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UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA

FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

BASIC PETROLEUM ENGINEERING
LABORATORY

CGE478












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CONTENTS PAGE NO.

REPORT OUTLINE 3
FRONT COVER FORMAT 7
SAFETY PROCEDURES AND REGULATIONS 10
LAB MANUAL
1. PROPERTIES OF GAS AND LIQUID 11
2. OSBOURNE REYNOLDS APPARATUS 12
3. BERNOULLIS THEOREM 13
4. CLOUD POINT & POUR POINT 14
5. CORE STUDY SANDSTONE & CARBONATE
ENVIRONMENTS 15
6. FLOW THROUGH POROUS MEDIA 17
REFERENCES
















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Basic Petroleum Engineering Laboratory
Reporting of Practical Work

1. Raw Data

Students must submit to the instructor/lecturer their raw data, graph or drawing at the
end of each experiment. Raw data should be a table containing all the measurements
performed according to instructions, written on an A4 paper. Particulars such as below
should be included:
Name of experiment
Name of present students in the group
Date experiment performed
A short comment is expected on whether the results substantiated the theory and factors
which contribute to discrepancies. A full report must be submitted within two weeks after
the completion of the experiment.

2. FuIl Report

The general order of the various sections of a full Iaboratory report is set out below:
Front cover
Table of content
Abstract / Summary
Introduction
Aims / Objectives
Theory
Procedures
Apparatus
Results
Sample Calculations
Sample of calculation of errors (if necessary)
Discussions
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Conclusions
Recommendation
References
Appendices

3. Summary

The summary is important because it provides information to persons not wanting to
read the whole report. The summary should also contain the general conclusions of any
experimental work under the test conditions and recommendations, (if any). It should not
discuss the reasoning or detailed evidence that is contained in the body of the report.
Most important, the summary must be brief.

4. Equipment description and experimental technique

Enough should be said of the equipment and technique so that the reader could operate
the equipment if necessary.

5. Calculated results

A summary of the calculated results should be clearly tabulated. Related variables
should be presented graphically where dependence need to be shown.

6. Sample of calculation

A sample of calculation from a set of raw date obtained must be presented in the report
using all formulae used in obtaining the final calculated result.




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7. Calculation of errors

It is important to show the calculation of errors as the reader will know how efficient the
experiment has been carried out. The experimental error calculation can be carried out
by comparing it with the expected theoretical values.

8. Discussion

In this section, the results or the experiments are presented as a fulfillment of the aim It
is a coordinated analysis of what the data and calculated results mean. From the
analysis, should come the overall impression of the meaning of the experiment and its
significance in the light of published work or established theory.
The material should be presented logically. Even the most complicated explanation or
theory can be conveyed easily to the reader if broken down and presented in logical
sequence. If the discussion is long, its organization should be facilitated by the use of
subdivisions and headings.
Summary but will be more detailed in that it will include the opinion reasoning of the
author about various aspects of the experiment. The limitation of the experiment must be
discussed and the accuracy of the results noted.
This section must show the significance of the experimental findings has been
appreciated. Recommended journals, textbooks or lecture notes will provide an aid to
such an understanding.

9. Conclusions

The analysis must be objective, keeping in mind experimental problems or deviations
from conditions reported in published work and making a conclusion, if possible, in the
light of this.



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10. Recommendations

The recommendations could indicate how the experimental technique or apparatus
should be improved, considering what conclusions were arrived at and what
consistency with expected performance the experimental results showed. It is also wise
to include the observations that cause errors occurred during the experiment.

11. References

Reference provides the reader with sources of information that were used during the
writing of the experimental report. Thus reported data or formulae checked for validity
etc.

Book and journal references must follow a standard format that includes the author, title,
journal, volume, pages, date and publisher.

12. Appendices

Appendices contain material that is not an integral part of the report or cannot be
included conveniently in the body of the report.

These should include material such as supporting information, mathematical derivations,
answers to question included on the typed experimental sheet or similar material that
would overload the body of the report without contributing significantly to the immediate
line of thought.





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UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA
FAKULTI KEJURUTERAAN KIMIA
BASIC PETROLEUM ENGINEERING LABORATORY
(CGE 478)

NAME :
STUDENT NO :
EXPERIMENT :
DATE PERFORMED :
SEMESTER :
PROGRAMME/ CODE :
GROUP :

No Title Allocated Marks % Marks
1 Abstract/ Summary 5
2 Introduction 5
3 Aims/ Objectives 5
4 Theory 5
5 Apparatus 5
6 Procedures 10
7 Result 10
8 Calculations 10
9 Discussion 20
10 Conclusions 10
11 Recommendations 5
12 References 5
13 Appendices 5
TOTAL 100



Remarks:


Checked by:



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LABORATORY SAFETY AND REGULATIONS

A. General Laboratory Rules.
1. Always wear the lab coat before performing any experiments and a suitable
protective gear to ensure your safety in the laboratory. Students are not
allowed to perform the experiments without wearing the lab coat.
2. Always wear appropriate shoes, never wear sandals or shorts, exposure of
legs and feet to spilled chemical is the main cause of chemical burns.
3. Do not eat, smoke or chew gum or tobacco in the laboratory or chemical
storage areas. Do not use laboratory glassware for food or beverages,
including the refrigerators.
4. Never work alone in the chemical laboratory and storage area.
5. Do not fool around in the laboratory. Horseplay and pranks can be dangerous.
6. Students are not allowed to use hand phones in the laboratory.
7. Observe good housekeeping in the laboratory.
8. Never pipette with your mouth.
9. Report any accident or near miss to the lab technician (e.g. broken glassware
or equipment, any fire or chemical spillage).
10. Always wash your hands before and after working in the laboratory, and also
after cleanup of spillage.
11. Never leave heat sources unattended (eg. Gas burners. hot plates, heating
mantles. sand baths, etc.)
12. Never lean into fume hood.
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13. Do not perform unauthorized experiments.
14. Read all procedures and anticipate for possible hazards.
15. In case of any emergency please call these numbers for help: 03-
55436303/6304 (FKK General Office)
B. Lab Attendance
Attendance to the lab is compulsory to each student and for all lab sessions. Students
who do not attend any of the lab sessions without a valid reason will not be allowed to
do replacement labs. In other words, the submission of lab report wiII not be allowed
without the attendance to the lab.
Students who are late for more than 15 minutes will not be allowed to perform the
experiments.
C. Experimental Data
Students must verify the experimental data with the respective lecturer at the end of
every experiment. The experimental data sheet must be signed by the respective
lecturer before leaving the lab session.
D. Submission of Lab Reports
The lab reports should be submitted within two weeks after the date of conducted
experiments to the respective lecturer. Marks will be penalized for late submission.
Individual evaluation will be done on each student.




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Important Reminder to students
Please identify your groups lecturer. Submission of lab report to the wrong lecturer will
affect your grade. Lecturers will not be responsible for missing lab reports by the
students.
DO NOT submit the lab reports to the FKK general office.
DO NOT submit the lab reports in the lecturers pigeon holes in the FKK general office.
DO NOT submit the lab reports in the Technician Office.
Students shall submit the lab reports directly to the lecturer during the following lab
session or in the respective lecturers office. To avoid missing lab reports, always
discuss with your lecturer the best place to hand over the lab reports.
E. PLAGIARISM
Strictly no plagiarism in the lab reports. Students who are caught cheating or who
plagiarized the lab reports will be penalized without any notice or warning.















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Laboratory 1
PROPERTIES OF GAS & LIQUID

Physical and chemical processes depend on the properties of the materials involved. Process
engineering concerns itself with the transformation and distribution of materials in bulk. The
design and operation of engineering plant to achieve the desired changes in materials has
therefore to take into account the physical and chemical properties of these materials. The most
convenient medium is the fluid state, and hence in majority of plant operations involve gases or
liquids. Three of the most important properties of fluids in such situations are density, viscosity
and diffusivity. Fluid flow and mass transfer operations depend on these properties and such
data are always needed in plant design.

Use Armfield Properties of Gases and Liquids apparatus to determine viscosity of gases with
pressure difference, and viscosity and density of liquid with temperature and pressure difference.
Throughout the experiment, you have to:
a) Compare the value of (viscosity) in the viscosity of gases experiment value with the
expected value, from the reference books. Is the viscosity of a gas is a function of
temperature or pressure?
b) Comment upon the effect temperature on the viscosity of the fluid. Then, determine the
viscosity value of the liquid.
c) Find the density value of liquid with correction for buoyancy. Comment on the effect of
buoyancy and the densities at different temperatures.

*You need to come out with your own methodology by using your own choice of chemicals.
Choose only a non-hazardous chemical to run the experiment. Please consult the laboratory
technician for the choice of chemicals.




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Laboratory 2
OSBOURNE REYNOLDS APPARATUS

Objectives:
i) To observe the characteristics of the flow if a fluid in a pipe, which may be laminar or
turbulent flow by measuring the Reynolds number and the behavior of the flow
ii) To calculate the range for the laminar and turbulent flow
iii) To prove that the Reynolds number is dimensionless by using the formula;

vd
Re

Reynolds number can be defined for a number of different situations where a fluid is in relative
motion to a surface. These definitions generally include the fluid properties of density and
viscosity, plus a velocity and a characteristic length or characteristic dimension. This dimension
is a matter of convention for example a radius or diameters are equally valid for spheres or
circles, but one is chosen by convention. For flow in a pipe or a sphere moving in a fluid the
diameter is generally used today. Other shapes (such as rectangular pipes or non-spherical
objects) have an equivalent diameter defined. For fluids of variable density (e.g. compressible
gases) or variable viscosity (non-Newtonian fluids) special rules apply. The velocity may also be
a matter of convention in some circumstances, notably stirred vessels. In the other word, the
Osbourne Reynolds experiment used to demonstrate the critical velocity based on the nature of
the two modes of motion flowing in a tube, i.e. laminar and turbulent. Reynolds investigated
these two fluid motions. Fluid motion was found to be laminar for Re numbers below 2000 and
turbulent flows for Re greater than 4000. Thus, the critical velocity, v will be directly proportional
to the mass flow rate, m. You are required to propose a method and comment the relation of
flow rate with Reynolds value obtain in the experiment.






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Laboratory 3
BERNOULLIS THEOREM DEMONSTRATION

Objectives:
i) To investigate the validity of the Bernoulli equation when applied to the steady flow of
water in a tapered duct.
ii) To measure flow rates and both static and total pressure heads in a rigid
convergent/divergent tube of known geometry for a range of steady flow rates.

Fluid mechanics has developed as an analytical discipline from the application of the classical
laws of statics, dynamics and thermodynamics, to situation in which fluids can be treated as
continuous media. The particular laws involved are those of the conservation of mass, energy
and momentum and, it each application, these laws any be simplified in an attempt to describe
quantitatively the behavior of the fluid. In industry, the flow speed of a fluid can be measured
using a device such as a venturi meter or an orifice plate, which can be placed into a pipeline to
reduce the diameter of the flow. For a horizontal device, the continuity equation shows that for
an incompressible fluid, the reduction in diameter will cause an increase in the fluid flow speed.
Subsequently Bernoulli's principle then shows that there must be a decrease in the pressure in
the reduced diameter region. This phenomenon is known as the venturi effect. The hydraulics
bench provides the necessary facilities to support a comprehensive range of hydraulic models
each of which is designed to demonstrate a particular aspect of hydraulic theory. The specific
hydraulic model concerned with this experiment is the Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration
Apparatus. You are required to:
i) Propose methods of experiment using the Bernoullis theorem demonstration to achieve
the above mentioned objectives.
ii) Comment on the validity of the Bernoulli equation for convergent flow and divergent flow.
iii) State clearly the assumptions made in deriving the Bernoulli equation and justifications
for all your comments.
iv) Comment on the comparison of the total heads obtained by the measured value from the
experiment and calculated from the theory respectively.


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Laboratory 4
CLOUD POINT AND POUR POINT DETERMINATION

Cloud point is the temperature at which a cloud of wax crystals first appears in a liquid when it is
cooled under specified conditions. The presence of solidified waxes thickens the oil and clogs
fuel filters and injectors in engines. The wax also accumulates on cold surfaces (e.g. pipeline or
heat exchanger fouling) and forms an emulsion with water. Therefore, cloud point indicates the
tendency of the oil to plug filters or small orifices at cold operating temperatures.
Pour point is the lowest temperature at which a sample of petroleum product will continue flow
when it is cooled under specified standard conditions. It is a rough indication of the lowest
temperature at which oil is readily pumpable. Also, the pour point can be defined as the
minimum temperature of a liquid, particularly a lubricant, after which, on decreasing the
temperature, the liquid ceases to flow.
You are required to propose methods of experiment to determine the cloud point and pour point
for a sample.












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Laboratory 5
CORE STUDY- SANDSTONE AND CARBONATE ENVIRONMENTS

From the viewpoint of petroleum engineers, the two most important properties of a reservoir rock
are porosity and permeability. Porosity is a measure of storage capacity of a reservoir. It is
defined as the ratio of the pore volume to bulk volume, and is may be expressed as either a
percent or a fraction. In equation form, porosity can be expressed as:

Two types of porosity may be measured: total or absolute porosity and effective porosity. Total
porosity is the ratio of all the pore spaces in a rock to the bulk volume of the rock. Effective
porosity,
e
is the ratio of interconnected void spaces to the bulk volume. Thus, only the effective
porosity contains fluids that can be produced from wells. For granular materials such as
sandstone, the effective porosity may approach the total porosity, however, for shales and for
highly cemented or vugular rocks such as some limestones, large variations may exist between
effective and total porosity.

Experiment
Porosity Determination by Liquid Saturating Method
Description:
The determination of the effective liquid porosity of a porous plug is the initial part of the
measurement of capillary pressure using porous plate method in core laboratories. Before the
capillary pressure is determined the volume of the saturating liquid (brine or oil) in the core must
be known. Thus, the effective liquid porosity of the core can be calculated in the beginning of
capillary pressure measurement.

Procedure:
1. Dry the rock core sample in the oven for one hour at 100
0
C and then place it in a
desiccator with dry silica gel to cool off.
2. Weigh dry sample, W
dry
, measure its diameter D, and length L, with vernier calliper.
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3. Place the completed dried sample in a container or beaker on a base of glass rods and
slowly cover with brine until the sample is totally immersed with about 2 cm of brine
above it. Saturate the sample with 36 g/l NaCl brine,
brine
= 1.02g/cm
3
.
4. Take the sample out of the container 30 minutes later, blot it quickly with a damp cloth to
remove surface brine.
5. Weigh the saturated sample, W
sat
.
6. Put the saturated sample in a graduated cylinder filled with brine and measure the
increase in volume indicated on the cylinder. Bulk volume, V
b
(cm
3
), corresponds to the
observed increase in the volume of brine measured on the graduated cylinder.
7. Repeat the test for different rock sample.

Calculations and report:
1. Calculate the saturated brine weight, W
brine
= W
sat
-W
dry.

2. Calculate the pore volume (saturated brine volume), V
p
= W
brine
/
brine.

3. Calculate effective porosity,
e
= V
p
/V
b.


Core No:
Diameter (cm):
Length/ Thickness (cm):
W
dry
(g) W
sat
(g) W
brine
(g) V
p
(cm
3
)
e

e
(%)


As part of your discussion please answer the following questions:
1. Are all the pores filled with brine?
2. Compare the porosity for different types of rock samples. Rocks must be "porous" in order
to contain oil and gas. Explain.
3. One of the most used methods to determine pore volume is the helium technique, which
employs Boyles law. However, in this test, liquid (brine) method is used instead of gas
(helium) method. What is the difference between brine and helium? Is the maximum
saturation different when using brine instead of helium?
4. Is liquid saturating method an accurate means of determining the volume of a rock sample
that will be filled with brine when saturated in the subsurface? Explain.

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Laboratory 6
FLOW THROUGH POROUS MEDIA

Permeability is a property of the porous medium and is measure of capacity of the medium to
transmit fluids. It is a tensor that in general is a function of pressure. In the reservoir,
permeability is one of a property of the rock and indicates how fast liquid (or gas) can flow
through the reservoir rock to the well bore. Darcy (1856) performed a series of experiments on
the relationship effecting the downward flow of water through sands. Writing flow velocity as the
ratio of volumetric rate to cross-sectional area perpendicular to flow q/A in distance L, Darcys
law can be expressed as:

The dimensions of permeability can be established by substituting the units of the other in the
equation. The unit darcy results from the choice of cgs system units. The permeability in SI
system has dimension of m
2
.

Darcys equation defining permeability is linked to laminar flow in porous media. This laminar
flow is not always achieved especially in gas flows. For high flow rates, Darcys law is not valid.
The range of flow rate which laminar flow exists is dependent on the Reynolds number which is
a dimensionless quantity. The Reynolds number for porous media is defined as:

For example, in sand, transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs in the range of Reynolds
number from 1 to 10.





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Experiment
Determination of the Liquid Permeability of Porous Medium

Description:
Absolute permeability of a medium to a liquid will be determined using a liquid permeameter in
the laboratory. Darcys equation defining permeability is linked to laminar flow in porous media.
What is achieved in this experiment is simply to create conditions so that Darcy Equation can be
used. So a liquid of known viscosity is forced to flow through the cross-section of a medium
while measuring the flow rate and pressure drop across the medium as a function of time.

Procedure:
1. Prepare the sample to be tested.
2. Run the test as per instruction manual at various differential pressure.
Eg: 5 psi, 10 psi, 15 psi, 20 psi, 30 psi.
3. Analyze the test results by observing the darcy flow (laminar flow).
4. Repeat the test for different samples (at least three different samples).

Calculations:

Darcy Equation is used to calculate the absolute permeability of the porous media where laminar
flow conditions exist.

You should obtain a straight line for the Darcy Flow (laminar viscous flow) whose slope will
be k/.
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Sample No:
Length/ Thickness (cm):
Diameter (cm):
Fluid Viscosity (cP):
Differential Pressure (psi) Average Permeability (Darcy)
5
10
15
20
30

Based on the test results, you should comment and make conclusions of following issues;

1. Is the permeability representative of the porous media tested in the laboratory?
2. Did laminar flow occur for the tests? Explain.
3. Compare the average permeability for different differential pressures and types of tested
samples. Explain.




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REFERENCES

1. S. Ergun, Fluid flow through packed columns. Chemical Engineering Progress, Vol. 48,
1952, No. 2, pp. 89-94.
2. A.D. Nield, and A. Bejan, Convection in Porous Media, Springer Verlag, N.Y., 1999.
3. J. Bear, Dynamics of Fluids in Porous Media (Elsevier, New York, 1972).
4. P. Z. Wong, Methods in the Physics of Porous Media (Academic, London, 1999).