-------

1. Refrigeration- Forwhat,and how*1

A. Introduction
101 Refrigeratingengineeringis atechn.oiogytJcreate andmaintaintemperatureslower than
thG([urrounding. This implies that refrig :ration is the art of"pumping heat" from one
body (or fluid) oflo\\' temperature to cae with higher. From that follows also that the
technologyin principleis identicaltothatofheat pumps- atechnologyforheating
There are agrm,ving number ofapplications for refrigeration. Commonforthese arethat
they satisfies basic human needs. The employment ofrefrigeration for foodhandling and
storage and oftemperature control ofliving spaces by air conditioning are examples
whererefrigeration help us to improve the standard ofliving. More details and examples
ofapplications \vill later on be given in the text. Increased use of refrigeration and
Increase ofGNP goeshand in hand.
1 Theclassical, and in somerespect still the most important application for refrigeration is
in thehandling, storage and supply ojJood products.
Other large areas ofapplications are in climate control and air conditioning, especialiy
in warmer climates than what i.e. is prevailing in Sweden. In Nordic climates, instead,
thereareinterestingapplicationsfor heat pumps Jar energy savings inbuildings
1"\1so in industrial processes thereare numerous applications: in many chemical industries
aswell as in mechanical workshops (forinstancefor treatment ofcertainalloys and local
cooling).
Forspecial applicationsinindustry, in laboratoriesand inmedical sciences, oneneed
low temperatures The technology to achieve temperatures lower than -60 or -70C is
sometimes called CJyo engineering technology. A large application is the tedmology to
manufacture gases, for instance by separation from atmospheric air (liquid nitrogen,
oxygen etc. and gases like argon for \velding). Other large areas (for transport or
storage) are for natural gas ("LNG", liquid natural gas like methane, or "LPG", liquid
petroleumgaslikepropane).
Technologies for temperature control In supra-conducting materials are expected to
growin importanceinthefuture.
Extremely low temperatures, approaching the absolute zero temperature, are ofbasic
lnterest in physics and the study ofmatter. Special processes are required, but this
area, will notbe covered in any detail in this textbook
1. Theconcept oj temperature is important in refrigeration. Forstrict definitions the reader
is referred to textbooks in thermodynamics. In most parts ofthe ,Yorld we nommlly use
theCelslU5 temperature scale) t(CC) ,
Important is also theabsolute temperature scale for \vhich weuse the symbol T and
Kelvin The relation between the and temperatures is as
follows'
I.
*/
-
1.03a
some parts USA) the temperature is more
COITh'TIon than the The betv,reen the Fahrenheit and the Celsius
scalesis
1.03b
TheequivalentRankine temperature scale forabso :ite temperatures is
TfR) 1.03c
Comment for curiosity:
LordKelvin, afterwhich the 3.bsoluteter:1perarure scaleis named.
the absolute terr,perature, In somerespects this more relevant thlli'1 the linear, T(K), scale, for
dd'ficult!tistoreachvery lov. temperatures. Therelation between the1";0scales canbeVinnen,
.03d
where Ba henceis a new rnermod:yna;-nic Ino""thrm{'temperature T is the actual absolute temperature and To a
reference temperatureand C is aconstant.
The constants Cand To can be chosen us for an example a temperatcLre scaletor Be that would
two points:Let Ba be 0at OC and 100 at 100cC
(thatis for T== 273,15 a.nd T=373,15,respectively). These valueswouldbeachIeved ifwe, in equation 1.03duse To
=273,15andC 320,5.
Hence: e 320,5 Thetemperaturescalewouidbehkethe
thesamevalues as fortheCelsius scale in the
a
T, K 8a
also a logari!'lmictemperature scale for
how
6000 62/3,15 1004,5
900
327},15 <ll
'-
::l
1273;15 493,3 600
1il
'-
il:)
300
Ioa 373,15 100,0
Q.
E
50 323)15 53,9
.s
0
-300
-20 253,15 -24.4
-600
-50 223,15 -64,8
2
-900
-10C- !73,15 146,1
::l
-200 73,15 -422.3
-0
-1200 (f)
.0

1500
3,15 -1438,3
-30 o 300 600 900
-273,00 0,J5 -2406,0
0
I.e
eels s temperature,
-32'743)
..A.5 is seen thedifferences 'would be
differences Increase for
scale we kr:O\V it, than ifthe
to the
way linearKehin
1:2
=
-- ------
1. ,AND HOW
B. About history ...
nore
sun'ey about the de\(elopment may be appropriate to give here. Refrigerating
engineering has developed the' last century, although the basis in thermod}'namics was
established somewhat earlier, as well as several important im'entions. The development
3b
ofthe science ofthermodynamics and tr . .:! "art" ofcreating low temperatures was tied
togetherand, as oftenis the case, practic;camebeforetheory.
3c
Since very old times ice is used for chilling of foodstuff Ice was "harvested" in
wintertime and 'vvas storedto be used in surr1Jl1ertime in "icepiles" with simple insulation
methods. It is found thattherewerereligious ceremonies in Chinain connectionwith ice
e for
harvesting. The early Romans knew the art ofstoring the ice, collected from the AJps,
how
for use to cool foods and drinks. InPompeii it has been found remains ofwhat seem to
have been an ice-cabinet Such Ice-cabinets are the predecessors of the kitchen
refrigerators oftoday. In Stockholm- as in many cities oftheworld therewas (still in
To a the SOties!) an elaborate system for ice distribution to household ice-cabinets and to
grocerystoresto help keep the milkand meat\vell cooled.
mid
Oneold method to createtemperatures lowerthan that ofmelting ice is to use"freezing
mixtures". Such mixtures are based on the observation that, by adding salt to ice, the
temperature will drop while the ice is melting. This was known to peopJe very early in
16
th
history, already in the century. A reminder is actually also the Fahrenheit
temperature scale. Fahrenheit, aDutch-Polish physicist (living 1686 - 1736), established
in 1714a temperaturescale ofhis ovm wherethe zero temperaturewas set to thelowest
temperature that he could create. As a second f i ~ q point he used thebodytemperature
whichwas setto lOOcF. ThelowesttemperatureFahrenheit achieved by mixing ice and a
salt ("sal-ammoniac", ahydrochlorateofammonia).
The zero-point ofthe Fahrenheit scale as we know it today is at -17.8"C This is a slightly lower
temperarure than what can be achieyed by just mixing ice and ordinary salt, NaCL Furthennore
lOOF is correspondingto 37,8C(equiyalentofalightfever.). .
The refrigerating effect that can be achieved when water is evaporating in aie
evaporativecooling, was used in ancienttimes. TheEgyptians had already longtime ago
atechniquefor storing waterin clay containers orvases. Thesewere not glazed, and this
material then allows a certain diffusion ofwater, which is evaporated on the outer
surface. This will keep the water cool and fresh, especially in a dry climate, like in a
desert, where there is a large difference between the dry and wet temperatures ofthe
ambientair
o
1 For refrigeration by artifiCial means, the following is a short calendar indicating some
importanteventsinthe historyofthetechnology
or
5 Wiliiam Culien, aprofessorofthe university ofGlasgow rr:ade the obsen'ation
e
that he could freeze water to ice in a vacuum chamber in process of
evacuating the aiL At about the same time a German scientist,
that was a m ifthe
was expanding.
pointstotwoimportant
ofa gas
refugeration processestoday.
Jacob Perkins, an English gentleman (who had emigrated to A..'l1erica), applies
iorapatent(whichreceivesthe number666'.intheEnglish patentoffice) an
Apparatus for Producing Cold and Coolng Fluids". The main claim of
patentis, here somewhat shortened:
"All arrangement whereby I am enabled to use volatile fluids the
purpose ofproducingthecooling orfreezing fluids, and yet at thesame time
constantly condensing such volatile fluids and bringing them again and
into operationwithoutwaste."
The description is still good
for the basic principle used
for vapor compression
refrigerating cycles used to-
day. Perkinshad, as we have
today, the problem to
choose suitable working
medium. One ofhis choices
was ether, which was close
at hand at that time How-
it led to unpleasant
ether explosions, and was
'replaced. Figure 1.0Sa
shows a picture of the Figure 1.05a. Perkins apparatus for
Perkinsapparatus. compression refrigeration
1849: JohnGoniebuildsin Englandthefirst coldairmachine
Edmond ,Carre of France builds a combined compression and absorption
machine. \Vaterand S02 areusedinmixiure as theworkingfluid.
861: Thomas Mort (an EnglishInan in Australia) and Nicolle French
engineer) build the first reingerated storage house known is erected m
Sidney, Australia, for storageofmeat whichwastobe shipped to Europe.
1862 1867: Ferdinand Carre(a brotherofEdmond, as earlier,,"'as mentioned) builds
first absorption machine for refrigeration. Hedescribes aperiodic as vie!! as
a continuos machine, as well as such based in solid or liquid absorbents He is
also working with compression machines (1 and uses as
working medium (1 He was obviously working \\ith many different
principles, still interest today, and is probably the inventor in
historyofrefrigeration.
: . .
1. Carl Linde, another' in refrigerating history, builds plants relDgeratlOTI
in breweries Munichand atotherplaces Theseuses as refrigerant he
14
i
HOW CHAPTER ic
compressors
"Maschinenfabrik
mvn, A
IS
first refrigeratetl transport of food between and \\as
)plies managed. Thesteamship'Jrigorifique"builtby i\1r. Tellier(France)was used
an
{ his 1881 Severalcold storesforrefrigerat ;d storagewerebuilt in LondonandBoston,
1895' CarlLindedevelopsthe"Lindeprocess"forcondensingair into liquid[ann
the
time
1903 Abbe Audiffien designs the first fuIIy hennetic refrigeration unit. This in an
tgain
interesting design where the whole unit rotates. For turning the built-in
compressorwhentheunit is rotatedthe necessarytorqueis createdbymeans of
counterweightsinthecrankshaft. Figure l.OSb showsasectionofthedesign,
7 6 5 4
Figure 1.05b. A version of anearlyhermeticrefrigeration unit
weremanufacturedbyBrownBaveri. (from Backstrom1970)
The unit is encapsulating all components ofthe cycle inside a rotation shell which
driven the wheelindicatedto the rightin thefigure. The unithave two shells, 1and2,
of it'hich 2 contains the evaporator. A pressure difference is maintained the
Ion
compressor. The brine in container10, iscooledbythisrotatingevaporator, inside which
the vaporpassesthrough the shaft to the shell on the righthandside the This
one enclosesthe compressorandthe condenser. The torque necessary to turn the shaft
the compressoriscreatedbyacounterweight3, asindicatedin the smallpicture insertin
leh
theJigure, waterisfurnishedthrough connection 9,
In
1909: Thefirst artificiallyfrozen ice skatingrinkis built, in Vienna
Ids
1911: J.A. Ot:esen, Denmark, develops methods for quick freezing foodstuff.
as
IS
The so called Ottesen-method involved the immersion ofthe products into a
refi-jgerated saltsolution.
as
:f1t
1922: Baltzar von Platen and Munters to develop the
refrigeratorwithoutany moving parts(The project started as adiploma at
the Roval Institute , KTH, Stockholm)
heat. It was developed atElectroluxand became a mass productlon
umt IS
on
with world wide distribution and sale 1 shows an
=
1
Platen-Munters
principle is same
media as proposed
ammonia, water and hydrogen.
/
1-:
<
Figure 1. 05c.
The v Platen
and A1unters
unit for
refrigeration
without any
moving parts.
1924: Clarence Birdsye of USA introduces a method (called the Birdseye-method)
plate freezing of products.
1930: Midgley, Henne and McNary, USA, applies for a patent to use "Freon" as
working medium in refrigeration. Primarily it is proposed to use CFiCh a
fluid which later on was named R12 (or "Freon 12"). This chemical is a methane
based halogenated hydrocarbon, (the chemistry of which was first described by
a Belgian scientist, already m 1893). create R
(CR.:) is modified by replacing the atoms by t\\'o
atoms. For this of chemical we, today, use the tenn
from 1930 was the starting point of an enormous development,
see the The eFC-fluids are, reieased in into
atmosphere, shmvn to have serious effects on the global environmental.
16
CHAPTER 1. HOW
The commercial is The water of
A heating capacity more than
river Limmat, and the purpose of heat pump was for
erected tOWI1 haH Switzeriand
the operating power \vas reported (i.e, COP] in excess of 3 for river
temperatures of +10C and with radiator temperatures of about 35C),
1961: Per Oskar Persson demonslrate :: a method for freezing of peas by fluidizing in
a stream of cold aIr. The development at the company Frigoscandia
subsequently led to a whole range of freezers for individual freezing of small
products (like peas), called FloFREEZE, sold \vorldwide. See Figure L05d,
Also several other designs for quick freezing of other types of foodstuff was
later on developed,
1, Conveyor for liE-
frozen products
2, Product
3, Discharge of fro-
zen products
4, Air coolers
5. Fans
?5c.
Figure1. 05d. S'ection ofaflUidizedbedfreezer.
?ten
tel'S
The development has continued in an accelerated pace and the calendarium may become
for
too large to be continued, The technology of today will be in focus for the rest of this
rfl
texi, However, only two more years wiH be mentioned here, and that
any
ts.
1974: when Row'land and Molina published an article in the Journal "Nature"
describing their findings in relation to the influence of the CFC-compounds
("Freons") and other "artificial" gases in the global atmosphere. Background
fur
material was deveioped by Krutzen and the three scientists Molina, Rowland
and Krutzen were awarded the Nobel prize in chemistry of 1994 for their work.
It was shown that CFC-compounds (having very stable atoms and hence long-
as
lived in the atmosphere, if released) can carry chlorine atoms up to the
a
stratosphere. Here the atoms of CI then can act as a catalyst for destruction of
me
ozone atoms in the stratosphere These and other Endings were basis of the
bv
so called Montreal Protocol
Montreal Protocol, 1 (with several additions later on). In this document a
number of industrialized countries have agreed to reduce, and on
stop the production of CFC-compounds. An intense development was initiated,
we are in the midst thIS now.,
.=___.n___________________~ ________ ~ __ . - - - - ~ - ~ . ... -.---...~ - . - .
are
1 A coarse
C. Examples of applications
madein thefoilmving areas:
ro
Applicationsfor transportand distribution of food products
fa
Climatecontrol, air and heatpurps
Industrial applications
A short mtroductionwillbe Some ofthe topics are treated morethoroughlythan
T
others so the treatment may seem unbalanced. The author's excuse is that this is the ci
resull ofan attempt to give at least a briefintroduction to some ofthe important areas
thatnotwill betreatedin therestof thetext. T
e:
C1. Applications in handling offood products
Si
1.07 .JVmost all processesin natureruns more slowlyat lowertemperaturesthanathigher. An
old powerful rule ofthumb is that the time ofa certain chemical process doubles ifthe
c
temperature is decreased by 10C. This rule thumb it is qualitatively correct, even if
thereare largevariations and deviations from it. allowable storagetime offoodstuff
u
is oneappiication.
a
To have a longer useful life ofperishable products it is obviously beneficial to keep the
productsatlowtemperatures. Manyfoodstuffcontainswater. At (orslightlybelow)
11
there will be ice crystals formed in the product it frozen. The ice crystals
1
formed in this process may damage the cells or rather cell walls - ofthe product
Fruits, manyvegetablesand processedproductsarestored temperatures slightly above
f r z ~ n g in order to prolong their life. Other products some vegetables
J
and berries are frozen and stored at low without
c
noticeablechangein qualitywhentheyare defrosted and cooked
Noticethatthereis acleardistinctionmadeinrefrigerationbetweenchillingandfreezing
ofproducts, and for chilledstorage and freeze storage. One usually defines a chilled
storage as onewhere temperatures are inthe range ofabout aoc up to 8e while freeze
storagehastemperatures considerabiylower. Typical temperatures ofrefrigerated rooms
for freeze storageare -18 to-25"C.
1. Equipment to create refrigeration ofa space orfor temperature control offoodstuffare
available in many different forms. The tech110log:{ includes products and to
create refrigeration, the refrigeration plant, as well as the techrlOlogy to create a
space or building, including the technique to avoid heat transfer
have eqUipment space, insulation techniques. For the producer it is essential to
orperhapsfreezingthe products. Heattransfertech...l1ology is thus'
months
distributed from theproducerto large storage
wholesaler, and then to the local dealers. Refrigerated storage are
products to even out seasonal variations in production or
needed for storagea limited time ofproducts \vaiting
CHAPTER 1 FOR "fVHAT
HOV(
to
large stOres by airplanes, ships, trains or
containers for freeze thelocal
roomsfor but also in di!Jplay cabinets (vertical ones or open horizontal;
cts
for frozen or chilled food to expose the products to the customers. Finally, the user --
the consumer in his home or the chefin t'.e restaurant - need refrigerated cabinets for
chilled or frozenfoodstujf, \vruch arestaLlardin anyapartmenttoday.
Iy than
There are obviously a large variety ofequipment necessary in order to make the
is the
chain" justdescribed, as effectiveas possible
t areas
Theprocessoffreezing the food may for some products change the texture to acertain
exient. The reasonfor this is, as mentioned earlier, that cell can bedamageddue to
the ice crystals that are formed in freezing. It has been shown that the ice crystals are
smaller ifthe freezing process is very rapid thanifalong time is used for the process. It
er. An
is obviously desirable to have the freezing done as quickly as possible so that the ice
the
crystals have little time to grow. Different products have in this respect diffelcill
ven if
sensitivity. Products like meat or fish are not at all as sensitive as some fruits. For
dstuff
instance strawberries or raspberries are very sensitive, and the quicker the freezing is
arranged the smaller is the "drip" from the frozen product when thawed and the better
"texiure"when eating. Advanced techniques for quickfreezing havebeen developed, for
the
instancein SwedenbyFrigoscandia.
dow)
ystals
Thefreezing has, however, no adverse influence ofthe product in tenns nounsnment
.duct
and content ofvitamins. Aclassical example is that the coment of C-vitamins ojfrozen
[bove
peas bought in't/ui grocery shop is higher than in those bought directlY from the farmer
ables
or at the local market!
thout
TIle reason tl'..is is that the vitamins decompose relatively rapidly at ambient
?zing
temperatures, while this process is quite sb.v at the temperatures of a frozen
product. Forindustria! use peas arefrozen directlyafterL1e harvesting thetunethe
illled
peas are exposed to ambient temperatures is only a matter of an hour or so;
-eeze
harvesting is follmved directly by the freezing process. This means that the loss of
}oms
C-vitamins IS quite small for the frozen peas, while the fresh peas on the local
market probably was harvested the evening of day before it \vas sold, ifnot
earlier, andthe products has been exposedforseveralhourstotemperatures thatare
fare
destructivefor the vitamins.
's to
te a
1.10 are investigations as towhat periodonecan storedifferent products without
the
noticeable quality changes. Methods for such investigations include so called
"organoleptic" tests: A test panel supposedly composed of people with
.for
developed sense oftaste offood has to judge the quality ofdifferent products. The
quality includes not the taste, and texture into
at Such tests must be carefully planned and anumber ofdifferent products,
and are
experience hasbeencollected overtheyears.
In
are
but
__... z________
1
-FOR w7iAT
'vve producer to consumer, are to
airplanes, srJps, trains or road lorries
designed containers for transport. In the store there are refrigerated
rooms for but also in display cabinets (vertical closed ones or open horizontal)
for frozen or chilled food to expose the products to the customers. Finally, the user
the consumer in his home or the chef in the restaurant - need refrigerated cabinets for
chilled or frozen foodstuff, \vhich are standard in any apartment today
n r 1
! than
There are obviously a l r ~ e variety of equipment necessary in order to make the COla
is the
chain" just described, as effective as possible.
areas
The process of freezing the food may for some products change the texture to a certain
extenL The reason for this is, as mentioned earlier, that cell walls can be damaged due to
the ice crystals that are fanned in freezing. It has been shown that the ice crystals are
smaller if the freezing process is very rapid than if a long time is used for the process. It
r. An
is obviously desirable to have the freezing done as quickly as possible so that the ice
f
crystals have little time to grow. Different products have in this respect different
en if
sensitivity. Products like meat or fish are not at all as sensitive as some fruits. For
:stuff
instance strawberries or raspberries are very sensitive, and the quicker the freezing is
arranged the smaller is the "drip" from the frozen product when thawed and the better
) the
"texture" when eating. Advanced techniques for quick freezing have been developed, for
low)
instance in Sweden by Frigoscandia.
staIs
The has, however, no adverse influence of the product in terrns of nourishment
luct.
and content of vitamins. A classical example is that the content oj C-vitamins offrozen
Jove
peas bought in the grocery shop is higher than in those bought directly from the farmer
,bles
or at the local market'
10ut
Thc rcason for this is that the vitamins decompose relatively rapidly at alnbient
rIng . temperatures, while this process is quite slow at the temperatures a frozen
lied
product. For industrial usc peas are frozen directly after the harvesting the time the
peas are exposed to ambient temperatures is only a matter of an hour or so;
:eze
harvestL'1g IS followed directly by the freezing process This means that the 10s5 of
)ms
C-vitamins is quite small for the frozen peas, while the fresh peas on the local
market probably was harvested the evening of the day before it was sold, if not
earlier, and the products has been exposed for severai hours to temperatures are
are
destructive for the \1.tarmns.
to
~ a
1.l0 There are many mvestigations as to what period one can store different products
the
noticeable quality changes. Methods for such investigations include so
for
n organoleptic tJ tests: A test pa.'1el - supposedly composed people with
for
developed sense of taste of has to judge the quality of different products.
quality includes not the taste, also the color texture
Such tests must carefully planned and a number of different products, stored at
and time periods temperatures, are
ire
material has coHected over the years.
JUt
be
19
-
500
1.10 compiled
of for a number products from
(Time-Temperature-Tolerance).
1970; Stoecker 1988, and IlFi1IR
Storage life, days
1COO
Temperature, C
Fif::,rure i.1O. Storage life oj products. i:Chicken (a: packedinagood
wrapping, andb: in a less effiCient wrapping; c: cutup androasted); 2.' rat
fish; 3: Leanfish; 4: Lean meat (bee/); 5: Oranges; 6: Apples (a: regular
storage; b: storage in CO
2
atmmphere); 7: Eggs; 8: Bananas,' 9:Peas, 10
Raspberries; Ii: Strawberries.
The "storage life" shown in Figure 1.10 represent what is called "High Quality LifeJ),
for theproducts This is the time ofstoragethat can be accepted before the
can detectedofany deteriorationin tasteorquality
Thediagramusealogarithmicscaleonthe"time"-axisand lineartemperatureaxis
this representationofHQLversus temperaturemostofthe products exhibitreasonably
straight Forstorageat atemperaturetwecanwritean equationfortheacceptable
storage
.. ..............................,
50

5f .. .. .. ,
____ __ ______ __ ____
-30 -20 -10 o 10 20 30
HQL=
1.1
to is a referencetemperature - at which theHQL is equal to IS
constant the of the lines hgLlre.l The constant
estimated if two coordinates ofthe curve are knmvn. Assume at temperatures t
to the periods areHQL HQL
c
. Then weget
11
1.11
FOR URA
1
1.
Hmv
Er:ample: Beefcarl according to the diagram in 11 be up to 90 at
and 400 days at-18C, Ifwe choose to = - I8ethen obviously HQL
o
= 400
days.
With these data inserted in eq.l lOb we getD;c (-18+1O)/Jn(90!400)
equationforestimatingHQL as afunction of temperatures is hence
18- t
400
An
For instance at -20
o
ewe have HQL = 400exp(-18+20)/5,36) 580 days; At lower
temperatures beefcan be stored even longer, Le. at -26
0
the HQL ,,,ill be about
1780 days!
It is obvious that the temperature has a very strong influence on the allowable
time. An analogy can be made to theories in chemical reaction kinetics, in which an
importantruleis theonebyArrhenius, from whichthe speed ofreactions is proportional
toexp(a/T) wherea is a constantand Tis theabsolutetemperatureof the reaction. From
thispointofviewthex-axis of figure 1.10shouldnothavebeenlinearintemperaturebut
instead linear in 1/(273..L-t). The differences are, however, almost negligible within
temperatureintervalweare interested in.
30 1.11 Duringthetransportofproductsfromtheproducertotheconsumertheproductswill be
exposed to different temperatures. Each day offhjs so calied "coldchain", will take a
certain portion ofthe allowable storagetime. The loss in remainingHQL for each day at
temperature1 \vill beequivalentto l/HQLtwhereHQLt thepracticalstoragelife atthat
;ood
temperature (forinstancefromFigure 1.10).
Fat
ular
Forfrozen foodstuffonecanregardthe"lossofHQL atthedifferenttemperaturestobe
. 10
additive. This means that it is easy to estimate the remaining HQL ofa product ifwe
know the "history" in tenus oftemperatures and time periods it has been exposed. A
storage r1 days attemperaturet1 (atwhichthehigh qualitylifeisHQLrl) will causealoss
+.
,e
"
,
equivalent to rliHQLtl. The first detectable change in quality will occur when
first
L(rrlHQLr) has reached a value of 1. Hence the for a quality of
productwhenitis tobepreparedforeatingis thatthefollo\\'ing relationis fulfilled:
{
I['r!l-IQLJ< 1 1.11
de
Example: Assume that beef \ve used for the example m 1.10 on itS way from the
slaughterhouseto theconsumeris to "coldchain"
md
Total sum
0,11
0,17
III
=
z
"consumed" 0,375 ofthe
"""'-'ltv.> the consumer. Still he can have the beefstored in pis
the is about 400 days) another period of
0,375)= days beforehewould noticeany changein quaiity.
12 AcommorJyused referencetemperatureis -18
c
C (orOaF). Table L12 showexamples
'practical storage life" in monthsfor anumberofdifferent productsat -12"C, -18 and -
24C(fromIIF/IIR,1986).
Table 1.12. Practical storage life in months (Source: II}iIJR, 1986).
Products Storage temperatures:
Fruits:
Peaches, Apricots, Cherries (raw) 4
Raspberries orstrawberries, (raw) 5
Raspberriesorstrawberries, in sugar 3
Fruitjuices, concentrates
Vegetables:
Asparagus(with greenspears) 3
Broccoli
Peas, green 6
Frenchfried potatoes 9
;'Jeat andpoultry products:
Beef,groundmeat 6
Pork, steaks, cutschops 6
Bacon,sliced, vacuumpacked 12
Chicken(whole, orpans/cuts) 9
Turkey, whole 8
Seafood:
Fattyfish, glazed
3
Leanfish 4
Shrimps(cooked/peeled)
Eggs
\Vhole egg magma
Afilk products:
Butter, Lactic, unsalted, pH4,7
Butter, Lactic, alted, pH4,7 8
Cream
leeCream
Bakery and confectionery:
Cakes cheese; sponge;
Breads
Raw
- FOR WHAT
lples of
8 and
freezing is called
1. 3
It is thattemperatures which cause freezing in the products are avoided in
productsthat are sensitive to freezing. Many can be stored at temperatures
close to OC, or even somewhat below, without damage due to freezmg. Exposure to
lower temperatures, however, will start a process offreezing, which for some products
spoilsthequality this is the casewith instancelettuce, tomatoes, apples and pears.
Different productsare hence influenced differently at temperatures near OCC. Table 1.13
give some indications ab.out temperatures that can be recommended for best storage
conditions(Stoecker, 1988). Furtherinformationis found in IIFi1IR 1979.
Table 1.13Recommendedstorage temperaturesjarchilledproducts:
Product
Apples
Avocados
Bananas
Cabbage
Cheese
Lettuce
Pears
Poultry
Strawberries
Tomatoes
Temperature,C
-1 to 0
to +13
+13 to ~ 4
o
to +1
oto
-2to 0
-1 to+2
-0,5 to 0
+3to -t-4
1. Chi1Iing, or freezing, ofa product containing water will give a certain loss of'.veight if
the process is done in air. Also, storage over long periods will cause a certain dry up.
This is usually not desirable and wiIi make quality inferior compared to afresh product.
Theweightloss represent also aloss ofsales value- hence there are strongincentivesto
minimizethe weightlosses dueto dryup.
Products can be frozen by special methods like immersion and contact freezing in order
to minimize the weight loss in freezing. Howeverthe majority ofproducts are frozen in
air and to minimize weight loss for such cases the most effective method is to quickly
cool the product swface dovin to low temperatures. This is achieved ifthe freezing
process is done with a high heat transfer coefficient and a low temperature on the
surface. Itis also desirable to have as high airhumidity as possible in the cold ail. Ahigh
airhumidityhelps also to minimize the losses in storage. !viany factors are importance;
oneobviousfactor is the ratio ofproduct surface area to weight thin slices loose more
weight than round shapes for given total weight. Another factor is whether or not
producthas a giving an extra resistancefor to pass.
an 1. 4 is a
piece ofmeat without wrappingwhen storedatdifferent roomtemperatures.
%weight loss
Room temperature
6
Days
Figure1.14 Example of weightloss in storingapiece of meatwithoutwrapping
(from Bdckstom, 1970)
1.15 There arealso other applications than chilled orfrozen storage for refrigeration in food
industry Afew examplesare:
Dairyindustry, milk productsofdifferenttypes are prepared. Iv1ilk is pasteurized,
which means a heat treatment process in orderto kill bacteriathat can be present the
raw milk. Typically this involves heating the milk to +73for ashort period oftime
seconds) and then chilling it very rapidly to temperatures of to for further
treatment orfor distribution. Therefrigeratingtechnolog)'is essential.
Cheese aspart the manufacturingprocess, stored a given time in order it to
gain proper taste Specified temperatures levels and time periods are important for the
process
Ice cream is a dairy product that has to be frozen in a special way, involves
freezing, whiletheice creamis stirred, at about -soc. At this temperature the cream
is onlypartially frozen and it is still soft. Afterthis period ofpre-freezing, a"hardening"
processfollO\vs duringwhichthe temperatureoftheice-creamis cooled to about
Atthis temperatureit should "rest" a certain period oftime before it is consideredto
ready for eating or for storage at normal freeze-storage temperatures. cream IS
sensitiveto temperaturevariation during storage: for quality it should stored at
aconstanttemperature, forinstanceat -18:-lC orlower.
breweries there are demands for strict temperature control in different parts the
brewing process. In breweries it is especiaily important to the large tanks of
at given temperatures according to predetermined elaborate schemes. The
bre\vingprocess isexothermicandtheheatmustbetransferred formthe The
brewing tanks are typically to kept at a temperature between 8 and
decisive for quality the beer to follow as closely as possible a
temperatureandtime thebrewingprocess and whenit is to be
as forstorage bottling. There are also similar requirements for producing wine
large winenes.
Fruitjuices are concentrated in order to decrease the volumes to be and
distributed. The process of concentration is by vaporizing perhaps 75(%
:14

It is
as
HOW 1 REFRlGERATION
,vater content of natural juice. This is done In a plant near
the order to preserve the s taste, the evaporation
at temperatures, 18 to 25C. A predominant method to this is to
use a process where the water vapor is condensed. At the temperatures mentioned,
pressures will be subatmospheric. Air is pumped away from the tanks w'ith . to be
concentrated, the liquid is maintained at a given temperature (by heating) and the
evaporating water vapor is condensed on surfaces, which in turn wi.ll have to be cooled
A heat pump process is quite effective as a key element in this process, as illustrated in ,
Figure l.l5a. The heat pump condenser will furnish low temperature heat for the
evaporation of \vater in the juice. The heat pump evaporator will at the same time keep
surfaces cool where the water (juice) vapor is to condense (the juice water condenser
will be the heat source for the heat pump). The principJe is demonstrated in the scheme
to the left in Figure 1.15 a , while a scheme of an industrial plant is shown to the right in
the figure. It is possible to have relatively small temperature differences between the
evaporation and condensing ofthe juice and hence the conditions are very favorable for
heat pump operation. Thanks to small temperature lift very high COPs can be reached
for the heat pump.
Concentrating solutions containing water can also be done by freeze concentration. By
arranging the fluid to be concentrated to flow along a cold surface a certain portion of
the water will freeze and collect as more or less clear ice on the cold surface. The
method has, however not been used in practice except for some heat sensitive products
such as coffee extracts and some fruit juices Potentially the method can be interesting
from an energy saving point of view, since the latent heat of freezing of water is only
of the latent heat of vaporization (which is applicable for instance in the methods
Figure l.ISa)
Vacuum pump
to remove air
Juice --{>iC..... r - - - ~
feed
Juice
1.15a. Heat pumps are elfeetive for concentration
l' 5

1
ENGINEERING
Freezedrying, IS a method in use
products. is an expensive
and it is
special products or \veight
To be
is to be soaked water before
eating. \Vhen the product
water it resumes
to its original
form. Colors and taste is preserved
well in the product
thanks to low
temperatures in the treatment.
The method involve a drying process with the product infrozen state. water is
removed from frozen material by sublimation (that is the \vater leaves in the form of
vapor directly ice crystals). The process is hence done with product
temperatures OC. A scheme of the is illustrated in Figure i.ISb.
A ~ R (Evacuated by Pump;
\
\
~ CONDENSER ICE
Vapor
from Procu-:t ;ce to Conoenser lee.
Figure l.I5b. Schematicarrangementforfreeze dryingofproducts.
Before the treatment starts product is preferentially cut in thin slices, or in the form
grains or small pieces. are then frozen, and put on product shelves in a vacuum
chamber, as indicated in 1 15b. Inside the chamber are also surfaces for
condensing sublimating water vapor. These condenser surfaces are kept at quite low
temperatures, typically at 5 to if the product is kept at (hence at 15 to
lower temperature than the product). The condenser can be arranged in a
separate chamber but it is important to have a large area for streams between the
product tray and the (since the volumes of vapor are large at the
extremelv low saturation vapor pressures prevailing). Air must continually removed
the chamber - if not, air severely hamper the water
it form a resistance at the condenser
, but there
keep the process
the products must compensate for the
water vapor leavmg the the process is done
are semi-continuos
L.

1
process IS. as mentioned, an pvnAnc
as as in operation Ho\vever, it cangiveverygood product results
vitamins remams content components in food as
undamaged in freeze-dried products, Common products are freeze dried coffee-powder,
components in dry soups (meat, mushroom, shrimps) and for use in food where low
weight is important, for advanced camping etc. Also in pharmaceutical industries freeze
dryingis commonlybeingused,
C2. Climate control, air conditioning and heat pumps
16 Ajr conditioning is often used as a term for cooling a space, Hm;vever, air conditiopjng
does includemorethanmerelyto coolthe air. ASHRAE give as a definitionfor comfort
air conditioning that it is "the process oftreating air to control simuitaneously its
temperature, humidity, deanliness and distribution to meet the comfort requirements
theoccupants ofthe conditioned space". Air conditioning include hence also to arrange
for the control ofthe humidity and temperature as well as to clean the air and to
distribute it fur good comfort in the occupant space, Temperature control ofthe air can
involve cooling but also heating, which can be accomplished by reversing the cooling
unitsfor aheat pumpfunction.
Also other methods than conventional refrigerating machinery cann be used, One
exampleis showninFigure 1.16.
Humidifying pad Heat exchanger wheel
e
r-)'

Exhaust air
17
some
fIgure 1.16. Scheme ofa regenerative heat exchanger betv;een exhaust air (3-4) and
incoming air (1-2)for buildings combined with a possibility oj
cooling (3A 3).
The sense ofcomfort ofpeople is affected by the conditions in the room. The room air
temperature, humidity and movement have an influence (but also the temperatures ofall
in a room intluence the comfort by low temperature radiation) To illustrate
factors 1.j 7give" comfort represented in a psychrometric
chartfor atmosphericair. The zonesgiven in the diagram(validfor air velocities
0,1 are investigation. The as for
summer and winter are explained the fact that people norrnally \vear more, and
clothes in wintertime even inside. The experience of a draught and due to
1:1

surfaces exposed in
influence, which
the
HIVI-"\fPT is not
in a Nordic the one Sweden, it is necessary to have equipment
cooling in buildings The reason for this is the heat load from installations such as
computers, lighting and also people and the influence of solar heating through v.i.ndows,
especially if facing south. Modern, well insulated houses have more often a demand for
cooling than older houses, As an example, a nonnal (new) one-family house built in the
90-ties, has a surplus of heat (from people, lighting and apparatuses like refrigerators,
freezers, stove in the kitchen and TV-sets) down to ambient temperatures about
higher ambient temperatures (prevailing for many hours of the year) it is necessary to
remove heat from the house. In a climate like the one we have in Sweden this can often
be arranged by "natural" cooling (in a private home simply by opening a window. ,).
In an office building or a department store this kind of "balance" temperature is often still
lower than for a one-family house and for these buildings it is nonnaHy not possible to
just open a window to get fresh cool aiL Of this reason almost all buildings for offices,
hotels, hospitals etc. are equipped with means for artificial cooling for comfort. In a
hotter climate than the one prevailing in Sweden this is even more important.
Systems for comfort air conditioning can be arranged decentralized, (with units in each
room or a block of rooms), or centralized For the latter case one uses cool air or chilled
\-vater in a distribution system similar to what is used for central heating of a building. It
is not uncommon that there is a demand for cooling in one part of the building, and for
heating in another part. The two systems are often designed v"ithout taking advantage of
possibilities for energy saving This is a great field of work for the creative engineer.
20
u
.
0> w
...
c:: 15
::l a.
f-
10
-<
0
c:
w e-
e..
<:
c::
'" f-
lO
=::
i:
f-
a

0
:;)
c..
:::
5
'"

(:)
5
0
5
10
Figure 1.1 "Comfort zones" for indoor climate (From Handbook

CHAPTER j TlON- FOR
On district cooling as as district heating
worldthereare systems in operation. Oneofthefirst ones was aplant around
central parts ofWestHartford, Conn. USA In TokyO there are a
number upjts rJmishing the buildings in the block with chilled as well as
heated water. A large company, Tokyo Gas, has pioneered energy efficient systems
combined with electricload management: Atnight, when the load onthe electricity grid
is smalier, a large heat pump is operated for satisfying the demand ofthe district heating
system \Vater in a large tankis used as a heat source, and part ofthewater is frozen to
an ice slurry (by aprocessinvolving sub-coolingthe waterto temperatures belovi OC in
theheat pump evaporator'and when the wateris returned tothetank icecrystals will
fonnto an ice slurryin thetank). The formation oficewill increasethe storagecapacity
ofa given volume ofwater by the latent heat to form the ice. Daytime the cold water
fromtheice-slurryin thetankis used to satisfythe cooling demand ofthebuildings. This
appearto be an effective way ofsaving energyand of"energy management". The same
principle of using ice for storage and load management has been applied in many
(smaller) applications in Sweden. However traditionally the ice is accumulated on
evaporator(heat exchanger)tubes.
1.18 Forindustrialactivitiesthere are many different specialdemandsfor cooling
Printeries have strict requirementsfor temperature and humidity control ofthe air - and
ofthe paper in order to have high quality results. Conditions are similar in textile
industries Computers, telephone equipment as well as control rooms have special
requirements.
Special laboratories have extreme d ~ m a n d s Examples are laboratories for electronic
components, as well as for biological and medical experiments. Also museums may be
quite special in their demands One example is the \Vasa museum in Stockholm where a
constanttemperatureaswell as humidityin the air is specified.
119 A rapidly growing area is air conditioning of vehicles. Itis more and more frequent to
have an "AC-system" in the private car- evenin Nordic climates as the one in Sweden.
Figure1.19ashowsan example ofcomponents ofsucha system Thecapacityofan AC-
systemin a small carisinthe orderof6to 8kW. The peakcapacity is necessary in order
to cool the car rapidly when startingthe car after it has been parked on a hot and sunny
parking The shaft power for the AC-compressor is about 3 k\V - hence nor an
insignificantpowerdemand (aboutthesame as for a qualified heat pumpfor alarge one-
family house). Theworld market for air conditioning systems for cars is in the order of
10 million units annually!
Busses, largetrucks, trains and ships are equipped \vith cooling systems ofsimilar types,
although for large systems different arrangements are used than what is shown in figure
I. An exampleis given in Figure 1.19b ofa"cold air cycle" for installationsin an air
plane Itis essential to have an effective systemfor air treatment in a crowded spacelike
that in cabin ofa commercial air plane. in Figure 1.19b
advantage is taken the air compressor in thegas turbine theJet engine Part ofthe
air thejetengine compressor is tapped air stream15
ambient air in a heat exchanger, and expanded to the pressure in the cabin in a
The extracted in theturbine makethetemperature to drop alI'
1,19

method is also an
an Also
IS
return air for desired temperature.
system for pressurizing passenger compartment
aircraft the cooling system is important to give
reasonably comfortable
working conditions, but also for cooling
computers
electronics
1. Compressor
2. Condenser
3. Filter-dryer
4. Expansion valve
5. Evaporator
6. Thermostat
Figure 1. 19a. Scheme ofa mobile air conditioning system.
Figure i.J9b. Scheme of an aircraft air conditioning system.
1. built in many different ways. The
and S\veden
during the early part of
central Stockholm. As is seen the heat pumps had a very Increase
120
t
CHAPTER 1. REFRlGEFATION-

in use a few
in the mid
The reason for use of heat pumps in district systems in Sv,,;eden is
closelytied to bad management of the electric system. From a thermodynamic point of
view it would seem more eftective to heat the district sy'stem by combining heat and
power production however the electricity in Sweden is primarily based on hydro
electric and nuciearpowerstations.
....

7

5
i-
4
Qi
..---Purchase
_----Oii
3 ..
2>
(l)
2 ........__Heat Pumps
i-----Wasteheat..
o
1985 1990
Bio:-nas5
2000
Year
Figure 1.20. Supply of heat'to the district heating system ofStockholm.
C3. Industrial applications
1.21 Some special industrial applications, outside food industry and alr conditioning, will
finallybeexemplified:
In chemical process industrythere aremany applications \vhere refrigerating engineering
- or heat pump technology - are use. These are in most occasions tailor made and
requiresqualified engineeringworkfor planning. Examplesare:
Distillationfor separationofcomponentsin aEquid mi:x1ure
Condensationof "gases" (liquid air, naturalgas etc)
Separationofgases(forproductionofnitrogen, oxygen ...)
Storageatlowtemperatures
Coolingofexothermicprocessesinchemicalreactions
Desalination is an importantexampleofthefirst type ofapplication. In some pansof the
'vVorld s"Vveet 'Hater is a scarcecommodity desalination ofsea water can be a solution
Huge such are in operation in the world. methods are used, on
solarheat andmultiple stageevaporationor using heat pumps a principle as
11 although in this case it is not . to concentrate In
v.ater- insteadto separateit into a clean watercomponent). An alternative method is to
tr
PLFi7JGERATLVG
----
desalinate
ice from sea water. arranged properly IS free of
Carefully
ice, and melting sweetwater.
Condensation to produce (liquid natural gas) is anothe;huge area
ofapplications. 1.21 shows an advanced but simple scheme to accomplish this. A
gas turbine for the operation the compressor in the refrigerating system
Therefrigeration schemeis utilizing mixtures several gases as workingfluid (nitrogen,
methane, ethane, propane, butane and pentane) in order to a "gliding"
evaporation temperature with an extremely glide - from about 70 up to about
OCe! Perhaps the simplicity ofthe system in figure 1,20 is deceiving analysis and
design of the heat exchanger between three fluids as indicated in the requires
advanced knowledge thermodynamic properties ofgases and their mixtures In trjs
heat exchanger the natural gas (essentially methane, CH3) is cooled from ambient
temperature down to temperatures in the range of-160C, Plants ofthis type are very
large, withrefrigeration capacitiesofseveralhundrediviW.
" 2SG

.

2(C
.
...
E 220
.... '"
20e
120
!eo
iDe
1"0
[JiG 100 aco 300
'00 500 800
Pt:l ty (1/.1')
J,21, Scheme for a process to condense natural gas (from Brendeng,
Oby the Prico
profile in the heat exchanger for cooling natural gas to
122 In life \ve are exposed to units such as dehumidifiers, water coolers,
cabinets or freezers for the sale cooled drinks or Let us not fClfget
other areasofuse, like:
rinks. The ice IS always
having a refrigerated brine circulating in the
is i'ozen on top
many interesting parameters 15 one of
such as
is normally arranged
In pipes.
b
__ ----------------....--
The diagram to the right indicate the tD>YfnDvnt'r:YD
122
CHAPTER }, PLFRIGERA FOR WHA
new on the ice), It athletes
that the condenser heat "uvu,,,, premises and to cover the
demand water - or why not for heating the water of a
In bUilding technologythere is sometimes problems \Vlth stability in foundation work or
in building of tunnels in earth wet clay or sand One technique which come to use
is to freeze the water in the earth material to ice during the period of building Frozen
material is much more stable and easy to handle in the building process, One example
where this has corne to use is in the construction of the subway of Stockholm city
(especially in the region the subway station of "T-Centralen"), Large concrete
constructions may also have to be cooled for temperature control in the process of
hardening and to give an end result of best possible quality, This cooling can be
perfonned by using cold sand and cold water in the mixing of the concrete, but in large,
advanced constructions it is not unusual that tubes are immersed in the concrete, in
which cold water is circulated in order to keep the temperature under control during the
hardening process,
References:
ASHR-AE Handbook, Fundamentals Volume, Chapter 3, Atlanta USA, 1993
Brendeng, : "Multicomponent Refrigerants A Giant Success for an Old Idea",
40
th
International symposium on the Anniversary of NTH Refrigeration
Engineering, Trondheim, 1992, p, 1 9 9 ~ - 2 1 4
Backstrom, M.: "Kylteknikern." Svenska Kyltekniska Forerungens Handbok no 1,
Stockholm, 1970.
"Den Svenska Kylteknikens Historia", Svenska Kyltekniska Foreningens Jubileumsbok,
Stockholm, 1992,
UHlIR: "Recommendations for the processing and handling of frozen foods",
International Institute of Refrigeration, Paris, 1986
IIF/IIR: "Recommendations for chilled storage of perishable produce", International
Institute of Refrigeration, Paris, 1979
Stoecker, \V.F,: "Industrial Refrigeration", Troy, :Michigan, USA'7 1988
I
REFPJGERATING
~ ....... ~ ----