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International Journal of Language Learning and Applied Linguistics World (IJLLALW)

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PEDAGOGICAL UTILITY OF TRANSLATION IN TEACHING READING COMPREHENSION TO IRANIAN EFL LEARNERS


Abbas Mehrabi Boshrabadi English Department, Khorasgan (Isfahan) Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran Email: abbas.mehrabi596@gmail.com ABSTRACT Indubitably, the skepticism against the pedagogical utility of translation in language teaching classroom has drastically changed in recent years. It is no wonder that writers such as Duff (1994) and Beeby (1996) ardently call for the reintroduction of translation in the process of second language (L2) acquisition. Due to a failure to understand the potential principles underlying the translation theories, L2 teachers and practitioners have largely neglected the use of translation as a technique in teaching foreign languages. Accordingly, the present study aims at investigating the pedagogical utility of translation in L2 teaching process. For this purpose, a sample of 180 students studying English as a foreign language was selected randomly. Using an Oxford Placement Test (OPT), they were homogenized and divided, based upon their proficiency levels, into six groups, i.e., elementary, intermediate, and advanced, for both experimental and control groups. During the treatment, the three experimental groups received translation oriented techniques aiming at teaching. Some textual features and the cross linguistic differences between the learners first language (L1) and the foreign language they are learning were measured. At the end of the treatment, a post test measuring the same textual features was administered to both control and experimental groups. Finally, a researcher- developed questionnaire was also given as a post hoc analysis to gauge the learners attitudes towards the effectiveness of translation as a L2 pedagogical tool. The results illustrated that the idea of the effectiveness of using translation activities in L2 classrooms to improve students learning process was supported. The findings of the present study does contribute to the field by supplying the curriculum developers with some useful insights on how to design the grammar section of the English books in a way in which the learners have to translate sentences from L1 to L2 with the newly learned structures in question. Some useful translation activities, utilized in the grammar section of the book as a complementary activity, may improve the efficiency of the learning process. KEYWORDS: L2 acquisition, translation, pedagogical utility, proficiency, textual features INTRODUCTION In spite of the abandonment of translation, as a pedagogical tool in teaching a foreign language, by many language practitioners, second language (L2) learners inevitably use it as a viable learning strategy. The utility of translation as a teaching technique in L2 classes has a long history and has always been the core of the controversies regarding whether or not it would be used as a valid and effective tool in foreign language teaching/learning process. 381

International Journal of Language Learning and Applied Linguistics World (IJLLALW)

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Early in the 20th century, according to the tenets of the Grammar Translation Method (GTM), translation was highly thought of and used as an effective tool for learning a foreign language. In GTM, the basis for acquisition of a foreign language was the use of first language (L1). In other words, translation from L1 into L2 served as a reference system in learning the foreign language (Brown, 2000). However, some practitioners of the field began to oppose this method and challenged the inefficacy of its underlying tenets and its utility for training fluent speakers in English. As a consequence, the need for a pedagogical shift from GTM to some other method which could foster the ability to speak the language was greatly felt. Therefore, the focus of interest was altered to the use of the Direct Method and the Communicative Approaches to language teaching. Accordingly, many teachers opted for eliminating the use of L1 and translation exercises in the L2 classroom contexts. The proponents of the Audio-lingual and Communicative Methods firmly believed that the use of the mother tongue was counter-productive in the process of acquiring a foreign language, and consequently, the application of translation in the classroom could do more harm than good, preventing learners from expressing themselves freely in the second language. Another objection to using translation points out that a good translation cannot be achieved without mastery of the second language. We, therefore, teach the language first, and then we may teach translation as a separate skill, if that is considered desirable (Lado, 1964, P. 53). Nevertheless, in a L2 classroom, the goal is to teach the language through all sorts of communicative, comprehensive and writing activities. Consequently, we are not looking for professional translations, but for ways of teaching how to express the same idea in L2 in different ways. That is why the use of translation within the L2 curriculum should be considered as one more resource, rather than taken as a requirement for becoming professional translators. In the last few decades, however, there has been an increasing interest in the translation practice in the foreign language classroom. It seems now that the general attitude towards translation has begun to change. Recently, foreign language teachers have been reconsidering the use of translation for different learning purposes. It was observed that translation activity could be used for pedagogical purposes along with other traditional language teaching activities. Reading, grammar exercises, translation, etc. are in fact perceived by learners to be conductive to learning (McDonough, 2002, p.409). Those who discuss about the translation in their studies argue that translation is a legitimate pedagogical tool especially in an EFL environment, and claim that it deserves to be rehabilitated (Widdowson, 1978:18, Harmer, 1991:62, Ellis, 1992:46, Bowen, Marks, 1994:93; Ur, 1996:40). However, they provide little methodological guidance as to how to translate translation into pedagogical practice. The literature on translation deals either with translation theories or translators training and contains only little relevant information on the applicability of translation for language teaching. According to Klaudy (2003), there are two types of translation, namely, pedagogical translation and real translation. Pedagogical translation, which is the focus of this study and will be explained on the next section, is an instrumental kind of translation in which the translated text serves as a tool of improving the language learners foreign language proficiency. In real translation, on the other hand, the 382

International Journal of Language Learning and Applied Linguistics World (IJLLALW)

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translated text is not a tool but the very goal of the process. As such, the aim of real translation would be to develop translation skills of translators. In fact, only a small number of works are devoted to translation as an aid to teaching and learning, that is, pedagogical translation (Duff, 1989; Edge, 1986; Ulrych, 1986; Nadstroga, 1988; Urgese, 1989; Eadie, 1999). Accordingly, the problem discussed in this study pertains to the pedagogical translation as a tool in teaching the foreign language, and will be the relevance of translation and translation activities for enhancing learners foreign language skills, and more specifically their reading comprehension skill. As such, the present study aims to discuss that the lack of translation in the language classrooms is untenable, and also to prove that translation is a valid method for teaching all language skills, specially reading comprehension. The objectives of the study, therefore, will be: 1. To provide a substantial amount of evidence showing the wrong treatment of translation in the L2 context and unjustified criticism against it. 2. To examine the effect translation activities may have on teaching and learning foreign language skills and components, especially on students reading comprehension skill. 3. To highlight the possible relationship between language proficiency and the degree of translation effectiveness. REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE Translation is perceived differently by different linguists, methodologists and teachers. Its use in foreign language teaching provokes a great deal of disagreement and criticism. The main reason for this is the fact that throughout the years there have been a number of studies carried out, which have either favored or completely ignored the use of translation as a learning method. On one hand, after the fall of Grammar Translation Method, proponents of the Direct Method at the end of the nineteenth century banned the use of translation activities in the process of L2 learning. They believed in an approach called Monolingual Approach. On the other hand, proponents of Bilingual Approach acknowledged the use of L1 and translation as a pedagogical tool in teaching foreign languages. The problem with the later approach, however, is that the supporters of using translation activities tend to somehow overuse it, which, as some experts in the field believe, will naturally reduce the amount of students exposure to L2 (Dujmovic, 2007). Besides these two positions, however, according to Nation (2003), there could still be another position standing somewhere in between the two extremes of the continuum. Nation called this approach as Balanced Approach. He believes that a balanced approach is needed, which sees a role for the L1 but also recognizes the importance of maximizing L2 use in the classroom. As Cook (2001) also believes, translation activities used in the process of L2 teaching can be viewed as a rich resource which, if used judiciously, can assist second language teaching and learning. Therefore, this research study tries to open up a new horizon for English instructors to find a thoughtful way to use translation activities in the process of second language teaching. The two extreme positions of pure translation and forbidding translation in the classroom have been the topic of most of the studies conducted on the impact of translation technique on the second or foreign language learning/teaching. Those who are against the use of translation in the 383

International Journal of Language Learning and Applied Linguistics World (IJLLALW)

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L2 classroom consider it as inefficient, unreliable and irrelevant. According to Ross (2000), the rationale against using translation is founded on obliging learners to share their precious L2 use time with the L1; this is not a productive use of the opportunities given by the class. As a follower of monolingual approach, Malmkjaer (1998) briefly summarizes the main reasons why translation fell from favour. It is because translation: Is independent and radically different from the four skills which define language competence: reading, writing, speaking and listening. Takes up valuable time which could be used to teach these four skills. Is unnatural. Misleads and prevents students from thinking in the foreign language. Is a bad test of language skills. Produces interference. Is only appropriate for training translators. (p. 6)

Duff (1994) reveals further reasons why teachers objected to the use of translation in foreign language classes. The researcher stresses that translation is text-bound and confined only to two skills, i.e., reading and writing. It is not a communicative activity as it does not involve oral interaction. Then the use of the mother tongue is required, which is not desirable. Moreover, it is boring, both to do and to correct. Accordingly, it can be claimed that the objections to the use of translation in foreign language teaching process are all based on a limited view of translation on the part of the teachers. It is also a widely held view that translation is not a suitable exercise in the initial stages of teaching (Muranoi, 2000). It is argued that, before learners can tackle translation productively, they need to have acquired a significant level of proficiency in the L2. They need to have moved beyond beginner's level. Many theorists, linguists, and teachers, on the other hand, agree on the importance of using translation in foreign language classes. Atkinson (1987), for example, is one of the first and chief advocates of using translation technique in the communicative classroom. He points out the methodological gap in the literature concerning the use of the translation activities and argues a case in favor of its restricted and principled use, mainly in accuracy-oriented tasks. In his article, Atkinson clearly states that translation from mother language to the target language which emphasizes a recently taught language item is a means to reinforce structural, conceptual and sociolinguistic differences between the native and target languages. In his view, even though this activity is not communicative, it aims at improving accuracy of the newly learned structures. The proponents of using translation technique in L2 instruction claim that the use of translation activities not only has a positive effect on students second language learning, but also may help them improve the way they learn the target language. Cook (1999), for example, asserts that treating translation technique as a classroom resource opens up a number of ways to use it, such as for teachers to convey meaning, explain grammar, and organize the class, and for students to use as part of their collaborative learning and individual strategy use. "The first language can be a useful element in creating authentic L2 uses rather than something to be shunned at all costs" (p. 185). 384

International Journal of Language Learning and Applied Linguistics World (IJLLALW)

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Pedagogical translation is a term that has recently been used by most of the professionals in the field (e.g., Klaudy, 2003) so as to treat translation as a more effective tool in the process of foreign language teaching. On this point of view, Cook (2001) asserts that the word 'translation' has so far been avoided as much as possible because of its negative implication in teaching. As Cook puts it, Translation as a teaching technique is a different matter from translation as a goal of language teaching" (p. 200). As such, pedagogical translation is used by teachers as a teaching technique to teach students reading, writing, vocabulary, grammar, and speaking. As translation is considered a communicative activity, it involves communication between the teacher and the student. Learners are encouraged to discuss rights and wrongs as well as problems related to the translation task (Leonardi, 2009, p.145). On one hand, students are involved in a conversation on the translation topic, which helps them strengthen their speaking skills. On the other hand, students are requested to talk to both the teacher and other learners. In the same way, Researchers Nolasco and Arthur (1995) suggest that translation activities, as one of the possible ways to integrate translation in foreign language classes, create a desire for communication and encourage students to be creative and contribute their ideas. They also add that, by using translation activities, students work independently of the teacher. It should be noted that these two extreme positions, i.e., pure translation and forbidding translation, portraying the existing dialectic which separates those who believe in the use of translation and those who illuminated it from the classroom is founded on a dogmatic fallacy which should be banned from language teaching profession. However, as this study tries to reveal, a Balanced Approach in which teachers strategically use L1 in order to promote foreign language acquisition seems to be logical. That is, L1 can be admixed with L2 as a complementary and supportive stimulus. In this regard, Turnbull (2001) states that maximizing the target language use does not and should not mean that it is harmful for the teacher to use the L1. One of the principles by which teachers maximal use of target language is facilitated is the simultaneous application of both L1 and L2. Similarly, Stern (1992) asserts that using L1 alongside with L2 is pedagogically facilitative and this totally depends on the characteristics of learners interlanguage and the language learning process. On the other hand, overuse of L1 will naturally reduce the amount of exposure to L2. Therefore, an attempt should be made to keep a balance between L1 and L2 use. As such, Turnbull (2001) admits although it is efficient to make a quick switch to the L1 to ensure, for instance, whether students understand a difficult grammar concept or an unknown word, it is crucial for teachers to use the target language as much as possible in contexts in which students spend only short periods of time in class, and when they have little contact with the target language outside the classroom. Similarly, Cook (2007), with regards to the use of L1 in the classroom, argues that all second language learners access their L1 while processing the L2. She suggests that "the L2 user does not effectively switch off the L1 while processing the L2, but has it constantly available" (p. 571). She also maintains that when working with ESL learners, teachers must not treat the L2 in isolation from the L1. In fact, according to Cook, one cannot do so because "L1 is present in the L2 learners' minds, whether the teacher wants it to be there or not. The L2 knowledge, being created in them, is connected in all sorts of ways with their L1 knowledge" (p. 584). Thus, one might suppose that using L1, more specifically translation activities, in L2 instruction will lead to 385

International Journal of Language Learning and Applied Linguistics World (IJLLALW)

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negative transfer. However, Beardsmore (1993) believes that although it may appear contrary to common sense, maintaining and developing one's native language does not interfere with the developing of the second language proficiency. To him, experience shows that many people around the world become fully bi-and multi-lingual without suffering interference from one language in the learning of the other. The psychological benefits that the use of students mother tongues and translation activities in the classroom bring about, according to Lucas and Katz (1994), are, in addition to serving as a practical pedagogical tool for providing access to academic content, allowing more effective interaction, and providing greater access to prior knowledge" (p. 539). They also claim that by using and valuing the learners native languages and, as a consequence, translation activities in the class, their learning process will also be supported and enhanced by virtue of the fact that they themselves are indirectly valued. Finally, many researchers support the idea that translation is a motivating activity. Carreres (2006) conducted a questionnaire and came to the conclusion that learners overwhelmingly perceive translation exercises as useful for language learning. Consequently, it was in response to student feedback that he decided to introduce translation more substantially in language classes. He added that translation, by its very nature, is an activity that invites discussion and students are only too happy to contribute to it, often defending their version with remarkable passion and persuasiveness. Various researchers tried to investigate the role of translation in learning any of four language skills and sub skills. Amongst them, applying the act of translation in improving the reading comprehension performance of the language learners has received much of interest, which receives more focus in this study. In this regards, Upton (1997) asserts that reading in a second language is not a monolingual event and L2 readers have access to their first language as they read and many use it as a strategy to help comprehend an L2 text. Moreover, some other researchers have stronger ideas and show that translation is a key element in processing target texts by learners. Kern (1994), for example, conducted an illuminating study whereby he looked at the role of translating as a cognitive strategy in the L2 reading comprehension process. He found that students often used translation to understand the text. He also found that L2 readers most frequently used mental translation in response to specific obstacles to comprehension, such as unfamiliar words and structures. As a consequence, translation technique, and more specifically translation activities, might provide a guided practice in reading comprehension skill of the learners because before starting to translate a text, they should read and analyze the text meticulously to determine the content in terms of what, how and why it is formulated by the respective author (Leonardi, 2009). As such, careful text analysis improves students reading comprehension awareness and promotes L2 lexical development. In addition, translation can help students improve their writing skills because it is a transfer of a text from one language into another. In the same vein, Leonardi (2011) states that translation as a pedagogical tool can be successfully employed at any level of proficiency, at school or University, as a valuable and creative teaching aid to support, integrate and further strengthen the four traditional language skills: reading, writing, speaking and listening. Accordingly, translation in foreign language classes can set a useful ground by which ample opportunities are provided for the students to view language as a holistic system with unique communicative capabilities, no matter what 386

International Journal of Language Learning and Applied Linguistics World (IJLLALW)

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proficiency level they are in. Moreover, translation activities need not be used in isolation, but should be included in an inherent part of the language learning course. On the basis of the above, the main goal of the present study is to consider the use of translation as a significant pedagogical component for promoting L2 learners reading comprehension skills, by adopting a reconciliatory stance which ardently opposes those professionals in the field who consider translation and language teaching as wrong bed fellows. RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES Considering the above-mentioned facts, the researcher of the present study seeks to answer two questions regarding the role translation activities play in foreign language teaching: A. Does the use of translation from L1 to L2 have any effect on the improvement of learners foreign language skills on the whole, and on their reading comprehension skill more specifically? B. What is the possible link, if any, between learners language proficiency level and the degree of appropriateness of translation as a teaching technique? METHODOLOGY Participants To reach the purpose of the study, a sample of 180 students from the population of the BA students from Islamic Azad University of Khorasgan, Isfahan, Iran, studying English as their major, both male and female, aged between 19 and 24, was randomly selected. Using an Oxford Placement Test (OPT), the selected sample was divided into six groups, thirty each. Three groups served as the experimental sample, while the other three were determined to receive placebo treatment, hence, served as control group. At this point, care was taken to equalize the experimental and control samples based on learners proficiency levels so that each group included elementary, intermediate, and advanced learners sample. By employing three proficiency levels, the researcher wanted to find out whether or not there was an interaction effect between translation and proficiency variables. The age factor has been kept constant by employing participants from almost the same age range. Instruments The instrumentation utilized in this study included several materials. First, an OPT test was used for identifying learners proficiency level, and insuring homogeneity of both control and experimental groups. Second, a reading comprehension text was selected from the reading module of the Barrons TOEFL (2010) and used as posttest to assess the learners knowledge of text discursive characteristics as a main requirement since it is believed that translation technique is most suitable for teaching reading comprehension and textual features manifesting different types of discourse (Polio & Duff, 1994). The rationale behind selecting the reading text from the TOEFL was to make sure that the test enjoys a high level of validity, and that the level of difficulty was suitable for each group sample. The test encompassed a reading comprehension 387

International Journal of Language Learning and Applied Linguistics World (IJLLALW)

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passage followed by multiple-choice items. The percentage of right answers was used as criterion for the final score of each student. The reliability of the test was estimated using KR-21 method, which turned out to be 0.80. Also, a time allocation of 30 minutes was decided for the test to be appropriate. Finally, an opinionnaire (questionnaire) was also given to the treatment group hoping to find the participants attitudes towards the usefulness of translation in the L2 class. This would provide a sort of post hoc analysis gauging learners opinions about whether or not they think translation is a useful strategy for learning a foreign language. It should be noted that most of the questionnaire items were adopted from Liao (2006). Naturally, the validity and reliability of this instrument must be established based on specialists opinions and pilot studying. Data Collection Procedures To accomplish the purpose of the present study, the following procedures were carried out. First, by administering an OPT, the selected sample was classified into three proficiency levels, namely, elementary, intermediate, and advanced, based on their mean scores obtained from the test. The test was comprised of 30 multiple-choice and 5 open-ended types of questions, with a 60 minutes time period being determined to be appropriate for participants to answer the questions. After classifying the sample into three proficiency levels, they were further divided into three experimental and three control groups. The three experimental groups were supplied with the necessary discursive background by teachers explanation of some textual features in their L1(in this case, Persian language) and later on checking their understanding by giving them appropriate assignments involving translation, i.e., the reading comprehension test. It is evident that the control group was taught the same issues by providing essential explanations but only in L2 (English). That is, everything was the same as the experimental group except that the teacher did not use the Persian language in order to explain the textual features of the reading passage. During a period of six-week course, the researcher attended in both experimental and control groups classes to take the same reading comprehension tests so as to check students understanding of the textual features such as cohesion and coherence. In each session, the experimental group received a specific treatment that was the use of L1 (Persian language) in explaining the reading passage and some textual features. Evidently, the situation for the control group was different due to teachers using only L2 (English) to explain about the same textual features as for the experimental group. After each session, the participants answered the comprehension questions and finally after six weeks the results of both groups were compared by using a posttest about which was explained above. The test was first piloted with 30 learners and some necessary changes were applied in terms of item characteristics, i.e., item facility and item discrimination, as well as reliability. In order to gauge the participants opinions and attitudes toward the usefulness of translation activities in their foreign language learning, the researcher provided the participants of experimental group with a well-organized questionnaire. Giving some explanation on the reason the questionnaire was used, and some instruction on how to answer the questions, the researcher asked participants to complete the questionnaire. The questions were all multiple choice, so the participants were asked to choose from among 5 possible choices, based on the Likert Scale (i.e., completely agree, agree, not sure, disagree, completely disagree), the best one that is in line with their personal opinion. 388

International Journal of Language Learning and Applied Linguistics World (IJLLALW)

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Data Analysis With due regards to the data analysis process, certain statistical procedures were utilized to analyze and interpret the data elicited by the study. In order to statistically analyze the results of the posttest given to both groups, the software Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was of great help in this research. The main statistical procedure employed in this project was a oneway ANOVA so as to compare the mean scores of the experimental and comparison groups of the study so as to determine whether or not the application of the treatment had any considerable effect on the learning process of the experimental group. Having determined the difference between two groups, a Tukey test, as a post hoc test, was used to see if there is any significant difference between each level, i.e., beginner, intermediate, and advanced. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Considering the research questions 1. Does the use of translation from L1 to L2 have any effect on the improvement of learners foreign language skills on the whole, and on their reading comprehension skill more specifically? And 2.What is the possible link, if any, between learners language proficiency level and the degree of appropriateness of translation as a teaching technique?, a one-way ANOVA was run to compare the mean scores of the participants in each level of experimental and control groups on the posttest of reading comprehension. As is displayed in table 1, The mean scores of each level of experimental and control groups (elementary, intermediate, and advanced) revealed that the effect of using translation technique on EFL learners reading comprehension proficiency did not differ significantly across three levels (f(2,87)=2.655, p=.076>.05).
Table 1: Results of ANOVA test ANOVA Sum of Squares exp. Posttest Between Groups Within Groups Total con. Posttest Between Groups Within Groups Total 112.867 1849.133 1962.000 13.089 1245.400 1258.489 Df 2 87 89 2 87 89 6.544 14.315 .457 .635 Mean Square 56.433 21.254 F 2.655 Sig. .076

Moreover, as it can be induced from table 2, the difference between experimental and control groups man scores on the posttest of reading comprehension is significant (p<.05). Consequently, the null hypothesis represented as the use of translation from L1 to L2 does not have any effect on the improvement of learners foreign language skills on the whole, and on their reading comprehension skill more specifically would be rejected. Having received the treatment, the experimental group experienced better performance on the posttest of reading comprehension than control group. Due to the fact that the control group also underwent a course of instruction, it makes sense that at the end of the course, they have made some progress. But the point is that the control group has made little progress compared to the experimental group which is certain proof of effectiveness of treatment. 389

International Journal of Language Learning and Applied Linguistics World (IJLLALW)

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Mean Pair 1 exp. posttest - con. posttest 31.622

Std. Deviation 6.077

Std. Error Mean .641

Sig. (2tailed) .000

32.895 49.363

Comparisons of three levels, using Tukeys post hoc test, indicated that there was not statistically any significant difference among the three levels of language proficiency regarding the effect of using translation technique on students reading comprehension ability. A small difference, however, was found between the intermediate and advanced groups (p=.062) (see table 3). This is quite compatible with what Leonardi (2011) believed. In her study, Leonardi concluded that translation can be successfully employed at any level of language proficiency.
Table 3: Multiple comparisons among three proficiency levels Tukey HSD 95% Confidence Interval Dependent Variable exp. Posttest (I) level of proficiency beginner Intermediate Advanced (J) level of proficiency Intermediate Advanced Beginner Advanced Beginner Intermediate Mean Difference (I-J) -1.167 1.567 1.167 2.733 -1.567 -2.733 Std. Error Sig. Lower Bound -4.01 -1.27 -1.67 -.11 -4.41 -5.57 Upper Bound 1.67 4.41 4.01 5.57 1.27 .11

1.190 .591 1.190 .390 1.190 .591 1.190 .062 1.190 .390 1.190 .062

The findings of the study are also in line with what Upton (1996) and Kern (1994) assert on the effect translation technique has on learners reading comprehension proficiency. They believe that reading in a foreign language is not a monolingual event and L2 readers often use their first language as a strategy in processing and understanding the target language text. The results of the present study are, however, against the Malmkjaer (1998) and Duff (1994) views, who are objected to using translation as a teaching tool in foreign language classes. Muranoi (2000) also believed that translation is not a suitable exercise for the initial stages of teaching foreign languages because learners need to acquire a sufficient level of proficiency in L2 before they can tackle translation activities productively. But the results of the present study revealed that the use of translation technique in foreign language classes does not heavily rely on the overall language proficiency of learners. 390

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The above-mentioned facts stemmed from the experimental phase of the study inspired the researcher of the present study to further support the results of the study by gauging the opinion and attitudes of the participants of experimental group toward the effect translation technique might have on their learning process. As was mentioned earlier, the participants were provided with a questionnaire so as to give their opinion and attitudes towards the effect of translation activities in foreign language learning. The questionnaire was comprised of 15 items and took about 20 minutes for the participants of experimental group to complete it. The analysis of the results obtained from the questionnaire revealed that translation from L1 to L2 played a major role in improving learners reading comprehension proficiency. As is illustrated in Table 4, the means of item 1 indicated that above 68% of participants tended to use translation technique as a learning strategy in their foreign language learning process. Their answers to item 15 also revealed that they always flash back to their mother tongue whenever it is hard for them to think in a foreign language (English, in this case). Moreover, it can be resulted from their answers to item 4 that they highly accept the teachers use of L1 when it comes to more difficult concepts of the foreign language. For example, they believed that the teacher had better use Persian language when explaining some the textual features of English reading passages.
Table 4: The examinees responses to the items concerning their beliefs about translation
Item Explanation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 I am interested in translation, using Persian to learn English. Translation classes are more enjoyable and profitable. I make faster progress in the L2 reading comprehension by means of translation. A given translation by the teacher will improve my selfconfidence when it comes to answering a reading comprehension question. The teachers use of L1 helps me become more familiarized with the target language culture. Using Persian translation while studying helps me better recall the content of a lesson later. Translation activities serve as an adequate learning strategy in foreign language classes. I feel under pressure when I am asked to think directly in English. Translation of the gist of a passage has a positive effect on my comprehension, be it oral or written. By using Persian language occasionally, I will gain a positive attitude toward learning English. At some stages of learning, I cannot learn the foreign language without some translation activities. The teachers use of Persian language helps me learn such pragmalinguistic resources of English as register, genre, and some meta-discourse markers. All language skills and components would be developed the same using translation activities. Translation helps me understand the foreign language vocabulary and idioms easier. I tend to flash back to Persian language whenever it is hard to think in English. Mean out of 5 for elementary level 4.2 3.8 4 3.5 4.7 4 4.2 3.8 4.5 2.8 3 4.5 4.5 4 4 Mean out of 5 for intermediate learners 4 3.2 4.2 3.8 4.2 4 4.8 3 4.9 3.5 2.8 4 3.2 4.2 4.5 Mean out of 5 for advanced learners 4.6 3 4.8 4.2 4.8 3.86 4.46 3.2 4.8 3.2 2.4 4.7 2.86 3.4 3.8

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On the whole, the means of the participants answers in all three levels revealed some facts, which would follow: a) all three groups of proficiency level believed that translation can be considered as a useful aid in comprehending reading comprehension passages of English, b) the teachers use of mother tongue in explaining some more problematic concepts of a foreign language such as textual features for learners can be considered as a useful tool, according to all participants, and c) the attitudes towards the use of translation did not heavily rely on the overall language proficiency of learners. That is, the responses of less proficient students also indicated that translation is suitable and useful for students of lower level of proficiency in English. These finding are compatible with those of Kern (1994) that found the students often used translation to understand the text. The results of the questionnaire also revealed that the overall language proficiency of learners did not have any effect on the use of translation as a foreign language learning strategy, which is compatible with the study conducted by Leonardi (2011). Leonardi also stated that translation as a pedagogical tool can be successfully employed at any level of proficiency, at school or University, as a valuable and creative teaching aid to support, integrate and further strengthen the four traditional language skills. Finally, all the three groups of participants believed that translation classes are more enjoyable (related item: 2), which is in line with what Carreres (2006) claimed based on the findings of his study. Carreres stated that translation, by its very nature, is an activity that invites discussion and students are only too happy to contribute to it, often defending their version with remarkable passion and persuasiveness. The study confirmed that translation activities could be used as a means to provoke the learners motivation. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS The purpose of this study was to explore the effect translation technique might have on students' reading comprehension proficiency. The results showed that there was a significant difference between the students' reading comprehension ability before and after the treatment. Almost all students improved in the posttest and showed positive attitude in the questionnaire. Therefore, instruction through translation was beneficial to students' learning except in very few cases. The researcher induced the results and conclusions on the benefits and applications of using translation in this study as follows: 1. The use of L1 in the process of L2 acquisition would be of great help for foreign language learners and pave the way for their learning. Accordingly, EFL teachers should take the use of students mother tongue into consideration as a pedagogical tool in the process of teaching. It does not seem reasonable to deprive learners from deploying this recourse at the expense of exercising an English-only atmosphere in the classrooms, by virtue of the fact that mother tongue is truly a very rich resource of linguistic knowledge with which any L2 learner is already equipped. 2. As mentioned earlier, on one hand, reading in a foreign language is not a monolingual event (mental translation), and on the other hand, the students are not skilful enough to understand the passage thoroughly. Therefore, the teacher may help them by providing 392

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the translation of the gist of the reading passage and facilitate the process of comprehension. 3. In some special kind of reading passages, mainly texts about culture and traditions of the people of other nations, beginner learners may not be successful in comprehension due to that lack of background knowledge and cultural differences. In this regard, translation technique and the use of students first language might be helpful as it help them to better understand the target language culture and related issues. The findings of this study may have some useful implications for curriculum development. How to present the materials for the grammar section of the books has always appeared to be one of the most controversial issues amongst the materials developers and writers. Although there are a variety of activities to be used in presenting the structural points of a given lesson, the curriculum developers may find the findings of this study useful and design the grammar section of the books in a way in which the learners have to translate sentences from L1 to L2 with the newly learned structures in question. Some useful translation activities, utilized in the grammar section of the book as a complementary activity, may improve the efficiency of the learning process. It is worth to be noted that although the findings of the present study supported the idea of the effectiveness of the utility of translation activities in improving learners reading comprehension proficiency, there may be some limitations challenging the generalization of the results of this study. As an example, a short time period of six weeks might not be appropriate enough to experience the treatment. Another limitation that might affect the results of this study can be related to the validity of such tests as OPT and TOEFL. what such tests really measure may not be related to the purpose of study. REFERENCES Beardsmore, H. (1993). The European school model. In H. Beardsmore (Eds.), European models of bilingual education (pp. 21-54). Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters. Beeby Lonsdale, A. (1996). Teaching Translation from Spanish to English. World beyond Words. Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press. Bowen, T., & Marks, J. (1994). Inside Teaching. Oxford: Heinemann. Brown, H. D. (2000). Principles of language learning and teaching (4th Ed.). White Plains, NY: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. Carreres, A. (2006). Strange bedfellows: Translation and Language Teaching. University of Cambridge, UK. Cook, G. (2007). A thing of the future: translation in language learning. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 17 (3), 396-401. Cook, V. J. (1999). Going beyond the native speaker in language teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 33(2), 185-209. Cook, V. J. (2001). Using the first language in the classroom. Canadian Modern Language Review, 57(3), 184-206. Duff, A. (1989). Translation. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Duff, A. (1994). Translation: Resource Books for Teachers. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 393

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Dujmovic, M. (2007). The use of Croatian in the EFL classroom. Metodicki Obzori, 2(1), 91-100. Retrieved on February 12, 2013 from http://hrcak.srce.hr/file/19437 Eadie, J. (1999). A Translation Technique. ELT Forum, 37 (1), 2-9. Edge, J. (1986). Acquisition Disappears in Adultery: Interaction in the Translation Class. ELT Journal, 40 (2), 121-124. Ellis, R. (1992). Second Language Acquisition & Language Pedagogy. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd. Harmer, J. (1991). The Practice of English Language Teaching. London: Longman. Kern, R. G. (1994). The role of mental translation in second language reading. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 16, 441-461. Klaudy, K. (2003). Languages in Translation. Budapest: Scholastica. Lado, R. (1964). Language Teaching: A Scientific Approach. New York: MacGraw-Hill, Inc. Leonardi, V. (2009). Teaching Business English through Translation. Journal of Language & Translation [online], 10(1), p. 139153, available at: http://www.unish.org/unish/DOWN/PDF/5_1_Leonardi_rev_and_ finalD.pdf [Accessed 13/01/2013]. Leonardi, V. (2011). Pedagogical Translation as a Naturally Occurring Cognitive and Lingvistic Activity in Foreign Language Learning. Annali Online di Lettere-Ferrara [online], vol. 1 2, p.1728, available at: http://eprints.unife.it/annali/lettere/2011voll1-2/leonardi.pdf [Accessed 22/03/2013]. Liao, P. (2006). EFL learners beliefs about and strategy use of translation in English learning. RELC, 37 (2), 191-215.http: Retrieved fromhome.pchome.com.tw (date: 19/2/2013) Lucas, T., & Katz, A. (1994). Reframing the debate: The role of native languages in English-only programs for language minority students. TESOL Quarterly, 28(3), 537-561. Malmkjaer, K. (1998). Translation and Language Teaching. Manchester: St Jerome. McDonough, J. (2002). The Teacher as Language Learner: Worlds of Differences? ELT Journal [online], vol.56, no4, available at: http://biblioteca.uqroo.mx/hemeroteca/elt_journal/2002/octubre/560404. [Accessed 07/01/2013]. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/elt/56.4.404. Muranoi, H. (2000). Focus on form through interaction enhancement: Integrating formal instruction into a communicative task in EFL classrooms. Language Learning, 50(4), 617-673. Nadstroga, Z. (1988). A Communicative Use of Translation in the Classroom. ELT Forum, 30 (4), 12-14. Nation, P. (2003). The role of the first language in foreign language learning. The Asian EFL Journal, 5(2). Retrieved on February 10, 2013 from http://www.asian-efl-journal. com/june_2003_PN.html Nolasco, R., & Arthur, L. (1995). Large Classes. Hemel Hempstead: Phoenix ELT. Polio, C., & Duff, P. (1994). Teachers' language use in university foreign language classrooms: a qualitative analysis of English and target language alternation. Modern Language Journal, 78(3), 311-326. Ross, N. J. (2000). Interference and Intervention: Using Translation in the EFL Classroom. Modern English Teacher, 9(3), 6166. Stern, H. (1992). Issues and options in language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 394

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Ulrych, M. (1986). Teaching Translation in the Advanced EFL Classes. ELT Forum, 24 (2), 14-17. Upton, T. A. (1997). First and second language use in reading comprehension strategies of Japanese ESL students. TESL-EJ, 3 (1). Ur, P. (1996). A Course in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Urgese, T. (1989). Translation: How, When and Why. ELT Forum, 27 (3), 38-40 Turnbull, M. (2001). There is a role for the L1 in second and foreign language teaching, but.... Canadian Modern Language Review, 57, (4), 150-163. Widdowson, H. (1978). Teaching Language as Communication. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Abbas Mehrabi Boshrabadi is holding a M.A degree in TEFL from Islamic Azad University, Khorasgan (Isfahan) Branch, Isfahan, Iran. He has been involved in EFL teaching since 2007 and has worked as language teacher in many language schools in Iran. His main research interests are second language acquisition, CALL, and teacher education.

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