the same
deviation in both cases.
". Reset Ti'e : It is the time interval by which the rate is commonly expressed in minutes.
It is determined by subtracting.
a/ The time re@uired for a selected motion of the final control element resulting from
combined effect of the proportional position plus rate action.
b/ The time re@uired for the same motion as a result of the effect of proportional position
action alone with the same rate of change of controlled variable in both cases or expressed
in another way. It is the time lead in terms of air pressure on the control value produced
&&6578,,&.doc
!age C8 of ,9
by rate action compared with proportional position action for the same rate of change of
actual measurement in both cases.
E+ECTRONICS
Q&e. : What is a %io%e!
A$s. : 0 diode consists of two electrodes .9/ 0node .&/ 'athode. The current flow is
only in one direction.
0 diode is the most basic solid state .semi conductor/ device. The above figure shows a
!.-. Gunction. The !. material has holes and the -. material has electrons.
(ORWARD 5IAS :
REVERSE 5IAS :
. 9 / <here the applied voltage overcomes the barrier potential .the p side is more positive
than the n side/ the current produce is large because maGority carriers cross the Gunction in
large numbers. This condition is called forward bias.
. & / <hen the applied voltage aids the barrier potential .n side K ve than p side/ the
current in small. This state is known as 4everse Bias.
Q&e. : What is a ha# )a,e; #& )a,e a$% bri%0e recti#ier !
A$s. :
2A+( WAVE RECTI(IER :
(U++ WAVE RECTI(IER :
5RID<E RECTI(IER :
*EAH INVERSE VO+TA<E : 2aximum 4everse voltage across the diode during the
cycle.
Q&e. : What is a #iter &se% #or !
A$s. : The half wave and full wave signals are pulsating ) . ' . voltages. The use of such
voltages is limited to charging batteries, running ). '. motors, and a few other
applications. <hat we really have is a ).'. voltage that is constant in valve, similar to the
voltage from a battery. To get a constant voltage from this, we can use a capacitor input
filter.
Q&e. : What is Ge$er Dio%e ! What is a ,ota0e Re0&ator !
A$s. : The breakdown region of a p n diode can be made very sharp and almost vertical
)iodes with almost vertical breakdown region are known as Jever )iodes.
&&6578,,&.doc
!age CE of ,9
0 Jener diodes operating in the breakdown region is e@uivalent to a battery. Because of
this current through Jener diode can change but the voltage remains constant. It is this
constant voltage that has made the ;ever diode an important device in voltage regulation.
VO+TA<E RE<U+ATOR :
The output remains constant despite changes in input voltage due to Jever effect.
Q&e. : What is tra$sistor ! What are the %i##ere$t t-pes !
0ns. : 0 transistor is a three lagged semi conductor device. Basically a transistor means
.transfer * resister/.
<hether the transistor is pnp or npn it resembles two diodes .back to back/. The one of
the left is called emitter diodes, and the one on the right is the collector diode. >ince two
types of charges are involved transistor : are classified as bipolar devices.
5iasi$0 the tra$sistor :
?mitter* Base * orward Bias.
'ollector * Base * 4everse Bias.
Q&e. : What is C5; CE a$% CC co$#i0&ratio$ !
0ns. :
Buffer : 0 device or a circuit used to isolate two ptFne circuits or stages. The emitter
follows is a example of buffer.
0lpha 1 I' + I?
Beta 1 I' + IB
Q&e. : 2o) )i -o& test a tra$sistor )ith a '&ti'eter. !
0ns. :
9. ?mitter Kve of meter and Base *ve output 1 "ow resistance
&. ?mitter *ve of meter and base Kve output 1 (igh resistance.
,. 'ollector Kve and Base *ve output 1 "ow.
C. 'ollector *ve and base Kve output 1 (igh.
?mitter : 'ollector 1 (igh 4esistance.
*N* : %pposite 4esults.
Q&e. : What is a th-ristor ! What are its &ses !
0ns. : 0 thyristor is a special kind of semi conductor device that uses internal feedback to
produce latching action.
Use : Dsed for controlling large amounts of load power in motors, heaters, lighting
systems etc.
EApa$atio$ : Because of the unusual connection we have a Kve feedback also called
regeneration. 0 change in current at any point in the loop is amplified and returned to the
starting point with the same phase. or instance if the 5& base current increases, the 5&
collector current increases. This force base current through 59. In turn this produces a
large 59 collector current which drives the 5& base harder. This build up in currents will
continue until both transistors are driven in saturation. In this case the latch acts like a
closed switch.
&&6578,,&.doc
!age C7 of ,9
%n the other hand , if something causes the 5& base current to decrease, the 5& collector
current will decrease. This reduces the 59 base current. In turn, there is less 59 collector
current, which reduces the 59 base current even more. This regeneration continues until
both transistors are driven into cut off. 0t this time the latches like a open switch. This
latch will always stay in open or close position.
Q&e. : What are o0ic 0ates ! EApai$ )ith tr&th tabe.
0ns. :
I0T? : 0 gate is a logic circuit with one output and one or more inputs . 0n output
signal occurs only for control combination of input signals.
1. OR @ <ATE :
SCM5O+ :
TRUT2
TA5+E :
0 B O
5 5 5
5 9 5
9 5 5
9 9 9
De#i$e : 0n %4 Iate has one output if any or all of its input are 9Fs.
". AND <ATE :
De#i$e : 0n 0-) Iate has output when all inputs are present.
SCM5O+ :
TRUT2
TA5+E :
0 B O
5 5 5
5 9 5
9 5 5
9 9 9
.. NOT <ATE :
0 not gate is also known as an inverter. This circuit has one input and one out put . 0ll it
does is invert the input signalY if the input is high, the output is low and vice versa.
TRUT2
TA5+E :
Inpu
t
%utpu
t
5 9
9 5
5&##er : This is a non inverting gate, used to drive low impedance loads.
NOR <ATE : This is an %4 I0T? followed by an inverter.
&&6578,,&.doc
!age A5 of ,9
SCM5O+ :
EAc&si,e
OR
<ATE
0 B O
5 5 5
5 9 9
9 5 9
9 9 5
NAND <ATE : This is an 0-) I0T? followed by an inverter.
TRUT2
TA5+E :
0 B O
5 5 9
5 9 9
9 5 9
9 9 5
.
Q&e. : EApai$ the )orDi$0 o# TI+ @ NAND <ATE.
&&6578,,&.doc
!age A9 of ,9
TRUT2
TA5+E :
0 B O
5 5 9
5 9 5
9 5 5
9 9 5