Salafisme in Yordania (Zoltan Pall)

1
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Lokale en tiansnationale netweiken
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Pioefschiift

tei veikiijging van ue giaau van uoctoi aan ue 0niveisiteit 0tiecht op gezag
van ue iectoi magnificus, piof.ui. u.}. van uei Zwaan, ingevolge het besluit van
het college vooi piomoties in het openbaai te veiueuigen op uinsuag 14
januaii 2u14 ues miuuags te 2.Su uui

uooi
Zoltan Pall
geboien op 21 mei 1982 te Covosno, Roemenie
2
Piomotoi:
Piof. ui. N. N. van Biuinessen

This thesis was ieseaicheu anu wiitten with the financial suppoit of the
Netheilanus Inteiuniveisity School foi Islamic Stuuies.
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Tbe tbouqbt of Sboykb AbJ ol-Robmon AbJ ol-Kboliq ......................................................... 66
lbyo ol-Turotb ofter tbe liberotion of Kuwoit ........................................................................... 67
lbyo ol-Turotbs iJeoloqy ofter tbe expulsion of AbJ ol-Robmon AbJ ol-Kboliq ....... 72
Solofism in Kuwoit ofter tbe split in lbyo ol-Turotb ............................................................... 76
Tbe purists of Kuwoit ........................................................................................................................... 76
Eoroki Solofis .......................................................................................................................................... 8u
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Specific politicol opportunities ....................................................................................................... 1uu
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Purist-rejectionist networks ............................................................................................................ 1S1
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Tbe network of Sboykb Solim ol-Rofi'i ........................................................................................ 1S7
4
Tbe boroki oscenJonce ofter tbe Arob Sprinq .......................................................................... 1S9
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Conceptuolizinq ortboJoxy in lslom ............................................................................................. 1S2
Solofism onJ tbe reJefinition of ortboJoxy ............................................................................... 1S7
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HeJiotion in sociol conflicts ............................................................................................................ 176
Sboykb Towfiq of tbe Hino Jistrict ............................................................................................... 179
Sboykb Abu So'J, tbe "sociol octivist" of tbe ubbo ............................................................... 181
Sboykb Eisbom, tbe intercommunity peoce-broker ............................................................... 18S
Sulb onJ tbe ocquisition of sociol copitol ................................................................................... 18S
Solofis onJ tbe lebonese potronoqe networks ......................................................................... 188
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Tbe men of reliqion ............................................................................................................................. 2u7
Tbe octive followers ............................................................................................................................ 211
Tbe possive followers ......................................................................................................................... 214
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Reliqious lessons ................................................................................................................................... 22u
Fveninq qotberinqs ............................................................................................................................. 224
Biscussions ofter proyer .................................................................................................................... 226
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Acquirinq sociol copitol ..................................................................................................................... 24u
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Tbe finonciol sources of tronsnotionol cbority orqonizotions ........................................... 2Su
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Sboykb Eoitbom ol-So'iJ between Nobr ol-BoriJ onJ SweJen .......................................... 2SS
lebonese networks in tbe NetberlonJs onJ 6ermony ........................................................... 2S9
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Bioqnostic frominq ............................................................................................................................. 268
Proqnostic onJ motivotionol frominq ......................................................................................... 279
Irome resononce ................................................................................................................................. 282
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6
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Buiing the foui yeais I spent stuuying Lebanese Salafism anu its tiansnational
iamifications, I encounteieu hunuieus of inuiviuuals who contiibuteu in some
way to the piocess of ieseaiching anu wiiting this uisseitation. Bue to theii laige
numbei, it is impossible to mention all of them by name.
I am especially giateful to my supeivisoi, Piof. Naitin van Biuinessen,
whose constiuctive suggestions anu ciitical comments helpeu me tiemenuously
when conceiving the iuea of this stuuy, planning my fieluwoik anu completing
the final text of my uisseitation. Without his suppoit anu enuless patience with
answeiing my numeious questions, I woulu not have been able to accomplish my
ieseaich. I also gieatly piofiteu fiom numeious uiscussions with Naitijn ue
Koning uuiing my PhB piogiam. I am thankful to the membeis of the Salafism
ieseaich pioject in which I infoimally paiticipateu, Piof. Baialu Notzki, Roel
Neijei, Caimen Beckei, }oas Wagemakeis anu Bin Wahiu. Exchanging views with
them anu getting insight into theii woik pioviueu me with new peispectives foi
my own ieseaich.
I am gieatly inuebteu to the Netheilanus Inteiuniveisity School foi
Islamic Stuuies (NISIS), which geneiously founueu the last two anu a half yeais
of my PhB piogiam. Without the ieseaich buuget that NISIS maue available to
me, I woulu not have been able to finance the majoi pait of my fieluwoik in
Lebanon, the Aiabian uulf anu Sweuen, wheie I collecteu most of my uata foi this
uisseitation. The netwoik of scholais anu PhB stuuents cieateu by NISIS
pioviueu an excellent acauemic enviionment. Buiing the NISIS seasonal schools
in the Netheilanus, Noiocco anu Istanbul I gieatly benefiteu fiom exchanges anu
uiscussions with the scholais anu ieseaicheis who weie paiticipating in these
events. I am also thankful to F0R0N foi financing the fiist twenty months of my
employment at 0tiecht 0niveisity anu funuing my fieluwoik in Lebanon, Kuwait,
Qatai anu ueimany.
I want to expiess my giatituue to Piof. Asef Bayat, who, befoie I began my
uoctoial stuuies, offeieu me a shoit-teim visiting fellowship at the Inteinational
Institute foi the Stuuy of Islam in the Nouein Woilu (ISIN) in Leiuen to uevelop
a ieseaich pioject foi my PhB piogiam. At ISIN I became pait of an acauemic
community foi the fiist time in my life, anu the excellent scholaily enviionment
at the Institute significantly helpeu me to uevelop the basic iueas that unueilie
my ieseaich.
The Asia Reseaich Institute at the National 0niveisity of Singapoie anu
the School of Islamic Stuuies at 0niveisiti Sains Nalaysia hosteu me anu
geneiously enable me to use theii iesouices uuiing my stay in Southeast Asia in
the acauemic yeai of 2u12-2u1S. I piofiteu a gieat ueal fiom the acauemic events
anu activities in which I paiticipateu in both institutes.
I cannot expiess enough giatituue to the hunuieus of Salafi activists,
sympathizeis anu non-Salafi infoimants who assisteu me uuiing my fieluwoik.
Among them I woulu like to mention Shaykh Nuhammau 'Abu al-uhani anu
Shaykh Baitham al-Sa'iu, who gianteu me theii tiust anu pioviueu me with ueep
insight into the inteinal uynamics of Salafism. I woulu like to thank Shaykh
7
Safwan al-Za'bi, who connecteu me with many Lebanese Salafis anu helpeu me to
establish my social netwoik among the Salafi community in Kuwait. Shaykh
'Imau Nulabbas anu his family hosteu me in Waui Khaliu in Noith Lebanon many
times, anu maue it possible foi me to obseive the expansion of Salafism in this
unique anu still secluueu iegion.

8
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This thesis uses an Aiabic tiansliteiation auopteu by the lnternotionol }ournol of
HiJJle Fost StuJies. Bowevei, to facilitate the ieauability of the text I uispenseu
with all uiaciitical maiks. This tiansciiption uoes not uiffeientiate between long
anu shoit vowels.
In most cases I useu Aiabic tiansliteiations even if Anglicizeu foims weie
available. I maue exception in case of such teims, which aie paits of the common
knowleuge. Foi example uuiing the pages of I thesis I use 'Bizbullah', insteau of
Eizb Allob. The alphabetic oiuei of the glossaiy uoes not take account of the
aiticle 'al-'.

9
-,*# ". )//($0,)#,"&* )&1 )2("&34*

ANAL Lebanese Resistance Battalions (Afwoj ol-Huqowomo ol-
lubnoniyyo)
FSA Fiee Syiian Aimy
uIA uioupe Islamique Aime
u0N uiounueu utopian movement
Iu Islamic uioup al-}amaà al-Islamiyya
IBE Islamic Beiitage Enuowment
Waqf al-Tuiath al-Islami
I0N Islamic 0nification Novement (Eorkot ot-TowbiJ ol-lslomi)
}SN al-}ama'a al-Salafiyya al-Nuhtasiba
LNN Lebanese National Novement (ol-Eoroko ol-Wotoniyyo ol
lubnoniyyo)
PL0 Palestine Libeiation 0iganization
P0S Political oppoitunity stiuctuie
RIBS Revival of Islamic Beiitage Society (}omoiyyot lbyo ol-Turotb ol-
lslomi)
SACA Shaykh 'Aiu Chaiity Association (Huossosot ol-Sboykb 'AiJ ol-
Kboyriyyo)
SNT Social movement theoiy
SSNP Syiian Social Nationalist Paity

1u
5+"**)(3

oql minu
'iboJot ieligious piactices
'ilm knowleuge
'ulomo ieligious scholais
ìlm ol-boJitb the science of boJitb
obl ol- biJo' those who commit
ieligious innovation
ol-omr bi-l-mo'ruf wo ol-nobi 'on ol-munkor commanuing goou
foibiuuing evil
oqiJo cieeu
osbori followei of the cieeu goes back
to Abu al-Basan al-Ash'aii
osbiro, pl. 'osboir tiibe
otbori iefeience to the liteialist school
of thought in Islam
bonu lsroil the }ews in the Qui'an
biJo' ieligious innovation
Jo'i those who piactice Jo'wo
Jo'wo call, oi pioselytization
Jolil pioof
Jonos pollution
Jors {pl. Jurus) ieligious lesson
Jiwoniyyo tiauitional gatheiing in Kuwait
Jiyyo bloou money
fotwo non-binuing ieligious opinion
fiqb juiispiuuence
boJitb {oboJitb) piophetical tiauition
bokim iulei
bokimiyyo uou's soveieignty
boloqo ieligious lesson
boroko movement
bisbo see: ol-omr bi-l-mo'ruf wo ol-
nobi 'on ol-munkor
bizbiyyo paitisanship
buJuJ Islamic punishments
iftor fast bieaking
ijozo license
ijtiboJ inuepenuent ieasoning
isnoJ the chain of the boJitb
tiansmitteis
istiqbotbo seeking help fiom ueceaseu
peisons
iymon belief
jobiliyyo conuition of ignoiance
jomo'iyyo association
kofir unbelievei
11
kboriji {kboworij) iefeience to those who
ievolteu against the fouith
Caliph, 'Ali
kbotib the peison who ueliveis the
Fiiuay seimon
kbilof uiffeience
kburuj ievolt against the iulei
kbutbo Fiiuay seimon
lojno committee
mo'oboJ sboro'i Islamic ieligious college
moJbob Islamic legal school
HobJi ieueemei of Islam
monboj methouology
moslobo inteiest
motn the content of the hauith
minbor pulpit
mufti a peison who piouuces legal
opinion
muqto'ji lanuloiu
musbrik the one who commits sbirk
qoJo juiy
qoJi juuge
qiyos analogy
roy opinion
rofiJi {rofiJo) pejoiative iefeience to the
Shi'a
rijol ol-Jin men of ieligion
soJoqo voluntaiy uonations
sobobo the companions of the piophet
sobro evening gatheiing
ol-Solof ol-Solib the fiist thiee geneiations of
Islam
sbirk association of othei things with
uou
sburo council
sulb settlement of a uispute
toqbut the iealm of uisbelief
tokfir excommunication
toqliJ imitation
toriqo Sufi oiuei
towossul meuiation between uou anu a
human
towbiJ oneness of uou
towbiJ ol-osmo wo-l-sifot oneness of uou's attiibutes
towbiJ ol-bukm oneness of the goveinance
towbiJ ol-rububiyyo oneness of Loiuship
towbiJ ol-ulubiyyo oneness of uouship
tozkiyo puiification
tbor venuetta
12
0mmo Islamic Nation
ol-wolo wo-l-boro loyalty anu uisavowal
woli ol-omr the legitimate iulei
woqf Islamic enuowment
zo'im (zu'omo) political pation
zobiJ ascetic
zokot chaiitable giving baseu on
accumulateu wealth
zubJ asceticism

1S
B*0:-5C20&-*

The seiies of ievolutions in Aiab countiies in 2u11 biought impoitant changes
to the sociopolitical make-up of the Niuule East. Not only uiu it leau to the
collapse oi significant weakening of iegimes in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, Yemen anu
Syiia, which hau pieviously been iegaiueu as the most stable in the iegion, but it
also iesulteu in a new ienaissance of Islamic movements. Paities with an
Islamist oiientation won the elections in post-ievolutionaiy Egypt anu Tunisia.
They weie also victoiious in the polls in Noiocco, wheie the uemonstiations
faileu to biing uown the monaichy. Noieovei, uue to theii incieasing weight in
institutional politics, the piesence of Islamic movements became much moie
visible in the public spheie in geneial.
Salafism in paiticulai has gaineu giounu on the sociopolitical map of the
Niuule East since the Aiab Spiing. While the authoiitaiian iegimes in Caiio anu
Tunis hau limiteu theii options anu often iepiesseu them, aftei state contiol hau
been lifteu, the activism of Salafis ieacheu an unpieceuenteu level. In Egypt, foi
example, besiues incieasing pioselytization in the mosques, univeisities anu in
the meuia, Salafi paities foimeu the seconu laigest pailiamentaiy block. Even in
countiies wheie the iuling system uiu not collapse uuiing the Aiab Spiing, many
people staiteu to see Salafis as a potential alteinative to theii Sunni Nuslim
leaueis. This is an impoitant factoi anu one ieason, among otheis, why Lebanon
is cuiiently expeiiencing a Salafi upsuige.
Although the mass uemonstiations
1
in this small countiy in the Levant
uiu not biing uown the sectaiian-baseu iegime, the wave of ievolutions in the
iegion has neveitheless hau a seveie impact. The Syiian upiising anu civil wai
have paiticulaily affecteu Lebanon. As its neighboi giauually sank into the abyss
aftei the spiing of 2u11, the Lebanese economy suffeieu heavy losses, as it is
laigely uepenuent on Syiian impoits anu expoits. Nowauays touiists anu
investois, mainly fiom the uulf countiies, also tenu to avoiu the countiy,
ueepening what is alieauy a seveie financial ciisis. The piesence of hunuieus of

1
In eaily 2u11 theie weie some laige-scale uemonstiations against the countiy's sectaiian-
baseu political system.
2
Nichel 'Awn has been a long-time foe of Syiia since the Lebanese Civil Wai. Bowevei, when he
14
thousanus of Syiian iefugees is also auuing to the socioeconomic haiuship
suffeieu by oiuinaiy Lebanese citizens.
The ueepening political uivisions anu looming sectaiianism iesulting
fiom the events in Syiia, howevei, pose an even biggei thieat to Lebanon than
the woisening economic conuitions. Syiia's Assau iegime, which occupieu the
countiy between 1976 anu 2uuS anu uominateu its political anu economic life,
has long-teim allies among the countiy's fiagmenteu political elite. Since the
198us, Bizbullah, the Shi'ite Islamist militia anu political paity, has enjoyeu the
piotection of the Syiian goveinment, fiist that of Piesiuent Bafiz al-Assau anu
then latei his son, Bashshai. 0thei foices, such as the Shi'ite ANAL (lebonese
Resistonce Bottolions - Afwoj ol-Huqowomo ol-lubnoniyyo) movement, Nichel
'Awn's Chiistian Fiee Patiiotic Novement
2
anu the seculai Syiian Social
Nationalist Paity, foigeu stiong ielationships with the Syiian iegime. These
gioups aie uepenuent on Syiian pationage in many iespects, to maintain theii
local influence anu ensuie theii long-teim suivival.
The hostility felt by opponents of the goveinment in Bamascus towaius
the Assau clan often goes back foi uecaues. The leauing foice in this camp is the
pieuominantly Sunni Nuslim Futuie Novement (Toyyor ol-Hustoqbol), which is
uominateu by the Baiiii family. Waliu }umblat's mainly Biuze Piogiessive
Socialist Paity anu the two Naionite Chiistian paities, the Phalangists anu Samii
}a'ja's Lebanese Foices, aie also impoitant elements of this coalition. Since the
Syiian tutelage ovei Lebanon was lifteu in 2uuS, the gap between the pio- anu
anti-Syiian camps has been giauually wiuening. In the last eight yeais, the
tensions have often culminateu in political ueaulocks anu ciises. Touay, the
vaiious Lebanese factions aie pioviuing political, mateiial anu even aimeu
suppoit to the Syiian goveinment anu the opposition.
The political conflict on the giounu ieflects the sectaiian tensions. The
majoiity of the Shi'a community (about Su-SS% of the population) suppoits the
Assau iegime, while most Sunnis (2S-Su% of the Lebanese) aie on the siue of the

2
Nichel 'Awn has been a long-time foe of Syiia since the Lebanese Civil Wai. Bowevei, when he
abanuoneu the anti-Syiian block in 2uuS anu allieu with Bizbullah in the following yeai, he
giauually became closei to the Asau iegime. Since the outbieak of the Syiian civil wai in 2u11,
'Awn has openly suppoiteu the Asau iegime many times. 'Aoun Befenus Bezbollah's Involvement
in Syiia Civil Wai.' Yo libnon, 19 Nay 2u1S. http:www.yalibnan.com2u1SuS19aoun-
uefenus-hezbollahs-involvement-in-syiia-civil-wai (accesseu: 28 }une 2u1S).
1S
opposition anu the Fiee Syiian Aimy (FSA). Recently, Sunni-Shi'ite sectaiianism
has often culminateu in violence anu aimeu confiontations. While Shi'ite
militants belonging to Bizbullah aie ciossing the boiuei anu joining the foices of
the Alawite
S
-uominateu Assau iegime, Lebanese Sunnis aie fighting alongsiue
the pieuominantly Sunni opposition. In Nay anu }une 2u1S, hunuieus of
Bizbullah fighteis aiueu the Syiian aimy in the siege of a iebel stiongholu, the
town of al-Qusayi. The opposition foices consisteu of some Lebanese Sunnis,
mostly fiom the noith of the countiy.
In Noith Lebanon, wheie the majoiity of the Sunnis live anu which has
tiauitionally been the laboiatoiy of Islamic movements in the countiy, Salafis
seem to have thiiveu since the eiuption of the Syiian conflict. The seimons of
Salafi pieacheis, who uisseminate haishly anti-Shi'a messages anu associate
Bizbullah anu the Assau iegime with a global Shi'ite conspiiacy, have become the
most populai among the locals. Salafi scholais aie giauually becoming the most
influential ieligious authoiities in the noithein Sunni community, especially in
Tiipoli, the iegion's capital. Salafis have become visible eveiywheie in the city.
Incieasing numbeis of young men aie choosing to give up theii seculai lifestyles
anu auopt a Salafi way of life. Nany of those who hau pieviously woin
fashionable clothes, enjoyeu Westein anu Aiabic populai music anu consumeu
alcohol, exchangeu theii jeans foi piopei Islamic uiess anu giew theii beaius.
The numbei anu populaiity of Salafi ieligious lessons in the mosques has iisen
shaiply since 2u11. A iapiuly giowing numbei of oiuinaiy believeis aie seeking
auvice anu ieligious seivices fiom Salafi shaykhs iathei than going to otheis,
such as the 'ulomo (ieligious scholais) of Bai al-Fatwa, the official ieligious
institution of Sunni Islam in Lebanon.
Nany iecent analyses suggest that Salafis might not only significantly
expanu theii influence on the Sunni ieligious scene, but coulu soon become one
of the most impoitant elements of the community's leaueiship.
4
In the futuie,
they coulu take the place of the tiauitional Lebanese political bosses, whose once
almost total uominance ovei Sunni Nuslims has waneu since the Aiab Spiing.

S
Alawite: an offshoot of Shi'a Islam.
4
Noui Samaha, 'Lebanon's Sunnis Seaich foi a Savioui', Aljozeero 0nline, 1S }une 2u1S,
http:www.aljazeeia.cominuepthfeatuies2u1Su62u1S61S11Su1S272727.html (accesseu:
1S }une 2u1S).
16
Sa'u al-Baiiii - the son of the muiueieu ex-piime ministei Rafiq al-Baiiii - who
was iegaiueu as the leauei of the community aftei the 2uuS Syiian withuiawal,
has lost much of his legitimacy. As piime ministei, he was unable to holu
togethei his goveining coalition aftei the 2uu9 elections. In 2u11 the al-Baiiii
goveinment was biought uown uue to a seiies of inteinal uisputes. In the eyes of
Lebanese Sunnis, Baiiii's inability to holu on to powei was pioof of his weak
leaueiship skills. Bis lack of chaiisma anu ihetoiical skills incieaseu the
uisappointment felt by his community. Al-Baiiii's successoi, the otheiwise
chaiismatic Najib Niqati, was unable to unite the Sunnis unuei his leaueiship
because he agieeu to foim a political alliance with Bizbullah. Nany Sunnis
iegaiueu him as a tiaitoi anu lost faith in tiauitional Lebanese Sunni community
leaueis.
In seveial aieas in the noith, the inhabitants saw an alteinative in the
Salafis, who hau built stiong founuations in Lebanese society uuiing the past
thiee uecaues. Buiing my visits to Lebanon in 2u11 anu 2u12, I obseiveu that
the movement's activists weie incieasingly paiticipating in managing local
communities' affaiis. In Tiipoli's al-Tabbana uistiict, some leauing Salafi figuies
establisheu a consultative council (oi sburo in Aiabic) to uiscuss local issues such
as social welfaie, the hosting of the Syiian iefugees, anu political action to fiee
piisoneis who aie being helu without tiial anu accuseu of "teiioiism". Nowauays
the inhabitants of the noith often tuin to Salafi shaykhs to solve theii uaily
pioblems as well, anu it seems that Salafis aie the piefeiieu meuiatois in social
conflicts.
Both the inteinational anu the local meuia have paiu significant attention
to the Salafi ascenuancy in Noith Lebanon. A numbei of Westein jouinalists have
ventuieu to spenu time in Tiipoli anu iepoit on the movement's activities. Salafi
peisonalities aie also fiequent guests on the Beiiut-baseu Tv channels' political
piogiams. The meuia have focuseu on whethei the incieasing Salafi piesence
might leau to the spieau of militant gioups oi ueepen the alieauy high sectaiian
tensions. Lately, jouinalists have iealizeu that Salafism has become one of the
most impoitant playeis in Lebanese politics. 0ne obseivei waineu that seculai
17
Sunni political foices aie cuiiently failing in Lebanon, anu that this is opening
the way to the establishment of Salafi "emiiates" in the Noith.
S

While the meuia now acknowleuges that Salafism is one of the most
impoitant playeis in Sunni politics, just a few yeais ago, the opposite was tiue.
0vei the past two uecaues, newspapeis, news-sites anu auuiovisual meuia
uepicteu the movement as small anu socially insignificant. Salafis weie seen as a
gioup of iauical inuiviuuals who woulu occasionally commit teiioiist attacks oi
host foieign extiemists. In 2uu7-2uu8, when, as a foieign coiiesponuent of the
Bungaiian uaily NpszoboJsq, I fiist became inteiesteu in Salafism in Tiipoli
anu the noithein iegion, the Lebanese political analysts anu jouinalists whom I
inteivieweu playeu uown the significance of the movement's piesence in the
countiy. 0ne of the leauing Lebanese expeits on Islam once laugheu, telling me
that theie weie not even one thousanu Salafis in the countiy. Be uesciibeu
Salafism as a "violent uistoition of Islam", which hau no place in the "geneially
moueiate anu toleiant" Sunni society.
Aftei conuucting seveial iounus of fieluwoik in Noith Lebanon, beginning
in 2uu9, as a ieseaichei anu uoctoial canuiuate at 0tiecht 0niveisity in the
Netheilanus, I uiew a iauically uiffeient conclusion fiom that of the above-
mentioneu Lebanese expeits.
6
It became cleai to me that the analysts in theii aii-
conuitioneu offices in Beiiut aie not ieally awaie of what is happening in the fai-
off noith. Fuitheimoie, they have faileu to iecognize Salafism as a puiitan
missionaiy movement, iathei than a netwoik of aimeu gangs piomoting al-
Qaeua style violence. In fact, I founu that Salafism hau alieauy become ueeply
iooteu among the Sunnis of Tiipoli anu the city's suiiounuing aiea. Salafi iueas
aie having a significant impact on the ieligious uiscouise of oiuinaiy Nuslims.
While wanueiing the stieets of Tiipoli anu the villages of the 'Akkai anu
Binniya iegions, I uiscoveieu that many well-iespecteu pieacheis anu imams of
mosques hau auopteu the Salafi cieeu anu methouology. I met young men with
long beaius anu tiimmeu moustaches, uiesseu in long Islamic iobes, walking in

S
Kamal Bhabyan, 'Al-Islamiyun yataqauuamun fi-l-Saha al-Sunniyya ma' taiaju' al-Fiki al-Qawmi
wa Inhisai al-Tayyai al-Nauani', al-Biyai, 2S }une 2u1S.
6
I wiote a book on the iesults of this fieluwoik: Zoltan Pall, lebonese Solofis between tbe 6ulf onJ
Furope: Bevelopment, Iroctionolizotion onJ Tronsnotionol Networks of Solofism in lebonon
(Amsteiuam: Amsteiuam 0niveisity Piess, 2u1S).
18
the populai city quaiteis anu auvising oiuinaiy inhabitants on matteis of
ieligion. Inteiestingly, the people who encounteieu these activists, visiteu theii
mosques anu attenueu theii infoimal ieligious lessons weie not awaie that they
belongeu to a specific movement. 0nce, I hau a uiscussion with a few Salafi
pieacheis anu a hanuful of local men in a bakeiy in Tiipoli's Nina uistiict. Aftei
the pieacheis hau gone, I iefeiieu to them as Salafis in fiont of the locals. The
lattei expiesseu astonishment; one of them tolu me: "Wollobi bol sbobob
toyyibin-toyyibin, mo 'oroft onnon Solofiyyo! |I sweai to uou, those guys aie veiy
goou people, I uiun't know they weie Salafisj."
Baving plenty of such expeiiences maue me iealize that oiuinaiy people
often ielate Salafism to extiemism anu militant actions. The pieacheis whom
they askeu foi ieligious auvice anu often consulteu on social matteis hau nevei
peisuaueu these people to auheie to a paiticulai movement. They only calleu on
locals to ietuin to what they believe aie the puie founuations of Islam: the
iulings that aie ueiiveu fiom a liteial ieauing of the Qui'an anu the Piophetical
tiauition. The Salafis also tiieu to convince them to abanuon Sufi beliefs anu
iituals, which they labeleu as innovations (biJo'), anu which hau been common
in the aiea foi centuiies.
Piobably one of the main ieasons why Salafis iaiely attiacteu the
attention of jouinalists anu political analysts is that they tenu not to establish
oiganizations. Theii movement uoes not have an official membeiship, unlike
othei Islamic movements, such as the Nuslim Biotheihoou oi Bizb al-Tahiii.
Salafis usually piefei infoimal netwoiking. The centeis of theii activism aie the
mosques, ieligious enuowments anu ieligious colleges (mo'obiJ sboro'iyyo)
wheie they pioviue seconuaiy oi sometimes highei euucation. Insteau of using
foimal institutional channels, they mostly (oi almost solely) iely on infoimal,
inteipeisonal contacts. Sometimes even the active followeis of Salafism uo not
see themselves as belonging to a movement. They only consiuei themselves as
inuiviuuals who aie following the piopei teachings of Islam. Foi them, it is
natuial to netwoik with those who have similai ieligious views.
I obseiveu that besiues coiiecting the ieligious beliefs anu piactices of
oiuinaiy people, Salafis also pioviue them with mateiial seivices. The Lebanese
state has laigely faileu to pioviue welfaie foi those facing socioeconomic
19
haiuship. Salafis have filleu this vacuum by offeiing fiee meuical tieatment foi
the pooi anu uistiibuting money. Buiing Ramauan, they usually set up tents
wheie eveiyone can bieak the fast (iftor) foi fiee. Buge amounts of capital aie
neeueu to maintain the vast Salafi chaiitable netwoiks, which extenu almost
eveiywheie in the noith. By inteiviewing many Salafi ieligious scholais anu
pieacheis, I founu out that chaiities anu inuiviuual uonois in the Aiabian uulf
aie the main souices of financial suppoit foi Salafi benevolence in Lebanon.
Buiing the last foui yeais, I maue tiips anu conuucteu fieluwoik in
Kuwait anu Qatai to tiace the tiansnational netwoiks of my Lebanese Salafi
infoimants. I maue inquiiies about the two most impoitant tiansnational chaiity
institutions that aie piesent in Lebanon. The fiist is the Kuwaiti }omo'iyyot lbyo
ol-Turotb ol-lslomi (Revival of Islamic Beiitage Society), the seconu is the Qataii
Huossosot ol-Sboykb 'AiJ ol-Kboyriyyo (Shaykh 'Aiu Chaiity Association). Both
institutions aie piesent in uozens of countiies aiounu the woilu anu aie
connecteu to Lebanese Salafis thiough a uense netwoik of infoimal ielations.
Buiing my fieluwoik in the uulf I gaineu valuable infoimation about how the
local manifestations of Salafism aie connecteu to each othei, anu how the
tiansfoimation of the movement in Sauui Aiabia anu Kuwait has ieshapeu the
map of Salafism in Lebanon.
The tiansnational netwoiks of the Salafis in Noith Lebanon not only
extenu to the uulf, but they also have many noues in Westein Euiope. While
Lebanese Salafis tiavel to the uulf chiefly to acquiie sponsoiship oi stuuy at one
of the Islamic univeisities, in Euiope they often become influential pieacheis anu
leaueis of Nuslim communities. I maue fielu tiips to The Bague in the
Netheilanus, to Beilin in ueimany anu to 0iebio in Sweuen to inteiview anu
obseive the activities of Lebanese Salafis. Buiing these tiavels, I gaineu a lot of
infoimation about how Salafism in Tiipoli anu its suiiounuing aiea has become
pait of a uense web of tiansnational ielations that links Euiope to the uiffeient
localities in the Niuule East.
The swift anu poweiful appeaiance of the Salafis in the Lebanese public
spheie aftei the Aiab ievolutions of 2u11 anu the eiuption of the Syiian civil wai
came as no suipiise to me. The Salafis simply conveiteu the social capital that
they hau acquiieu ovei moie than two uecaues of missionaiy woik among the
2u
Sunni community. Touay, an incieasing numbei of oiuinaiy Sunnis aie awaie of
the meaning of the teim "Salafi", anu uo not equate it with teiioiism. Accoiuing
to my obseivations, the woiu also has positive connotations. In the imagination
of many, the "Salafi" embouies the image of the iueal Nuslim, anu is theiefoie
entitleu to leau the community.

.E) %-2C' -% 0E&' '0C5=

In this stuuy, I focus on those Salafi gioups that aie mainly baseu in Sunni Noith
Lebanon, anu which aie aiming to achieve change in the ieligious iuentity of the
population, mostly by means of non-violent pioselytization. Nilitant Salafi
netwoiks lie laigely beyonu the scope of my inquiiy, although I mention them
wheie it is necessaiy to unueistanu the uevelopment of mainstieam Salafism. Ny
choice of focus is baseu on my obseivation that the Sunni community in Noith
Lebanon has been unueigoing a seiious ieligious tiansfoimation. 0luei
authoiities, such as Sufism anu the tiauitional Islam iepiesenteu by the official
ieligious bouy Bai al-Fatwa, have iecently been losing influence. Sunni Nuslims,
especially the young geneiation, aie incieasingly auopting elements of Salafi
teaching. This "Salafization" of oiuinaiy ieligious uiscouise maue me eagei to
unueistanu the logic anu uynamics of this movement.
Although theie aie uiveise iueological tienus within Salafism, active
paiticipants in the movement aie uniteu in theii belief in the same cieeu, which
is baseu on a liteial ieauing of Sciiptuie. Fuitheimoie, they aie convinceu that
the Lebanese Sunni community, as an integial pait of the global 0mmo (Islamic
Nation), is being taigeteu by vaiious conspiiacies launcheu by the Shi'ites anu
the West. Salafis consiuei themselves the vanguaiu of Sunnis in Lebanon. They
believe that the community can only be saveu if its membeis ietuin to the
oiiginal tenets of Islam, which aie iuentical to Salafism, anu leave behinu
eiioneous innovations anu foieign piactices. The methous they use to spieau
theii teachings among the people aie often veiy uiveise. Some Salafis iely solely
on coiiecting the minute uetail of people's ieligious piactices, while otheis even
engage in politics in oiuei to spieau the call (Jo'wo).
21
In this stuuy, I examine the uynamics anu anatomy of the Salafi Jo'wo in
Noith Lebanon. I intenu to explain bow anu wby the movement emeigeu as a key
playei in the Lebanese Sunni sociopolitical context. Ny analysis focuses on the
tiajectoiy anu stiuctuie of Noith Lebanese Salafism. Limiting my inquiiy to the
local context woulu not pioviue auequate answeis to my questions, so I also
examine the tiansfoimation of the tiansnational enviionment anu the uynamics
of Salafism on the tiansnational level. I pay special attention to the links between
the movement in Noith Lebanon anu the Aiabian uulf anu Euiopean Nuslim
communities. Social movement theoiy pioviues useful tools foi my analysis,
facilitating oui unueistanuing of how the inteiplay between the exteinal context
anu the specific featuies of Salafism has biought the movement to piominence. I
shall uevelop this theoietical fiamewoik fuithei in Chaptei 1, anu will uiscuss
the vaiious funuamentals of social movement theoiy in the latei chapteis.
In this stuuy, I analyze the histoiical uevelopment of Salafism in Noith
Lebanon. I pay paiticulai attention to how ceitain changes in the sociopolitical
context, such as the weakening of tiauitional ieligious authoiity anu the
emeigence of sectaiian tensions, have influenceu the tiajectoiy of the movement.
An especially impoitant pait of my inquiiy is the fiagmentation of Salafism anu
its split into two cleaily uistinguishable main iueological stieams, a puiist one
anu a moie activist one. I pioviue insight into the theological uebates anu
histoiical uevelopments that leu to the global split in Salafism. Then I uiscuss
how the inteinal tiansfoimation of the movement in Kuwait leu to the
fiagmentation of the Salafi community in Noith Lebanon.
Anothei majoi focus of my inquiiy is the stiuctuie of the Salafi Jo'wo. I
examine the sociological aspects of Salafi ieligious authoiity in Noithein
Lebanese Sunni society, anu how Salafis have constiucteu this authoiity. This
analysis not only enhances oui unueistanuing of why Salafis aie able to make
many people accept theii veision of Islam as oithouoxy, but also explains ceitain
peculiaiities of the builu-up of Salafi netwoiks in Noith Lebanon, such as the
significant iole of the 'ulomo compaieu to the manifestation of the movement
elsewheie. In auuition, I examine the shape anu function of these netwoiks at the
local level anu analyze theii tiansnational extensions. I show how infoimal
netwoiks at both the local anu tiansnational levels facilitate the mobilization anu
22
ieciuitment of Salafis in the absence of a foimal oiganizational stiuctuie. An
impoitant focus of my stuuy is how Salafis pioviue acceptable explanations anu
offei attiactive solutions to contempoiaiy pioblems by piesenting them thiough
the piism of theii own iueology.

G)0E-5-$-6=

Ethnogiaphy pioviueu the main methou of acquiiing uata foi my stuuy. Since
theie is haiuly any wiitten uocumentation on Lebanese Salafism anu meuia
iepoits aie laigely unieliable, I hau to iely oveiwhelmingly on the infoimation I
gaineu by talking to people anu obseiving theii activities. The main bouy of
souices foi my analysis was collecteu between 2uu9 anu 2u12 uuiing a seiies of
fieluwoik tiips to Lebanon, Kuwait, Qatai, ueimany, the Netheilanus anu
Sweuen. Altogethei, I spent about one yeai in the fielu. In this peiiou I conuucteu
semi-stiuctuieu inteiviews, engageu in infoimal conveisations anu paiticipateu
in the uaily activities of auheients of Salafism.
Buiing a peiiou of moie than six months of fieluwoik in Lebanon, I
inteivieweu oi hau infoimal conveisations with moie than one hunuieu Salafi
shaykhs anu active paiticipants. I also hau many conveisations with
sympathizeis of Salafism, who hau not fully auopteu the movement's iulings
fully, but neveitheless piayeu in Salafi mosques anu tenueu to follow the
guiuance of Salafi ieligious scholais. Impoitant uata weie collecteu fiom
oiuinaiy inhabitants of Noith Lebanon who coulu not be calleu followeis of the
movement, anu fiom opponents of Salafism, in paiticulai the officials of Bai al-
Fatwa anu the membeis of Bizbullah. Appioaching the Salafis was not always an
easy task. Since these inuiviuuals hau often faceu peisecution in the past, anu
sometimes in the piesent as well, they weie unueistanuably cautious about
talking to a Westein ieseaichei. Nost of the time I neeueu to gain theii tiust
befoie I was able to get valuable infoimation fiom them.
Establishing fiienuships with Salafis of the same age as me (late twenties,
eaily thiities) pioveu to be the best way of getting insight into the stiuctuie of
the movement anu gaining access to the iight people who woulu shaie valuable
2S
infoimation with me. I also engageu in ianuom conveisation with oiuinaiy
people in public places such as cafs, iestauiants oi beaches neai the poit city of
Tiipoli. Asking these inuiviuuals about theii views on anu ielations with Salafis
gieatly helpeu me to unueistanu the natuie of the movement's influence anu its
place in Noith Lebanese society. I paiticipateu in Salafi ieligious lessons in
mosques anu piivate homes on an almost uaily basis, anu these obseivations
pioveu to be extiemely valuable auuitions to my bouy of uata.
Because of the uense tiansnational ielations of Lebanese Salafism, it
woulu not be possible to iely only on ieseaich conuucteu in a single locality foi
my analysis. Nulti-siteu ethnogiaphy, which follows the connections anu
movements of people anu the flow of iesouices acioss space,
7
pioviues a useful
methouological tool to ieseaich the movement in its tiansnational context. Since
uonois in the uulf aie impoitant souices of financial suppoit foi Lebanese
Salafis, anu the tiansnational netwoiks connecting the Levant with the Aiabian
Peninsula cannot be neglecteu if we wish to unueistanu the uynamics of
Lebanese Salafism, I conuucteu thiee months of intensive fieluwoik in Kuwait
anu maue a two-week fielu tiip to Qatai. In both Kuwait anu Qatai, my main aim
was to inteiview the Salafi leaueis who contiol the financial capital uestineu to
suppoit Salafis abioau. At the same time, in Kuwait I manageu to expanu the
scope of my inquiiy anu also talk to oiuinaiy followeis of Salafism anu obseive
theii activities. This helpeu me to map the infoimal social netwoiks that connect
the movement in this uulf monaichy with that in Noith Lebanon.
Ny multi-siteu fieluwoik also extenueu to Euiope, wheie I chiefly
inteivieweu Lebanese Salafi pieacheis about theii Jo'wo in Nuslim minoiity
communities. 0ne of my most piouuctive fielu tiips was to Sweuen, wheie a
Lebanese Palestinian Salafi shaykh, whom I hau inteivieweu seveial times befoie
in Lebanon, hau been appointeu as the heau of an Islamic centei. Be let me
obseive his activities anu inteiview his followeis uuiing my shoit stay, which
gieatly helpeu me to unueistanu how tiansnational netwoiks facilitate the
impoit of Salafi iueas fiom the Niuule East to Euiope.

7
Naik-Anthony Falzon, 'Nulti-Siteu Ethnogiaphy: Theoiy, Piaxis anu Locality in Contempoiaiy
Reseaich', in Naik-Anthony Falzon (eu), Hulti-SiteJ Ftbnoqropby: Tbeory, Proxis onJ locolity in
Contemporory Reseorcb (Fainham anu Builington: Ashgate, 2uu9).
24
Besiues the inteiviews, infoimal conveisations anu obseivations, I
collecteu hunuieus of iecoiuings of seimons given by Lebanese Salafi shaykhs. I
also acquiieu a lot of piinteu Jo'wo mateiial, such as leaflets anu booklets anu
fotwos, in mosques anu Islamic bookshops. Ny tiaining in Aiabic philology
facilitateu the analysis of these iecoiueu anu wiitten souices, which pioviueu a
moie nuanceu unueistanuing of the Salafi uiscouise than that which woulu have
come fiom inteipeisonal veibal encounteis alone.

.E) '0:C20C:) -% 0E&' ,--3

This book contains eight chapteis. Chaptei 1 claiifies the most impoitant notions
anu concepts that aie useu in this stuuy. Fiist, it uefines what Salafism is anu
uesciibes its basic tenets. This is followeu by a ciitique of the liteiatuie, which
ueals with the classification of Salafism into uiffeient factions, such as puiists,
politicos anu jihauis. I then piesent my own appioach, which uistinguishes two
main anu foui sub-factions. The seconu half of the chaptei places Salafism within
the iealm of "social movements" anu uiscusses the application of the
funuamentals of social movement theoiy as the main theoietical backgiounu of
this stuuy.
Chaptei 2 uiscusses the uevelopment of Salafism in the uulf, which is
ciucial to unueistanuing the uynamics of Lebanese Salafism. The fiist section
explains the ioots of the fiagmentation of Salafism in Sauui Aiabia, aftei which
the tiansfoimation of Salafism in Kuwait is uiscusseu. Kuwaiti Salafism is
uensely inteiconnecteu with its equivalent in Lebanon; the Kuwait-baseu Salafi
chaiity }omo'iyyot lbyo ol-Turotb ol-lslomi (Revival of Islamic Beiitage Society)
is one of the main uonois suppoiting Salafism in Noith Lebanon. The last section
biiefly uiscusses the uevelopment of the othei main sponsoi of Lebanese
Salafism, the otori Huossosot ol-Sboykb 'AiJ ol-Kboyriyyo (Shaykh 'Aiu Chaiity
Association).
Chaptei S uiscusses how Salafism evolveu into a piominent social
movement in Tiipoli anu its suiiounuings uuiing the 199us. In the chaptei, the
concept of "political oppoitunity stiuctuies" is useu to explain how specific
2S
changes in the exteinal sociopolitical context can pioviue a social movement
with oppoitunities. In the case of Salafism in Noith Lebanon, these changes weie
the weakening the tiauitional Sunni ieligious elite, the ue-legitimation of
competitois, the emeiging Sunni-Shi'i tensions anu the appeaiance of sponsois
fiom the uulf.
Chaptei 4 explains how Salafism in Lebanon split into a puiist anu a
boroki (activist) faction. The chaptei iuentifies the selective iepiession by the
authoiities anu the mateiial suppoit pioviueu by }ama'iyyat Ihya' al-Tuiath al-
Islami to the puiists as the main factois that leu to the uisintegiation of the once
ielatively unifieu Salafi movement in the countiy. In the following sections, the
uynamics of the puiist anu boroki factions aie explaineu. At the enu of the
chaptei, I uiscuss the impact of the Aiab ievolutions on Lebanese Salafism.
Chaptei S explains the constiuction of the ieligious authoiity of the Noith
Lebanese Salafi Shaykhs. Biawing on a Webeiian uefinition of ieligious
authoiity, it is aigueu that the Salafis' authoiity is giounueu in theii ieuefinition
of oithouoxy. Salafis employ uiffeient "techniques of authoiity" to inuicate that
theiis is the iight path. These techniques aie the piacticing of a "moueiate
asceticism", implementing bisbo (commanuing iight, foibiuuing wiong) anu
pioviuing foi the social anu mateiial neeus of the community. The lattei can
incluue meuiation in social conflicts, theieby pioviuing access to pationage
netwoiks. To explain this, I pioviue seveial case stuuies in the last sections of the
chaptei.
Chaptei 6 analyzes the stiuctuie anu functions of Salafi netwoiks at the
local level. Salafi netwoiks aie vieweu within the context of civil society, which is
uiscusseu using the alteinative appioach to civil society uevelopeu by
Chiistophei Bann. The chaptei uiscusses the social composition of Salafi
netwoiks anu the mouality of the evolution of inteipeisonal netwoik ties.
Chaptei 7 uiscusses the uynamics of Salafi tiansnational netwoiking,
giving a uetaileu pictuie of the ties between Noith Lebanon anu the uulf. Both
the iole of infoimal, inteipeisonal ties anu the iole playeu by Salafi chaiities in
the uulf aie analyzeu. The last section explains how infoimal links with Euiope
anu the uulf facilitate the uissemination of the Salafi message.
26
Chaptei 8 uiscusses the significance of "fiaming" anu the piocess of
conveision in the ieciuitment of passive anu active auheients of Salafism. The
fiist pait of the chaptei explains how successful fiaming activity pioviues
oiuinaiy people with an unueistanuing of what is happening in the wiuei
sociopolitical iealm. The seconu half of the chaptei examines the appeal of Salafi
iueology to young people who feel alienateu in Noith Lebanese society foi
socioeconomic anu iuentity-ielateu ieasons. These youths become committeu
followeis of Salafism who seek to auopt the movement's iulings in full by
unueigoing conveision. I also uiscuss how conveision is facilitateu by Salafi
netwoiking stiategies.

27
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K)%&*&*6 "#$#%&'(

Bespite the iapiuly giowing acauemic liteiatuie on Salafism, the teim iemains
beset by a lack of claiity, even foi those who aie otheiwise inteiesteu in Islam. I
theiefoie consiuei it impoitant to offei a shoit intiouuction to the movement at
the outset. In this chaptei I fiist sketch the uevelopment anu belief system of the
movement. Aftei this I uiscuss the inteinal vaiiety of Salafism, anu ieview anu
ciitique the liteiatuie that attempts to classify the uiffeient Salafi stieams. Then I
piopose my own classification of the movement's uistinct factions. In the last
section of the chaptei, I uefine Salafism as a social movement anu categoiize it as
a "giounueu utopian movement". Finally, I summaiize the funuamentals of social
movement theoiy that I use uuiing this thesis to explain the emeigence, means
of mobilization anu ieciuitment of Salafism.

.E) 6)*)#$-6= -% "#$#%&'(

Befoie beginning my analysis, it is necessaiy to claiify the meaning of the teim
"Salafism" anu its impoitance in the Islamic context. The teim is ueiiveu fiom the
Aiabic expiession ol-Solof ol-Solib (the iighteous ancestois), which iefeis to the
fiist thiee geneiations of Islam, namely the companions of the Piophet
Nuhammau (sobobo) anu the fiist two geneiations of theii followeis. Salafis
intenu to puiify the ieligion, iiuuing it of foieign elements anu ietuining to the
oiiginal foim of Islam, the unueistanuing of the Piophet anu the sobobo. The
Salafis aie not alone in emulating the pious pieuecessois; in fact, all Nuslims
iegaiu them as theii piimaiy example, but theie is no consensus as to how they
unueistoou anu piacticeu the ieligion. In the sense that they look up to ol-Solof
ol-Solib, all Nuslims aie Salafis. Bowevei, those who aie calleu by this name in
28
the contempoiaiy peiiou iepiesent a stieam of Islam that piomotes a liteial
unueistanuing of the Qui'an anu the Sunna (the piophetic tiauition: the
collection of sayings, piactices anu habits of Nuhammau, iecoiueu anu
tiansmitteu by men fiom geneiation to geneiation; one single saying oi piactice
is a boJitb, (pl. oboJitb) in Aiabic anu leaves little place foi human ieasoning
{oql) anu opinion (roy). Salafis tiy to imitate the Piophet anu his companions
not only in theii beliefs, but also in theii uaily piactices anu habits, as in theii
uiess oi by using ceitain foimulas when speaking (see also Chaptei S).
Salafism is often associateu with Sauui Aiabia anu the official foim of
ieligion in the kinguom, often calleu Wahhabism. This appioach suggests that
Salafism was oiiginally a local piactice of the ueseits of the Aiabian Peninsula,
alien to othei paits of the Islamic woilu, which only spieau at the global level
uue to the financial means of the Sauui state.
1
This simplistic anu neai-exclusive
focus on the iole of Sauui Aiabia neglects a long theological uebate in the histoiy
of Islam that began in the seconu centuiy aftei the Bijia, anu is still continuing.
In the eaily peiiou of the Abbasiu Caliphate, Sunnite ieligious scholais split into
two factions.
The cause of the schism was thinking on the ielation of ieasoning {oql) to
the sacieu text (noss). The fiist gioup calleu themselves Nu'tazila anu helu that
ieasoning shoulu take piioiity when inteipieting the Text. They fiequently useu
metaphois when explaining the Qui'an anu the Sunna. The seconu gioup, the Ahl
al-Bauith (oi tiauitionalists), was the absolute antithesis of the foimei. Leu by
the founuei of one of the foui Sunni moJbobs (ieligious schools), they uiu not
leave any place foi oql in the inteipietation of the Text, anu woulu only accept
the stiict, liteial meaning. Accoiuing to them, text coulu be pioven only by text,
anu not by logic. Although the Nu'tazila have mostly uisappeaieu, theii place has
been taken by the Asboris (ueiiveu fiom the name of theii founuei, Abu-l-Basan
al-Ash'aii), who tiy to finu a balance between the oql anu the noss. In othei
woius, they allow the use of oql only in the fiamewoik of sboriò.
2

1
vincenzo 0liveti, Terrors Source: Tbe lJeoloqy of Wobbobi-Solofism onJ lts Consequences
(Biimingham: Amaueus Books, 2uuu).
2
}effiy R. Balveison, Tbeoloqy onJ CreeJ in Sunni lslom (New Yoik: Palgiave Nacmillan, 2u1u),
pp. 1S-S1.
29
Touay, the Ash'aii school uominates Sunni Islam in most paits of the
woilu. Bowevei, the pioponents of the liteialist inteipietation nevei
uisappeaieu; followeis of this stieam (which is also calleu Atbori school) of
ieligious thinking have always been piesent in the histoiy of Islam. Peihaps theii
most significant auvocates have been the meuieval scholai Taqi al-Bin Ahmau
ibn Taymiyya (126S-1S28), whose woiks aie the main souice of inspiiation foi
mouein Salafis, his pupil Ibn Qayyim al-}awziyya (1292-1SSu), anu the 18
th
-
centuiy Yemeni scholai Nuhammeu al-Shawkani.
S

The contempoiaiy ienaissance of the tiauitionalist tienu is laigely uue to
the movement inspiieu by Nuhammau bin 'Abu al-Wahhab, an 18
th
-centuiy
scholai fiom Najui (a iegion in Cential Aiabia). Be ieviveu the Atbori school as a
poweiful movement which intenueu to cleanse the Aiabian peninsula of all
beliefs anu piactices that weie peiceiveu to be heietical oi biJo'. Sufi tiauitions
anu ceitain local customs, such as visiting the giaves of holy peisons to iequest
theii meuiation with uou oi the visiting of holy sites, belongeu to these
categoiies. Commins suggests that Nuhammau bin 'Abu al-Wahhab's tiavels to
Iiaq anu his stuuies in Neuina, wheie he was piobably influenceu by the
contempoiaiy Inuian boJitb-ievivalist tienu, might have shapeu his ieligious
outlook.
4

In spieauing his ieligious views, he founu an ally in a local chieftain,
Nuhammau bin Sa'uu. Nuhammau bin 'Abu al-Wahhab anu his successois
pioviueu ieligious legitimacy foi the expansionist ambitions of the Sa'uu clan.
S

Latei in the 2u
th
centuiy, this alliance became the base of the mouein Sauui
Aiabian state anu, with this, the tiauitionalist school became the uominant
ieligious inteipietation in the kinguom. Aftei the oil boom, when the uulf States
became hugely wealthy, Riyauh's monaichs began using Islam anu its tiauitional
inteipietation to fuithei theii own impeiial ambitions. By uominating ieligion,
theii puipose was to become the uominant powei in the Niuule East anu even in
the whole Islamic woilu. To fulfill these ambitions, Sauui Aiabia investeu billions

S
Beinaiu Baykel, Revivol onJ Reform in lslom: Tbe leqocy of HubommoJ ol-Sbowkoni
(Cambiiuge: Cambiiuge 0niveisity Piess, 2uuS).
4
Baviu Commins, Tbe Wobbobi Hission onJ SouJi Arobio (Lonuon: I. B. Tauiis & Co Ltu, 2uu6),
pp. 11-12.
S
Ibiu., pp. 7-7u.
Su
of uollais in builuing mosques anu Islamic centeis woiluwiue anu tiaining
ieligious scholais ('ulomo) to piopagate the tiauitionalist inteipietation.
6
This
pioselytizing effoit gieatly facilitateu the ievival of the tiauitionalist school. Its
contempoiaiy followeis wiuely call themselves Salafis anu label theii call ol-
Bowo ol-Solofiyyo (Salafi pieaching). This is also the teim that is most commonly
useu in the acauemic liteiatuie that focuses on this movement.
It is impoitant to note that besiues the intellectual tiauition of the Atbori
school, contempoiaiy Salafism has anothei impoitant souice: the Islamic
iefoimism of the enu of the 19
th
anu the beginning of the 2u
th
centuiy, leu by
}amal al-Bin al-Afghani, Nuhammau 'Abuuh anu Rashiu Riua in Egypt. Although
in piopagating a iationalist appioach to ieligious texts, theii theology uiffeieu
fiom that of contempoiaiy Salafis, Salafis uiu auopt one of theii methous. This
was the ijtiboJ, oi the making of legal uecisions by means of the inuepenuent
inteipietation of legal souices insteau of auheience to one of the foui legal
schools (toqliJ), a methou that hau been neglecteu by Sunni ieligious scholais foi
centuiies. ljtiboJ in contempoiaiy Salafism was ieneweu laigely uue to Shaykh
Nasii al-Bin al-Albani, a Syiian scholai of Albanian oiigins (1914-1999) whose
ieauing of the Islamic iefoimists' wiitings hau convinceu him to ievive the
concept.
7
Latei in his life, one of the Islamic iefoimist figuies, Rashiu Riua (186S-
19SS), became closei to Salafi thinking by ielying moie on the boJitb anu less on
ieasoning. Nany contempoiaiy scholais auopteu Salafism by ieauing the ol-
Honor jouinal publisheu by Rashiu Riua in Caiio.
This biief histoiical intiouuction may suffice to show that Salafism is not
iuentical to Wahhabism, since the concept itself is much oluei than the pieaching
of Nuhammau bin 'Abu al-Wahhab, anu Salafis have maintaineu a continuous
piesence beyonu the Aiabian Peninsula. The auoption of Salafi uoctiines by the
Sauui state anu theii subsequent woiluwiue piopagation uue to the countiy's
financial abilities only ievitalizeu a thousanu-yeai-olu concept. So, in my opinion,
just as we cannot use the teim "Leninism" to iefei to the entiie bouy of
Communist iueology, "Wahhabism" is also an incoiiect teim to uesciibe Salafism.

6
Baykel, Revivol onJ Reform in lslom, pp. 42-4S.
7
Lacioix, Stephane. 'Between Revolution anu Apoliticism: Nasii al-Bin al-Albani anu Bis Impact
on the Shaping of Contempoiaiy Salafism' in Roel Neijei (eu), 6lobol Solofism (Columbia
0niveisity Piess, 2uu9), p. 6S.
S1

.E) 2-:) 0)*)0' -% 0E) "#$#%& ,)$&)% '='0)(

Salafi òqiJo (cieeu) ievolves aiounu towbiJ, the unity of uou. 0f couise, this is
the coie concept of Islam, but unlike the Ash'aiites anu the Shi'ites, Salafis ieject
any philosophical ieasoning. Nost mouein Salafi wiiteis uiviue towbiJ into thiee
basic components, a uistinction that is baseu on the woiks of Nuhammau bin
Àbu al-Wahhab.
8

The fiist pait is that of towbiJ ol-rububiyyo (oneness of Loiuship). It
means that uou is the sole cieatoi of the univeise, he is omnipotent, anu nothing
is compaiable to him. Safai al-Bawali, a piominent Salafi scholai, iuentifies this
pait of towbiJ as iuentical to the unity of uou's ueeus (towbiJ ol-ofol). Be states
that eveiything is the iesult of uou's will anu omnipotent natuie, anu that his
ueeus aie not ueteimineu by mateiial factois. In one of his wiitings, al-Bawali
gives the Qui'anic example of the }ews (bonu lsroil) who uiu not believe that
theii victoiy ovei the Phaiaoh was only uue to uou's meicy. Theiefoie they hau
to wanuei foi 4u yeais in the ueseit while uou feu them with "Nanna" anu
"Salwa". Aftei that, they iecognizeu that uou pioviues human beings with
eveiything anu weie finally alloweu to entei the Boly Lanu.
9

The seconu pait of towbiJ is towbiJ ol-ulubiyyo (oneness of uouship) oi
towbiJ ol-ìboJo (oneness of woiship). It means that only uou ueseives any kinu
of woiship, anu that all ieligious piactices must be uiiecteu towaiu uou alone.
Salafis stiictly foibiu the seeking of any kinu of meuiation (towossul) anu aiu
(istiqbotbo) fiom saints, something that is common piactice almost eveiywheie
else in the Islamic woilu. This is one of the ieasons foi theii hostility towaiu
Sufism. As al-Bawali wiites, "if you believe that uou is the pioviuei of victoiy
then you shoulu not ask foi it fiom somebouy else".
1u

8
Nuhammau bin Àbu al-Wahhab, Kitob ol-TowbiJ (Riyauh: Naktabat al-Baiamayn, 2uu1).
9
Safai al-Bawali, 'Aqsom ol-TowbiJ, unuateu text, available online at:
http:www.alhawali.cominuex.cfm.methou=home.SubContent&contentIB=872&keywoius=%
B8%A7%B9%84%B8%AA%B9%88%B8%AB%B9%8A%B8%AF (accesseu: 2 Septembei
2u1u).
1u
Ibiu.
S2
The thiiu pait is towbiJ ol-osmo wo-l-sifot (oneness of the names anu
attiibutes). The Qui'an contains the 99 names of uou (such as ol-6boffor - the
foigiving, ol-Rozzoq - the pioviuei, anu so foith). The Book also names the
attiibutes of uou, such as his hanus, his face, anu so foith. These pioviue the
basis foi metaphoiical explanations anu the use of ieasoning. Foi example, while
Ashàiites explain the mentioning of uou's hanus in the Qui'an as the expiession
of his powei,
11
Salafis stiictly ieject this appioach. Since these things aie
mentioneu in the Text, they have to be accepteu liteially. Bowevei, Salafis also
ieject anthiopomoiphism; Nuslims have to accept that the human minu is not
able to unueistanu the substance of uou, theiefoie the names anu attiibutes
must not be explaineu (bilo koyf).
Salafis consiuei the pieseivation anu uefense of towbiJ to be a Nuslim's
most impoitant task. The opposite of the 0neness of uou is sbirk, that is,
associating othei things with uou (foi instance towossul anu istiqbotbo aie
consiueieu to be sbirk). Theiefoie Salafis fight any innovations (biJò) that
contiauict the Qui'an anu Sunna, because biJò can leau to sbirk. To give an
example, piaying moie than five times a uay is biJò, because the Text mentions
only five piayeis. A Salafi scholai tolu me that weaiing jeans is also biJò
accoiuing to his unueistanuing, because by uoing so, the Nuslim associates
himself with Westein cultuie anu customs that contiauict Islam.
12

To pieseive towbiJ anu avoiu sbirk, Salafis cling to the absolute authoiity
of the Text, which they inteipiet liteially, anu also put gieat emphasis on the
boJitb. While they uo not accept the inteipietation of the Qui'an by metaphoiical
means, they think that if a ceitain oyo is uncleai, then the explanation can be
founu in the boJitb; this, howevei, calls foi a skilleu scholai. This is why Salafis
put gieat emphasis on ìlm ol-boJitb (the science of boJitb), which is basically the
aichaeology of the Text to finu answeis to specific questions. Bauith scholais
examine the cieuibility of a boJitb by analyzing the chains of tiansmission
(isnoJ). 0nlike Ash'aiis, howevei, they believe that it is foibiuuen to ciiticize the
content (motn) of the piophetical tiauition. The foimei might classify a boJitb as
coiiupteu on the giounus that its substance uoes not agiee with the spiiit of the

11
'Ash'aiiyya', in Cliffoiu Eumunu Bosswoith (eu), Tbe FncyclopoeJio of lslom, 2
nu
eun. (Leiuen:
E.}. Biill, 1986).
12
Inteiview with a Palestinian Salafi sheikh, Tiipoli, 17 0ctobei 2uu9.
SS
Qui'an.
1S
In auuition, while they aie not alloweu to use ieasoning to ueciphei the
meaning of the Text, they can explain the exact meaning using mouein Aiabic,
since the wiuei public is not always able to unueistanu the classical language.
As I mentioneu above, Salafis auopteu the concept of ijtiboJ to finu a
solution in those cases when they weie unable to finu an exact answei in the
Text. Bowevei, while Islamic iefoimists anu Shiìtes use ieasoning when
piacticing ijtiboJ, Salafis iestiict themselves to finuing analogies (qiyos) in the
Qui'an anu Sunna. Foi instance, they foibiu the use of cannabis on the basis of
the piohibition of alcohol. Although theie is no woiu in the Text about cannabis,
like alcohol, it affects people's ability to make uecisions.
14

At the same time as ielying heavily on ijtiboJ, Salafis staunchly oppose
toqliJ. In theii uiscouise, this teim tenus to iefei to the exclusive acceptance of
the iulings of one of the foui moJbobib (sing. moJbob, the legal schools of Islam).
ToqliJ can also have anothei meaning, which is the unquestioneu following of
the legal opinion of an inuiviuual.
1S
In Salafi aiguments, this can eventually leau
to the woiship of humans. They often iefei to the Qui'an veise "They take theii
iabbis anu theii monks as loius."
16
In theii view, eveiy Nuslim has to have a
uiiect ielationship with Sciiptuie. This, howevei, uoes not mean that each
inuiviuual must be his oi hei own mufti (a peison who piouuces legal opinion).
Someone can accept a ieligious scholai's opinion on the conuition that he oi she
has been piesenteu with the Jolil (pioof) fiom the Text that leu the scholai to a
paiticulai conclusion. Salafis call this alteinative to the toqliJ ittibo'.
17

0ne of the most impoitant featuies uistinguishing Salafism fiom othei
sects is ol-wolo wo-l-boro, which can be tianslateu as "loyalty anu uisavowal".
This concept enteieu the tiauitionalist school via Ibn Taymiyya anu was

1S
Nuhammau al-uhazali, ol-Sunno ol-Nobowiyyo Boyn Abl ol-Iiqb wo-Abl ol-EoJitb, 1Sth eun.
(Caiio: Bai al-Shuiuq, 2uu7), pp. S9-4S.
14
Ibiu. Alcohol was oiiginally piohibiteu in Islam when one of the sahaba ieciteu the Qui'an
incoiiectly aftei uiinking. Wael B. Ballaq, A Eistory of lslomic leqol Tbeories: An lntroJuction to
Sunni 0sul ol-Iiqb (Cambiiuge: Cambiiuge 0niveisity Piess, 1997), p. 242.
1S
Tiauitional scholais, who aie mostly pioponents of the moJbobib, often contest the iejection of
the toqliJ. Accoiuing to them, auheience to one of the legal schools is necessaiy to pievent
anaichy anu to pievent peisonal moou fiom influencing the issuing of a legal opinion. Neii
Batina, '0lomo, Politics, onJ tbe Public Spbere (Salt Lake City: The 0niveisity of 0tah Piess,
2u1u), pp. 99-1uu.
16
Suiat al-Tawba S1, Abuel Baleem, Tbe uron, p. 119.
17
Foi a goou anu authoiitative uesciiption of ittbo' by a Salafi authoi, see: Nasii al-Bin al-Albani,
''AwJo ilo ol-Sunno, http:www.alalbany.netmiscu16.php (accesseu: 2u }une 2u1S).
S4
elaboiateu by Nuhammau bin Àbu al-Wahhab anu his successois.
18
Al-wolo wo-
l-boro uiviues the woilu into two sepaiate spheies: one is the iealm of Islam anu
the othei is the iealm of the kuffor (unbelieveis), which is necessaiily evil.
Nuslims shoulu feel loyalty anu a sense of biotheihoou with those who belong to
the fiist iealm, while uefenuing the puiity of theii ieligion fiom influences
coming fiom the seconu. Bowevei, Salafis inteipiet the piactice of this concept
in uiffeient ways. Activist inteipietations can even call upon Nuslims to
physically uestioy that which is iegaiueu as un-Islamic, while moie quietist
inteipietations focus only on the avoiuance of foieign elements that coiiupt the
puiity of Islam.
Al-omr bi-l-mo'ruf wo ol-nobi 'on ol-munkor (commanuing iight anu
foibiuuing wiong), oi bisbo, is anothei impoitant featuie of Salafism. The teim
iefeis to the imposition of the moial iules of Islam on Nuslims anu the
foibiuuing of immoial acts such as ueviations fiom coiiect ieligious beliefs anu
piactices, uiinking alcohol, committing auulteiy, anu so foith. Eisbo can be
implementeu using only a veibal waining, but it can also take the foim of violent
acts (see in Chaptei S).
19

"#$#%& %#20&-*'L 0E) I:-,$)( -% 2$#''&%&2#0&-*

Bespite having a common cieeu that sets veiy stiict bounuaiies on theological
thinking, Salafism is fai fiom monolithic. Although Salafis shaie the concept of
towbiJ, they uiffei on the methous of puiifying Islam. While some focus
exclusively on piopei ieligious piactices, otheis follow a moie activist path. The
Sauui ieligious establishment, al-Qaeua anu a significant numbei of Kuwait's
political iefoimeis aie membeis of the same social movement.
2u

18
}oas Wagemakeis, 'The Tiansfoimation of a Rauical Concept: ol-wolo wo-l-boro in the
Iueology of Abu Nuhammau al-Naquisi', in Neijei, 6lobol Solofism, pp. 84-87.
19
0n bisbo see Roel Neijei, 'Commanuing Right anu Foibiuuing Wiong as a Piinciple of Social
Action: The Case of the Egyptian al-}ama'a al-Islamiyya', in Neijei, 6lobol Solofism.
2u
I ueal with Salafism as a single social movement, the ieason being that I uo not iegaiu a social
movement as an oiganization, but iathei as a set of netwoiks bounu togethei by a shaieu
collective iuentity anu shaieu aim (see latei in this chaptei). In this way it woulu be uifficult to
uistinguish uiffeient Salafi social movements. Salafis, as I will show latei in this book, have a
SS
Quintan Wiktoiowicz uevelopeu what has become a wiuely auopteu
classification of Salafis.
21
Be uistinguishes between uiffeient factions accoiuing
to theii stance towaiu the socio-political ieality of the contempoiaiy Nuslim
woilu. Bowevei, the iigiuity of Wiktoiowcz's methou anu his simplistic appioach
have been ciiticizeu. In the following paiagiaphs, I will uesciibe Wiktoiowicz's
classification, the ciitique of his appioach, anu an alteinative solution that was
foimulateu by Thomas Begghammei. Finally, I offei my own suggestions
iegaiuing a moie piactical classification that can captuie the theological
substance anu uynamism of Salafism.
Wiktoiowicz uistinguishes between thiee Salafi factions: puiists, politicos
anu jihauis. The puiists believe

that the piimaiy emphasis of the movement shoulu be piomoting the
Salafi cieeu anu combating ueviant piactices, just as the Piophet fought
polytheism, human uesiie, anu human ieason. 0ntil the ieligion is
puiifieu, any political action will likely leau to coiiuption anu injustice
because society uoes not yet unueistanu the tenets of faith.
22

Puiists commonly use an analogy fiom the Neccan peiiou of the Piophet's life,
uuiing which, accoiuing to the puiists, he focuseu only on Jowo anu uiu not
become involveu in political affaiis oi wage jihau. At this time, Nuslims foimeu a
minoiity in Necca anu weie not in a position to use foice against the Quiaysh
elite.
2S
Theiefoie, puiists think that Nuslims shoulu ietuin to the coiiect foim of
piacticing theii ieligion befoie engaging in any kinu of activism.
As Wiktoiowicz explains, "Although puiists also believe that the West
intenus to uestioy Islam, they iefuse aimeu stiuggle. Insteau the puiists
tiansfoim this suspicion into an active iueological piogiam to pievent any usage

common collective iuentity anu aim to puiify Islam fiom innovations. When they meet, even if it
is foi the fiist time, Salafis iuentify each othei as belonging to the same collectivity.
21
Quintan Wiktoiowicz, The Salafi Novement in }oiuan', lnternotionol }ournol of HiJJle Fostern
StuJies, vol. S2, no. 2, 2uuu, pp. 219-24u.
22
Quintan Wiktoiowicz, 'Anatomy of the Salafi Novement', StuJies in Conflict onJ Terrorism, vol.
29, no. S, 2uu6, p. 217.
2S
The Quiaysh weie the uominant tiibe in Necca in the pie-Islamic peiiou.
S6
of Westein values, behaviois, oi systems of logic to uiscuss ieligion".
24
Beie, the
authoi also states that, "this obsession with maintaining anu piopagating a puie
unueistanuing of Islam has piouuceu a stiong tenuency towaiu isolationism.
Any inteiaction with nonbelieveis is vieweu as an oppoitunity foi the
nonbelieveis to infect Nuslims".
2S
Accoiuing to Wiktoiowicz, puiists iefuse to
paiticipate in political oiganizations because they consiuei these to be an
innovation that has been "ueiiveu fiom the Westein mouel of paity politics anu
uemociacy".
26
The paiticipant's loyalty woulu be towaius the paity, anu not uou.
In Sauui Aiabia in the 198us anu 199us, the authoiity of the senioi puiist
ùlomo' was challengeu by youngei scholais, who "aigueu that they |hauj a
bettei unueistanuing of contempoiaiy issues anu |weiej theiefoie bettei
situateu to apply the Salafi cieeu to the mouein context".
27
Wiktoiowicz iefeis to
membeis of this faction as "politicos", because they see the political iealm as an
oiganic pait of Islam. As the authoi explains, foi a long time, the Salafi movement
was unifieu anu puiist in oiientation. This began to change when laige numbeis
of Egyptian Nuslim Biotheis founu iefuge in Sauui Aiabia fiom peisecution by
the seculai iegime in theii home countiy. These highly-euucateu Islamists
quickly became influential on univeisity campuses, anu theii books became veiy
populai.
Since Nuslim Biotheis hau a sophisticateu unueistanuing of politics uue
to theii long histoiy of political engagement, they hau an impact on the thinking
of many young Salafis. "They believeu ieal piotection |of towbiJj iequiies
auuiessing political issues as well. 0theiwise, the iuleis coulu uestioy towbiJ
anu Islam".
28
The Salafi movement in Sauui Aiabia that hau been influenceu by
the Nuslim Biotheis became known as ol-Sobwo ol-lslomiyyo (Islamic
Awakening), oi simply Sobwo. A schism between puiists anu politicos occuiieu
uuiing the 1991 uulf Wai, when the senioi puiist ùlomo' legitimizeu the
uecision to invite 0S tioops into the countiy. As Wiktoiowicz explains, this "leu
many youngei scholais to question whethei the senioi puiists ieally unueistoou

24
Wiktoiowicz, 'Anatomy of the Salafi Novement', p. 217.
2S
Ibiu., p. 219
26
Ibiu., p. 22u.
27
Ibiu., p. 221.
28
Ibiu., p. 222.
S7
the political woilu in which they liveu".
29
Politicos launcheu uebates about
cuiient affaiis anu ciiticizeu puiists foi limiting theii focus to the uetails of
ieligious piactice.
Accoiuing to Wiktoiowicz, the split between puiists anu politicos leu to
the foimation of the jihaui faction. Confiontation between the Sauui iegime anu
politicos iesulteu in the lattei's peisecution. Leauing figuies in the politico
movement eithei enueu up in piison oi in exile. Some of the young Salafis who
weie fighting in Afghanistan anu elsewheie weie affecteu by the politicos' iueas.
They weie seeking the establishment of Islamic states by using violence. Aftei
Sauui Aiabia's ciackuown on the politicos, this gioup uenounceu the iegime as
subseivient to the enemies of Islam, along with the puiist ùlomo' who
legitimizeu it. As Wiktoiowicz states, foi the jihauis, the puiists iepiesent 'ulomo
ol-sulto ("the scholais of powei"). The teim is lauen with negative connotations,
implying an insiuious ielationship with iegimes anu authoiity stiuctuies that
unueimines the inuepenuence anu legitimacy of Islamic inteipietation. It is
typically suiiounueu by a baiiage of othei uispaiaging teims, such as "palace
lackeys," "the coiiupt 'ulomo," anu "the 'ulomo who flattei |those in poweij".
Su

In his analysis, Wiktoiowicz iefeis to al-Qaeua as the main iepiesentative of the
jihaui faction.
Thomas Begghammei has ciiticizeu Wiktoiowicz's classification, calling it
"inconsistent" anu aiguing that it mixes "means anu objectives".
S1
Foi example,
Begghammei calls Salafism a theological concept that "highlights a uistinction
that is seconuaiy in infoiming political behavioi".
S2
Be offeis an alteinative
classification that incluues all of the Islamic movements, anu uses five iationales
that "iepiesent the most impoitant ieasons foi which Islamists act".
SS
These
iationales aie "state-oiienteu", "nation-oiienteu", "ummo-oiienteu",
S4
"moiality-
oiienteu" anu "sectaiian". The two manifestations of these iationales aie non-
violent anu violent in foim. Begghammei incluues all Islamist movements in his

29
Ibiu., p. 22S.
Su
Ibiu., p. 227.
S1
Thomas Begghammei, '}ihaui Salafis oi Revolutionaiies. 0n Religion anu Politics in the Stuuy
of Nilitant Islamism,' in Neijei, 6lobol Solofism, pp. 244-266.
S2
Ibiu., p. 2S6.
SS
Ibiu., p. 2S8.
S4
0mmo means the laigei Islamic community oi nation; in this context, the global ummo is being
iefeiieu to.
S8
categoiization, iegaiuless of theii theological backgiounu, aiguing that, "the
teim Salafi . says veiy little about the expecteu political behavioi of actois
labeleu as such".
SS
Foi instance, he puts the Nuslim Biotheis anu the Sauui
Sobwo in one categoiy as non-violent manifestations of "state-oiienteu"
Islamism. Its violent manifestations incluue the Algeiian uioupe Islamique
Aime (uIA) anu the Egyptian Islamic }ihau.
In my opinion, both classifications aie incomplete. The fiist, elaboiateu by
Wiktoiowicz, is too iigiu, sets oveily shaip bounuaiies between the factions, anu
somewhat neglects the coie theological uiscouises that uo, in fact, motivate the
actions of Salafis. Fiist, Wiktoiowicz uesciibes jihauis as violent offshoots of the
politicos, although it is veiy uifficult to uefine a "jihaui" oi "politico" following
Wiktoiowicz's classification. Sometimes only the socio-political context can
ueteimine which stiategy is chosen by a paiticulai Salafi gioup. Foi example,
uuiing my fieluwoik in Qatai, one of my infoimants, Àbu al-Rahman al-Nuàymi,
the leauei of a tiansnational netwoik of Islamists, the Woilu Anti-Aggiession
Campaign, claimeu that he hau the same iueological views as 0sama bin Lauen,
whom he iegaiueu as a fieeuom fightei against Westein impeiialism. At the
same time, he uefines himself as pait of the Sobwo, anu intenus to paiticipate in
the upcoming elections in Qatai. Nost of those who iuentify with the Sobwo
geneially suppoit the Afghan anu Iiaqi jihau while iefusing to engage in violence
at home, eithei because they uo not see the iegime as totally apostate, oi because
they think that the timing is inappiopiiate.
Seconu, Wiktoiowicz suggests that the puiists aie not inteiesteu in
politics, anu that they uenounce paiticipation in political oiganizations anu focus
only on ieligious piactice. This view is at ouus with actual piactice, howevei, as
many Salafis who holu the same ieligious views as the Sauui puiists also actively
paiticipate in political life anu foim oiganizations. At the same time, they
uenounce the Sobwo anu often ask foi legitimation fiom the Sauui Eoyot Kibor
ol-`0lomo (Bouy of Senioi Religious Scholais). A goou example of such piactice is
the Kuwaiti ol-Tojommu` ol-Solofi ol-lslomi (Salafi Islamic uatheiing), the
political aim of }omoìyyot lbyo ol-Turotb ol-lslomi (the Revival of Islamic
Beiitage Society), which I will uiscuss at length in Chaptei S.

SS
Begghammei, '}ihaui Salafis oi Revolutionaiies.', p. 2Su.
S9
Begghammei's classification is no uoubt veiy useful when analyzing
violent Islamist movements. Bowevei, it ieflects a iealist, stiuctuialist appioach
towaiu social movement ieseaich, anu entiiely oveilooks the impoitance of
theology in ueteimining action. In my opinion, the theological backgiounu to a
movement plays a ciucial iole in pieuicting its possible political behavioi, since
the label "Salafi" coveis an entiie woiluview that uoes, in fact, have much to say
about how a peison peiceives anu ieacts to ceitain political events. Foi example,
Biynjai Lia, in one of his publications on the jihaui wiitei Abu Nusàb al-Suii,
highlights how auopting a stiict Salafi cieeu can cause uivisions in militant
movements.
S6
Accoiuing to al-Suii, the emphasis of Salafi fighteis on uoctiinal
puiity impeues the cieation of unity in the jihaui ianks.
S7

A fuithei inuication of the impoitance of theology is that when a social
movement auopts the Salafi cieeu, its stiuctuie is always uiffeient fiom that of
othei Islamist movements. Almost without exception, Salafi gioups lack
sophisticateu oiganizational stiategies. Nembeis aie connecteu to each othei
thiough infoimal netwoiks, anu theie is no cleai, foimal hieiaichy between
them. This phenomenon can also be ueiiveu fiom theology. Accoiuing to most
Salafis, opeiating in establisheu oiganizational fiamewoiks can leau to biJò anu
toqliJ. Salafis think that a peison who suboiuinates himself to an establisheu
paity hieiaichy will giauually become moie loyal to the oiganization anu its
leauei than to uou (they call this bizbiyyo, oi paitisanship).
S8
I will uiscuss this in
Chaptei S in moie uetail.
To avoiu these shoitcomings, I suggest a mixeu, two-level classification
that is baseu on both theology anu piefeiences. In my opinion, the issue that
uiviues Salafis most shaiply is theological in natuie, anu ielates to the concept of
bukm (iuling) in Islam. The main uebate ievolves aiounu the ielationship of the
iuleu to the iulei (bokim). The membeis of the fiist faction, whom I will call
"puiist", aie pioponents of unconuitional obeuience to the iulei as long as he is
not openly an apostate. In auuition, they uo not allow open ciiticism of the iulei,

S6
Biynjai Lia, 'Bestiuctive Boctiinaiians: Abu Nusab al-Suii's Ciitique of the Salafis in the }ihaui
Cuiient', in Neijei, 6lobol Solofism, pp. 281-Suu.
S7
Ibiu.
S8
Buiing my fieluwoik, I askeu almost all of my Salafi infoimants about theii views on
oiganization, anu almost always ieceiveu similai answeis.
4u
only seciet auvice {nosibo sirriyo). The puiists iefei to the Text to suppoit theii
stance. They commonly quote one of the sayings of the Piophet: "Who sees
uisobeuience of uou fiom his omir |iuleij shall hate what this uisobeuience
causes but shall not lift his hanus against him".
S9
When the puiists foibiu open
ciiticism of the iulei, they usually cite the example of the fiist civil wai in Islam:
"When fitno |civil waij occuiieu in the time of Caliph `0thman, some people
askeu 0sama bin Zayu |one of the companions of the Piophetj: 'Bon't you iebuke
`0thman.' Be answeieu: 'Rebuke him in fiont of the people. I iebuke him only in
piivate but I uo not open the uoois of Bell in fiont of the people'".
4u
Puiists use
this to explain that even if it is waiianteu, open ciiticism can cause the people to
iise up against the iulei anu unueimine oiuei.
We can also iuentify uiffeient cuiients within the puiist camp. The
uiffeiences between them aie not theological in natuie, but baseu on which
stiategy they iegaiu as being moie efficient to spieau the Jo`wo. I iuentify two
main cuiients within the puiist movement. The fiist gioup, which I call "puiist-
iejectionists", iejects any political paiticipation, putting foiwaiu that in the
political aiena, Nuslims can be affecteu by those who uo not piactice ieligion
piopeily, oi even by non-Nuslims. They shoulu only focus on piopei uaily
ieligious piactice. The followeis of the Sauui scholai Rabi` al-Naukhali aie a
goou example. Those whom I classify as belonging to the seconu cuiient see
political paiticipation - if it is alloweu by the iulei - as a tool of Jo`wo, an
excellent oppoitunity to spieau the piopei way of Islam anu an appiopiiate
platfoim on which to uefenu it.
The above-mentioneu Kuwaiti at-Tajammu` al-Salafi al-Islami is an
example of this cuiient. The membeis of this gioup stiictly foibiu any foim of
ciiticism of the Emii of Kuwait anu aie loyal to the goveinment, but they
otheiwise actively paiticipate in pailiamentaiy uebates. Bowevei, theii political
aims mainly concein social behavioi anu the piomotion of theii unueistanuing
of Islam within Kuwait. Foi instance, paitly uue to theii effoits, in most
uepaitments of the 0niveisity of Kuwait, male anu female stuuents have to

S9
See http:www.binbaz.oig.samat1944 (accesseu: 19 Septembei 2uu9).
4u
al 'Abu al-Kaiim, Hu'omolot ol-Eukkom, p. 17.
41
attenu the lectuies in sepaiate iooms. I call this cuiient "puiist-politically
oiienteu".
Those belonging to the seconu faction, whom I call borokis (activists),
41

iefuse to obey the iulei unconuitionally. They appioach ieligion fiom an all-
encompassing (sbumuli) viewpoint. They aie influenceu by Sayyiu Qutb's
concept of bokimiyyo, which consiueis any goveinment that uoes not govein
accoiuing to uou's law to be illegitimate.
42
Eoroki Salafis think that since Islam
extenus its iulings to eveiy uomain of life, politics anu the political state of the
ummo (Islamic nation) shoulu not be neglecteu. In theii opinion, the stance of the
puiists seives the ieligion's enemies anu colonialists. As many of my boroki
infoimants explaineu, the unconuitional obeuience of the puiists fuitheis the
inteiests of Aiab iuleis, who aie the "pioconsuls" of the Westein poweis uue to
theii total economic anu militaiy uepenuence on the West. They think that a
iulei can only be legitimate if the iuleu fieely peifoim an oath of allegiance
(boyò). Theiefoie, iegimes that come to powei via militaiy coups oi conquest
aie by uefinition illegitimate. They also uefenu theii stance by iefeiiing to the
case of the fiist foui caliphs who followeu the Piophet, all of whom weie
accepteu by the majoiity of Nuslims. Although theie is no cleai iefeience to this
in the Text, this piocess is in accoiuance with the consensus (ijmo`) of the
Sobobo, the Companions of the Piophet.
4S

They also believe that it is peimissible to openly ciiticize the iulei, anu
they iefei to many cases in which the fiist foui caliphs accepteu open ciiticism.
Salman al-Àwua, a piominent Sauui boroki scholai, mentions many examples in
his book, Wby ore we ofroiJ of criticism? (limoJbo nokbof ol-noqJ). 0ne is that of
how a man tolu the seconu caliph, `0mai bin al-Khattab, that "If we founu
ueviance in youi behavioi than we woulu stiaighten it with oui swoius".
44
Al-
Àwua explains that this uoes not mean that the people woulu liteially use theii
swoius, but that they woulu ciiticize the caliph.

41
I consiuei the teim boroki to be appiopiiate heie, since the membeis of this faction themselves
use this teim to explain theii activist appioach towaius Islam.
42
Some of them even auu towbiJ ol-bokimiyyo (oneness of the goveinance) as the fouith
component of towbiJ. In the fifth chaptei, I will uiscuss the uebate suiiounuing towbiJ ol-
bokimiyyo in Kuwait.
4S
See, foi example Bakim al-Nutayii, ol-Eurriyyo ow ol-Towfon (Beiiut: al-Nu'assasa al-
'Aiabiyya li-l-Biiasat wa-l-Nashi, 2uu8), pp. 21-2S.
44
Salman al-Àwua, limoJbo nokbof min ol-noqJ (Islam al-Yawm, 2uu4), pp. 4S-44.
42
Eorokis usually uiffei in the methous that they favoi foi achieving change,
anu foi iefoiming a Nuslim woilu that is uominateu by tyiannical iegimes anu
uepenuency on foieign, non-Nuslim poweis. 0ne shoulu note heie that this
gioup is moie uiviueu than that of the puiists. To claiify these uivisions, I
iuentify two main uiiections. The membeis of the fiist one, whom I call politicos,
piefei achieving change in the iealm of politics via iefoim anu by achieving
wiuei political fieeuom in Nuslim countiies. They uiffei fiom politico-puiists in
the sense that while the lattei use politics to achieve iefoims that concein
people's uaily lives (such as banning alcohol in five-stai hotels oi enfoicing sex
segiegation), the politicos' ambitions uo not enu heie. They also focus on
inteinational ielations anu political fieeuom, which accoiuing to them is uefineu
in the sboriò oi the accountability of political leaueis. The Sauui Sobwo anu the
Kuwaiti Salafi movement (ol-Eoroko ol-Solofiyyo) aie goou examples of this
stieam.
The seconu cuiient consists of jihauis who want to change ieality by
foice. Bowevei, it is uifficult to ueteimine who is ieally a jihaui. The piess anu
many acauemic stuuies have a tenuency to call eveiy Salafi who takes up
weapons foi a cause a "jihaui". Bowevei, in ieality it is not that easy to
uistinguish jihauis fiom non-jihauis. Nany Salafis, foi example, suppoit the
iesistance in Nuslim teiiitoiies occupieu by foieign poweis, such as Afghanistan
anu Iiaq, but iefuse to paiticipate in militaiy opeiations at home. Nany of the
Sauui Sobwo think this way, although nobouy calls them jihauis.
Wagemakeis classifies those Salafis as jihauis "who believe that jihau
shoulu not just be wageu against invauing oi aggiessive non-Nuslim enemies but
shoulu also be useu in a ievolutionaiy way against the 'apostate' iuleis in theii
own miust."
4S
The pioblem with this uefinition is that many, if not most Salafis
whom Wagemakeis (following Wiktoiowicz) woulu classify as "politicos" believe
in this.
46
The majoiity of the lattei believe that a iulei can be oveithiown, even
by militaiy means, if he systematically blocks iefoims. The Kuwaiti Salafi thinkei
Bakim al-Nutayii thinks that most Nuslim countiies face two choices: eithei
theii leaueiship opens the way to paiticipation, fiee elections anu political

4S
}oas Wagemakeis, A uietist }iboJi: Tbe lJeoloqy onJ lnfluence of Abu HubommoJ ol-HoqJisi
(Cambiiuge: Cambiiuge 0niveisity Piess, 2u12), p. 9.
46
Ibiu.
4S
accountability (which, accoiuing to him, is piesciibeu in the sbori'o), oi it is
justifiable foi the people to abolish the iegimes in any way they can.
47
Nost
"politicos" (accoiuing to both Wiktoiowicz's anu my classification) in the uulf oi
Lebanon, who otheiwise auvocate paiticipation in pailiamentaiy systems, aie
calling foi jihau in Syiia against the "apostate iulei", anu uiu so uuiing the Libyan
ievolution.
I classify as "jihauis" those boroki Salafis who iule out any peaceful
engagement with existing iegimes anu iegaiu aimeu stiuggle as the sole means
to achieve change. Foi these Salafis, aimeu jihau is the only way to uepose the
coiiupt iuleis of Nuslim countiies oi iiu the ummo of Westein uominance. Beie
it shoulu be noteu that while jihauis often foim theii own uistinct gioups anu
oiganizations, theie aie cases when it is uifficult to uistinguish them fiom othei
borokis on the giounu. Buiing my fieluwoik in Lebanon anu Kuwait, I met Salafi
youths in the netwoiks of cleaily politico shaykhs who expiesseu jihaui views
anu iejecteu political paiticipation. Bespite this, they netwoikeu with otheis
who weie inclineu towaius politico thinking. These young people weie
constantly uebating anu uiscussing each othei's views. 0n some occasions, I even
obseiveu jihauis changing theii views iegaiuing political paiticipation.
Since this stuuy focuses on Salafis who cannot be classifieu as jihauis, in
the following chapteis, unless inuicateu otheiwise, I use the teim boroki to iefei
to the politicos.

"#$#%&'( #' # '-2&#$ (-<)()*0

Social movement theoiy (SNT) has pioven a veiy useful tool foi unueistanuing
Islamic Activism. In iecent yeais, a wiue iange of stuuies has employeu it to
analyze vaiious Islamic movements, especially since the publication of a
giounubieaking book euiteu by Wiktoiowicz.
48
The concept of a social
movement implies some kinu of collectivity oi collective iuentity anu a shaieu

47
al-Nutayii, ol-Eurriyyo Aw ol-Towfon, pp. 7-11u.
48
Quintan Wiktoiowicz (eu), lslomic Activism: A Sociol Hovement Tbeory Approocb (Bloomington:
Inuiana 0niveisity Piess, 2uu4).
44
aim. Salafism fulfills both of these ciiteiia. The collective iuentity of the
movement is baseu on piacticing the only puie anu coiiect foim of Islam, anu
manifesteu by ceitain shaieu iituals anu symbols (as I explain in uetail in
Chaptei 6). The common aim of eveiy Salafi is to puiify theii own anu otheis'
belief anu piactices fiom foieign elements.
Nainstieam appioaches in SNT weie uevelopeu to stuuy movements
aiising fiom the fiamewoik of Westein nation states anu maiket capitalism, with
the aim of achieving change in political institutions oi the economic system.
These movements usually iely on cleai leaueiship hieiaichies anu elaboiate
foimal oiganizational stiuctuies. Salafism, howevei, uoes not fit into this
categoiy, as it taigets inuiviuuals' iuentities anu beliefs anu aspiies to the
Islamization of the society (in line with what Salafis consiuei to be coiiect
ieligious iulings). Salafis aie conceineu with the tiansfoimation of institutions
so fai as this facilitates theii pioject. As I will uiscuss fuithei in Chaptei 6,
Salafism tenus to lack foimal oiganizations. Theiefoie, in oiuei to analyze
Salafism, we neeu a bioauei unueistanuing of social movements.
Appioaches to stuuying what aie known as 'new social movements' offei
moie useful tools foi unueistanuing Salafism. These movements aie not engageu
in a stiuggle foi mateiial values. Rathei, they aim to cieate anu maintain ceitain
foims of inuiviuual anu collective iuentity, piomote autonomy anu self-
ueteimination anu offei an alteinative way of life, anu not to maximize the
influence of state institutions, anu powei. Theii fielu of action has shifteu fiom
the iealm of institutional politics to civil society (foi a longei uiscussion of civil
society, see Chaptei 6). Iueas anu symbols theiefoie play a cential iole in new
social movements' activities. Theoiists also stiess that theii stiuctuies anu
oiganizational stiategies aie ieliant on infoimal anu fluiu social netwoiks that
aie often tempoiaiy in natuie, iathei than on foimal institutions.
49
As Kiiesi
uesciibes them, "they aie maue up of people living, woiking, communicating, anu
making politics togethei in puisuit of counteicultuial uesign foi an alteinative
way of life."
Su

49
Steven N. Buechlei, 'New Social Novement Theoiies', Tbe Socioloqicol uorterly, vol. S6, no. S,
199S, pp. 441-464.
Su
Banspetei Kiiesi, 'Local Nobilization foi the People's Petition of the Butch Peace Novement', in
Beit Klanueimans, Banspetei Kiiesi, anu Siuney Taiiow (eus), Irom Structure to Action:
4S
Although the "new social movements" appioach offeis useful tools foi my
inquiiy, Salafism cannot be uesciibeu anu stuuieu as a new social movement per
se. Theoietical uiscouises on new social movements piesuppose the existence of
the post-inuustiial nation state. Such movements iesult fiom the neeus anu
fiustiations expeiienceu by inuiviuuals - mostly fiom the miuule classes - in
post-mateiialist society. Accoiuing to Babeimas, in iecent uecaues the object of
contention has shifteu fiom the uomain of mateiial iepiouuction to the uomains
of cultuial iepiouuction, social integiation anu socialization. The ieason foi this
shift is that class conflict has been institutionalizeu in the mouein welfaie state
anu theieby pacifieu.
S1

In Babeimasian thought, mouein society is constituteu by the "system"
goveineu by the meuia of powei, money anu the "lifewoilu". This lattei teim
iefeis to "the stock of skills, competences anu knowleuge that oiuinaiy membeis
of society use, in oiuei to negotiate theii way thiough eveiyuay life, to inteiact
with othei people, anu ultimately cieate anu maintain social ielationships."
S2
In
mouein, post-mateiialist society the system continuously tiies to intiuue upon
the lifewoilu anu iegulate not only political anu mateiial tiansactions, but also
those that concein iuentity constiuction anu symbolic iepiouuction. In this
context, social movements aie uefenuing the lifewoilu fiom the colonizing
intiusions of the system.
In Nelucci's view, in mouein society, tiauitional points of iefeience have
been weakeneu by the iapiu changes have been expeiienceu in the past few
uecaues, cieating a homelessness of peisonal iuentity. People aie theiefoie
incieasingly keen to engage in collective action that aims to constiuct anu
maintain peisonal iuentity.
SS
While such a fiamewoik woulu piobably be
applicable to Salafism in Euiope, it is less ielevant to the manifestation of
Salafism in the countiies of the Niuule East, Afiica oi Southeast Asia, which
cannot be calleu post-mouein anu post-inuustiial.

Comporinq Sociol Hovement Reseorcb Across Cultures, vol. 1, lnternotionol Sociol Hovement
Reseorcb (uieenwich: }AI Piess, 1988), p. 4S.
S1
Beuchlei, 'New Social Novement Theoiies', p. 446.
S2
Anuiew Eugai, Eobermos: Tbe Key Concepts (Abinguon, New Yoik: Routleuge, 2uu6), p. 89.
SS
Albeito Nelucci, NomoJs of tbe Present: Sociol Hovements onJ lnJiviJuol NeeJs in
Contemporory Society (Philauelphia: Temple 0niveisity Piess, 1989).
46
Piice et al.'s uiscussion of "giounueu utopian movements" (u0Ns)
S4

offeis a paiticulaily useful appioach to classifying Salafism as a social movement.
The categoiy of giounueu utopian movements contains those movements whose
chaiacteiistics show the closest iesemblance to Salafism. 0nlike new social
movements, these movements uo not seek iecognition fiom capitalist
institutions oi mouein nation states, but aie insteau giounueu in visions of
alteinative "iueal places" (utopias), anu set out to establish alteinative, faiiei anu
moie satisfying ways of living.
Although all movements have a utopian uimension, since they have to
builu a vision of an alteinative futuie, u0Ns aie uistinct in that theii stiong
utopias have been cieateu in oiuei to countei uiffeient types of oppiession anu
injustice (ieal anu peiceiveu). In othei woius, the followeis of such a movement
cieate a paiallel ieality to escape fiom the conuitions piesent in the suiiounuing
woilu. By "giounueu", the authois mean "that the iuentities, values, anu
imaginative uimensions of utopia aie cultuially focuseu on ieal places, embouieu
by living people, infoimeu by past lifeways, anu constiucteu anu maintaineu
thiough quotiuian inteiactions anu valueu piactices that connect the membeis of
a community."
SS

In many iespects, Salafism fits the uesciiption of a giounueu utopian
movement. Salafis also want to live an alteinative, autonomous lifestyle anu
imitate what they believe weie the piactices of the fiist thiee geneiations of
Islam. By cieating a utopian, imagineu community of Nuslims who stiictly
auheie to what is piesciibeu in Sciiptuie, they intenu to piotect the "oiiginal
foim" of the ieligion fiom vaiious kinus of "oppiession". As I will explain in
Chaptei 8, Salafis imagine the univeise to be a place of a continuous stiuggle
between goou, which is iepiesenteu by Islam, anu evil. The lattei attempts to
oppiess anu uistoit oi uestioy the foimei.
Foi Salafis, the iealm of evil is manifesteu in the West, which piomotes
seculai anu "immoial" lifestyles, oi in othei cuiients of Islam, which have
auopteu innovations anu heietic piactices, theieby enuangeiing the puiity of
ieligion. By piomoting theii own woiluview anu piactices anu cieating an iueal

S4
Chailes Piice, Bonalu Nonini anu Eiich Fox Tiee, 'uiounueu 0topian Novements: Subjects oi
Neglect', Antbropoloqicol uorterly, vol. 81, no. 1, 2uu8.
SS
Ibiu. p. 128.
47
community of believeis, they aie tiying to pievent the iealm of evil fiom leauing
Nuslims astiay fiom theii ieligion. Salafis believe that goou will eventually
oveicome evil anu that Nuslims will be victoiious ovei the foices of unbelief. As I
uiscuss in Chaptei 7, Salafis often inteipiet cuiient events as signs of upcoming
apocalyptic episoues piioi to the enu of the woilu. 0ne of these is the
appeaiance of the HobJi, oi ieueemei of Islam, who will establish just iule on
eaith anu will spieau the Salafi belief anu lifestyle acioss the woilu.
As Be Koning aigues, Salafis aie establishing, maintaining anu uefenuing
theii utopia by piacticing the politics of lifestyle, the politics of uistinction anu
the politics of iesistance.
S6
By the "politics of lifestyle", Be Koning means that
Salafis aie continuously shaping anu nuituiing coiiect Islamic iuentity by
euucating theii auheients in how tiue Nuslims shoulu act, behave anu piactice
theii ieligion. They oiganize stuuy gioups, lectuies anu confeiences, wheie they
uiscuss issues conceining theii lifestyle, such as uiess, coiiect foims of piayei,
maiiiage, how to inteiact with non-Nuslims, anu so foith.
Thiough the politics of lifestyle, Salafis intenu to constiuct the image of
the peifect Nuslim who possesses all the attiibutes associateu with the
peisonality of the believei in Sciiptuie. The "politics of uistinction" means
piotecting what Salafis iegaiu as tiue Islamic values fiom mainstieam cultuie,
Westeinization anu othei "un-Islamic" oi heietical piactices, which belong to the
iealm of evil. The "politics of iesistance" means that Salafis aie involveu in
activities to iesist the peiceiveu oppiession anu injustice piacticeu by
unbelieveis oi heietics against Islam. This coulu mean pieaching seimons
against Shi'ites, foi example, oi even uestioying Sufi shiines unuei the pietext of
piacticing bisbo.
S7

Salafism uiffeis fiom the majoiity of the u0Ns that aie uiscusseu by Piice
et al. in one impoitant way.
S8
While the main aim of these u0Ns is to piotect anu
maintain an autonomous, alteinative lifestyle foi theii paiticipants, foi Salafis it

S6
Naitijn ue Koning, 'The "0thei" Political Islam: 0nueistanuing Salafi Politics' in 0liviei Roy anu
Amel Boubekeui, Wbotever EoppeneJ to tbe lslomists: Solofis, Eeovy Hetol Huslims onJ tbe lure
of Consumerist lslom (New Yoik: Columbia 0niveisity Piess, 2u12).
S7
Ibiu., pp. 16S-17S.
S8
Piice et al.'s analysis focuses on thiee movements: the Noith Ameiican uhost Bance, the
Rastafaii movement anu the Long-Buie Naya Activism. Piice et al., 'uiounueu 0topian
Novements.'
48
is equally impoitant to convince otheis to auopt theii woiluviews anu piactices,
by which they hope to achieve social change. In this iespect, Salafism iesembles
what Baenflei et al. call "lifestyle movements". Auheients of lifestyle movements
aie not satisfieu with "cieating a cultuial space wheie they can fieely expiess
themselves",
S9
but aspiie to tiansfoim society moie bioauly by ieoiienting theii
eveiyuay habits in accoiuance with ceitain values.
In this thesis I will apply the funuamentals of SNT to explain the
emeigence anu histoiical uevelopment, the stiuctuie anu the ieciuitment
stiategy of Lebanese Salafism. The tiansfoimation of the sociopolitical context
playeu a ciucial iole in the emeigence of Salafism in Lebanon. Changes in the
stiuctuie of the exteinal enviionment in the 198us anu 199us enableu the
movement to gain piominence. To unueistanu how these tiansfoimations
playeu a ciucial iole in the evolution of the movement, I will use the concept of
"political oppoitunity stiuctuies". This concept was oiiginally uevelopeu to
stuuy movements that taiget the institutions of the state, so I piopose some
mouifications to apply it to Salafism. Since Salafism, as a u0N, uoes not uiiectly
taiget political institutions, I focus on how changes in the sociopolitical context
affecteu the iuentity anu consciousness of Lebanese Sunni Nuslims. I shall
explain the political oppoitunity stiuctuie appioach fuithei in Chaptei S.
To examine the mobilization stiuctuies of Lebanese Salafis at the local
anu tiansnational levels, I employ a netwoik appioach. Ny staiting point is
Biani's conceptualization of social movements as netwoiks helu togethei by a
shaieu collective iuentity.
6u
I uesciibe Salafism as being mainly stiuctuieu by
inteipeisonal ielationships, which evolve into extenueu netwoiks. The main
hubs of these netwoiks aie infoimal social events, such as ieligious lessons anu
meetings in mosques oi youth gatheiings. As I shall explain latei, these netwoiks
pioviue inuiviuuals with the space to puisue a ceitain lifestyle anu expoit it to
the wiuei society. In othei woius, they facilitate inuiviuualizeu collective
action.
61
As theii main aim is not to mobilize iesouices to achieve institutional

S9
Ross Baenflei, 'Lifestyle Novements: Exploiing the Inteisection of Lifestyle anu Social
Novements', Sociol Hovement StuJies, vol. 11, no. 1, 2u12, p. 7.
6u
Naiio Binai, 'The Concept of a Social Novement', in Baviu A. Snow, Saiah A. Soule, anu
Banspetei Kiiesi, ReoJinqs in Contemporory Politicol Socioloqy (0xfoiu: Blackwell Publisheis,
2uuu).
61
Baenflei et al., 'Lifestyle Novements', p. S.
49
changes in the fiamewoik of the nation state, iesouice mobilization theoiy,
which mostly focuses on how foimal oiganizations accumulate money,
manpowei anu infoimation to altei state policies, is less useful foi my inquiiy.
62

In the liteiatuie, social movements aie usually uiscusseu in the context of
civil society. I also follow this appioach in my uiscussion of Salafi netwoiks, but
insteau of auopting the conventional, Westein concept of civil society, I employ
an alteinative concept, which was fiist elaboiateu by Bann.
6S
Bann shifts the
focus of the uebate fiom foimal oiganizations, which aie iegaiueu as the
backbone of civil society in the West, to infoimal stiuctuies that facilitate tiust
anu coopeiation between the membeis of a community. Such an appioach is
moie suiteu to examining Salafism, which is a movement that lacks an elaboiate,
foimal institutional fiamewoik. I explain the mobilization stiuctuies of Salafism
fuithei in Chapteis 6 anu 7.
Salafism's base of followeis in Lebanon has expanueu significantly uue to
theii stance on the Syiian ievolution anu civil wai anu the iapiuly ueepening
Sunni-Shi'a sectaiian tensions. Fiaming theoiy offeis useful tools foi
unueistanuing this uevelopment, as fiames pioviue piisms thiough which
cuiient events can be unueistoou.
64
Salafis inteipiet uevelopments such as the
Aiab ievolutions, the political anu militaiy uominance of Bizbullah anu the
Shi'ite community, oi the peiceiveu socioeconomic backwaiuness of the
Lebanese Sunnis thiough the lens of theii Nanichean woiluview; they constiuct
cieuible explanations anu attiactive solutions foi theii constituency. I shall
elaboiate the fiaming stiategy useu by Salafis in Chaptei 8.
With theii activism, Salafis tiy to achieve a uominant position among
those who claim to have ieligious knowleuge anu taiget the beliefs of Sunni
Nuslim inuiviuuals. To unueistanu the continuous competition between these
actois, Bouiuieu's appioach, which uiviues society into uiffeient miciocosms
calleu "fielus", is especially useful. In Bouiuieu's view, a fielu is a configuiation of

62
}ohn B. NcCaithy anu Nayei N. Zalu, 'Resouice Nobilization anu Social Novements: A Paitial
Theoiy', Americon }ournol of Socioloqy, vol. 82, no. 6, 1977, pp. 1212-1241.
6S
Chiis Bann, 'Intiouuction: Political Society anu Civil Anthiopology', in Chiis Bann anu
Elizabeth Bunn (eus), Civil Society: Cbollenqinq Western HoJels (Lonuon, New Yoik: Routleuge,
1996).
64
Robeit B. Benfoiu, anu Baviu A. Snow, 'Fiaming Piocesses anu Social Novements: An 0veiview
anu Assessment', Annuol Review of Socioloqy, vol. 26, 2uuu.
Su
hieiaichically aiiangeu positions. These positions aie uefineu by the possession
of capital, a symbolic iesouice that enables its possessoi to exeicise powei in a
specific fielu. Within a fielu, theie is a stiuggle between agents to possess as
much capital as possible anu theieby achieve a moie influential position.
6S
Theie
aie as many kinus of fielus as theie aie types of capital. Foi example, it is
possible to uistinguish economic, political, cultuial anu ieligious fielus, each of
which aie goveineu by theii own logic anu iules.
In oui case, Salafis aie agents (but not exclusively so) of the Sunni
ieligious fielu. This fielu is composeu of peisons anu institutions that aie
stiuggling to uominate oi monopolize the cieation of ieligious knowleuge anu
the auministiation anu piovision of ieligious seivices. The categoiy of agents
incluues ieligious scholais, pieacheis, Sufi shaykhs, official ieligious bouies anu
ieligious enuowments (woqf). They claim to possess supeiioi knowleuge of the
wishes of the tianscenuent. Thioughout the thesis, when I iefei to the "Sunni
ieligious fielu" oi the "Sunni Islamic fielu", I am iefeiiing to this miciocosm of
hieiaichically aiiangeu positions anu competing actois.

6S
Baviu Schwaitz, 'Biiuging the Stuuy of Cultuie anu Religion: Pieiie Bouiuieu's Political
Economy of Symbolic Powei', Socioloqy of Reliqion, vol. S7, no. 1, 1996, pp. 78-81.
S1
/E#I0): F
.E) .:#*'%-:(#0&-* -% "#$#%&'( &* 0E) ?C$%

In this chaptei I uiscuss the uevelopment of Salafism in the Aiabian uulf, which
foims the essential backuiop to unueistanuing the movement's evolution in
Lebanon. In the fiist section I explain the histoiical backgiounu to the
fiagmentation of Salafism anu the oiigins of the uiffeient Salafi factions, whose
theological tenets weie uiscusseu in Chaptei 1. Following this, I show how the
tiansfoimation of Sauui Salafism affecteu the movement in Kuwait. I uiscuss how
puiist Salafis took ovei the leaueiship of one of the most impoitant tiansnational
Salafi chaiity associations, a uevelopment that hau a significant tiansnational
impact anu contiibuteu to the ieconfiguiation of the Salafi scene in Noith
Lebanon. I also examine othei elements of the Kuwaiti Salafi movement that aie
connecteu to Lebanon. In the concluuing section, I biiefly explain how Qatai has
become one of the most significant tiansnational hubs of boroki Salafism. The
small uulf monaichy hosts anothei impoitant chaiity, which is also a sponsoi of
Lebanese Salafis.

.E) %:#6()*0#0&-* -% "#$#%&'( &* "#C5& 1:#,&#

Buiing anu aftei the libeiation of Kuwait, two moie oi less cleai iueological
stieams emeigeu within Salafism. Tiansnational social netwoiks have evolveu
along these iueological lines, which have laigely shapeu Salafism in uiffeient
localities. In the following, I outline the evolution of iueological uebates in Sauui
Aiabia, anu then explain how these uebates leu to the split in Kuwaiti Salafism
anu the appeaiance of the borokis in Qatai.
Following the establishment of the fiist Sauui state in Njau, Cential
Aiabia, in 1744, the Salafi 'ulomo playeu a veiy impoitant iole in society. They
legitimizeu the iule of the Sa'uu clan, constituting the seconu pillai of the state
aftei the iuling family. Bespite this position, the uiscouise of these ieligious
S2
scholais iemaineu paiochial even aftei the founuing of the mouein state in 19S2.
This was laigely uue to the geogiaphical isolation of the Aiabian Peninsula
uuiing most of the pie-mouein peiiou, anu the 'ulomos hostility towaiu othei
schools of thought. Aftei the capital of the Islamic Caliphate shifteu fiom Neuina
to Bamascus at the beginning of the iule of Nu'awiya in 661, the Peninsula
giauually became the peiipheiy.
1
The Najui 'ulomo theiefoie most piobably uiu
not have access to the majoi pait of the thousanu-yeai-olu intellectual tiauition
of Islam. At the same time these scholais iegaiueu anything that was foieign to
theii liteialist inteipietation as heiesy, anu it is theiefoie unlikely that they
woulu have taken the tiouble to ieau the woiks of philosopheis oi Ash'aii
scholais.
2

0vei the centuiies, it was the task of this 'ulomo class to solve pioblems.
S

They pioviueu answeis to questions conceining the minute uetails of theii
constituency's uaily life, but they almost nevei engageu in theoietical uebates.
veiy few of them wiote theological tieatises with a scope that went beyonu the
coiiect peifoimance of the 'iboJot. 0nlike theii counteipaits in many othei aieas
of the Nuslim woilu, they completely lackeu a sophisticateu peispective anu
uiscouise on sociopolitical issues. As a iesult, they weie unable to confiim anu
boost the legitimacy of the Sauui Kinguom when it was thieateneu by Aiab
Nationalists anu Leftists uuiing the Aiab Colu Wai.
4

The Aiab Colu Wai between Egypt anu Sauui Aiabia lasteu fiom the miu-
19Sus until 197u. In 19S2, a militaiy coup abolisheu the pio-Westein monaichy
in Egypt. The new iegime, leu by Piesiuent uamal Abuel Nassei, auopteu Aiab
nationalism as its main iueology anu allieu itself with the Soviet 0nion. Caiio also
began to suppoit seculai Aiab nationalist movements woiluwiue. In the two
uecaues following the ievolution in Egypt, Aiab nationalist iegimes came to
powei in a numbei of Aiab countiies. In 19S8, a coup Jtot abolisheu the pio-

1
Commins, Tbe Wobbobi Hission onJ SouJi Arobio, p. 7.
2
Shaykh Nuhammau 'Abuul uhani, one of the most ienowneu Lebanese Palestinian Salafi
'ulama', complaineu to me that when he was stuuying in Neuina, the euucation was extiemely
one-siueu in a ceitain univeisity uepaitment. Foi example, in matteis of the 'oqiJo, the stuuents
weie nevei pioviueu with Asb'ori ieauings to pioviue at least some compaiison between the two
majoi ways of thinking about the cieeu. The shaykh suspects that the mostly Najui teacheis hau
nevei ieau the views of theii opponents. Inteiview, Tiipoli, 14 Apiil 2u12.
S
Al-Rasheeu, Contestinq tbe SouJi Stote, pp. 62-6S.
4
Stephane Lacioix, Awokeninq lslom: Tbe Politics of Reliqious Bissent in Contemporory SouJi
Arobio (Cambiiuge, Nassachusetts anu Lonuon: Baivaiu 0niveisity Piess, 2u11), pp. 41-42.
SS
Westein monaichy in Iiaq, anu in 1962 an Aiab nationalist goveinment came to
powei in post-inuepenuence Algeiia. In the same yeai in Noith Yemen, the
monaichy was biought uown by 'Abuullah al-Sallal, who became an ally of
Nassei. Equally impoitant weie the Syiian anu the Libyan "ievolutions" in 196S
anu 1969. These countiies allieu within the fiamewoik of the "piogiessive"
block, leu by Egypt, maintaineu goou teims with the Soviet 0nion anu intenueu
to tiansfoim the whole Aiab woilu in accoiuance with the iueals of Aiab
Nationalism.
The spieau of the new iueology enuangeieu the veiy existence of the
tiauitional, kinship-baseu Sauui monaichy. In iesponse to the thieat, Riyauh
(along with seeking the piotection of the 0S) cieateu its own alliance stiuctuie
baseu on othei conseivative monaichies, such as }oiuan anu Noiocco, aiounu
the ihetoiic of ol-toJomun ol-lslomi (Islamic Soliuaiity).
S
Although the symbolic
impoitance of the kinguom's geogiaphical location - that is, contiolling the holy
cities of Necca anu Neuina - was initially a helpful means of boosting the
Kinguom's legitimacy, Sauui Aiabia uiu not possess the iesouices to compete
with Egyptian piopaganua.
6
Since Riyauh coulu not count on its own ieligious
elite, it hau to iely on foieign Islamists to cieate a political uiscouise that
matcheu Aiab Nationalism. Fiom the enu of the 19Sus, the Kinguom openeu its
uoois to membeis of the Nuslim Biotheihoou who hau escapeu peisecution in
Egypt anu Syiia. The majoiity of these activists weie skilleu piofessionals who
coulu be employeu in euucation anu the meuia. They became the coie elements
of the anti-Nassei piopaganua appaiatus whose leauing oigan was the Sowt ol-
lslom (voice of Islam) iauio station.
At the same time the Biotheis peimeateu all levels of the euucation. Bue
to theii uominance in schools anu univeisities anu in the meuia, the foieign
Islamists stiongly influenceu the thinking of a young geneiation of Sauuis.
Although the Ikhwan (Nuslim Biotheis) weie foibiuuen fiom establishing an
official bianch in Sauui Aiabia, they useu theii iesouices to spieau theii Jo'wo as
extensively as possible. Contiolling the euucation system was especially useful

S
Nalcolm Keii, Tbe Arob ColJ Wor: 6omol AbJ ol-Nosir onJ Eis Rivols, 19S8-1970, Siu eun.
(Lonuon anu New Yoik: 0xfoiu 0niveisity Piess, 1971).
6
Nassei was incieasingly populai among the iuial population anu the euucateu class in Sauui
Aiabia.
S4
foi this puipose. In the view of the Biotheis, the goal of euucation was not only
leaining but also shaping the woiluview of young people in line with the
Biotheihoou's iueals.
7
As Lacioix puts it, the "massive influx of an exogenous
tiauition . was the souice of a vast social movement that piouuceu its own
counteicultuie anu its own oiganizations anu, thiough the euucational system,
soon ieacheu almost all fielus of the social aiena."
8

This movement is wiuely calleu ol-Sobwo ol-lslomiyyo (Islamic
Awakening, Sobwo foi shoit). Contiaiy to what is stateu in the eailiei acauemic
liteiatuie, the Sobwo is not exclusively a piouuct of lkbwoni iueas.
9
Accoiuing to
Lacioix, the movement possesses a hybiiu iueology. The Sobwo auopteu the
main elements of the Nuslim Biotheis' woiluview, but ietaineu the Salafi cieeu
anu juiispiuuence. They weie especially influenceu by the thought of Sayyiu
Qutb thiough his biothei, Nuhammau Qutb, who took iefuge in Sauui Aiabia in
1972 anu is iegaiueu as one of the intellectual mentois of the Sobwo.
Nuhammau Qutb intenueu to meuiate between the conceptual appaiatus of his
biothei anu that of tiauitional Salafi thought. Accoiuing to his explanation, the
opposition between jobiliyyo anu bokimiyyo in Qutb's thinking is in paiallel with
the antagonism between jobiliyyo anu towbiJ.
1u
The iesult is an iueology that
only iecognizes the iight of the "tiue Islam" to exist, in the Salafi view, anu
intenus to puiify ieligion fiom biJo'. At the same time it auopts the Nuslim
Biotheihoou's activist attituue, commitment to the Islamization of all spheies of
society, anu active iesistance to impeiialism anu Westeinization. In al-Rasheeu's
woius:

while the Sahwa may iepiesent itself thiough incieaseu commitment to
iitualistic Islam, it is above all a state of minu that allows a Nuslim to have
Islam anu only Islam as a iefeience point foi all aspects of life, incluuing

7
Lacioix, Awokeninq lslom, pp. 42-S1.
8
Ibiu., p. S1.
9
uilles Kepel, foi example, suggests that the iueology of the Sahwa is puiely ueiiveu fiom the
thinking of the Nuslim Biotheihoou. See: uilles Kepel, Tbe Wor for Huslim HinJs: lslom onJ Tbe
West (Cambiiuge: Belknap Piess, 2uu4), pp. 17u-196.
1u
Lacioix, Awokeninq lslom, p. S4.
SS
public political affaiis. At the inuiviuual level, Sahwis have a commitment
not only to the salvation of the self but also to society.
11

The Sobwo nevei establisheu a foimal oiganizational stiuctuie, centializeu
institutional system anu cleai-cut hieiaichy. Rathei, it was chaiacteiizeu by the
pieuominance of loose, infoimal, inteipeisonal netwoiks.
12
At the beginning of
the movement in the 197us, the Sobwo was on goou teims with anu even
suppoiteu by the Sauui goveinment.
1S
In the 198us the Sobwi piesence became
so poweiful among the euucateu class that the iegime hau to siue with them in
theii battle with seculai intellectuals, so as not to lose legitimacy in the eyes of a
wiue segment of the population. The fiist signs of the Sobwo insuigency against
the goveinment appeaieu in the 198us. Accoiuing to Lacioix, the ieason foi this
can be founu in the economic uecline of Sauui Aiabia uue to uecieasing oil piices
anu the fiustiation of the young geneiation, whose caieei piospects weie not
meeting theii expectations.
14

The monaichy came unuei Sobwi attack on the eve of the uulf Wai in
1991, when the goveinment alloweu tens of thousanus of Ameiican soluieis to
lanu on Sauui soil to uefenu the countiy against a potential Iiaqi invasion. In
public seimons anu lectuies, Sobwi shaykhs openly questioneu the iuling
system's legitimacy. They uepicteu Sauui iuleis as vassals of 0S impeiialism who
hau openeu the uooi to the colonization of the countiy. They also ueciieu the
official 'ulomo that hau issueu a fotwo legitimizing the piesence of the 0S
soluieis. Sobwis calleu these scholais 'ulomo ol-sulton (scholais of the iuleis),
hypociitical anu subseivient. They weie uepicteu as ieauy to saciifice ieligion
foi the inteiests of the iegime, so as to avoiu falling out of favoi with the Sa'uu
clan.
1S
Sobwis also questioneu the uieat 'ulomos ability to issue fotwos on
sociopolitical matteis, given theii lack of knowleuge about the contempoiaiy

11
Nauawi Al-Rasheeu, Contestinq tbe SouJi Stote: lslomic voices from o New 6enerotion
(Cambiiuge: Cambiiuge 0niveisity Piess, 2uu7), p. 68.
12
They uominateu many institutions, but unlike the Nuslim Biotheihoou, they uiu not have theii
own oiganizational netwoiks. Lacioix, Awokeninq lslom, pp. 6S-7S.
1S
Ibiu., p. 1S2.
14
Ibiu., pp. 129-1SS.
1S
Sahwis often iefei to the foimei Nufti Nuhammau bin Ibiahim (189S-1969) who was always
enough biave to oppose the king if he thought that the king's oiueis contiauicteu ieligion. Ibiu. p.
149.
S6
woilu. The movement also uemanueu moie political fieeuom anu fiee elections,
while at the same time calling foi moie social conseivatism.
16

Bowevei, the Sobwo insuigency faileu in aiounu 1994, anu the
goveinment once again gaineu the uppei hanu ovei the public spheie. Theie aie
seveial ieasons foi this failuie. Accoiuing to Lacioix, the movement ian out of
steam because it hau been unable to gain wiue giassioots suppoit beyonu the
euucateu class. In auuition, some countei-movements weakeneu the Sobwis, the
most impoitant being the Naukhalis oi }amis, which I will uiscuss below.
uoveinment iepiession was an impoitant factoi as well. Some of the leauing
figuies in the movement weie impiisoneu foi yeais, anu Sobwis weie fiieu fiom
theii jobs in the meuia anu euucation, posts which weie then filleu by seculai
intellectuals anu Salafis loyal to the goveinment.
17

Bespite the weakening of the Sobwo within Sauui Aiabia, the movement
hau a gieat impact on Salafism at the tiansnational level anu playeu a key iole in
shaping its contempoiaiy chaiactei. The emeigence of the movement leu to the
foimation of the boroki faction. Foieign stuuents in the Sauui Kinguom who hau
been inspiieu by the Sobwo anu socializeu in Sobwi ciicles went on to spieau its
uiscouise anu woiluview in othei Nuslim countiies. Leauing Sobwi shaykhs,
such as Nuhammau Suiui, Salman al-'Awua, Safai al-Bawali anu Nasii al-'0mai,
became tiansnational authoiities. The Sobwo also influenceu }ihaui thinking. Foi
example, 0sama bin Lauen himself socializeu in Sobwo ciicles befoie he left foi
Afghanistan.
18
As Lacioix shows, othei influential jihaui shaykhs such as 'Ali al-
Khuuayi staiteu theii activism in Sobwi ciicles. Aftei the goveinment's
ciackuown on the movement, they concluueu that political activism woulu not
leau to success. They theiefoie opteu to use violence to uestioy the Sauui iegime
anu uiive its main ally, the 0S, fiom the iegion.
19

The example of the Kuwaiti scholai Bamiu al-'Ali (see fuithei below) also
inuicates the influence of the Sobwo. At the beginning of the 199us, Al-'Ali was
counteu as one of the Sobwo, at least in iueological teims. Latei he became one of

16
Al-Rasheeu, Contestinq tbe SouJi Stote, pp. S9-1u1; Namoun Fanuy, SouJi Arobio onJ tbe
Politics of Bissent (New Yoik; Bounumills: Palgiave, 2uu1), pp. 21-6u.
17
As aigueu in Chaptei 1, jihauis only uiffei fiom othei borokis with iespect to tactics.
18
Lacioix, Awokeninq lslom, p. 47.
19
Ibiu., pp. 249-2Su.
S7
the leauing boroki figuies in Kuwait. Although he nevei siueu explicitly with the
jihauis, many jihauis consiuei his polemics against the Shi'a oi wiitings on
Westein impeiialism to be authoiitative. Al-'Ali usually focuses on uiagnostic
fiaming anu uoes not make specific iecommenuations as to how to solve ceitain
pioblems, leaving both the political anu the militaiy solutions open. Theiefoie he
has a laige following among both jihauis anu politicos.
2u

It is impoitant to note heie that the auoption of the ievolutionaiy
appioach towaius ijtiboJ anu the boJitb by one of the gieatest Salafi scholais,
Nasii al-Bin al-Albani (1914-1999), playeu a ciucial iole in shaping Sobwi, anu
theieby boroki, uiscouise.
21
This is uespite the fact that the shaykh himself was
cleaily puiist. In theoiy, tiauitional Sauui 'ulomo call foi ijtiboJ, but in piactice
they laigely follow Banbali juiispiuuence. In most cases they abanuon a given
iuling by the moJbob only if they finu pioof that it contiauicts the Text. Al-Albani
ciiticizeu this appioach anu insteau emphasizeu the neeu foi extensive stuuy of
the Bauith. Be iejecteu the toqliJ of the moJbobib, insteau pioposing a wiuei
foim of ijtiboJ that iequiies, in each case, theie to be pioof by means of an
inuepenuent ieauing of the Piophetic tiauition if the Qui'an uoes not give a cleai
answei.
22

This extensive usage of the boJitb inuepenuently of the constiaints of the
Banbali School inspiieu the Sobwo anu ueeply influenceu its uiscouise. It is also
essential to boroki Salafis to iefei to veiifieu quotations fiom the Piophet to
suppoit theii statements anu claims in theii uiscouise. When they aigue about
the necessity of iefoiming Niuule Eastein iegimes oi iiuuing the Nuslim woilu
of Westein impeiialism, they suppoit theii aiguments with pioof anu iefeiences
fiom the coipus. Theie aie plenty of examples of this; one of the most obvious is
the book by the Kuwaiti Salafi thinkei Bakim al-Nutayii, ol-Eurriyyo ow ol-
Towfon (Fieeuom oi Stoim).
2S
Be builus up a system of iefeiences to oboJitb

2u
Buiing my fieluwoik in Kuwait between Febiuaiy anu Naich 2u12, I met seveial followeis of
Shaykh Bamiu al-'Ali. Accoiuing to my obseivations, iueologically, they aie mixeu. The thinking
of many of them is close to that of the }ihauis, while otheis have moie moueiate views. Nany of
these lattei followeis aie active in netwoiks that aie affiliateu to the main politico oiganizations
in Kuwait, such as al-Baiaka al-Salafiyya oi Bi. Bakim al-Nutayii's Bizb al-0mma.
21
Al-Albani was boin in Albania, but his family moveu to Syiia in his eaily chiluhoou. Salafis
iegaiu him one of the gieatest evei boJitb scholais.
22
Stephane Lacioix, 'Between Revolution anu Apoliticism', p. 6u.
2S
al-Nutayii, ol-Eurriyyo Aw ol-Towfon.
S8
anu Qui'an quotations to piove that with the ievelation, uou also cieateu a
political system foi humans that is baseu on inuiviuual fieeuom anu the fiee
election of leaueis.
Anothei movement playeu a ciucial iole in the fiactionalization of
Salafism: its auheients aie commonly calleu Naukhalis, in iefeience to one theii
intellectual founueis. Theii oiigins go back to ol-}omo'o ol-Solofiyyo ol-Hubtosibo
(}SN), a gioup inspiieu by al-Albani's teachings. They weie even moie influenceu
by the shaykh's appioach towaiu the boJitb than the Sobwo, but, like al-Albani
himself, they focuseu on the iitualistic aspects of Islam. They auopteu his theoiy
on Islamic activism, which he calleu ol-tosfiyo wo-l-torbiyo (puiification anu
euucation). Accoiuing to this theoiy, an Islamic society anu state cannot be
establisheu until the ieligion has been puiifieu of eveiy foieign element anu of
those Nuslims who uo not apply the teachings of Islam in full. 0n that basis, the
}SN was fieicely ciitical of Islamic movements that weie uiiectly involveu in
politics, such as the Sobwo. The gioup also uistinguisheu itself by its extieme
social conseivatism, attacking symbols of "Westeinization" unuei the pietext of
piacticing bisbo anu following such customs as weaiing shoes while piaying in
the mosque (since theie is no pioof in the Text that this cannot be uone).
24

The }SN latei split into two factions. The fiist iejecteu the iule of the
Bouse of the Sa'uu on the giounus that they uo not have uroysbi oiigins.
2S
This
fiist gioup occupieu the uianu Nosque unuei the leaueiship of }uhayman al-
'0taybi in 1979. The loyalists took the opposite stance, iesulting in the
movement whose leauing figuies aie Rabi' al-Naukhali (19S1-) anu the
Ethiopian shaykh Nuhammau Aman al-}ami (19Su-199S). They ietaineu the
social conseivatism of the }SN anu theii focus on the boJitb, but at the same time
emphasize that the obligation of unconuitional obeuience to the Nuslim iulei is
one of the most impoitant aspects of theii uiscouise. They launch haish attacks
on those who violate this "piemise". The Naukhalis' most fiequent taigets aie
the vaiious Islamic movements, especially the Nuslim Biotheihoou. They also
iegaiu any kinu of oiganization as foibiuuen. The juiists of the movement even

24
Lacioix, 'Al-Albani's Revolutionaiy Appioach to Bauith', lSlH Review, vol. 21, no. 1, 2uu8, p. 7.
2S
Lacioix, Awokeninq lslom, p. 97.
S9
piohibit the establishment of chaiity oiganizations, which aie otheiwise
iegaiueu as legal by the uieat 'ulomo of Sauui Aiabia.
It is woith noting that Naukhalis (in Nuslim countiies) aie exceptionally
keen to woik foi state institutions, anu they often suppoit those who entei the
aimy oi the secuiity seivices. Accoiuing to Ikhwani activists fiom the 0niteu
Aiab Emiiates, whom I inteivieweu when they visiteu Kuwait, theie aie laige
numbeis of Naukhalis woiking as agents anu officeis in theii countiy's inteinal
secuiity agency.
26
Buiing the Sobwo insuigence the state suppoiteu the
Naukhalis to boost its own legitimacy. Naukhali scholais weie appointeu as
univeisity piofessois in place of Sobwis who hau been sackeu. While the
authoiities tiieu to silence Sobwi shaykhs by foibiuuing them fiom giving
seimons, Naukhali shaykhs weie encouiageu to play public ioles.
27

Accoiuing to many of my infoimants, at that time, uivisions emeigeu
among Salafis about the natuie of a Nuslim's ielationship to the iulei (see the
Intiouuction). As one of my Kuwaiti infoimants, the boroki scholai Shaykh 'Abu
al-Aziz al-}aiallah, iecalleu, this issue hau not pieviously been at the centei of
Salafi uiscouise. By contiast, aftei the uulf Wai, "this became the fiist question a
Salafi |inuiviuualj was askeu about. Anything else became seconuaiy aftei
that."
28
Nany boroki Salafis claim that the Naukhalis elaboiateu the thesis of
"unconuitional obeuience to the iulei". When theii numbeis incieaseu in
euucational anu ieligious institutions, they hau a significant influence on Salafi
uiscouise. Nany Salafis accepteu theii views on obeuience to the iulei even if
they uismisseu theii haish ciiticism of those who uiffei fiom them oi theii ultia-
puiitan lifestyle. As I explain in the following section, this became the main
uiviuing line between Salafis at the tiansnational level. The Naukhali movement
also spieau aiounu the globe, uespite the numeious inteinal splits.
29

26
Inteiview, Kuwait, 4 Naich 2u12.
27
Lacioix, Awokeninq lslom, pp. 214-216.
28
29
Lacioix, Awokeninq lslom, pp. 218-22u.
6u

.E) %:#6()*0#0&-* -% "#$#%&'( &* NC4#&0

Kuwait is unique in the iegion in many ways. Its social anu political system
uiffeis fiom that of othei states in the Aiabian Peninsula. Although Kuwait is a
heieuitaiy monaichy, the iuling family has nevei been able to gain absolute
uominance in eveiy fielu of politics anu the emii has always shaieu his powei
with influential elements in society. The founuing myth of the state ieflects its
paiticipatoiy oiigins. Accoiuing to the myth, Kuwait was founueu in the 18
th

centuiy by a gioup of nomaus escaping a piolongeu uiought in the Aiabian
inteiioi. Aftei settling in an oasis neai the sea, they hau to ueciue how they
woulu iun theii newly establisheu community. The question of iule hau to be
settleu by the thiee most poweiful families. The heaus of the two wealthiest
among them iefuseu to fulfill the position of iulei, since then the families woulu
be unable to fully concentiate theii effoits on tiaue. Theiefoie they electeu the
pooiest clan, the cuiient ioyal family al-Sabah, to hanule the state's political
affaiis.
Su

This stoiy ieflects a kinu of social contiact between the iuleis anu the
iuleu that binus the hanus of the foimei. In fact, thioughout Kuwait's histoiy,
poweiful meichant families have hau significant stake in iuling the countiy.
Fiom the beginning, a sburo (council) functioneu in which the heaus of the
meichant families sat with the emii to uiscuss political issues. Fiom these
founuations, in the 2u
th
centuiy, a constitutional monaichy emeigeu that was
unique in the Aiab woilu, with a functioning anu fieely-electeu pailiament anu
fiee piess; the only state in the iegion that compaies to Lebanon. Bue to this
aiiangement, contiol ovei society has been limiteu, anu unlike in othei uulf
monaichies, the flow of iueas anu iueologies has been ielatively fiee. The Shi'ite
community that makes up aiounu one thiiu of the population was nevei as

Su
Naiy Ann Ttieault, Stories of Bemocrocy: Politics onJ Society in Contemporory Kuwoit (New
Yoik: Columbia 0niveisity Piess, 2uuu), p. SS.
61
seveiely uisciiminateu against as in othei Niuule Eastein countiies such as Iiaq
oi Sauui Aiabia.
S1

This maue it possible foi Islamic movements to emeige in a ielatively
eaily peiiou, anu to be peacefully accommouateu in the social anu political
system. The fiist Islamist movements weie the Nuslim Biotheis, Bizb al-Tahiii
anu the Tabligh. 0f these, the Nuslim Biotheis weie able to gain significant
influence anu iepiesentation in the political system. Tabligh was the fiist active
puiitan movement in Kuwait, anu in the 19Sus anu 196us hau many followeis
among the locals. Even some of the oluei Salafi shaykhs became Islamic activists,
with them the Tabligh.
S2
Bizb al-Tahiii, howevei, while able to attiact some
Palestinian intellectuals, nevei enjoyeu a significant membeiship among the
Kuwaitis.
SS

Although accoiuing to some accounts, the Salafi message aiiiveu in
Kuwait at the beginning of the 2u
th
centuiy fiom Sauui Aiabia via tiibal contacts,
anu via the inteiaction of the Kuwaiti 'ulomo with the Najui scholais who
constituteu the ieligious elite of Al Sa'uu,
S4
the movement was not able to gain a
footholu until the 196us. At this time, a hanuful of Solofi Jois (pieacheis) settleu
in the countiy to tiansmit what was, accoiuing to them, the "puie foim of Islam".
The thiee most famous among them weie the Egyptian 'Abu al-Rahman 'Abu al-
Khaliq, the Palestinian 'Abuullah al-Sabt, anu the Sauui '0mai al-Ashqai.
Accoiuing to an account by one of the fiist stuuents of 'Abu al-Rahman 'Abu al-
Khaliq, the Salafi Jowo began in an infoimal way at the beginning of the 196us:

In the beginning we, a few uozen Salafis, only maue excuisions eveiy
night to the beach wheie we sat aiounu the shaykh anu took couises on
the Qui'an anu Sunna. At this stage we nevei toucheu on political oi even
social issues that went beyonu peisonal, ieligious behavioi. When oui

S1
Rajab al-Bamanhoui, 'al-Tayyaiat al-Shi'iyya al-Kuwaytiya . al-Tashakkulat wa-l-Nasaiat',
lslomonline, S Novembei 2uu9,
http:islamyoon.islamonline.netseivletSatellite.c=AiticleA_C&ciu=12SS62891Su74&pagena
me=Zone-Aiabic-Baawa%2FBWALayout (accesseu: S Naich 2u1u).
S2
0ne of them is the piesiuent of Ihya' al-Tuiath's fatwa council, Nazim al-Nisbah. Inteiview, al-
Bayan uistiict, 2u Febiuaiy 2u12.
SS
Inteiview with one of the fiist Kuwaiti Salafis, Kuwait, 11 }anuaiy 2u1u.
S4
Baghash al-'Ajmi bin Shabib, 0moro wo-0lomo Hin ol-Kuwoit 'olo 'AqiJot ol-Solof (Kuwait,
2uu8), pp. SS-61.
62
numbeis became laigei, we weie able to have oui stuuy gioups in
mosques, until thiee mosques weie entiiely Salafi. The continuous aiiival
of migiant woikeis uefinitely incieaseu oui numbeis. Nany Egyptians
attenueu oui stuuy gioups.
SS

The movement's fiist centei was the Bai al-Salafi (Salafi Bouse), wheie the
membeis weie able to hanule issues in a moie official way. These, howevei, weie
iestiicteu to collecting zokot anu voluntaiy uonations (soJoqot). As Shaykh 'Abu
al-Rahman 'Abu al-Khaliq iemembeis, in the fiist yeais of the Jowo, the numbei
of Salafis was still limiteu:

At this time, Kuwait liveu in the euphoiia of the oil boom anu the
goveinment pioviueu people with eveiy type of seivice foi fiee oi at a
iiuiculously cheap piice. People weie pieoccupieu with mateiial goous
anu uiu not have many conceins about ieligion. Among the youth the
nationalist, anti-ieligious way of thinking was populai. When I fiist
aiiiveu in Kuwait, I was suipiiseu to see that only olu people visiteu the
mosques.
S6

In fact, thiee impoitant factois playeu a ciucial iole in the expansion of the Salafi
movement in Kuwait. The fiist was the 1967 wai, anu the catastiophic militaiy
uefeat of Egypt, Syiia anu }oiuan by Isiael. Since this event, eveiywheie, "the
attiaction of Aiab nationalism anu socialism, uominant in 1967, has ueclineu
uiamatically, while ievivalist Islamism has iisen".
S7
Aftei this wai, foi the fiist
time Aiabs blameu themselves, not colonialism, foi theii uefeat. Islamists weie
geneially able to exploit this situation by aiguing "that the wai was punishment
foi misplaceu tiust in the piomise of alien iueologies that hau been fosteieu as a
means of mobilizing foi moueinization anu uevelopment. The uefeat was
uevastating because the maigin of ueviance fiom the faith was gieat".
S8

SS
Inteiview, Kuwait, 21 }anuaiy 2u1u.
S6
Inteiview with 'Abu al-Rahman 'Abu al-Khaliq, Kuwait, 1S Febiuaiy 2u1u.
S7
Yvonne Bauuau, 'Islamists anu the "Pioblem of Isiael": The 1967 awakening', HiJJle Fost
}ournol, vol. 46, no. 2, 1992, p. 266.
S8
Ibiu., p. 267.
6S
The situation in Kuwait was no uiffeient. 0ntil the enu of the 196us, the
vaiious Aiab nationalist movements, mainly the Nasseiists, enjoyeu
oveiwhelming populaiity among the people. Bowevei, aftei the 1967 wai, theii
ieputation iapiuly ueclineu anu the vacuum was filleu by an inciease in
ieligiosity anu, natuially, by the Islamists, at this time uominateu by the Nuslim
Biotheis. As people iecalleu when I was conuucting my fieluwoik in Kuwait, in
the yeais following the wai, mosques that useu to be empty, even at the time of
Fiiuay piayeis, filleu up with young people who hau pieviously attenueu
Nasseiist gatheiings oi Communist oiganizations. Nany people suuuenly
changeu theii lifestyles. Those who hau followeu a Westein lifestyle stoppeu
shaving theii beaius.
The main beneficiaiies of this upheaval weie the Nuslim Biotheis, who
hau been piesent in the countiy foi almost two uecaues anu weie able to builu
up theii oiganizational infiastiuctuie. The state also helpeu them by eveiy
possible means, since it saw Aiab nationalism as a seiious thieat, especially
because of the enmity between Nassei anu the tiauitional pio-Westein
monaichies. The Egyptian piesiuent's hostility giew in paiticulai aftei Algeiian
inuepenuence in 1962, when colonialism ceaseu to be the uiiect enemy. "Nasii
hau to finu new taigets, new 'otheis'. So Aiab nationalist fuiy was tuineu against
Aiab countiies that Nasii ueemeu to be 'ieactionaiy'".
S9

In a moie limiteu way, the Salafis weie also able to take auvantage of the
ieligious upheaval, uue to the fact that they alieauy contiolleu seveial mosques
anu hau uiiect access to young people who hau iecently tuineu to ieligion. The
othei efficient means of tiansmitting the message was being piesent at
Jiwoniyyos, the tiauitional Kuwaiti (mostly men's) gatheiings. These events aie
usually helu weekly in the houses of piominent families anu aie open to
eveiyone. Biwoniyyos aie tiemenuously impoitant in the Kuwaiti public spheie,
as they pioviue the main foiums foi both political anu ieligious uebates (I
explain the Jiwoniyyo in Chaptei 7 moie in uetail).
4u
When membeis of
significant Kuwaiti families became sympathetic to Salafism, the Jois weie able

S9
Aueeu Bawisha, Arob Notionolism in tbe Twentietb Century (Piinceton; 0xfoiu: Piinceton
0niveisity Piess, 2uuS), p. 28S.
4u
Theie aie Jiwoniyyos foi women as well. The numbei of the mixeu Jiwoniyyos is also giowing
among the libeial-minueu population.
64
to access these Jiwoniyyos anu shaie theii teaching with othei attenuants. They
aie usually inviteu weekly, oi eveiy othei week, to give lectuies anu holu stuuy
gioups foi Qui'an oi Bauith.
41
Nost Salafis acknowleuge the iole that Jiwoniyobs
playeu in spieauing the Salafi message in the countiy.
The ieal bieakthiough - anu this is the seconu factoi - foi Salafis ielates
to an inteinal anu an exteinal uevelopment. At the beginning of the 197us, Salafis
weie able to ieciuit followeis among the influential meichant class. Khaliu
Sultan, the foimei leauei of the Salafi pailiamentaiy faction, was among them.
42

This also openeu the way foi them to become pait of Kuwait's political map in
the long teim. In the pie-oil eia, the iuleis of Kuwait tiauitionally shaieu powei
with the meichant class. The emiis weie financially laigely uepenuent on the
meichants, as the lattei uominateu laige segments of the population whose
livelihoous weie baseu on tiaue anu peail-uiving, anu weie able to extiact
ievenues fiom them. Bowevei, aftei the uiscoveiy of oil, the powei balance
changeu in favoi of the iuleis. They became inuepenuent fiom the meichants'
ievenues, anu weie theiefoie laigely able to excluue the lattei fiom uecision-
making.
0nlike the othei uulf States, howevei, in Kuwait, the iulei uiu not enjoy
absolute uominance, anu though the meichants lost most of theii political powei,
they still constituteu an influential segment of the population. They continuously
sought new oppoitunities to iegain theii foimei influence, anu theiefoie
suppoiteu political anu social movements. At the enu of the 197us, many scions
of influential meichant families became followeis of Salafism. This enableu the
movement to gain a piesence in the financial anu tiauing sectoi, anu ieceive
moie funuing than befoie. Since the meichants weie inteiesteu in social anu
political issues, the voices that became stiongei in the Salafi movement weie
those that weie keen to see ieligious iulings implementeu in public life.
As one of my infoimants explaineu to me, at this time, Salafis began
involving themselves in moie woiluly uebates conceining politics anu society.
4S

41
Nowauays, eveiy Kuwaiti Salafi sheikh tenus to appeai at Jiwoniyyos on a iegulai basis, anu
the uates can be founu on theii websites. See, foi instance, the website of the Naukhali Salafi
Sheikh Salim al-Tawil. http:www.saltaweel.comscheuule, accesseu 18 Apiil 2u1u.
42
I will uiscuss the issue of politics anu Salafism in Kuwait below.
4S
Inteiview with Salim al-Nashi, the foimei uiiectoi of the politbuio of al-Tajammu' al-Islami al-
Salafi (Salafi Islamic uatheiing), 1S }anuaiy 2u1u.
6S
A few Salafis joineu the Nuslim Biotheihoou oi woikeu with them. The majoiity,
howevei, iemaineu inuepenuent anu haishly ciitical of the Nuslim Biotheis.
Accoiuing to some accounts, in the 197us, a "wai of iueas" (borb ofkor) took
place between the Nuslim Biotheis anu Salafis in the Jiwoniyobs, mosques,
public gatheiings, anu in the meuia, which became accessible to Salafis aftei they
hau gaineu sympathizeis within the meichant class.
44

The thiiu factoi is the geopolitical change in the iegion, which favoieu the
Salafis. The Iianian Revolution of 1979 poseu a seveie thieat to the veiy
existence of the Kuwaiti state. Besiue the militaiy thieat that came fiom Tehian,
Khomeini's Islamist iegime intenueu to spieau the ievolution among the Shi'ite
communities of the uulf. Shi'ite militant cells in Kuwait committeu seveial
teiioiist attacks uuiing the 198us. In auuition, the fact that Islamists weie able
to come to powei anu establish a iegime baseu on sboriò in Iian (uespite the
fact that they weie Shi'ites) gave the Nuslim Biotheihoou new confiuence in
countiies with Sunni majoiities that theii pioject coulu also be implementeu.
The Kuwaiti iuling family was tiuly fiighteneu by the piospect of being
oveithiown by the Islamists. Theiefoie, to uiviue the Sunnis, the state began
suppoiting the Salafi movement against the Nuslim Biotheis, as it hau suppoiteu
the lattei at the enu of the 196us against the Nasseiists. A fuithei ieason foi
helping the Salafis against the Nuslim Biotheis was the 198u-1988 Iian-Iiaq
Wai. While financing Sauuam Bussein's expensive militaiy auventuie, the
goveinment neeueu a foim of Islamic legitimacy.
By the beginning of the 198us, the Salafi movement in Kuwait hau
achieveu an unpieceuenteu level of oiganizational uevelopment. While most
aspects of the movement's oiganizational stiategy ietaineu an infoimal
chaiactei, Salafis gaineu a stiong piesence in laboi oiganizations anu stuuent
unions, wheie they competeu with the Nuslim Biotheis. As the next stage in
theii oiganizational uevelopment, the Salafis of Kuwait establisheu }omoiyyot
lbyo ol-Turotb ol-lslomi (the Revival of Islamic Beiitage Society, oi RIBS). The
society was founueu in 1981 with the suppoit of the Kuwaiti state anu wealthy
meichants who hau auopteu Salafi iueology. Although accoiuing to its founuing

44
Falah al-Nuuayiis, Al-}omoo ol-Solofiyo fi-l-Kuwoit: ol-Nosbot wo-l-Iikr wo-l-Totowwur 196S-
1999 (Kuwait: Bai Quitas li-l-Nashi, 1999), pp. 7-8.
66
uocuments, Ihya' al-Tuiath was cieateu foi chaiitable puiposes, fiom the
beginning, it coveieu a wiuei iange of tasks.
In the 198us the RIBS seiveu as an umbiella oiganization foi Kuwait's
Salafis, anu pioviueu the institutional fiamewoik foi engaging in the political
piocess. In 1981, foi the fiist time anywheie in the woilu, Salafis weie
nominateu foi pailiamentaiy elections. At this time, Salafis elsewheie uiu not
suppoit any kinu of political paiticipation in seculai anu pailiamentaiy iegimes,
since they weie heavily influenceu by the Sauui ieligious line, which abstaineu
fiom any seiious political involvement asiue fiom legitimizing the autociatic iule
of the ioyal family. Nost Kuwaiti Salafis, howevei, took a uiffeient stance, uue to
the ievolutionaiy iueology piopagateu by theii main ieligious authoiity, 'Abu al-
Rahman 'Abu al-Khaliq.

Tbe tbouqbt of Sboykb AbJ ol-Robmon AbJ ol-Kboliq

It is necessaiy to biiefly uiscuss the thought of 'Abu al-Rahman 'Abu al-Khaliq,
since his iueas anu the uebates they inspiieu playeu a ciucial iole in the
uevelopment of Ihya' al-Tuiath. 0nlike those of puiist Salafis, the majoiity of the
wiitings of Shaykh 'Abu al-Rahman aie ielateu to politics. In the seconu half of
the 197us he began publishing weekly in ol-Woton, one of the biggest Kuwaiti
uailies, mainly on contempoiaiy political affaiis. In one of his aiticles he aigues
that politics anu human uevelopment aie moie impoitant than meie ieligious
piactice. Accoiuing to him, Islam is a total system; politics foims a pait of this
system, anu cannot be neglecteu.
Shaykh 'Abu al-Rahman ciiticizes the aigument that the Piophet uiu not
piactice politics in the fiist Neccan peiiou. Accoiuing to Shaykh 'Abu al-Rahman,
this claim is false, because politics is not only about goveining a state. In his
woius,

the Piophet fiom the fiist uay of his Jowo intenueu to apply a uiffeient
uogma fiom the uominant woiluview anu wanteu to gathei people
aiounu this uogma . The Piophet also cieateu a seciet society |when the
67
Nuslims weie oppiesseu in Neccaj, a society that woikeu publicly to
change the social system. Be useu eveiy available meuia, like peisonal
conveisations, seimons . the meuia wai against the belief of the
}obiliyyo, anu all of this is politics.
4S

'Abu al-Rahman 'Abu al-Khaliq thinks that the puiist stance on politics only
seives the enemies of Islam who uestioyeu the Caliphate anu then establisheu
weak iuleis in Nuslim countiies in oiuei to safeguaiu the inteiests of the West.
As these iuleis iefuse to govein accoiuing to Islam, the puiists who legitimize
theii iule aie seiving the enemies of theii ieligion. 0nlike the puiists, he also
justifies the establishment of political paities on the giounus that they can iaise
the flag of Islam, anu theie is no any eviuence in the Text that piohibits such
oiganizations. Be thinks that paities aie effective tools of Jowo in a uemociatic
system, anu that it is in the inteiest of Nuslims to pieseive this system, since the
alteinative is militaiy uictatoiship. Nany puiists iegaiu othei types of
associations, such as chaiitable oiganizations, as biJo (invention) anu theiefoie
piohibiteu. Bowevei, accoiuing to Shaykh 'Abu al-Rahman, such associations
existeu at the time of the Piophet. Be mentions the case of Nuslims who fleu to
Ethiopia to escape the iepiession of the Neccans. Since the Nuslims liveu in a
minoiity in a pieuominantly Chiistian countiy, they foigeu close ties with each
othei anu establisheu an association (jomoiyyo) leu by one of the Companions,
}a'fai bin Abi Talib.

lbyo ol-Turotb ofter tbe liberotion of Kuwoit

While the Salafi movement was quite uniteu until 199u unuei the umbiella of
Ihya' al-Tuiath, aftei the libeiation of Kuwait fiom the Iiaqi occupation, this was
no longei the case. The schism occuiieu uue to uebates within the Salafi
movement in Sauui Aiabia, which I uesciibeu in an eailiei section in this chaptei.
Buiing the uulf Wai, most Kuwaiti Salafis escapeu to Sauui Aiabia, wheie they

4S
'Abu al-Rahman 'Abu al-Khaliq, ol-Huslimun wo-l-'Amol ol-Siyosi, unuateu book, accessible
online at: http:www.salafi.net. (accesseu S Febiuaiy 2u1u).
68
iapiuly began to play active paits in these uebates. They weie able to integiate
quickly into the uiffeient Salafi netwoiks anu gioups in Sauui Aiabia because
they weie often connecteu to the Sauui Salafis thiough kinship.
46
Nany of them
became active paiticipants in the Sobwo movement. 0pon theii ietuin to theii
home countiy aftei the wai, these inuiviuuals became pioneeis of the boroki
wing of Kuwaiti Salafism, as was the case foi Bi. Bakim al-Nutayii, Shaykh
Bamiu al-'Ali anu Bi. 'Abu al-Razzaq al-Shayiji.
Buiing the occupation of Kuwait, otheis siueu with the puiist camp,
which was iepiesenteu by the official Sauui 'ulomo. Nost piobably theii main
ieason foi uoing so was the fact that the puiists uiu not oppose Kuwait's
libeiation, even though it was unueitaken by Westein foices. Nany Kuwaitis
became influenceu by Rabi' al-Naukhali (see the beginning of this chaptei) anu
piopagateu his iueas upon theii ietuin. Aftei the libeiation, when most Kuwaiti
Salafis ietuineu home, the uebates weie expoiteu to Kuwait, anu in the 199us,
the local Salafi community split along boroki anu puiist lines. This schism, in
tuin, hau an impact on Ihya' al-Tuiath. 0ntil that time, the oiganization hau been
unuei the unquestionable influence of Shaykh 'Abu al-Rahman 'Abu al-Khaliq.
In the fiist half of the 199us, 'Abu al-Rahman 'Abu al-Khaliq was suuuenly
ousteu fiom Ihya' al-Tuiath anu the oiganization's iueological uiiection changeu
iauically. In aiounu 1996-1997, a puiist stieam giauually gaineu contiol ovei
Ihya' al-Tuiath, leu by Shaykh 'Abuullah al-Sabt anu Shaykh Bayy al-Bayy, both
influenceu by Shaykh Rabi' al-Naukhali. Accoiuing to some of my infoimants, the
puiists weie given intensive state suppoit, since the iuling family no longei
tiusteu 'Abu al-Rahman 'Abu al-Khaliq anu his followeis. Theie weie two
ieasons foi this. Fiist, Shaykh 'Abu al-Rahman hau peisonally sympathizeu with
Sauuam Bussein piioi to the invasion, uue to the Iiaqi piesiuent's anti-Shi'a
stance. Although Shi'ites weie not the only victims of Sauuam's peisecution,
many Salafis sympathizeu with him because he haishly iepiesseu Shi'ite Islamic
movements such as the Islamic Ba'wa Paity (Eizb ol-Bo'wo ol-lslomiyyo).
47

46
Nost Kuwaitis have numeious ielatives in Sauui Aiabia, especially those who have tiibal
oiigins. All of the tiibes that aie piesent in Kuwait have extensions in Sauui Aiabia.
47
The Islamic Ba'wa Paity is cuiiently the leauing foice in the Iiaqi goveinment. In the 197us
anu 198us it was leu by Nuhammau Baqii al-Saui (19SS-198u), one of the most impoitant Shi'ite
Islamist thinkeis, whose thought has hau a ueep impact on contempoiaiy Shi'ite Islamism. Salafis
iegaiu al-Saui as one of the aich-enemies of Islam, along with Khomeini anu othei leauing
69
Seconu, the Kuwaiti state was thieateneu by boroki Salafis uue to theii
ambiguous stance towaius Aiab iuleis.
The uiiect iesult of the expulsion of Shaykh 'Abu al-Rahman 'Abu al-
Khaliq anu most of his followeis fiom Ihya' al-Tuiath was an open feuu between
'Abu al-Rahman 'Abu al-Khaliq anu Shaykh 'Abuullah al-Sabt, his foimei pupil.
Shaykh 'Abuullah al-Sabt attackeu one of the books wiitten by 'Abu al-Rahman
'Abu al-Khaliq, ol-Sirot, in which the lattei uesciibes towbiJ ol-bukm (oneness of
goveinance) as an integial pait of the pillais of towbiJ.
48
As 'Abu al-Rahman 'Abu
al-Khaliq puts it, "0nifying the bokimiyyo of uou Almighty means that we believe
that he is the only one who has the iight to govein anu he is the souice of the law
foi who those love him anu accept |his sboriòj. As uou saiu |in the Qui'anj theie
is no goveinance except foi uou |lo bukum illo li-llobj".
49
Puiist Salafis
inteipieteu this as the application of Sayyiu Qutb's concept of bokimiyyo in a
Salafi context.
Su
Accoiuing to Qutb, the goveinment shoulu be baseu on the
soveieignty of uou, which means that the legal system must be entiiely baseu on
sboriò. The iulei must iule justly, anu must be chosen by the iuleu, who must
then obey the iulei. Bowevei, this obeuience is baseu on the iulei's obeuience to
uou.
S1

'Abuullah al-Sabt theiefoie accuseu 'Abu al-Rahman 'Abu al-Khaliq of
making a coveit call foi a ievolt against the iulei (kburuj) anu calleu him a
Khaiiji, aftei a sectaiian movement in eaily Islam. The Khawaiij (pluial of
Khaiiji) hau ievolteu against the fouith Caliph, 'Ali bin Abi Talib, when the lattei
agieeu to settle his uispute with the goveinoi of Bamascus, Nu'awiya bin Abi
Sufyan, by aibitiation. Nu'awiya accuseu 'Ali of hiuing the muiueieis of the thiiu
Caliph, '0thman bin 'Affan - who was Nu'awiya's ielative - anu claimeu the
Caliphate foi himself. Some of 'Ali's soluieis uiu not accept the methou of
aibitiation, since accoiuing to them, "uou alone has the iight to juuge |lo Eukum

figuies of the 1979 Iianian Revolution anu the cuiient iegime in Tehian. See: Rougei Shanahan,
'Shia Political Bevelopment in Iiaq: The Case of the Islamic Bawa Paity', TbirJ WorlJ uorterly,
vol. 2S, no. S, 2uu4, pp. 94S-949.
48
Salafis usually iegaiu towbiJ ol-ulubiyyo, towbiJ ol-rububiyyo anu towbiJ ol-osmo wo-l-sifot as
the thiee pillais of Tawhiu.
49
'Abu al-Rahman 'Abu al-Khaliq, ol-Sirot, 2uuu, available online at: www.salafi.net (accesseu: 7
Febiuaiy 2u1u).
Su
Inteiview with Nassei al-Khaliui, 26 }anuaiy 2u1u.
S1
William E. Shephaiu, SoyyiJ utb onJ lslomic Activism: A Tronslotion onJ Criticol Anolysis of
Sociol }ustice in lslom (Leiuen: Biill, 1996), p. 117.
7u
illo li-llobj", which can also be tianslateu as "no goveinance except foi uou". As
'Abuullah al-Sabt wiote in an aiticle that iefeiieu to 'Abu al-Rahman 'Abu al-
Khaliq:

The fiist Khawaiij weie iepeating the tiuth but theii aim was unjust with
it: lo bukum illo li-llob. They wanteu to ievolt against the legitimate Caliph
of the Nuslims . That happeneu thioughout histoiy |i.e. accoiuing to the
puiist Salafi concept, the Khawaiij always existeu in Islamic histoiyj anu
touay's Khawaiij |Kboworij ol-'Asrj use the same woiu: the bokimiyyo to
excommunicate theii iuleis anu legitimize the ievolt against them.
S2

In a lectuie, 'Abuullah al-Sabt explaineu that:

This sentence of lo bukum illo li-llob is olu in the vocabulaiy of the
kboworij. They useu it to excommunicate the companions |of the Piophetj
anu to ievolt against |the Caliphj 'Ali. |These thoughtsj weie tiansmitteu
among them |to the new geneiationsj anu then Sayyiu Qutb useu them .
then the contempoiaiy kboworij uevelopeu these anu uiviueu towbiJ into
foui paits |oqsomj: ulubiyyo, rububiyyo, ol-osmo wo-l-sifot anu ol-
bokimiyyo.
SS

Aftei that, he took a cleai puiist stance, which ieflects the uesiie foi oiuei unuei
the leaueiship of Nuslim iulei, even if he is unjust (see the Intiouuction). Be
aigueu that, "theie is no intelligent Nuslim who thinks that goveinance is not foi
uou". Bowevei, he askeu why it is necessaiy to emphasize this, since it can be
misleauing anu cause political uifficulties. In his aiticle, 'Abuullah al-Sabt
explaineu that the Salafis believe in the "application of uou's iule on the Eaith",
but this uoes not mean the "naiiow-minueu Bakimiyya concept of touay's
Khawaiij". Accoiuing to him, uou's iule means following all of the piactices anu
iulings of Islam, anu having a goveinment that assuies this (iqomot ol-buJuJ).
Be iejects "the naiiow-minueu bokimiyyo" piopagateu by Islamist movements.

S2
0nuateu auuio iecoiuing of the uebate between Shaykh Àbu al-Rahman Àbu al-Khaliq anu
Àbuullah al-Sabt.
SS
Ibiu.
71
'Abu al-Rahman 'Abu al-Khaliq iesponueu to 'Abuullah al-Sabt in a
ieligious lettei (risolob Jiniyyob). In this, he stateu that:

the Khawaiij, when they saiu this woiu |lo bukum illo li-llobj to 'Ali bin
Abi Talib, weie not uemanuing the application of the sboriò, but weie
uisagieeing with him because he accepteu the aibitiation between him
anu Nu'awiyah . Theiefoie not eveiybouy is a Khaiiji who uses the
woius lo bukum illo li-llob.
S4

Be thinks that ievolution against the iulei is obligatoiy only if the iulei is openly
an apostate anu thinks that man-maue law is as goou as sborio, oi bettei. Shaykh
'Abu al-Rahman explaineu the inclusion of towbiJ ol-bukum among the pillais of
towbiJ as a mattei of choice, not a mattei of sacieu piinciple. Theie is no ieason
why a Salafi shoulu stiictly holu on to the iuea of thiee aspects of towbiJ. 0ne
may also speak of just one pillai of towbiJ, oi of ten, if one so wishes.
It shoulu be noteu that when I askeu 'Abu al-Rahman 'Abu al-Khaliq
whethei it was peimissible foi the iuleu to oveithiow the iulei unuei ceitain
conuitions, he iefuseu to give me a cleai answei, while the puiists who touay
contiol Ihya' al-Tuiath iesponu with an unequivocal "no". Thioughout the 197us
anu 198us, howevei, when the Nuslim Biotheis openly ciiticizeu the legitimacy
of contempoiaiy Aiab iegimes, incluuing Kuwait, he hau always aigueu that it
was not in the inteiests (moslobo) of the ummo to touch on political issues such
as these.
Aftei the emeigence of the activist cuiient of Salafism, the uulf iegimes
began to woiiy about potential ciiticism of heieuitaiy monaichical systems anu
theii alliances with the West. The Kuwaiti state hau hau enough pioblems with
the Nuslim Biotheis in the 198us, anu it uiu not want to count the Salafis among
its opponents. Theiefoie the goveinment began to suppoit the puiist Salafi
faction leu by 'Abuullah al-Sabt against 'Abu al-Rahman 'Abu al-Khaliq. By
suppoiting a loyal faction anu gaining contiol ovei Ihya' al-Tuiath, the state
expecteu to ensuie the loyalty of the majoiity of Salafis, oi at least to uepoliticize
them. As the iesult of the inteinal stiife in the oiganization, the majoiity of the

S4
Ibiu.
72
followeis of 'Abu al-Rahman 'Abu al-Khaliq left the oiganization in 1997 anu
cieateu theii own gioup unuei the name of "The Salafi Novement" (al-Baiaka al-
Salafiyya). Aftei that, the natuie of Ihya' al-Tuiath iapiuly changeu. Shaykh 'Abu
al-Rahman 'Abu al-Khaliq's books uisappeaieu fiom the oiganization's
publishing houses, anu it insteau began piinting the woiks of the Sauui ieligious
establishment anu woiks by Kuwaiti scholais with puiist views. These
publications focus on two main issues: the ielationship between the iulei anu
the iuleu, anu the question of jihau.

lbyo ol-Turotbs iJeoloqy ofter tbe expulsion of AbJ ol-Robmon AbJ ol-Kboliq

0n the ielationship between the iulei anu the iuleu, Ihya' al-Tuiath has piinteu
the woik, AbJ ol-Solom bin Borjos Al AbJ ol-Korim: Beolinq witb tbe Ruler
occorJinq to tbe Book onJ tbe Sunno.
SS
The authoi is a ienowneu puiist cleiic,
known foi his haish ciiticism of activist Salafis. At the beginning of the tieatise,
he makes it cleai that ievolt against the iulei (ol-kburuj olo ol-bokim) is a
coiiuption of ieligion anu the woilu (fosoJ ol-Jin wo-l-Junyo), anu that
obeuience is in the univeisal inteiest (moslobot ol-Jin wo-l-Junyo). Beie he gives
the example of Bajjaj bin Yusuf, the goveinoi of Iiaq between 69S anu 714,
known in the Islamic tiauition foi his unjust behavioi towaiu his subjects anu foi
his ciuelty. Bespite this, the Piophet's companions uiu not ievolt against him.
Accoiuing to the authoi, Bajjaj was no bettei than contempoiaiy iuleis, but
contempoiaiy Nuslims aie not equal to the Sahaba.
S6
In auuition, he foibius
ievolt against the Nuslim iulei who uoes not follow coiiect ieligious piactice.
Ahmau bin Banbal, the founuei of the Banbali moJbob anu one of the scholais
who is most iespecteu by Salafis, stoou against those who wanteu to iemove the
Abbasiu Caliph because he hau auopteu the Nu'tazila (speculative theology).
S7

The authoi gives a typical puiist explanation of bisbo, oi ol-omr bi-l-
moruf wo-l-noby on ol-munkor (commanuing iight, foibiuuing wiong). Although

SS
'Abu ul-Salam bin Baijas bin Nasei al 'Abu ul-Kaiim, Huomolot ol-Eukkom fi Bbu ol-Kitob wo-l-
Sunno (Kuwait: }ama'iyyat Ihya' al-Tuiath al-Islami, 2uu9).
S6
Ibiu. pp. 11-12.
S7
Ibiu., p. 12.
7S
he uoes not ciiticize the iuea that that bisbo can be implementeu by hanu (yoJJ),
tongue (lison) anu qolb (heait), he thinks that it must not leau to gieatei evil
(munkor okbor); in othei woius, that coiiecting one mistake must not leau to
anothei, even gieatei, mistake. Puiist Salafis often mention the example of cafs
such as Costa oi Staibucks, wheie men anu women can fieely mix. In theii view,
while it woulu be uesiiable to close these establishments, it shoulu be consiueieu
whethei such an action woulu tiiggei iesistance among the population anu take
them even fuithei away fiom Islam. If this weie to be the case, then such
iegulations shoulu not be implementeu. Likewise, it can be haimful to Islam
when vigilant gioups composeu of enthusiastic young Salafis aibitiaiily anu
foicefully tiy to implement bisbo without the state's peimission.
S8
0nly the iulei
can use his hanu, oi the 'ulomo; but the lattei can only inteivene to sepaiate
fighting paities. In othei cases, the use of the hanu - oi in othei woius, the use of
foice to implement bisbo - has to be oiueieu by the state, oi by the iulei himself.
In othei cases, only implementation by tongue oi heait is peimitteu, but
conuitions aie attacheu to the foimei. It can be uone by the ulomo uuiing the
Fiiuay seimon, but the iulei must not be publicly ciiticizeu, since this can leau to
uisoiuei anu ievolt. The authoi suppoits his opinion with a boJitb about the
thiiu Caliph 0thman: "When the civil wai bioke out in the time of 0thman, some
of the people askeu 0sama bin Zayu |one of the companions of the Piophetj: You
uo not ciiticize 0thman. Be answeieu: What. Shall I ciiticize him in fiont of the
people. No, I only can uo it in piivate anu thus not open the uooi to Evil".
S9
This
citation also ieflects the common puiist view that open ciiticism of the iulei is
foibiuuen, anu that it shoulu only be uone in piivate by skilleu ieligious scholais.
Publicly, the ulomo can conuemn those things that violate ieligious iules, but
without ielating them to the iulei.
The seconu main topic of the new puiist uiscouise of Ihya' al-Tuiath is
jihau, in iesponse to the inciease in teiioiist attacks in the last uecaue on the
Aiabian Peninsula anu elsewheie in the woilu. Ihya' al-Tuiath - like othei
Islamic chaiities - has been accuseu of sponsoiing jihaui oiganizations
woiluwiue. The 0S Tieasuiy Bepaitment has accuseu the oiganization of giving

S8
Foi example, see the conveisation between Shaykh Salim al-Tawil anu his pupils, Kuwait, 4
Febiuaiy 2u12.
S9
Ibiu., p. 48.
74
financial suppoit to two South Asian teiioiist gioups. The fiist is the Pakistani
gioup Laskai e-Tayyiba, which was iesponsible inter olio foi the 2uu1 Becembei
attacks on the Inuian pailiament. The seconu is the Banglaueshi oiganization
}ama'at al-Nujahiuin. Both gioups aie linkeu to al-Qaeua.
6u
0n the basis of these
accusations, the Ameiican goveinment, having fiozen its accounts in the 0S,
uemanueu that the Kuwaiti state close Ihya' al-Tuiath (as the Sauuis hau uone
with Nu'assasat al-Baiamayn). Bowevei, the Kuwaiti goveinment uiu not fulfill
this iequest, claiming that theie was no ieliable eviuence against Ihya' al-Tuiath.
Nost Islamists - even those who weie otheiwise iueologically opposeu to the
oiganization, incluuing boroki Salafis - iesisteu the ban. Although Ihya' al-Tuiath
avoiueu the fate of Nu'assasat al-Baiamayn, it came unuei almost total state
contiol, anu the puiists' uominance became even moie oveiwhelming. To avoiu
fuithei accusations, Ihya' al-Tuiath put consiueiable effoit into piouucing anti-
jihaui piopaganua. The oiganization publisheu seveial books on the topic of
jihau, anu most of these aie fieely available in Salafi mosques woiluwiue. All of
these publications ieflect a stiict puiist agenua.
0ne of the most impoitant anu uetaileu of these books was wiitten by a
ienowneu Yemeni puiist, Shaykh Abi Bassan al-Sulaymani, a pupil of the famous
Yemeni puiist scholai Nuqbil al-Waui'i. The book, entitleu ol-Tofjirot wo-l-
lqbtiyolot (Tbe Bombinqs onJ tbe HurJers), claims to explain the ieasons foi
jihaui activity anu offeis solutions to the pioblem. The authoi thinks that the
main ieason foi the iauicalization of Nuslim youth is that some Salafi scholais
have begun to openly ciiticize Nuslim iuleis, anu accuse them of hating Islam in
tiuth anu only being Nuslims on the suiface. This is a cleai iefeience to boroki
Salafis, who, accoiuing to the authoi, caie little about Jowo anu only focus on
the issue of bokimiyyo. This way of thinking inspiieu some young people who
weie ignoiant of ieligious matteis to take up weapons against theii legitimate
iulei. Suleymani thinks that although contempoiaiy iuling iegimes aie not tiuly
Islamic, Nuslims shoulu not ievolt against them. Be iefeis to a boJitb to suppoit
his stance: "Always when an element of Islam is uestioyeu the people will cling

6u
Roy Bhaskai, 'Teiioiism in Banglauesh: Nonstei Chilu of BNP }amaat', Soutb Asio Anolysis
6roup, 17 Novembei 2uu9, available fiom
http:www.southasiaanalysis.oig%SCpapeisS6%SCpapeiSSu9.html (accesseu: 17 Naich
2u1u); 'Kuwait chaiity uenies Qaeua links,' Kuwoit Times, 1S }une 2uu8.
7S
even moie to that which iemains".
61
The authoi explains that by this,
Nuhammau meant that even when a goveinment was not tiuly Islamic, othei
aspects of Islam woulu iemain stiong. Be also offeis the example of the
Companion of the Piophet, who uiu not ievolt against the 0mayyau caliphs,
although they weie much woise, in many iespects, than contempoiaiy Aiab anu
Nuslim iuleis.
62

Aftei the split with the borokis Ihya' al-Tuiath also publisheu a booklet in
which the oiganization's iueological founuations aie explaineu.
6S
The authois
ueuicate a consiueiable pait of the book to the question of jihau. They iegaiu the
piesence of the Imam (the iulei) as the most impoitant conuition foi waging
jihau. In the absence of this, Nuslims can launch a holy wai only if an exteinal
enemy occupies theii lanu (jiboJ Jof, oi uefensive jihau; note that this is why
most of the Salafis suppoit the Palestinian iesistance). Bowevei, heie one shoulu
note that jihauis shaie this opinion, but they iegaiu theii activities as uefensive
jihau against those who occupy Nuslim lanus, even if they aie fighting in the lanu
of the enemy.
64
Bowevei, the authois' countei-aigument is that jihau can only be
wageu face-to-face with the enemy; suiciue attacks anu bombings can also haim
Nuslims, anu this is foibiuuen in Islam. In theii aigument, they iefei to an oyo in
the Qui'an:

If theie hau not been among them, unknown to you, believing men anu
women whom you woulu have tiampleu unueifoot, inauveitently
incuiiing guilt on theii account - uou biings whoevei Be will into Bis
meicy - if the |believeisj hau been cleaily sepaiateu, We woulu have
inflicteu a painful punishment on the uisbelieveis.
6S

61
Abi Basan al-Sulaymani, ol-Tofjirot wo-l-lqbtiyolot (Kuwait: }ama'iyyat Ihya' al-Tuiath al-
Islami, 2uu8), p. S1.
62
Ibiu., p. S2.
6S
}ama'iyyat Ihya' al-Tuiath al-Islami Honboj ol-}omo'iyyo li-l-Bo'wo wo-l-Towjib (Kuwait:
}ama'iyyat Ihya' al-Tuiath al-Islami, 1997).
64
Ibiu.
6S
Suiah 48, ayah 2S, N. A. S. Abuel Baleem (tians), Tbe uron (0xfoiu, New Yoik: 0xfoiu
0niveisity Piess, 2uuS), p. SS6.
76
Solofism in Kuwoit ofter tbe split in lbyo ol-Turotb

The secession of Shaykh 'Abu al-Rahman 'Abu al-Khaliq's faction fiom Ihya' al-
Tuiath leu to the ieoiganization of the Salafi movement in Kuwait, which in tuin
hau a seiious impact on the tiansnational movement as well. Kuwait can be
consiueieu one of the main hubs of tiansnational Islamic activism. Bue to its
ielatively fiee enviionment, it seives as an impoitant meeting point foi activists.
At the same time it is one of the most impoitant centeis of Islamic financing anu
chaiity activity in the woilu. Foi these ieasons, tiansnational Islamic netwoiks
inteisect in the countiy. Salafis fiom aiounu the globe fiequently tiavel to
Kuwait to mobilize mateiial iesouices oi meet fellow activists. It is thus no
wonuei that local tiansfoimations in the Kuwaiti Salafi movement tenu to have a
tiansnational impact. The split of Kuwaiti Salafism into two main stieams, a
puiist one anu a boroki one, uefineu the chaiactei of Salafism in othei locations,
incluuing Lebanon. Local factions became influential paits, anu often the main
mateiial sponsois, of laigei tiansnational netwoiks. Theiefoie it is necessaiy to
biiefly uesciibe the main Salafi gioupings that emeigeu aftei the 1997 split in
Ihya' al-Tuiath, befoie I analyze how they contiibuteu to the tiansfoimation of
Salafism in Kuwait.

Tbe purists of Kuwoit

Nost of the puiists iuentify themselves as close to Ihya' al-Tuiath, which now
seives as theii umbiella oiganization. Although the chaiitable institution's
uiscouise has changeu iauically, it is still active in politics anu has ietaineu a
ielatively uevelopeu oiganizational stiuctuie in compaiison to those of othei
Salafi gioupings.
The membeis of the laigest Salafi pailiamentaiy block, ol-Tojommu' ol-
Solofi ol-lslomi (Salafi uatheiing), aie closely connecteu to Ihya' al-Tuiath.
Bespite being politically active, they puisue pieuominantly puiist aims in theii
pailiamentaiy woik. They always emphasize the neeu to obey the Emii of
Kuwait, anu they aie mostly conceineu with the islamization of social piactices,
77
such as the segiegation of the sexes in public institutions anu univeisities, anu
obliging Nuslim women to weai the bijob when they appeai in public. As one of
the Salafi NPs explaineu to me, the Jo'wo is not cuiiently at an auvanceu stage
anu is enuangeieu by both Westeinizeu libeials anu "extiemists". Pailiament
offeis an excellent oppoitunity to uefenu the Jo'wo, suppoit legislation that
ensuies the Islamic chaiactei of society anu to piactice bisbo. Regaiuing this
lattei aspect, he mentioneu how Salafis hau contiibuteu to the cieation of a law
that foibaue the selling of alcohol on Kuwait Aiiways flights.
66
The membeis of
ol-Tojommu' - as Kuwaitis commonly iefei to it - aie often seveiely ciitical of
those who aie peiceiveu to have insulteu the peison of the emii, whom they
consiuei to be woli ol-omr.
67

At the same time, Ihya' al-Tuiath pieseiveu the oiganizational stiuctuie
that hau been establisheu when Shaykh 'Abu al-Rahman 'Abu al-Khaliq hau
uominateu the institute. Although the Salafis who belong to the ciicle of Ihya' al-
Tuiath tenu to iely on infoimal netwoiks, they maintain a moie elaboiate foimal
institutional stiuctuie than Salafis elsewheie. At the coie of this lies the
chaiitable oiganization itself anu its bianches in Kuwait's uiffeient uistiicts.
Besiues mobilizing funus to implement piojects abioau, these bianches also
oiganize local Salafis. They establish local committees (lojno), which set up
piogiams foi the followeis of Ihya' al-Tuiath (moie on this in Chaptei 7).
The othei influential puiist stieam contains those who belong to the
Naukhalis, which I categoiize as puiist-iejectionists (see Chaptei 1). Although
fewei in numbei than the followeis of Ihya' al-Tuiath, they have extenueu
tiansnational netwoiks in the Niuule East, Euiope anu South-East Asia. The
Naukhali stieam in Kuwait uevelopeu aiounu inuiviuuals who seceueu fiom the
Salafi mainstieam when Salafis enteieu the political piocess in 1981. Buiing the
uulf wai they became close to the ciicle of Rabi' al-Naukhali. At the beginning of
the 199us, many young Salafis who iejecteu Ihya' al-Tuiath's main iueological
line became attiacteu to them. Cential to this wing of the Salafi movement in
Kuwait aie the Shaykhs Bamau '0thman, Salim al-Tawil, Falah Nunuakai, anu,
fiom the youngei geneiation, Ahmau al-Siba'i anu Nuhammau al-'Anjaii.

66
Inteiview with 'Ali al-'0mayi, 1S }anuaiy 2u1u.
67
Al-Tajammu' al-Salafi: Naifuuu Ayya Nassas Bi-l-amii (Salafi uatheiing: We Refuse Touching
|the Peisonj of the Emii), ol-obos, 12 0ctobei 2u12.
78
The coineistone of theii uiscouise is showing unquestioning loyalty to
the iulei anu being haishly ciitical of those who - in theii opinion - uisobey him.
Puiist-iejectionists inteipiet the meaning of kburuj 'olo ol-bokim (see the
Intiouuction) in a much naiiowei way than othei puiists. Nainstieam puiists
think that Nuslims can uisobey the iulei anu siue with the opposition if the iulei
uses extieme anu unjustifieu violence against his subjects. Foi example, most
puiist Salafis in Ihya' al-Tuiath opposeu the Syiian anu Libyan ievolutions, but
when the goveinments of Nu'ammai al-Qauhuhafi anu Bashshai al-Assau
staiteu to muiuei laige numbeis of uemonstiatois, they felt justifieu in
suppoiting the ievolutionaiies.
68
By contiast, Naukhalis attackeu Ihya' al-Tuiath
foi taking this stance. Shaykh Salim al-Tawil calleu Bashshai al-Assau woli ol-
omr, foibaue fighting against his aimy in a fotwo,
69
anu uesciibeu those Salafis
who sent mateiial suppoit to the ievolutionaiies as kboworij.
7u

As he explaineu when I inteivieweu him, Salafi Jo'wo can go on when
theie is a stiong iulei who can pioviue secuiity anu essential infiastiuctuie
(such as ioaus, health seivices anu foou). This makes possible foi the Jo'is to
ieach people anu enables Nuslims to focus on stuuying the Qui'an anu Sunna,
insteau of focusing on theii veiy suivival.
71
When Nuslims stait to establish
oiganizations to achieve ceitain aims oi expiess uemanus, they inuiiectly
contiibute to unueimining anu biinging uown this oiuei. Theiefoie even Salafis
who claim to believe in unconuitional obeuience to the bokim aie in fact
paitisans (bizbiyyun) anu influenceu by the Nuslim Biotheis, anu he incluues
Ihya' al-Tuiath among these. As he explaineu, by oiganizing theii membeis, they
tuin theii attention away fiom the sbori'o anu become loyal to the oiganization
insteau. By theii political activism anu by occasionally foiming uiffeient opinions
to those of the iulei, they challenge the oiuei.
72

68
Inteiview with Khaliu Safian, a youth leauei of Ihya' al-Tuiath, Kuwait, S Naich 2u12.
69
http:www.youtube.comwatch.v=jKblfbmb1E4. Shaykh Salim's fatwa inciteu a huge
campaign against him, leu by the Nuslim Biotheis anu the borokis. In eaily Naich 2u12 he was
seveiely ciiticizeu in public seimons, on Inteinet sites anu in social meuia (Facebook anu
Twittei).
7u
Inteiview, Kuwait, S Febiuaiy 2u1S.
71
Ibiu.
72
Biscussion in one of Shaykh Salim's Jurus, Sa'u al-'Abuullah uistiict, 6 Febiuaiy 2u12.
79
Puiist-iejectionists commonly categoiize those who uo not agiee with
theii views as belonging to obl ol-biJo'
7S
anu openly expiess hostility towaius
them. 0ne of the young Kuwaiti Naukhalis tolu me that he coulu be fiienus with
someone who uiinks alcohol oi even a muiueiei, because he might iepent. It is
not possible to be fiienus with someone who is a mubtoJi' (commits biJo'),
howevei, because this might make this peison believe that he is iight, anu such
behavioi might imply that uiveisity in 'oqiJo is peimissible in Islam. Noieovei, a
muiueiei usually only kills one peison, wheieas the mubJtoJi' kill thousanus by
legitimizing uemonstiations anu oveithiowing wulot ol-omr (pl. of woli ol-
omr).
74

0ne of the main chaiacteiistics of puiist-iejectionists is theii extieme
social conseivatism. They tiy to maintain close contact anu socialize only with
those who holu similai views. Nost of them aie ieluctant to entei those paits of
Kuwait that aie seen as "seculai" anu "Westeinizeu", such as ceitain aieas of
Salmiya. They iaiely go to iestauiants, as females aie also piesent theie. By
contiast, puiists fiom Ihya' al-Tuiath usually uo not minu appeaiing in such
places if they have ieason to be theie (such as an appointment oi business
meeting), although Salafis geneially agiee that spenuing leisuie time in shopping
malls oi "Westein-style" cafs shoulu be avoiueu.
At the same time, the netwoiks of Ihya' al-Tuiath anu the Naukhalis
oveilap in seveial ways. Bespite the enmity the lattei feel to the oiganization,
many Ihya' al-Tuiath followeis attenu the ieligious lessons of the puiist-
iejectionist shaykhs because they possess ueep knowleuge in boJitb. Puiist-
iejectionists also visit shaykhs associateu with Ihya' al-Tuiath. Scholais such as
Bayy al-Bayy oi '0thman al-Khamis aie consiueieu to be close to Naukhali
thinking anu spenu most of theii time giving lessons anu puisuing scientific
ieseaich, even though both of them belong to the chaiity (Bayy al-Bayy is a
known boJitb expeit, while '0thman al-Khamis specializes in the iefutation of
Shi'ite beliefs).

7S
0nly those peisons who aie knowleugeable in matteis of ieligion aie iegaiueu as ahl al-biua'.
Those with only an aveiage ieligious knowleuge uo not face the same haish ciiticism fiom
Naukhalis.
74
8u

Eoroki Solofis

The coie of the boroki faction in Kuwait is maue up of followeis of Shaykh 'Abu
al-Rahman 'Abu al-Khaliq, who seceueu fiom Ihya' al-Tuiath in 1997. Although
befoie the uulf Wai, the majoiity of Salafis in Kuwait coulu piobably be
consiueieu borokis, boroki thinking within the movement uevelopeu fuithei
aftei the Iiaqi invasion. The young geneiation of Salafis in paiticulai was
exposeu to the iueas of the Sauui Sobwo anu many of them auopteu seveial
elements of Sauui thinking. The most impoitant figuie of the young geneiation of
Kuwaiti borokis is piobably Bakim al-Nutayii. Be became the ue facto leauei of
the activist-minueu youth wing within Ihya' al-Tuiath that iemaineu loyal to
'Abu al-Rahman 'Abu al-Khaliq.
Accoiuing to Bi. Sajiu al-'Abuali, a veteian boroki, befoie the uulf wai,
Bakim al-Nutayii's thinking was closei to that of the puiists, anu he was mostly
inteiesteu in the issue of 'iboJot. At the time of the invasion he just finisheu his
Nastei's uegiee at 0mm al-Quia 0niveisity in Necca. When the uebates between
the activist Salafis anu the puiists staiteu to heat up, he became involveu in a
netwoik centeieu aiounu Nuhammau Suiui Zayn al-'Abiuin,
7S
a leauing figuie in
the Sobwo movement, which iauically changeu his thinking. Bi. Sajiu uesciibeu
Nutayii as an unusually chaiismatic peison who was able to gain aumiieis anu
fiienus quickly. In a shoit time, many young Kuwaitis who hau escapeu to Sauui
Aiabia joineu him in the al-Qasim iegion, wheie he was then iesiuing.
This gioup, which was leu by Bakim al-Nutayii, 'Abu al-Razzaq al-Shayiji
anu Shaykh Bamiu al-'Ali, establisheu a stiong platfoim within Ihya' al-Tuiath.
When the uebate eiupteu between 'Abu al-Rahman 'Abu al-Khaliq anu 'Abuullah
al-Sabt, they founueu a political oiganization, ol-Eoroko ol-Solofiyyo (Salafi
Novement), unuei the leaueiship of al-Nutayii.
Accoiuing to Bi. Sajiu, the aim was initially not to seceue fiom Ihya' al-
Tuiath, but to establish a new political wing foi Kuwaiti Salafis. Al-Nutayii's iuea

7S
Nuhammau Suiui is one of the leauing iueologists of boroki Salafism. Between the 197us anu
the 199us, one of the two uominant boroki netwoiks in Sauui Aiabia closely associateu itself with
his teachings. See: Lacioix, Awokeninq lslom, pp. 6S-7u; al-Rasheeu, Contestinq tbe SouJi Stote, pp.
7S-77.
81
was to cieate a political platfoim that woulu incluue both the puiist-minueu
Salafi politicians anu the borokis. Be intenueu to cieate it in accoiuance with the
example of the pie-Islamic tiibal alliance of Eilf ol-IuJul, in which eveiyone
coulu have theii own autonomy.
The above-mentioneu alliance was maue between five tiibes a few yeais
befoie the Piophet Nuhammau's mission. They intenueu to piotect each othei's
inteiests against outsiueis, othei tiibes that weie not pait of the alliance. At the
same time, the paiticipants ietaineu theii autonomy; none of them coulu oi
intenueu to uominate the otheis.
76
Al-Nutayii wanteu to cieate a Salafi alliance
that woulu iespect the uiffeiences between the vaiious Salafi gioups anu woulu
not focus on the uisagieements, but woulu insteau unify theii lines anu piomote
theii mutual inteiests. The iuea uiu not piove to be viable, mostly because of the
puiists' fiim iefusal to coopeiate with those whom they consiueieu kboworij. Al-
Baiaka al-Salafiyya soon became a sepaiate boroki umbiella oiganization,
connecting - mostly by infoimal ielationships - most activist-minueu Kuwaitis.
77

Bowevei, this netwoik of boroki Salafis uiu not iemain uniteu foi long.
Inteinal uiffeiences suifaceu quite soon. The main cause of the iift was the
uistinct visions of Bakim al-Nutayii anu Bamiu al-'Ali. When the foimei went to
uo his PhB at Nuhammau Suiui's Centie foi Islamic Stuuies in Biimingham at
the beginning of the 2uuus,
78
Bamiu al-'Ali took ovei as leauei of the "Baiaka".
While Nutayii hau oiiginally wanteu it to be an exclusively political oiganization,
Al-'Ali staiteu Jo'wo anu chaiity activities, anu tiansfoimeu al-Baiaka al-
Salafiyya to be a competitoi to Ihya' al-Tuiath. Bue to the uisagieements, Bakim
al-Nutayii establisheu his own political paity, Eizb ol-0mmo (the 0mma Paity),
in 2uuS.
Eoroki Salafis nevei have been able to become as influential in Kuwaiti
society as the puiists. 0bviously, most of the committeu Salafis in the countiy
sympathize with Ihya' al-Tuiath. Activists usually have only one membei in
pailiament, Waliu al-Tabtab'ai, while al-Tajammu' al-Salafi has between eight

76
'Bilf al-Fuuul', in Bosswoith, Tbe FncyclopoeJio of lslom.
77
Inteiview with Bi. Sajiu al-'Abuali, foimei spokesman of al-Baiaka al-Salafiyya, 4 Naich 2u12.
78
The centei was establisheu by Nuhammau Suiui in the miu-198us, iight aftei he hau aiiiveu
as an exile in Biitain. It functioneu as a boroki think-tank anu a key euucational uestination foi
the seconu geneiation of boroki Salafis in the 199us anu 2uuus. See: Lacioix 2u11, p. 1S4.
82
anu ten. Bespite this, Kuwaiti borokis aie impoitant membeis of tiansnational
Salafi netwoiks. The countiy is a significant tiansnational meeting point foi
activist-minueu Salafis. Eorokis fiom all aiounu the woilu fiequently make
infoimal visits to Kuwait in oiuei to meet inuiviuuals such as 'Abu al-Rahman
'Abu al-Khaliq oi Bakim al-Nutayii. Piioi to the Aiab Spiing, Kuwait was
consiueieu to be the only countiy in the Niuule East in which Salafis uiu not face
piessuie fiom the goveinment anu secuiity foices anu weie able to fieely
exchange theii views. When I inteivieweu him in Kuwait, 'Abu al-Rahman 'Abu
al-Khaliq claimeu that the iuea that Egyptian Salafis shoulu paiticipate in politics
hau emeigeu uuiing the meetings anu woikshops that these Salafis hau attenueu
in his house anu mosque.
79

The chaiitable activities of borokis aie also significant. Theii chaiitable
oiganization, Nabaiiat al-'Amal al-Khayiiyya, has piojects all ovei the Niuule
East anu Afiica. They coopeiate with the Qataii Nu'assasat al-Shaykh 'Aiu al-
Khayiiyya, anu also iaise funus in infoimal ways. Buiing my fieluwoik in Kuwait,
I often obseiveu that activists woulu collect money uuiing Jiwoniyyos anu othei
infoimal meetings foi puiposes such as helping the ievolutionaiies in Syiia. It is
woith noting that laige amounts of money aie aiiiving in Noith Lebanon,
uestineu foi Syiia. Bowevei, accoiuing to some of my infoimants in Waui Khaliu,
the main tiansit iegion foi Salafis in Lebanon going to Syiia, pait of this funuing
is nevei hanueu to the ievolutionaiies, but is kept by some of the Salafi shaykhs.
Accoiuing to them, this paitly explains the incieasing mateiial means of some
Salafis in the Noith.
8u

The fiagmentation of Salafism in Kuwait is a goou illustiation of the
uynamics of the movement since the uulf Wai, anu the significant intia-
movement tiansfoimations that have ieshapeu the face of Salafism woiluwiue.
Being one of the most impoitant hubs of Salafi tiansnational netwoiks, the split
in Ihya' al-Tuiath not only influenceu the movement locally, but also hau a
significant tiansnational impact. In Chaptei 4 I show how Noith Lebanese
Salafism was influenceu by the tiansfoimations in Kuwait. The splitting anu
ieconfiguiation of the stiuctuie of Salafism in Tiipoli anu its suiiounuings

79
Inteiview, al-Bayan uistiict, 12 Naich 2u12.
8u
In the summei of 2u11 I conuucteu many conveisations with smuggleis in Waui Khaliu, who
aie cuiiently helping to tiansfei goous anu money to the Syiian ievolutionaiies.
8S
cannot be consiueieu entiiely unique; theie weie similai uevelopments in
Inuonesia, foi example.
81
Theiefoie my analysis heie uncoveis impoitant
aspects of the ioots of significant uevelopments at the tiansnational level of the
movement, anu at the same time pioviues an impoitant compaiative
peispective.

O#0#: #' # (#&* EC, -% P#:#3& "#$#%&'(

To unueistanu the uevelopment of Lebanese Salafism, it is also necessaiy to
biiefly uiscuss Qatai's position as one of the main tiansnational hubs of boroki
Salafism anu as a ciucial souice of sponsoiship foi the movement. The tiajectoiy
of Salafism is uistinct fiom Salafism in Kuwait, anu the ieasons foi this can
mostly be founu in the uevelopment of the countiy's sociopolitical stiuctuie.
Between its establishment in the seconu half of the 19
th
centuiy anu the
seconu half of the 2u
th
centuiy, unlike Kuwait, Qatai gaineu little significance in
tiansnational tiaue anu iemaineu one of the pooiest aieas of the Peninsula. As in
Kuwait, the small sheikhuom's main income was baseu on peail fishing, anu the
iulei also hau to iely on the meichants who contiolleu the peailing inuustiy.
Bowevei, in Qatai the meichants weie less wealthy anu politically much weakei
than in Kuwait. They weie unable to counteibalance the Al Thani iuling clan,
which uominateu the political leaueiship.
82
An economic ciisis in the 192us
almost uestioyeu the Qataii meichant class. When the intiouuction of the
}apanese cultivateu peail uevastateu the tiauitional peail maiket, most
meichants migiateu to othei paits of the Aiabian Peninsula.
8S
The few meichant
families that iemaineu in Qatai weie unable to uemanu any kinu of powei-
shaiing agieement with the Al Thanis.

81
Accoiuing to my infoimants in }akaita, aftei the split in Ihya' al-Tuiath, the chaiity stoppeu
sponsoiing many borokis anu insteau built up an entiiely puiist netwoik. The agents of Ihya' al-
Tuiath in }akaita whom I inteivieweu emphasizeu the neeu to obey woli ol-omr unuei any
conuitions, if he is a Nuslim. Inteiview with 0staz Zaikashi anu 0staz Setiawan, }akaita, 11
Becembei 2u12.
82
}ill Ciystal, 0il onJ Politics in tbe 6ulf: Rulers onJ Hercbonts in Kuwoit onJ otor (Cambiiuge:
Cambiiuge 0niveisity Piess, 199S), pp. 112-118.
8S
Ibiu., pp. 116-118.
84
Because of the unchallengeu uominance of the iuling family, no bouy
emeigeu in Qatai that was compaiable to the pailiament in Kuwait. Bespite the
countiy's iapiu economic anu social moueinization aftei oil piouuction began in
194u, the stiuctuie of the iegime iemaineu intact. Apait fiom membeis of the
iuling family, no one coulu paiticipate in political uecision-making, anu theie
was also no place foi political movements, unlike in Kuwait. In Qatai, no
poweiful Aiab Nationalist, Leftist oi Islamist movements appeaieu that woulu
have offeieu an alteinative to the existing foim of iule. Salafis confineu
themselves to stiictly ieligious matteis anu nevei ieally aspiieu to fulfilling any
political iole. Salafism has been piesent in Qatai since the countiy's founuing in
1878. Because of the lack of inuigenous ieligious scholais, 'ulomo fiom Naju
settleu in the small monaichy anu pioviueu ieligious seivices. 0ntil the seconu
half of the 199us, they iemaineu the sole ieligious authoiities. Even in the 2u
th

centuiy, a local class of ieligious scholais faileu to uevelop in Qatai, meaning that
So'Ji shaykhs iegulaily ciosseu the boiuei oi settleu in the countiy to fulfill the
ieligious neeus of the population. These 'ulomo coulu be classifieu as puiist, anu
weie close to the official ieligious establishment of Sauui Aiabia.
The Qataii ieligious fielu was totally ieshapeu when, in }une 199S,
Shaykh Bamau bin Khalifa Al Thani ueposeu his fathei, Shaykh Khalifa, in a
palace ievolution. Apait fiom a bioau moueinization piogiam, the piimaiy
objective of the fiist peiiou of his ieign was to iiu his countiy of Sauui pationage.
Since gaining inuepenuence fiom Biitain in 1971, Qatai's inteinal anu foieign
policy hau been uominateu by its poweiful neighboi.
84
The new emii bioke with
Riyauh anu intenueu to iule inuepenuently fiom the Bouse of Sa'uu, anu
tiansfoiming the ieligious fielu was one means of minimizing Sauui influence in
the countiy. Nost of the 'ulomo in Qatai weie loyal to Riyauh, iathei than to the
new iulei. Shaykh Bamau also feaieu that these scholais might siue with one of
the pio-Sauui wings of the ioyal family to oust him. Theiefoie the post-199S
goveinment sackeu the Sauui pieacheis anu ieplaceu them with Egyptians,
Syiians, Yemenis anu Sauui Sobwis. The cooptation of the lattei is impoitant foi

84
uuiuo Steinbeig, 'Qatai anu the Aiab Spiing: Suppoit foi Islamists anu the New Anti-Syiian
Policy'. Repoit: ueiman Institute foi Inteinational anu Secuiity Affaiis, 7 Febiuaiy 2u12, p. 2,
http:www.swp-beilin.oigenpublicationsswp-comments-enswp-aktuelle-
uetailsaiticleqatai_anu_the_aiab_spiing.html (accesseu: 6 }une 2u1S).
8S
unueistanuing the establishment of one of the most poweiful boroki Salafi
chaiity oiganizations anu a main pation of Lebanese Salafism, Nu'assasat al-
Shaykh 'Aiu al-Khayiiyya (Shaykh 'Aiu Chaiity Association - SACA).
As alieauy mentioneu in this chaptei, the Sauui Sobwo insuigency was
suppiesseu by the state in 199S. Nany of the activists enueu up in piison oi hau
to leave the kinguom. Boha offeieu some of the less piominent Sobwi shaykhs
the chance to settle in the countiy anu woik as kbotibs anu imams of mosques.
The Qataii goveinment expecteu these 'ulomo' to be loyal to the iuling family in
Qatai uue to theii peisecution in theii native countiy, anu because the emii at
that time was about to implement similai political iefoims to those that they hau
been uemanuing in Sauui Aiabia.
8S
The iulei hau two main ieasons foi hosting
anu employing the borokis. Fiist, they weie a means of stiengthening his
legitimacy against the Sauuis, who weie likely to seize eveiy oppoitunity to
ieinstall theii tutelage ovei Qatai oi even annex it.
86
Seconu, the Sobwis weie
able to catei to the ieligious neeus of the Salafi-minueu inhabitants of the
countiy, theieby laigely uetaching them fiom the Sauui ieligious establishment.
The iulei also tiieu to assuie the loyalty of the Sahwis by using pationage
to binu them to him. The iuling family geneiously funueu the boroki Salafis'
activism abioau by giving them pait of the peisonal piopeity anu wealth of one
of the ueceaseu membeis of the Al Thani clan, Shaykh 'Aiu bin Nuhammau
(1922-1994). Befoie he uieu, Shaykh 'Aiu specifieu in his will that one thiiu of
his mateiial possessions shoulu be useu to establish a chaiity oiganization. Nost
boroki Salafis in the countiy weie tieu in some way oi anothei to the newly-
founueu chaiity. Since SACA was put in chaige of money that came fiom the
ioyal family, they became theii clients. Accoiuing to Nehian Kamiava, this is one
of the ways in which the Qataii ioyal family has tiauitionally ensuieu the loyalty
of uiffeient elements of society.
87

In iecent yeais, SACA has establisheu a woiluwiue piesence: it has
become key playei in Salafism in seveial iegions, incluuing the Niuule East anu

8S
I acquiieu this infoimation while talking to a gioup of boroki Salafis in the office of Bi. 'Abu al-
Rahman al-Nuàymi in Boha in }une 2u1u.
86
Ibiu.
87
Nehian Kamiava, 'Royal Factionalism anu Political Libeialization in Qatai,' HiJJle Fost }ournol,
vol. 6S, no. S, 2uu9, pp. 4u7-4u8.
86
Southeast Asia (especially Inuonesia), anu its influence in Euiope is giowing. It
suppoits hunuieus of local chaiities, Islamic centeis anu mosques anu gives
financial aiu to countless ielief piojects, fiom well-uigging to the builuing of
schools anu hospitals. 0nlike Ihya' al-Tuiath, SACA uoes not have official
bianches abioau, but insteau sponsois inuepenuent local chaiities oi even
inuiviuuals. Bowevei, those who ieceive financial suppoit have to be well
embeuueu in tiansnational boroki netwoiks anu have to have goou peisonal
contact with someone who is influential in the oiganization (see Chaptei 7).
Pationizing an oiganization such as SACA fits the piofile of Qataii foieign
policy. The emiiate has tiauitionally suppoiteu Islamic movements aiounu the
woilu to inciease its inteinational influence. The main iecipients aie the Nuslim
Biotheis, such as the al-Nahua paity in Tunisia oi the Biotheihoou's Egyptian
bianch.
88
Neveitheless, Salafis also ieceive vast amounts of money. Islamic
movements aie iaiely (oi maybe nevei) paiu uiiectly by the state, but by one of
the chaiities that aie pationizeu by the iuling family. Boha expects its
beneficiaiies to iemain loyal when they gain moie influence in society, oi even
come to powei, as happeneu in Egypt, Tunisia anu Noiocco.
As I show in Chaptei 4, SACA has become a uominant playei in Lebanese
Salafism by sponsoiing the borokis. The oiganization funus the chaiitable
activities of local shaykhs in Tiipoli anu the Noith, pays the salaiies of hunuieus
of pieacheis anu finances the builuing anu maintenance of mosques anu
ieligious colleges. With this, SACA is contiibuting to the Lebanese borokis' ability
to continue to compete with the incieasingly influential puiists, anu to ietain
theii significance within the movement at the local level.

88
Steinbeig, 'Qatai anu the Aiab Spiing', pp. S-4.
87
/E#I0): D
"#$#%& QRI#*'&-* &* 0E) @>>A'

In this chaptei I investigate the ioots of Salafism's emeigence as what is
piobably the most piominent anu poweiful Islamic movement in Noith
Lebanon's Sunni community. Salafis touay constitute a ieligiously euucateu
vanguaiu with a laige base of passive followeis. 0nlike in some othei iegions,
such as Inuonesia, the uulf oi even Euiope, while theie is only a mouest (but
iapiuly giowing) numbei of fully committeu Salafis, masses of oiuinaiy
inuiviuuals submit themselves to Salafi ieligious authoiity. Salafis contiol a laige
numbei of mosques, which enables them to spieau theii iueas while pioviuing
eveiyuay ieligious seivices. Accoiuing to uata that I acquiieu fiom Bai al-Fatwa
(the official ieligious establishment of the Sunni sect), the institution auministeis
only 4u of the 11u mosques in Tiipoli. Anothei 4u aie unuei the contiol of Salafi
shaykhs, anu Su mosques belong to uiffeient movements such as ol-Abbosb (a
Sufi-inspiieu movement), ol-}omoò ol-lslomiyyo anu ol-Tobliqb.
1
In Bob ol-
Tobbono, one of the most politically sensitive anu unstable quaiteis of the city,
all seven mosques aie unuei Salafi contiol, while Bai al-Fatwa has little
influence. In anothei iegion in the Noith, Waui Khaliu, which has 2S villages anu
4u,uuu inhabitants, 1S of the Su mosques belong to the Salafis, while the iest aie
contiolleu by Bai al-Fatwa anu Sufi shaykhs. While I uo not have piecise
numbeis (anu I think that it woulu be impossible to acquiie numeiical uata on
this issue), one can ieauily guess that a veiy significant pait of the Sunni
population of the Noith attenus Salafi mosques anu seeks auvice in ielation to
uaily ieligious piactices fiom Salafi shaykhs.
0ntil the 199us, when the Lebanese Civil Wai (197S-199u) hau just
enueu, Salafism uiu not have the kinu of influence that I uesciibeu above. Foi a

1
The oiiginal 0iuu name of this lattei movement is Tablighi }amaat, since the movement
oiiginateu fiom Inuia in the fiist half of the 2u
th
centuiy. See Numtaz Ahmau, 'Islamic
Funuamentalism in South Asia: The }amaat-i Islami anu Tablighi }amaat of South Asia', in
IunJomentolisms 0bserveJ (Chicago: 0niveisity of Chicago Piess, 1991), pp. 4S7-SSu.
88
long time, Salafis constituteu a maiginal gioup with no significant influence on
the ieligious fielu in Noith Lebanon. The sociopolitical enviionment of the 199us
maue it possible foi the movement to gain a footholu in Noith Lebanese society.
In this chaptei I employ the concept of "political oppoitunity stiuctuies" to
investigate the factois that facilitateu this Salafi expansion. I show how the
movement exploiteu the weakening of the tiauitional ieligious establishment,
the uecieasing influence of the Salafis' competitois, emeiging sectaiian tensions
anu the appeaiance of tiansnational sponsois, so as to inciease its populai
suppoit.

1 ,:&)% I-$&0&2#$ E&'0-:= -% +),#*-*

0nlike othei Aiab countiies, Lebanon lacks a stiong state anu a iepiessive
political system that can contiol the ieligious iealm. The ieason foi this is that
the Lebanese state anu society have been built on a fiagile balance between the
foui main ieligious communities: the Naionite Catholics, Sunnis, Shi'ites anu
Biuzes (an esoteiic, monotheistic community, which uevelopeu fiom lsmo'ili
Shi'ism in the 11
th
centuiy).
The ioots of Lebanon's cuiient sociopolitical make-up go back to the 19
th

centuiy, when the teiiitoiy was unuei 0ttoman iule. Buiing that peiiou, the
0ttoman piovince of Nount Lebanon was mostly inhabiteu by Naionite
Chiistians anu Biuzes. In 186u, a shoit but bloouy civil wai eiupteu between the
two communities. In the afteimath of the fighting, the founuations of the
contempoiaiy Lebanese sectaiian system weie laiu. Nount Lebanon became an
autonomous piovince within the empiie (mutosorrifiyyo). The political positions
in this autonomous piovince weie filleu accoiuing to sectaiian affiliation,
piepaiing the giounu foi the mouein Lebanese iegime.
2
As 0ssama Nakuisi
explains, the afteimath of the civil wai anu the establishment of the sectaiian-
baseu institutional system leu to the emeigence of a "cultuie of sectaiianism",
which he uefines as a "cultuie that singleu out ieligious affiliation as the uefining

2
Engin Akaili, Tbe lonq Peoce: 0ttomon lebonon 1861-1920 (Beikeley anu Los Angeles:
0niveisity of Califoinia Piess, 199S), pp. 82-1u2.
89
public anu political chaiacteiistic of a mouein subject anu citizen
S
." Since then,
sectaiianism has been the main uefining featuie of Lebanese politics.
When the 0ttoman Empiie collapseu aftei the Fiist Woilu Wai, Nount
Lebanon came unuei Fiench manuate. The Fiench attacheu the coastal cities of
Beiiut, Siuon, Tyie anu Tiipoli, anu teiiitoiies in the south, noith anu east of
Nount Lebanon. The new entity hau a uiffeient sectaiian make-up fiom that of
the autonomous piovince of Nount Lebanon, because the majoiity of the new
teiiitoiies weie maue up of Sunnis anu Shi'ites. The sectaiian chaiactei of the
political system was pieseiveu. Aftei inuepenuence anu the foimation of the
Lebanese Republic in 1946, the ieligious communities weie given a piopoitional
shaie in the pailiament anu the most senioi political positions weie uistiibuteu
between them. The piesiuency fell to the Naionites, anu that of speakei of the
pailiament to the Shi'ites. The Biuzes filleu key ministeiial poitfolios. The
pailiamentaiy seats weie uistiibuteu between Chiistians anu Nuslims (Biuze
aie officially iegaiueu as a Nuslim sect) in a 6:S iatio. }obs in the public sectoi
anu univeisity positions weie also uistiibuteu accoiuing to sectaiian quotas.
4

Sectaiianism in Lebanon is significantly uiffeient fiom elsewheie, wheie
sectaiian communities wish to seceue oi achieve as much autonomy as possible.
A goou example is Noithein Iielanu, wheie Catholics want to seceue fiom the
0niteu Kinguom. In Lebanon, howevei, the uiffeient communities accept the
concept of Lebanon as a multi-sectaiian society.
S
Accoiuing to Shaeiy-Eisenlohi,

sectaiianism is not about the uislike of othei ieligious communities oi the
unwillingness to coexist, as those piactices of bounuaiy
makingbounuaiy bieaking can be founu in many othei places . Rathei,
ethnic entiepieneuis aie conceineu with who will eventually uefine the

S
0ssama Nakuisi, Tbe Culture of Sectorionism: Community, Eistory, onJ violence in Nineteentb-
Century 0ttomon lebonon (Beikeley, Los Angeles, Lonuon: 0niveisity of Califoinia Piess, 2uuu),
p. 1S9.
4
William Baiiis, Tbe New Ioce of lebonon: Eistorys Revenqe (Piinceton: Naikus Wienei
Publisheis, 2uu6), pp. 1S6-1S7.
S
Inueeu, the Lebanese aie piouu of theii countiy anu its multi-faceteu chaiactei. In my
expeiience, Lebanese abioau, iegaiuless of sectaiian belonging, always speak enthusiastically
about theii homelanu anu emphasize the coexistence of uiffeient ieligious gioups anu the
atmospheie of fieeuom. Bowevei, it is not obvious how the Aiab ievolutions will affect the
loyalty of the Sunni community in paiticulai towaius the concept of Lebanon. I will uiscuss this
question latei in this stuuy.
9u
teims of this citizenship anu coexistence, anu which siue will be assigneu
a maiginalizeu position in the newly constiucteu national naiiative.
6

Sectaiianism is manifesteu in the stiuctuie of the political system anu the state
institutions.
The liteiatuie iuentifies sectaiianism as Lebanon's cential sociopolitical
pioblem, anu the main cause of instability anu inteinal violence.
7
The fiist majoi
uisiuption of the fiagile sectaiian equilibiium occuiieu in 197S. The main cause
of the conflict was the tension between the Naionite political iight, leu by the
Phalangist Paity (Eizb ol-Kotoib) anu the Nuslim-uominateu Lebanese National
Novement (ol-Eoroko ol-Wotoniyyo ol-lubnoniyyo - LNN), which consisteu of
Leftist anu Aiab Nationalist foices. When civil wai eiupteu between these two
camps in Apiil 197S, the Palestinian Libeiation 0iganization (PL0), which hau
establisheu itself in the countiy aftei its uisplacement fiom }oiuan in 197u, was
uiaggeu into the conflict on the siue of the LNN.
8
The civil wai lasteu moie than
1S yeais, until the enu of 199u.
These 1S yeais of sectaiian violence hau two impoitant consequences in
the context of this stuuy. The fiist was the ieconfiguiation of the sectaiian powei
balance. Buiing the civil wai, the Naionites lost theii uominant position, while
the pieviously impoveiisheu anu politically weak Shi'ites emeigeu as what was
piobably the most poweiful community in Lebanon. When Isiael invaueu the
countiy in 1982 to uiive out the PL0, it tiiggeieu wiuespieau Shi'ite iesistance.
Some of the Shi'ite militants who fought the occupying foices weie inspiieu by
the Islamist iueology of post-ievolutionaiy Iian. With Tehian's suppoit, they
cieateu Bizbullah, an Islamist movement, which latei became one of the main
political wings of the Lebanese Shi'a. Bizbullah's activities weie one of the main
factois behinu Sunni-Shi'ite sectaiian tensions, which began emeiging in the

6
Roschanack Shaeiy-Eisenlohi, Sbiite lebonon: Tronsnotionol Reliqion onJ tbe Hokinq of
Notionol lJentities (Columbia 0niveisity Piess, 2uu8), p. 9.
7
Samii Khalaf, Civil onJ 0ncivil violence in lebonon (New Yoik, Chichestei anu West Sussex:
Columbia 0niveisity Piess, 2uu2).
8
Lebanese political scientist Faiiu El-Khazen gives a uetaileu account of the ioots of the outbieak
of the civil wai. Be points out that the moueiation of the Phalangist Paity on the eve of the
outbieak of the conflict was not enough to avoiu the bloousheu, uue to the uncontiolleu activities
of the Palestinian fighteis. See, Faiiu El-Khazen, Tbe BreokJown of tbe Stote in lebonon 1967-
1976 (Lonuon anu New Yoik: I. B. Tauiis, 2uuu), pp. 187-217 anu pp. 2S7-24u.
91
199us. I explain the ioots of these sectaiian tensions in moie in uetail latei in
this chaptei.
The seconu consequence was that in the peiiou aftei the civil wai,
Lebanon became a ue facto Syiian piotectoiate. Bamascus' uomination of
Lebanon was giounueu in the militaiy piesence that it hau sustaineu in the
countiy since 1976. At that time, Syiia hau inteifeieu in the Lebanese Civil Wai
in oiuei to pievent the LNN fiom achieving a uecisive victoiy ovei the
Naionites. Aftei that, Bafiz al-Assau's iegime became a main playei on the
Lebanese battlegiounu. The Ta'if Agieement to enu the civil wai - maue between
the waiiing Lebanese paities in 1989 in the Sauui Aiabian city of the same name
- was biokeieu by Bamascus, uue to its ability to shift the powei balance in its
favoi. The agieement mouifieu the piopoition of Chiistian to Nuslim
pailiamentaiians fiom 6:S to S:S. Fuitheimoie, executive powei was ceueu fiom
the hanus of the Naionite piesiuent of the iepublic to the Sunni piime ministei.
Syiian uominance ovei Lebanon was assuieu by a passage in the agieement that
enableu Syiian inteivention in the case of inteinal conflict, upon the Lebanese
goveinment's iequest. Fuitheimoie, the Ta'if agieement extenueu the legal basis
of the Syiian aimy's piesence in the countiy foi two yeais aftei the foimation of
the new goveinment.
9

The "Tieaty of Biotheihoou, Coopeiation anu Cooiuination |Hu'oboJot
ol-0kbuwwo wo-l-To'owun wo-l-Tonsiqj" - oi Biotheihoou Tieaty - consoliuateu
Bamascus' uominance anu pioviueu the legal basis foi the so-calleu Secuiity
Regime (ol-Nizom ol-Amni). It was signeu in 1991 anu pioviueu giounus foi
laige-scale Syiian inteifeience in Lebanese affaiis. The tieaty establisheu
coopeiation between the two countiies on matteis of politics, economics anu
secuiity. It piesciibeu the cieation of bilateial committees to cooiuinate the
affaiis of the two countiies. Bue to the powei uispaiity between Syiia anu
Lebanon, the tieaty ensuieu the oveiloiuship of the foimei ovei the lattei.
1u

Syiian contiol ovei Lebanese politics, secuiity anu economic affaiis was
built up by appointing loyal figuies to heau the countiy's secuiity foices anu

9
Baiiis, Tbe New Ioce of lebonon, p. 262.
1u
Ibiu., pp. 279-28u.; Bassel Salloukh, 'Syiia anu Lebanon: A Biotheihoou Tiansfoimeu', HFRlP,
vol. SS, no. S, 2uuS, http:ns2.meiip.oigmeimei2S6syiia-lebanon-biotheihoou-tiansfoimeu
(accesseu: 14 Nay 2u1S).
92
aimy. By uoing so, Bamascus was able to contiol Lebanese political gioups, anu
by geiiymanueiing the elections, the Syiian iegime was able to cieate goveining
coalitions that seiveu its inteiests.
11
The othei pillai of the Ba'th iegime's
uominance ovei Lebanon was its influence ovei Bizbullah. Bamascus' main
stiategy was to use Bizbullah as a pioxy to stiengthen its iegional influence anu
to ietain constant piessuie on Isiael. By uoing so, the Assau iegime hopeu to
piess Tel Aviv towaius negotiations about withuiawal fiom the uolan.
12
In
exchange foi Syiian piotection, Bizbullah also assisteu with countei-balancing
Bamascus' opponents in the political fielu.
1S

In this political enviionment, Salafism emeigeu as an impoitant Sunni
social movement in the 199us. Befoie I analyze the changes in the context that
enableu the Salafis to expanu theii influence, I biiefly explain the histoiical ioots
of the movement in Noith Lebanon.

.E) :--0' -% "#$#%&'( &* +),#*-*

Salafis usually claim that theii movement is one of the oluest Islamic movements
in Lebanon, founueu in the late 194us by Salim al-Shahhal (1922-2uu8), a self-
euucateu intellectual fiom the Binniyeh iegion. Bis son, Abu Baki al-Shahhal,
tolu me that his fathei was oiiginally influenceu by the iefoimist Salafism of
Nuhammau Rashiu Riua (186S-19SS), who was boin in the village of Qalamun
neai Tiipoli, but spent most of his life in Egypt. At the enu of the 194us, Al-
Shahhal became an enthusiastic ieauei of the jouinal ol-Honor that hau been
establisheu by Riua.
14

Beie we shoulu mention that Riua oiiginally belongeu to the so-calleu
"iefoimist Salafi" stieam, oi Islamic iefoimism, that emeigeu in the late 19
th

centuiy in Egypt anu then became influential in most Niuule Eastein countiies

11
Baiiis, Tbe New Ioce of lebonon, pp. 281-291.
12
uaiy C. uambill anu Ziau K. Abuelnoui, 'Bezbollah: Between Tehian anu Bamascus', HiJJle
Fost lntelliqence Bulletin, vol. 4, no. 2, 2uu2,
http:www.mefoium.oigmeibaiticlesu2u2_l1.htm. (accesseu: 11 Febiuaiy 2u1S).
1S
}uuith Palmei Baiik, Eezbollob: Tbe Cbonqinq Ioce of Terrorism (Lonuon anu New Yoik: I. B.
Tauiis, 2uu4); pp. 46-48.
14
Inteiview with Abu Baki al-Shahhal, Tiipoli, 29 0ctobei 2uu9.
9S
(as uiscusseu in Chaptei 1). Although this stieam of Salafism stiesseu the neeu to
ietuin to the piactice of the Pious Ancestois, conuemneu the iigiuity of the foui
moJbobib anu iefuseu toqliJ, it appioacheu the Text by using ieason anu logic
iathei than liteial inteipietation.
1S
In his latei peiiou, howevei, Riua auopteu a
moie liteialist appioach anu put moie stiess on the hauith than his ancestois,
such as }amal au-Bin al-Afghani oi Nuhammau Àbuuh.
16

In the 196us, Salim al-Shahhal became a membei of the netwoik of the
famous Salafi scholai, Nasii au-Bin al-Albani. Thiough him, he was able to ieach
many Salafi scholais in Sauui Aiabia anu gain financial suppoit foi his Jo`wo
activity. It shoulu be auueu, howevei, that accoiuing to his ielatives anu
contempoiaiies, Shaykh Salim uiu not auopt the contempoiaiy meaning of the
Salafi monboj anu he was not conscious of belonging to the Salafi ua`wa. Be even
iefuseu to use the woiu "Salafi", anu iejecteu the Nanichean woiluview of
contempoiaiy Salafis, who see the woilu thiough the lens of conflict between the
tiue ieligion anu heiesy anu unbelief. Rathei, he consiueieu himself one of
Tiipoli's ieligious intellectuals, who was iespecteu even by the political leaueis
of the city.
It is well known that he was often inviteu to auvise the leaueis of the
Kaiami clan, the most poweiful of Tiipoli's zuòmo until the civil wai. Shaykh
Àbu al-uhani, one of the Palestinian shaykhs in Nahi al-Baiiu camp in the
outskiits of Tiipoli, iemembeieu that in the 196us, al-Shahhal useu to be the
canuiuate foi Bizb al-Tahiii, an Islamist movement that intenus to ieestablish
the Caliphate, in the pailiamentaiy elections. Accoiuing to the shaykh, he
piefeiieu weaiing tiauitional "Shami" (iefeis to uieatei Syiia) uiesses to Salafi
attiie. "Salim al-Shahhal with anothei Shaykh, `0tman al-Safi, useu to stalk the
stieets of Tiipoli weaiing tuibans, tiouseis anu light shiits with two pistols in
the belt. If they obseiveu that somebouy's behavioi was un-Islamic they tiieu to
convince him to change. They iegaiueu this as pait of bisbo." Those with whom I
spoke, howevei, stateu that they hau nevei heaiu him expiess the concept of ol-
wolo wo-l-boro (explaineu in Chaptei 1).

1S
Nuhammau Khaliu Nasuu, 'Islamic Noueinism', in Nuhammau Khaliu Nasuu, Aimanuo
Salvatoie anu Naitin van Biuinessen (eus), lslom onJ HoJernity: Key lssues onJ Bebotes
(Euinbuigh: Euinbuigh 0niveisity Piess, 2uu9), pp. 244-24S.
16
Ana Beln Soage, 'Rashiu Riua's Legacy', Tbe Huslim WorlJ, vol. 98, no. 1, 2uu8.
94
In the eaily 19Sus, Shaykh Salim gatheieu some pious youths fiom the
city anu nameu the gioup Huslimun (Nuslims). This gioup became the nucleus of
Islamic movements in the Sunni community. Among the uisciples of al-Shahhal
weie, foi example, Fathi Yakan, the founuei anu fiist leauei of the Lebanese
bianch of the Nuslim Biotheis, anu Saìu Sha`ban, the leauei of Eorokot ol-
TowbiJ ol-lslomi (the Islamic 0nification Novement) that iuleu Tiipoli foi two
yeais at the beginning of the 198us. Nany of the main figuies in the cuiient Salafi
Jowo weie also socializeu in the gioup that was iun by Salim al-Shahhal.
Bowevei, uespite the existence of some Salafis in Tiipoli, piioi to the
Lebanese Civil Wai, the conuitions weie not favoiable foi the movement to gain
many giassioots followeis. Theie weie thiee main ieasons foi this. Fiist, in the
196us anu 197us, the Sunni masses weie attiacteu to Aiab Nationalist anu
Leftist cuiients. Young people ageu 18-4u, who cuiiently tenu to constitute the
main suppoitei base of Salafism in the Niuule East, weie at that time attiacteu
by Nasseiism anu, to a lessei extent, Naixism. Levels of ieligiosity weie falling
among this gioup. The giauually naiiowing ieligious fielu was unuei the fiim
contiol of Bai al-Fatwa. Shaykhs fiom the tiauitional ieligious establishment
weie feivent suppoiteis of Aiab Nationalism, which theiefoie gaineu the
sympathy of those who still visiteu the mosques.
17
In such a climate, Salafis coulu
not finu a wiue constituency. Those inuiviuuals who weie keen to follow pietistic
tienus tenueu to join one of the well-establisheu anu influential Sufi oiueis.
Seconu, piioi to the civil wai, al-Shahhal's gioup still lackeu skilleu
activists who woulu be able to appeal to the masses. Even in theii social habits,
the membeis of 'Nuslimun' weie no uiffeient fiom the moie tiauitional
inhabitants of the Noith. They usually waineu people not to follow Sufi piactices
anu to peifoim ieligious iituals coiiectly, but they uiu not possess the elaboiate,
alteinative woiluview helu by contempoiaiy Salafis. In othei woius, they uiu not
challenge Aiab Nationalism. Accoiuing to some accounts, al-Shahhal even
sympathizeu with it. At that time, Salafis focuseu on a numbei of naiiow issues
that weie limiteu to peisonal ieligious piactices. Thiiu, Salafis weie lackeu
tiansnational suppoit. At that time, the Sauui Kinguom was piopagating a

17
Inteiview with Shaykh Khaluun '0iaymit, a high-ianking Bai al-fatwa official fiom 'Akkai.
Beiiut, S August 2uu8.
9S
geneial message of Islamic soliuaiity, but it was not yet expoiting Salafism
abioau. Although Salim al-Shahhal hau goou connections in the Sauui ieligious
establishment, he was unable (oi even uiu not intenu) to gain significant
financial suppoit to spieau the Jo'wo.

S-$&0&2#$ -II-:0C*&0= '0:C20C:)' #*5 0E) )():6)*2) -% '-2&#$
(-<)()*0'

It is haiu to ueny that shifts anu changes in the laigei sociopolitical stiuctuie
play a ciucial iole in the emeigence anu uevelopment of a social movement. To
analyze these shifts, scholais of social movements have uevelopeu the concept of
political oppoitunity stiuctuies (P0S). The concept has become a majoi fielu in
social movement ieseaich, although one of the most uebateu anu contesteu. In
my analysis of the emeigence of Salafism in Lebanon, I employ P0S to examine
the inteiplay of exteinal factois facilitating the giowth of the movement. Aftei
biiefly ieviewing the acauemic uebate on P0S, I will piopose some theoietical
ieconsiueiations.
Since the beginning of the 198us, social movement theoiists have
iecognizeu that changes in political anu social stiuctuies facilitate oi hinuei the
emeigence anu uevelopment of social movements. In Taiiow's woius, political
oppoitunity stiuctuies aie "consistent - but not necessaiily foimal, peimanent,
oi national - signals to social oi political actois which eithei encouiage oi
uiscouiage them to use theii inteinal iesouices to foim social movements."
18

Accoiuing to the uominant view, political oppoitunity stiuctuies may consist of
institutional changes, social tiansfoimations, changing alliances, anu conflicts; in
shoit, those factois that can pioviue a movement with iesouices to mobilize anu
help it to oppose exteinal constiaints.
19

Bowevei, theie have been seiious ciitiques of P0S theoiy. As uamson anu
Neyei wiite,

18
Siuney Taiiow, 'States anu 0ppoitunities: The Political Stiuctuiing of Social Novements', in
Boug NcAuam, }ohn B. NcCaithy anu Nayei N. Zalu (eus), Comporotive Perspectives on Sociol
Hovements (Cambiiuge: Cambiiuge 0niveisity Piess, 1996), p. S4.
19
Beibeit Kitschelt, 'Political 0ppoitunity Stiuctuies anu Political Piotest", Britisb }ournol of
Politicol Science, vol. 16, no. 1, 1986.
96
The concept of political oppoitunity stiuctuie is in tiouble, in uangei of
becoming a sponge that soaks up viitually eveiy aspect of the social
movement enviionment - political institutions anu cultuie, ciises of
vaiious soits, political alliances, anu policy shifts . It thieatens to become
an all encompassing fuuge factoi foi all the conuitions anu ciicumstances
that foim the context foi collective action. 0seu to explain so much, it may
ultimately explain nothing at all.
2u

In theii aiticle ciiticizing the political piocess mouel, uoouwin anu }aspei wiite
that "any statement that X leaus to Y (in oui case, expanuing political
oppoitunities give iise to social movement mobilization) is not veiy illuminating
when X incluues eveiything unuei the sun".
21

Accoiuing to them, "uefineu this bioauly, 'political oppoitunities' explain
social movements with the same piecision that 'social stiuctuie', say, explains
ciiminal behavioi." Although if we iestiict political oppoitunities to a list of
naiiowly uefineu political factois, as NcAuam uoes,
22
the iesult will be
insufficient to explain the iise of a social movement.
2S
uoouwin anu }aspei also
uiaw attention to the so-calleu "stiuctuial" bias that "stiuctuial factois (i.e.
factois that aie ielatively stable ovei time anu outsiue the contiol of movement
actois) aie seen emphasizeu moie ieauily than otheis - anu nonstiuctuial
factois aie often analyzeu as though they weie stiuctuial factois". They iegaiu
political oppoitunities as too ueteiminative; theoiists tenu to uisiegaiu othei
factois, such as the cultuial enviionment oi people's choices. 0theis have
foimulateu similai ciitiques of P0S theoiy. Nunson, in his analysis of the
emeigence of the Egyptian Nuslim Biotheihoou, aigues that existing political
oppoitunities alone aie unable to explain why the Biotheihoou gaineu
piominence in the fiist half of the 2u
th
centuiy, anu not the Communists. Be

2u
William A. uamson anu Baviu S. Neyei, 'Fiaming Political 0ppoitunity' in NcAuam et al.,
Comporotive Perspectives on Sociol Hovements, p. 27S.
21
}eff uoouwin anu }ames N. }aspei, 'Caught in a Winuing, Snailing vine: The Stiuctuial Bias of
Political Piocess Theoiy', Socioloqicol Iorum, vol. 14, no. 1, 1999, p. S1.
22
Boug NcAuam, 'Conceptual 0iigins, Cuiient Pioblems, Futuie Biiections', in NcAuam et al.,
Comporotive Perspectives on Sociol Hovements, p. 26.
2S
uoouwin anu }aspei, 'Caught in a Winuing, Snailing vine', p. S2.
97
suggests that we shoulu examine othei factois that emanate fiom the
chaiacteiistics of the movement.
24

The othei weakness of most P0S appioaches is that the majoiity of
stuuies analyze how piotest activities anu stiategies emeige, but not how
oppoitunities enable a movement to bioauen its piesence in a society anu
extenu its influence among a population.
2S
Even scholais of 'new social
movements' (see Chaptei 1), when uiscussing P0S, oveiemphasize the
tiansfoimations in the institutional system anu tenu only to uiscuss those
oppoitunities that facilitate piotest.
26
uoouwin anu }aspei iightfully obseive that
P0S theoiists ignoie those movements that "challenge uominant beliefs anu
symbols, influence collective iuentities, anu even penetiate moie state oiienteu
social movements," focusing insteau on the oiganization of uemonstiations anu
sit-ins. Salafis aie also not oi only inuiiectly inteiesteu in piotest.
27
Theii
activities seive theii aim of uominating ieligious symbols anu uiscouises. Foi
this puipose, they intenu to altei the iuentity of othei (mostly Sunni) Nuslims
anu eliminate eveiy element of theii thinking anu woiluview that uoes not agiee
with the Salafi unueistanuing of ieligion.
28
Theiefoie, at least in the Lebanese
context, these shifts anu changes in the sociopolitical stiuctuie mostly mean
oppoitunities foi Salafis that somehow ielate to the iuentity anu consciousness
of Sunni Nuslims. To unueistanu this, we neeu to employ a uiffeient appioach
fiom that to be founu in the mainstieam P0S liteiatuie. I woulu like to

24
Ziau Nunson, 'Islamic Nobilization: Social Novement Theoiy anu the Egyptian Nuslim
Biotheihoou', Tbe Socioloqicol uorterly, vol. 42, no. 4, 2uu1, pp. Suu-Su7.
2S
Social movement theoiists often equate the iise of piotest with the iise of a social movement,
ignoiing uiffeient types of collective action to achieve social change. See, foi example: Banspetei
Kiiesi, 'Political Context anu 0ppoitunity', in Baviu A. Snow, Saiah A. Soule anu Banspetei Kiiesi
(eus), Tbe Blockwell Componion to Sociol Hovements (Naluen, 0xfoiu anu Cailton: Blackwell
Publishing, 2uu4).
26
Banspetei Kiiesi, 'The Political 0ppoitunity Stiuctuie of New Social Novements: Its Impact on
Theii Nobilization', in }. Ciaig }enkins anu Beit Klanueimans (eus), Tbe Politics of Sociol Protest:
Comporotive Perspectives on Stotes onJ Sociol Hovements (Lonuon: 0CL Piess, 2uuS); Baviu S.
Neyei, 'Social Novement Stuuies: }ouinal of Social, Cultuial anu Political Piotest', Sociol
Hovement StuJies, vol. 2, no. 1, 2uuS.
27
Since the Aiab Spiing in paiticulai, Salafis aie paiticipating in anu oiganizing uemonstiations
moie often, with vaiying uegiees of success. Bowevei, this is not to suggest that Salafism is
becoming a piotest-oiienteu movement. Piotest is nevei the chief stiategy to achieve the Salafi
movement's aims. Such activities aie only pait (anu not the most impoitant pait) of Salafis'
contest to uominate symbols. Foi example, at the univeisities in Tunisia, Salafis often oiganizeu
uemonstiations to allow female stuuents to weai the burqo on campus, while they iaiely joineu
piotests making economic uemanus.
28
It is ielatively iaie foi Salafis to focus on the Jo'wo of non-Nuslims.
98
emphasize that I uo not intenu to elaboiate a geneial theoiy; I only suggest some
theoietical mouifications in oiuei to apply P0S to stuuying the Salafi gioups that
I examine heie, anu to facilitate the unueistanuing of the emeigence of Salafism
anu othei puiitan movements in geneial.
Fiist, I piopose a uiffeient unueistanuing of the "political" fiom that
which is implieu in the majoiity of woiks using the P0S appioach. The lattei,
influenceu by libeial political theoiy, ueal with the concept of the "political" as
something that exists within the fiamewoik of the state anu its ielevant
institutions anu which is legitimizeu by the state. Scholais of Islamic movements
have ciiticizeu this appioach as being limiteu anu insufficient to unueistanu the
uynamics of Nuslim societies. Eickelman anu Piscatoii use the concept of politics
to mean not only "commanu of oiganizeu foice" oi "uistiibution of the commanu
of foice", but also "baigaining among seveial foices oi contenuing gioups" anu,
iefeiiing to Wittgenstein's anu 0akeshott's conceptualizations, "public
negotiation ovei the iules anu uiscouise that moially binu the community
togethei."
29
They stiess the impoitance of contest foi uefining meanings anu
symbols anu contiolling the institutions that piouuce them, since these
meanings anu symbols constitute the value system that is necessaiy foi the
existence of a political community.
Su

The uefinition of politics useu by Petei Nanuaville in his stuuy of Nuslim
tiansnationalism is similai to that employeu by Eickelman anu Piscatoii. Be
synthesizes two uiiections in the conceptualization of politics. Accoiuing to the
fiist, the "political" can be chaiacteiizeu by social antagonism ovei iuentity.
Antagonism aiises when the iecognition of one's paiticulai iuentity is withhelu,
oi when someone attempts to foice a uisciepant iuentity.
S1
The seconu uiiection
is chaiacteiizeu by ethical claims. As Nanuaville puts it, "politics is often about
the asseition of a paiticulai vision of what constitutes 'the goou'".
S2
Accoiuing to
the authoi, theie is a close ielationship between these two appioaches, since
iuentity claims often oveilap with ethical claims, especially when "paiticulai

29
Baviu F. Eickelman anu }ames Piscatoii, Huslim Politics (Piinceton: Piinceton 0niveisity Piess,
1996), p. 7.
Su
Ibiu. p. 9.
S1
Petei Nanuaville, Tronsnotionol Huslim Politics: Reimoqininq tbe 0mmo (Lonuon, New Yoik:
Routleuge, 2uu1), pp. 9-1u.
S2
Ibiu. 1u.
99
iuentities aie seen to be closely ielateu to ceitain ethical piojects" (as is obvious
in the case of Salafism).
Bealing with the political as negotiation anu contest ovei symbols anu
meanings, iuentity anu the ability to uefine "the common goou" makes P0S
theoiy a moie useful tool foi analyzing Islamic movements that aie not piotest-
oiienteu. A wiuei iange of aspects is incluueu in the fielu of politics, such as
moiality, sexuality, ieligion, meuiation, anu othei social activities that aie
impoitant in the context of these movements. In this way, political oppoitunities
mean those shifts in the stiuctuie that fiist, enable social movements to asseit
theii iuentities anu encouiage otheis to auopt them; anu seconu, which
contiibute to incieasing the acceptance of the movement's concept of the
common goou in society.
Social movement theoiists focusing on Westein piotest-oiienteu
movements commonly consiuei Jeclininq stote repression, increosinq politicol
occess, Jivisions omonq tbe elite anu tbe emerqence of influentiol ollies as political
oppoitunities.
SS
In the case of iuentity-oiienteu ieligious movements such as
Salafism, uiffeient soits of shifts can be oppoitunities. Accoiuing to my analysis,
these aie tbe Jecline of tbe troJitionol reliqious estoblisbment, Jeleqitimotion of
competitors, tbe emerqence of tronsnotionol {or in otber coses locol) sponsors, anu
Jeepeninq sectorion {or in otber coses etbnic) cleovoqes. In auuition, ueclining
state iepiession anu the piesence of influential allies often play an impoitant
iole. Bowevei, in the case of Lebanese Salafism, these aie not impoitant enough
to be uiscusseu as sepaiate political oppoitunities. In the following section I will
show how these oppoitunities emeigeu in Lebanon anu how the Salafis
iesponueu to them.
Social movement theoiists often iestiict theii inquiiy to the national
context, while ignoiing the shifts in the inteinational context that also affect the
movement. To avoiu such methouological nationalism, I examine how changes in
the tiansnational fielu have affecteu the local anu inteiplay with local changes in
the P0S.

SS
NcAuam, 'Conceptual 0iigins, Cuiient Pioblems, Futuie Biiections', pp. S4-S6.
1uu
Specific politicol opportunities

In the following I uistinguish foui specific oppoitunities that facilitateu the
expansion of the Salafi Jo'wo in the 199us: the uecieasing influence of the
tiauitional ieligious establishment, the uelegitimation of the Salafis' competitois,
the emeiging Sunni-Shi'i tensions, anu the appeaiance of tiansnational sponsois.

1. Tbe weokness or Jecline of tbe troJitionol reliqious estoblisbment - tbe
weokeninq of Bor ol-Iotwo. Piioi to the civil wai, Sunni ieligious life was quite
oiganizeu in Lebanon. It was possible to uiaw the bounuaiies of the ùlomo
class. The ieligious scholais belongeu to the official Sunni ieligious
auministiation oiganizeu unuei the auspices of Bor ol-lfto (commonly known as
Bor ol-Iotwo).
S4
At the top of this ieligious hieiaichy weie those scholais who
hau been euucateu in piestigious ieligious institutions such as al-Azhai in Caiio.
The lowei level was maue up of infoimally euucateu shaykhs.
The uistiibution of the tasks of the high anu lowei-class ieligious
specialists (rijol ol-Jin) is well uesciibeu by Fuau I. Khuii in his stuuy on
Lebanese Nuslim ieligious scholais:

Not only uo Sunni specialists uiffei in the scale of theii tiaining, but also
in the uetails of the tasks they peifoim. The lowei ianks peifoim less
piestigious functions such as "washing anu buiying the ueau", "ieciting
anu chanting Qui'anic veises uuiing funeials", "calling foi uaily piayei",
"signaling Ramauan fasting scheuule", anu the like. These tasks assigneu
to local shaykhs, the lowei ianks, coulu in Sunni Islam be peifoimeu
likewise by the laity. By contiast, the highei ianks, the foimally tiaineu
juiists, aie iesponsible foi the auministiation of Islamic law anu shaie in
the management of ieligious welfaie incluuing shaii'a schools, colleges,
oiphanages, vocational tiaining centeis anu homes foi the ageu. Along
with the powei elite, they supeivise the owqof ievenues anu

S4
Fuau I. Khuii, 'The 0lama: A Compaiative Stuuy of Sunni anu Shi'a Religious 0fficials', HiJJle
Fostern StuJies, vol. 2S, no. S, 1987.
1u1
expenuituies, allocate funus foi builuing anu maintaining mosques,
opening oi cleaning cemeteiies.
SS

This ieligious elite hau a ielationship of mutual uepenuency with Lebanese
Sunni pations, incluuing political pations (zuòmo) anu local notables (wujobo).
The lowei-level ieligious officials uiu not ieceive any salaiy fiom Bai al-Fatwa,
but weie uiiectly uepenuent on financial suppoit fiom local communities such as
villages oi city quaiteis, anu neeueu the backing of theii leaueis. The high-
ianking ùlomo filleu political positions anu uepenueu on goveinment
appointments, anu theiefoie neeueu goou ielations with the zuòmo. The juiists
who auministeieu ieligious enuowments (owqof) also hau a similai clientelistic
ielationship. These enuowments weie mostly financeu by pations, who also hau
a uecisive voice in the committees that electeu theii auministiation.
S6
At the
same time, the ùlomo seiveu foi the zuòmo as an effective tool foi contiolling
the population anu ieciuiting voteis.
In contempoiaiy Noith Lebanon this setting changeu anu the authoiity of
the official 'ulomo became contesteu. The main ieason foi this was the
weakening of the iole of Bai al-Fatwa anu the uisiuption of tiauitional social
stiuctuies anu alliances. Buiing the civil wai, when Leftist anu Aiab Nationalist
militias gaineu piominence at the expense of the tiauitional zuòmo, the olu
alliance between the lattei anu the ieligious elite also laigely uisappeaieu. Foi a
while, the ùlomo seemeu to have become not only the ieligious but also the
political iepiesentative of the Sunni community, but this newly-gaineu influence
went into ieveise aftei the 1989 assassination of the chaiismatic state mufti
Bassan Khaliu.
S7
Bis successoi, Nuhammau Rashiu Qabbani, who lacks peisonal
chaiisma anu auequate leaueiship skills, is fai fiom possessing his pieuecessoi's

SS
Ibiu., p. 296.
S6
Ibiu. p. 299.
S7
}akob Skovgaaiu-Peteisen, 'The Sunni Religious Scene in Beiiut', HeJiterroneon Politics, vol. S,
no. 1, 1998, p. 71. Basan Khaliu was killeu by a cai bomb on 16 Nay 1989 while ietuining fiom a
meeting with Piime Ninistei Nichel 'Awn. It is wiuely believeu that the assassination was caiiieu
out by Syiian intelligence, because the mufti was a staunch opponent of the Syiian piesence in
Lebanon anu was seeking its elimination. To this aim he was keen to coopeiate with 'Awn, who
that time was aspiiing to oust the Syiian aimy fiom the countiy. The muiuei of Bassan Khaliu
was piobably a waining to those who hau siueu with 'Awn against Bamascus. Baviu uiafton, Tbe
Cbristions of lebonon: Politicol Riqbts in lslomic low (Lonuon; New Yoik: I. B. Tauiis, 2uuS), p.
1Su. Foi a uetaileu analysis of Nichel 'Awn's piemieiship anu his "Libeiation Wai" against the
Syiians in 1989-199u, see: Baiiis, Tbe New Ioce of lebonon, pp. 24S-278.
1u2
level of authoiity, anu he is thus unable to influence the political leaueis of the
Sunni community.
S8

Bai a-Fatwa has also suffeieu fiom a seiious lack of funuing since the enu
of the 198us. This is because the zu'omo no longei suppoit the institution
financially, while the state pioviues it with veiy limiteu iesouices. Theiefoie Bai
al-Fatwa is unable to employ a sufficient numbei of ieligious scholais, anu those
who aie employeu ieceive veiy low salaiies. An imam of a mosque, foi example,
often eains only between 1uu anu 2uu 0SB, while a kbotib (a pieachei who
ueliveis the Fiiuay seimon) eains less than 1uu 0SB. These wages aie fai fiom
enough to suivive in Lebanon, wheie the living costs aie neaily as high as in
Westein Euiope. This has leu to a uiminishing of its influence ovei the
population anu ieligious institutions.
At the same time, many of the Sunni ieligious institutions that hau been
uestioyeu in the civil wai, such as mosques, schools anu chaiity enuowments,
weie iestoieu by Islamic movements, which latei ietaineu theii contiol ovei
them.
S9
Since then, the official Sunni establishment has been unable to gain
absolute uominance ovei the netwoik of mosques anu othei ieligious
institutions in the countiy. The institutional weakness of Bai al-Fatwa has left
space foi the establishment of hunuieus of inuepenuent Islamic chaiities that
offei theii seivices to membeis of the Sunni community. Since they uo not
uepenu in any way on the official Sunni ieligious bouy, they often puisue a veiy
uiffeient agenua. Some of them aie unuei the pationage of the zuòmo, while
otheis belong to uiffeient Islamic movements.
Accoiuing to one of my infoimants fiom al-}amaà al-Islamiyya (Islamic
Community, the Lebanese Nuslim Biotheihoou), in Lebanon theie aie almost
6,uuu iegisteieu Islamic chaiity institutions. Nany of them exist only on papei,
but otheis aie active oiganizations seiving the aims of political bosses, Nuslim
Biotheis, Salafis, Sufi biotheihoous oi inuepenuent Islamists.
4u
The majoiity of

S8
Qabbani, Bassan Khaliu's ueputy, was not even gianteu the title of gianu mufti until 1996,
when Rafiq al-Baiiii helpeu him to be electeu. This is one of the ieasons why many iegaiu him as
the foimei piime ministei's puppet.
S9
Skovgaaiu-Peteisen, 'The Sunni Religious Scene in Beiiut', p. 71.
4u
A vague categoiy, this mainly iefeis to those who have left al-}amaà al-Islamiyya oi Baiakat
al-Tawhiu al-Islami anu auministei chaiity enuowments, seiving theii own aims by using
tiansnational contacts anu ielations with Lebanese politicians.
1uS
mosques also lie outsiue the contiol of the official ieligious establishment anu
belong to Islamic movements. At the same time, the shaykhs of Bai al-Fatwa
have lost theii ability to completely pioviue foi the ieligious neeus of theii
communities (see Chaptei 4), which has openeu up space foi activists fiom
vaiious Islamic movements to influence Sunni believeis. 0ne of the main
beneficiaiies of this uevelopment has also been the Salafis, who aie especially
active in fulfilling the uaily ieligious neeus of oiuinaiy Sunni believeis, such as
issuing fotwos, holuing ieligious lessons anu pioviuing peisonal consultations.
0ne of the coie membeis of Tiipoli's Salafi community even aumitteu to me that
if Bai al-Fatwa weie to fulfill its task anu take caie of the believeis, he uoes not
believe that the Salafis woulu be able to gain a peimanent footholu in Lebanon.
41

2. Beleqitimotion of competitors - tbe foilure of tbe Huslim BrotberbooJ-type of
lslomism. As I mentioneu above, at the beginning of the civil wai, the alliance
between the official ieligious institutions anu theii political pations collapseu.
Although Bai al-Fatwa was foi a time able to maintain anu even inciease its
piominence as both the ieligious anu the political iepiesentative of the Sunnis,
the authoiity of the tiauitional establishment was subsequently laigely
uiminisheu in Tiipoli. The city hau tiauitionally been a stiongholu of the Left.
uoing with the uominant flow in the Niuule East, local Sunnis weie attiacteu to
Aiab Nationalism in laige numbeis aftei the ascenuance of Nassei at the
beginning of the 19Sus. Bue to the uneven uistiibution of wealth in the countiy,
many of Tiipoli's Sunni youth joineu the Lebanese Communist Paity oi othei
iauical Naixist gioups, such as the Naoist People's Resistance Novement leu by
Khalil 'Akkawi. The Syiian Social Nationalist Paity (SSNP), with its semi-socialist
agenua, also hau numeious followeis. Accoiuing to those who liveu thiough this
peiiou, these movements uiaggeu the youngei geneiation away fiom ieligion. As
Shaykh Àli Taha, the imam of Abu Baki al-Siuuiq mosque, iecalleu, "uuiing the
197us the Communists anu the Qawmiyyun |iefeience to the SSNPj weie able to

41
Inteiview with 'Ali Shahaui, Tiipoli, S August 2u11. 'Ali Shahaui is piobably the most successful
uistiibutoi of Islamic books in Tiipoli. Bue to his multiple contacts in Islamist ciicles, he is able to
constantly obseive the uynamics of the city's Sunni ieligious scene.
1u4
uiaw the youth away fiom Islam. 0nly the olu useu to piay anu in some iegions
the mosques weie absolutely empty."
42

Bowevei, at the beginning of the 198us, the uominance of the Left enueu,
a uevelopment that was paitly uue to the iise of Islamism in the iegion anu
paitly uue to its lack of success in pioviuing a viable alteinative foi the
inhabitants of Tiipoli. The Isiaeli invasion in 1982 anu the withuiawal of the PL0
fiom Lebanon was the final blow foi the Leftist movement, which then fell into
an inexoiable uecline. At the same time the success of the Iianian ievolution
gave cieuibility to those Islamists who hau uphelu the possibility of establishing
an Islamic state in the iegion. Local Islamist movements in the city quaiteis of
Tiipoli successfully ieciuiteu the young people who hau pieviously been uiawn
to Naixism oi Aiab Nationalism. Nany iauical Leftist anu Naoist activists
seceueu fiom the Left uue to its failuies in fighting Isiael anu the Naionite
establishment, anu joineu Islamism.
4S
0ne of them was Khalil 'Akkawi, who
conveiteu his Communist gioup into an Islamist movement.
These Islamist factions then meigeu into one movement, the Islamic
0nification Novement (Eorkot ol-TowbiJ ol-lslomi - I0N), unuei the leaueiship
of the chaiismatic Shaykh Saìu Sha`ban. In 1984 the movement was able to
contiol the city with mateiial suppoit fiom Yasii Aiafat's Fatah anu the Iianian
Islamic Republic. Saìu Sha`ban announceu the founuing of an Islamic emiiate in
the Noith. The Islamist mini-state was shoit-liveu, howevei, because the Syiian
aimy manageu to take Tiipoli back fiom the I0N in 198S. Aftei it was uefeateu
militaiily, the movement lost populai suppoit. The main ieasons foi this weie
the inteinal schisms, the teiioi piacticeu by the I0N uuiing its one-yeai ieign,
anu the lack of a unifieu iueological uiiection.
Aftei the collapse of the I0N's Islamic mini-state, theie was intensive
competition between the uiffeient playeis in the ieligious fielu. 0n one siue, Bai
al-Fatwa was unable to iegain its pievious iole uue to financial uifficulties anu a
lack of legitimacy. 0n the othei siue, uiffeient Islamic movements weie

42
Inteiview, Tiipoli, S Becembei 2uu9.
4S
See: Fiua' 'Itani, ol-}iboJiyyun fi-lubnon: min uwwot ol-Iojr ilo Iotb ol-lslom, Bayiut: al-Saqi,
2uu8), p. 74. The Left's loss of populaiity was paitly the iesult of the split in the PL0 into a pio-
Syiian anu an anti-Syiian faction (the lattei leu by Yasii Aiafat) aftei Bamascus' inteivention in
the Lebanese Civil Wai in 1976. Fawwaz Tiaboulsi, A Eistory of HoJern lebonon (Lonuon: Pluto
Piess, 2uu7), pp. 2uS-219.
1uS
stiuggling foi the soul of the Sunni community. Aftei the fall of the I0N, the
Lebanese Nuslim Biotheis oi ol-}omoò ol-lslomiyyo (the Islamic uioup - Iu)
weie able to ieciuit quite a laige followei base. Bowevei, aftei the Ta'if
Agieement, which biought the 1S-yeai-long civil wai in Lebanon to a close, the
movement's influence on the Sunni population giauually ueclineu. Theie aie
seveial ieasons foi this. Fiist, in the long-teim, the Iu was unable to establish a
cleai anu viable agenua in the Lebanese enviionment. Although it piopagateu a
"moueiate Islamic iueology" anu engageu in legitimizing activism in a multi-
sectaiian system, the movement's intellectual uiscouise only attiacteu a limiteu
segment of the euucateu Sunni miuule class. Bue to the hostile Syiian militaiy
piesence anu the continuous haiassment by the Lebanese anu Syiian secuiity
seivices, anu uespite the effoits of its activists, the Iu was unable to establish anu
maintain a laige chaiitable netwoik, which woulu have secuieu bioau-baseu
giassioots suppoit.
44
Seconu, aftei the enu of the civil wai, a numbei of
secessions occuiieu within the ianks of the Lebanese Nuslim Biotheis, uiiven by
the ueepening uiffeiences between the pio- anu anti-Syiian wings of the Iu.
4S

At the same time many activists who hau initially benefiteu fiom the Iu,
both financially anu in builuing theii social netwoiks, piefeiieu to establish theii
own pationage anu Islamic institutions inuepenuently fiom the Nuslim
Biotheis. Nany of my infoimants who weie foimeily Iu activists iecalleu how
the movement's cauies put peisonal mateiial inteiests befoie iueology. Shaykh
Saù al-Bin Kibbi, one of the piominent Salafi figuies, left the Lebanese Nuslim
Biotheis foi the same ieason. As he tolu me when I inteivieweu him uuiing my
visit to his mo`boJ sboroì (sboriò school), "Islamist iueology legitimateu the
uesiie to captuie political positions anu fill the pockets of Iu activists. They uiu
not use mateiial souices to make Islam victoiious but useu Islam to achieve
mateiial benefits." Nany foimei Iu voteis whom I inteivieweu hau similai views
on the movement. When I chatteu with oiuinaiy people about theii political
piefeiences, they often iefeiieu to the Lebanese Nuslim Biotheis as "}omoò

44
Inteiview with ex-Iu activist Nassei Naji, 28 Apiil 2u12.
4S
The final schism in the Iu occuiieu when the foimei leauei Fathi Yakan left the movement in
2uu6 anu establisheu a new umbiella oiganization, which uiaws togethei Islamists who have
allieu themselves with Bizbullah, such as Baiakat al-Tawhiu al-Islami, anu othei, smallei local
gioups.
1u6
boJJon ol-Kursi boss |a gioup inteiesteu only in achieving political positionsj".
Thiiu, the Iu's Palestinian membeis left the gioup to join Bamas when it openeu
its offices in Lebanon in 1998. This uealt a seveie blow to the movement, because
it lost hunuieus of skilleu activists. Togethei, these factois leu to the giauual
uecline of the movement's influence in state institutions anu in the ieligious fielu.
Salafis weie able to fill the space left by the Iu. Nany foimei Iu suppoiteis
who uiu not want to abanuon Islamic activism joineu the ianks of Salafis. Some
of them tolu me that the yeais they hau spent in the Iu hau maue it cleai to them
that builuing an Islamic state anu society shoulu begin with peifecting the beliefs
anu piactices of the giassioots. 0theiwise, people woulu hijack the iuea of
Islamism to acquiie political positions anu othei peisonal benefits.
46
Iu membeis
no longei give ieligious lessons (Jors, pl. Jurus), which aie impoitant tools of
mobilization foi Islamic movements; the Salafis took ovei this task fiom them as
well. Buiing my fieluwoik in Tiipoli, I obseiveu that even in one of the main
centeis of the Nuslim Biotheis, the Rahma mosque in the Qubba iegion, Salafi
shaykhs often oiganize Jurus.

S. Beepeninq sectorion cleovoqes - Sunni-Sbi'i Sectorion tensions. Woisening
tensions between Sunnis anu Shiìtes meant that anothei significant oppoitunity
openeu up foi the Salafis. This shift hau tiansnational uimensions that influenceu
the local stiuctuie. Accoiuing to vali Nasi, "to Aiabs anu Iianians, Afghans anu
Pakistanis living in the iegion, it is an age olu scouige that has flaieu up fiom
time to time to molu Islamic histoiy, theology, law anu politics."
47
Such a flaiing
up occuiieu in the yeais following the 1979 Iianian Revolution. The new Islamic
goveinment in Tehian became an existential thieat to the uulf States anu othei
Sunni goveinments, uue to the Iianian iegime's intention to expoit the
ievolution. Seveial times, Khomeini expiesseu his views about the Sauui
kinguom's leaueiship being uictatoiial anu illegitimate. Be believeu that the time
hau come to abolish the autociatic iegimes thioughout the Islamic woilu anu
establish similai ones to that in Iian.

46
Inteiview with Nassei Naji, 28 Apiil 2u12.
47
vali Nasi, Tbe Sbio Revivol: Eow Conflicts Witbin lslom Will Sbope tbe Iuture (New Yoik: W. W.
Noiton, 2uu6), p. 2S.
1u7
Bowevei, the Iianian leauei oveiestimateu the capabilities of the
ievolution anu the loss of legitimacy of the Sauui iegime. In fact, Sunni Islamists,
although inspiieu by the Islamist takeovei in Tehian, weie ieluctant to
acknowleuge the Iianian leaueiship uue to its Shiìte iuentity.
48
At the same time,
in theii eyes anu the eyes of the wiuei Sunni public, Sauui Aiabia enjoyeu a high
uegiee of legitimacy because of the Sauui iole in the 197S Yom Kippui wai (see
below) anu the image of the late King Faysal.
49
Sauui-sponsoieu countei-
piopaganua was thus able to emphasize Khomeini's anu his ievolution's Shiìte
iuentity. Noieovei, the incieasing Shiìte activism in the uulf, Lebanon, Pakistan
anu Inuia was fiameu as a thieat to the Sunni majoiity in most of these iegions.
Su

Aftei that, the existing socioeconomic cleavages began to take a sectaiian shape.
This uevelopment culminateu aftei the occupation of Iiaq by the 0S in 2uuS,
when the Shiìte majoiity became the uominant foice in a pieviously Sunni-iuleu
county. Salafis have geneially been able to exploit sectaiian sentiments, since
hostility towaiu the Shiìtes lies at the coie of theii iueology. Thioughout the
Islamic woilu they have publisheu books about the RofiJo's conspiiacy against
Islam, anu spieau sectaiian hostility fiom the minbor. The Sunni-uominateu
goveinments often suppoiteu theii activism, anu theii auuience giew in the
sectaiian climate.
Sunni-Shiìte tensions thioughout the Islamic woilu also hau an impact in
Lebanon anu pioviueu Salafis with an oppoitunity to ieach a laigei Sunni
auuience. Befoie the civil wai, Lebanon's Shi'ites constituteu the most
unueiuevelopeu anu impoveiisheu community in the countiy. The majoiity of
Shi'ites liveu unuei the pationage of theii poweiful tiauitional zuòmo, anu most
of the population woikeu in the agiicultuial sectoi oi as unskilleu woikeis in
cities such as Beiiut oi Siuon. Theii miuule class was thin compaieu to the
Chiistians oi the Sunnis. This situation changeu, howevei, aftei the outbieak of
the civil wai. Aftei the collapse of the state institutions, the Shi'ite zuòmo lost

48
The minbor (pulpit) is useu by the pieachei in the mosque at the Fiiuay piayei.
49
King Faysal (1964-197S) is often poitiayeu as the champion of the Islamic cause uue to his
suppoit foi the establishment of tiansnational Islamic oiganizations, such as the 0iganization of
the Islamic Confeience (0IC), anu foi imposing the oil embaigo in 197S. Bis peisonal image as a
pious monaich living a mouest lifestyle was in contiast to the heuonistic behavioi of his family
membeis. Alexei vassiliev, Kinq Ioisol: Personolity, Ioitb onJ Times (Lonuon: SAQI, 2u12), p. 287.
Su
Nay Yamani, 'The Two Faces of Sauui Aiabia', Survivol, vol. Su, no. 1, 2uu8, pp. 1S1-1S4.
1u8
almost all of theii powei. Shi'ites initially joineu leftist movements like the
Lebanese Communist Paity oi the vaiious Palestinian factions. Fiom the
beginning of the 198us, theii own sectaiian militia, the Battalions of the
Lebanese Resistance (ofwoj ol-muqowomo ol-islomiyyo - ANAL) became
piominent.
Aftei the 1982 Isiaeli invasion, paitly uue to ANAL's inefficiency in
uealing with the occupieis anu uefenuing its own community fiom Isiaeli iaius
anu aiiests, the iueology of the 1979 Iianian Revolution became incieasingly
populai. uioups of enthusiastic Shi'ite youth who hau auopteu Khomeinism,
initially inuepenuently of each othei, began launching attacks on the Isiaeli
aimy. Then these cells weie oiganizeu in a single institutional fiamewoik by the
Iianian Revolutionaiy uuaiu, which hau gaineu a footholu in the Beqa` valley in
Eastein Lebanon. This oiganization announceu itself in 198S unuei the name
Bizbullah (the Paity of uou). Bue to the oiganization's militaiy activity
(employing suiciue bombeis in paiticulai), in 198S Isiael withuiew its aimy
fiom most of the teiiitoiies it hau occupieu thiee yeais befoie. By the enu of the
civil wai, Bizbullah hau successfully establisheu itself in the Shi'ite community
by builuing chaiity institutions anu fulfilling the tasks of the state, which in some
paits of the countiy was non-existent that time.
Aftei the civil wai Bizbullah successfully establisheu itself as a political
paity. Fiom the 1992 elections onwaiu it became a uominant foice in the Shi'ite
community, along with ANAL. While the majoiity of Sunnis initially suppoiteu
Bizbullah in its iesistance activity, subsequently feais aiose that Bizbullah's aim
was not only to uefenu the countiy against the }ewish state, but also to establish
Shi'ite uominance in Lebanon. Some Sunnis askeu why Bizbullah anu ANAL hau
the iight to contiol entiie neighboihoous in Beiiut without the inteifeience of
the state. They also felt that membeis of theii community hau been uepiiveu of
the iights that Shi'ites now possesseu. In the Noith in paiticulai, many believeu
that the slow piogiess of the post-civil wai ieconstiuction in theii iegion,
compaieu to the much fastei uevelopment in the Shi'ite South, was a sign of the
lattei community's contiol ovei state iesouices.
A segment of these Sunni Nuslims, especially young people in the
impoveiisheu neighboihoous of Tiipoli who hau been uepiiveu of the
1u9
oppoitunity to finu jobs oi puisue highei euucation, was ieceptive to the Salafis'
anti-Shi'a ihetoiic. Salafi pieacheis successfully piesenteu themselves as
uefenueis of Abl ol-Sunno wo-l-}omo'o against the "Shi'ite plot" anu the "impoit
of Khomeinism". Sunni youth in the Noith felt that these shaykhs weie telling the
tiuth when they uesciibeu the weak position of the Sunnis anu theii
vulneiability to exteinal enemies as a uiiect iesult of the spieau of heiesy anu
the uistoition of the puie ieligion.
S1

4. Tbe emerqence of tronsnotionol sponsors. The thiee oppoitunities uesciibeu
above weie complementeu with an auuitional oppoitunity shift: the oil boom
anu the uiamatically incieaseu financial capabilities of the uulf countiies, which
enableu Sauui Aiabia in paiticulai to sponsoi the Salafi Jo`wo woiluwiue. The
kinguom intenueu to use its suuuen wealth to boost its own status in the
inteinational political aiena anu become the uominant powei in the Islamic
woilu.
S2
0ne way to fulfill this ambition woulu be to ieach out to the giassioots
in Nuslim countiies. To this enu, the kinguom staiteu to expoit its own ieligious
iueology, which is iuentical to Salafism, anu financeu massive tiansnational Salafi
pioselytization in oiuei to uominate the ieligious uiscouises in Nuslim
communities woiluwiue anu suppiess hostile iueological cuiients.
As al-Rasheeu put it, this political stiategy "aimeu to contiol the minus
anu heaits of Nuslims fiom Betioit to }akaita".
SS
Sauui Aiabia financeu the
builuing of mosques, chaiities anu euucational institutions on a global scale,
piopagating Salafi iueas. Riyauh investeu vast sums in spieauing ieligious
liteiatuie among Nuslims aiounu to woilu to tiansfoim theii iuentities in
accoiuance with the Salafi iueal, anu to suppiess local beliefs anu ieligious
piactices as Sufism.
S4
An impoitant pait of this Jo'wo was establishing the
kinguom's univeisities as centeis of tiansnational Islamic euucation. Since the
enu of the 197us, these institutions have euucateu tens of thousanus of foieign
stuuents who have since ietuineu to theii countiies to spieau Salafism.

S1
Nost Salafis whom I inteivieweu, who hau joineu the movement in the 199us, saiu that the
peiceiveu political uominance of the Shi'a playeu a iole theii becoming inteiesteu in Salafism.
S2
uilles Kepel, }iboJ: Tbe Troil of Politicol lslom (Lonuon: I. B. Tauiis, 2uu6), pp. 61-8u.
SS
Al-Rasheeu, Contestinq tbe SouJi Stote, p. 126.
S4
Ibiu., pp. 127-1S1.
11u
At the same time, when the piestigious al-Azhai 0niveisity of Egypt
iestiicteu its scholaiships foi stuuents fiom Syiia, }oiuan anu Lebanon because
these countiies opposeu Sauat's change of policy anu Egypt's peace agieement
with Isiael in 1979,
SS
the Islamic 0niveisity of Neuina openeu its uoois.
Theiefoie, among otheis, seveial Lebanese stuuents went to Sauui Aiabia to
puisue ieligious stuuies. As one of the Palestinian shaykhs fiom Nahi al-Baiiu
camp iecalleu, about Su Lebanese stuuents went to stuuy in Neuina at the
beginning of the 198us. Nany of them (the shaykh himself among them) hau
giauuateu fiom a ieligious high school in Tiipoli anu weie supposeu to leave foi
Caiio. When they weie iefuseu scholaiships to al-Azhai, the Sauui Embassy
offeieu to finance theii stuuies in Neuina.
The shaykh iemembeieu that unlike al-Azhai oi othei univeisities that
left much space foi pluialism in 'oqiJo anu fiqh, in Neuina, Salafism was the only
accepteu path foi a stuuent to follow. Be iecalleu that aftei the seconu yeai,
some pupils whose commitment to Salafism was uoubteu weie askeu to leave
the univeisity. 0n theii ietuin, the Lebanese giauuates of the Islamic 0niveisity
of Neuina weie to tiansfoim Salafism in theii countiy fiom being a maiginal
gioup into one of the most impoitant Sunni social movements. Among them
weie Shaykh Salim al-Shahhal's thiee sons, who, aftei ietuining to Tiipoli, began
builuing institutions anu spieauing the Salafi unueistanuing of Islam.

In shoit, these foui majoi shifts in political oppoitunities cieateu favoiable
conuitions foi Salafis to giow fiom being a small, maiginal gioup into a majoi
social movement in the Sunni community. Shaykh Bilal Tuikomani, a populai
Salafi pieachei in Niiyata (a town 1u km fiom Tiipoli), iemembeis how he
joineu Salafism at the beginning of the Jo`wo in Lebanon:

SS
Ali E Billal Bessouki, 'Egyptian Foieign Policy Since Camp Baviu', in William B. Quanut (eu),
Tbe HiJJle Fost: Ten Yeors After Comp BoviJ (Washington: The Biookings Institution, 1988), pp.
1uS-1u4. 0ne of my infoimants, Shaykh Nuhammau 'Abu al-uhani, iecalleu that when he finisheu
high school in Tiipoli in 198u his scholaiship to al-Azhai was withuiawn. The Sauui Embassy in
Lebanon almost immeuiately offeieu him anu his fellow stuuents, who also aspiieu to caieeis as
ieligious scholais, to stuuy in Neuina at Riyauh's expense. Accoiuing to the shaykh, this is how he
became Salafi. Inteiview, Tiipoli, 11 Apiil 2u12.
111
Aftei the fall of the I0N, some Salafi shaykhs began gatheiing young
people aiounu themselves. 0ne of them was 0sama Qasas. We weie 4u
young people anu Shaykh 0sama was oui mastei until his muiuei by the
Ahbash. Then aiounu 199u Baì al-Islam al-Shahhal |the son of Salimj
ietuineu to Tiipoli fiom Sauui Aiabia with a lot of money. Be succeeueu
in suiiounuing himself with hunuieus of young men who became Salafis.

Accoiuing to Shaykh Bilal, the Syiians initially gave a fiee hanu to the Islamic
movements at the beginning of the 199us, because theii main concein was the
Chiistian opposition to theii piesence. In the climate of iuentity ciisis anu
ielative political stability, Salafism giew iapiuly. Baì al-Islam al-Shahhal
successfully uevelopeu the gioup establisheu by his fathei into a netwoik of
chaiities anu euucational institutions that opeiateu not only in the Noith, but
also in almost eveiy Sunni iegion. The oiganization's name became }omoìyyot
ol-EiJoyo wo-l-lbson anu its main suppoitei was Huossosot ol-Eoromoyn (the
Baiamayn Institution), one of the biggest Sauui Chaiities that mainly sponsois
activist Salafis.
Among the notable figuies who began the Salafi Jo`wo in Tiipoli was
Shaykh Àbuullah Busayn, a foimei physicist who hau pieviously liveu in Fiance.
Be gave up his caieei in Euiope anu tuineu to ieligion, allegeuly aftei a cai
acciuent almost cost him his life.
S6
0nlike most of the othei Salafis in the city, he
nevei hau any ielations with the uulf, but auopteu Salafi òqiJo anu monboj
thiough his ieauing. Be is cuiiently the ownei of an Islamic bookshop in the
ancient maiket of Tiipoli anu spenus most of his time euucating young people
about the basic tenets of ieligion. At the enu of the 198us, many young Tiipolitan
men became Salafis aftei paiticipating in his stuuy ciicles anu then joining othei
gioups.

S6
Be was not willing to shaie his biogiaphical uetails with me, but I was able to gathei some
infoimation about him fiom his foimei uisciples.
112
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The foui oppoitunities uesciibeu above enableu the Salafi movement to gain a
footholu in Lebanon as a social movement. Bowevei, the Salafis weie fai fiom
uominating the Sunni ieligious fielu, which hau been highly contesteu since the
seconu half of the 198us. In the final stage of the civil wai, an intensive stiuggle
eiupteu between uiffeient Islamic movements foi the soul of the Lebanese Sunni
community, anu this also affecteu the Salafi movement. Foui movements - al-
}amaà al-Islamiyya, the Salafis, al-Ahbash (a Sufi-oiienteu gioup) anu some Sufi
biotheihoous - tiieu to extenu theii influence. As explaineu above, the social
situation anu the mental state of the Sunnis at this time facilitateu the
piolifeiation of these movements. All of the Islamic gioups (maybe with the
exception of the Sufi biotheihoous) intenueu to gain as much influence as
possible in Sunni ieligious institutions, especially mosques. Fiom the 198us until
the miu-199us, theie was almost uaily violence between al-Ahbash on one siue
anu al-}amaà al-Islamiyya anu the Salafis on the othei, as they tiieu to occupy
each othei's mosques. This peiiou of tension with al-Ahbash playeu an impoitant
iole in the uevelopment of the Salafi movement, as I explain biiefly in the
following.
Al-Ahbash appeaieu in Lebanon in the 196us, when the Ethiopian-boin
Shaykh Àbuullah al-Baiaii
S7
succeeueu in gatheiing a consiueiable numbei of
uisciples aiounu him. Al-Baiaii hau left his home countiy in 1947, when
Empeioi Baile Selasie expelleu him foi unknown political ieasons. Be tiaveleu
thiough the Niuule East anu then stayeu foi a while in Bamascus, wheie he was
attacheu to the Qauiiiyya Sufi oiuei. In 19Su al-Baiaii settleu in Beiiut, wheie
Bai al-Fatwa gave him an official appointment as a ieligious scholai. Be staiteu
his activism moie than a uecaue aftei his aiiival in Lebanon. Bowevei, foi two
uecaues the movement limiteu its activities to oiganizing stuuy gioups foi the
instiuction of Baiaii's uisciples. Al-Ahbash gaineu piominence fiom 198S, when
the uisciples of al-Baiaii took ovei an olu chaiity, }omoìyyot ol-Hosbori` ol-
Kboiriyyo ol-lslomiyyo (the Association of Islamic Philanthiopic Piojects), which

S7
Àbuullah al-Baiaii was boin in the Ethiopian piovince of Baiai anu settleu in Beiiut in the
194us. The name al-Ahbash iefeis to the Shaykh's Ethiopean oiigins (Babashi, pl. al-Ahbash).
11S
became theii oiganizational bouy. The membeis of the movement then giauually
took ovei moie anu moie neighboihoous in Beiiut, filling the vacuum cieateu by
the iapiuly waning influence of the leftist militias uue to the Isiaeli invasion.
They weie able to gain a footholu in all of the aieas inhabiteu by Sunnis.
Al-Ahbash can be consiueieu a counteimovement to Islamism in geneial,
anu to Salafism in paiticulai. Its iueology mostly builus on Ashàiism (explaineu
in Chaptei 1) anu the Sbofiì moJbob. In his teaching, Al-Baiaii also incluues the
thought of thiee Sufi oiueis that he consiueis "acceptable". Al-Ahbash's main
ciitique of Islamism is that it tiansfoims ieligion into a political iueology that
intenus to captuie the state. Al-Ahbash iegaius Salafis as innovatois; al-Baiaii
consiueis Ibn Taymiyya anu Nuhammau bin Àbu al-Wahhab to be obl ol-biJo'
(those knowleugeable peisons who uistoit Islam), because of theii liteial
unueistanuing of the Text. The Salafi's liteial unueistanuing of uou's attiibutes
has leu Al-Ahbash to accuse them of anthiopomoiphism. In geneial, accoiuing to
Asbòri thought, a metaphoiical inteipietation of the Text is neeueu in oiuei to
avoiu anthiopomoiphism that leaus to uisbelief. Al-Baiaii even calls the two
abovementioneu scholais "unbelieveis".
S8
Kabha anu Eilich point out that al-
Ahbash's message to Nuslims is much haishei than that towaiu non-Nuslims.
S9

While they take a ieconciliatoiy appioach towaiu the lattei, they piactice tokfir
(excommunication) towaiu those Nuslims whom they consiuei extiemists.
The stiuggle of al-Ahbash against Salafism has a tiansnational uimension
anu is iooteu in the secessionist aspiiations of Baiai Piovince. Salafis gaineu
influence in Baiai in the 194us, anu attempteu to iegain inuepenuence fiom the
Ethiopian state anu ievive the 9uu-yeai-olu Islamic emiiate. 0ne of the chief
iivals of this Salafi gioup was Shaykh Àbuullah al-Baiaii, who was a fiim
believei in Nuslim-Chiistian coexistence anu a suppoitei of the integiation of
Nuslims in Baiai into the Ethiopian entity. The secessionist Salafi oiganization
was uefeateu in 1948 anu its leauei, Shaykh Yusuf Àbu al-Rahman, latei
emigiateu to Sauui Aiabia. Aftei he hau settleu in Neuina in 1976, he
immeuiately launcheu a seiies of attacks on his olu enemy, Shaykh Àbuullah. Be
was able to convince the highest echelons of the Sauui Salafi establishment to

S8
Nustafa Kabha anu Baggai Eilich, 'Al-Ahbash anu Wahhabiyya: Inteipietations of Islam',
lnternotionol }ournol of HiJJle Fostern StuJies, vol. S8, no. 4, 2uu6, p. S28.
S9
Ibiu., p. S26.
114
suppoit him in his stiuggle. The chief mufti of the kinguom, Àbuulaziz bin Baz,
even issueu a fotwo stating that al-Ahbash was not pait of Abl os-Sunno wo-l-
}omoò (the community of Sunnis). Accoiuing to one of my Lebanese Salafi
infoimants, some Salafi gioups in Tiipoli ieceiveu extiaoiuinaiy levels of
funuing fiom Sauui Aiabia to finance the stiuggle against al-Ahbash. Bowevei, I
want to stiess that this claim is not veiifieu by othei souices.
This tension at the iueological level manifesteu itself in clashes in the
stieets of Beiiut, Tiipoli anu othei Sunni-inhabiteu places. Al-Ahbash staiteu to
occupy the mosques, even those unuei the supeivision of Bai al-Fatwa, unuei
the pietext that the institutions weie too weak to piotect places of woiship fiom
infiltiation by extiemists (i.e., the Nuslim Biotheis anu the Salafis). As one Salafi
in Tiipoli iemembeis,

al-Ahbash usually came to the mosques at the Fiiuay piayei. They waiteu
foi the appiopiiate moment, then staiteu a uiscussion about a ceitain
topic, like whethei the angels aie male oi female oi is it peimitteu foi
Nuslims to use uisinfectants containing alcohol. If the kbotib |pieacheij
oi the imam of the mosque uiu not agiee with them, then they came back
latei with 2u-Su men, sometimes bauly beat up iespectable scholais anu
took ovei the mosque. Aftei seveial such occasions, we |the Salafisj
became also violent in this way anu began using the same methous.
6u

The tension between al-Ahbash anu Salafis culminateu when a gioup of Salafi
youth who belongeu to `0sbot ol-Ansor, a militant gioup in the Àin al-Bilwa
Palestinian iefugee camp in Siuon, muiueieu the heau of the al-Ahbash
oiganization, Shaykh Nizai al-Balabi, in 199S. This event pioveu to be a
constiaint foi Salafism: the subsequent peisecution of Salafis by the Lebanese
anu Syiian secuiity foices iesulteu in the movement's cuiient uisintegiateu,
polycephalous natuie (which I explain fuithei in Chaptei 4).
At the same time, the tensions with al-Ahbash also benefiteu the Salafis.
Bue to its violent methous anu seiious ueviations fiom mainstieam (Ashàii)
Sunni Islam, the Sufi-oiienteu gioup alienateu laige paits of the wiuei Sunni

6u
Inteiview, Tiipoli, 7 Novembei 2uu9.
11S
population. Salafi pieacheis weie able to play the iole of the uefenueis of
Sunnism in the face of a "ueviant" gioup. They also poseu as the iepiesentatives
of authenticity in the face of uangeious innovations. This was the fiist time that
Salafi pieacheis weie able to attiact laigei ciowus to theii Fiiuay seimons.
61

Nany followeis of Salafism in the Noith staiteu to engage in Islamic activism
along the lines of al-Ahbash. They weie attiacteu to the movement by its
combination of peisonal piety with social woik. These inuiviuuals, as they
iecalleu, founu the same in Salafism, but without the "uistoitions" anu
"innovations" of al-Ahbash.

/-*2$C'&-*

In this chaptei I uiscusseu the histoiical tiajectoiy of Salafism in Lebanon
between the eaily post-Seconu Woilu Wai peiiou anu the enu of the 199us. Aftei
pioviuing a biief oveiview of the political histoiy of Lebanon, I explaineu that
Salafism in Noith Lebanon evolveu fiom the gioup of Salifm al-Shahhal, who hau
oiiginally been inspiieu by the teachings of the Islamic Refoimists of Egypt,
especially Rashiu Riua.
Aftei ciiticizing the appioach to political oppoitunity stiuctuies taken by
SNT anu suggesting some mouifications, I examineu the vaiious exteinal
changes in the sociopolitical enviionment that enableu Salafism to become what
is piobably the most piominent Sunni Islamic movement in Lebanon.
Foui majoi changes in the exteinal context enableu Salafism to tiansfoim
itself fiom being a maiginal gioup into a stiong social movement. The fiist factoi
was the weakening of the tiauitional Sunni ieligious establishment, mainly uue
to the effects of the Lebanese Civil Wai (197S-199u). The uiminishing influence
of Bai al-Fatwa openeu up space foi Salafis to take the place of the tiauitional
'ulomo anu spieau theii call among the oiuinaiy Sunni population.
The seconu factoi was the uelegitimation of the Salafis' competitois,
namely Nuslim Biotheihoou-inspiieu Islamism. Salafis weie able to fill the

61
Inteiviews with Salafi inuiviuuals anu witnesses to the events. See also Beinaiu Rougiei,
FveryJoy }iboJ (Cambiiuge anu Lonuon: Baivaiu 0niveisity Piess, 2uu7), pp. 11S-14u.
116
vacuum that hau been left by these movements. Nany of the foimei activists of
the Ikhwan, who uiu not want to abanuon activism, even joineu the ianks of
Salafis.
The thiiu factoi was the ueepening sectaiian tensions between Sunnis
anu Shi'ites. Nany Sunnis believeu the conspiiacy theoiies about a Shi'ite plot
against Sunnis. In this enviionment, Salafis poseu as uefenueis of Ahl al-Sunna
wa-l-}ama'a against the thieat fiom the othei majoi Nuslim community anu its
militia, Bizbullah.
The fouith factoi was the appeaiance of wealthy sponsois fiom the
Aiabian uulf. Salafism in Noith Lebanon laigely piofiteu fiom Sauui Aiabia's
effoit to spieau Salafism woiluwiue. The movement's activists ieceiveu massive
amounts of funuing, which enableu them to builu mosques, chaiities anu
ieligious colleges to facilitate the Jo'wo.
In the final section of the chaptei I uiscusseu the tensions between Salafis
anu the Sufi-inspiieu al-Ahbash movement, which was connecteu to the Syiian
anu Lebanese intelligence seivices. These tensions weie not only manifest in
iueological uebates, but also sometimes leu to bloouy stieet clashes. Although
the conflict with al-Ahbash leu to a secuiity ciackuown on Salafis, the lattei also
benefiteu fiom it. Salafi pieacheis weie able to pose as the uefenueis of Sunnis in
face of the "ueviant" teachings of al-Ahbash.

117
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0vei the last uecaue, Salafism in Lebanon has unueigone a significant
tiansfoimation. While the movement useu to be ielatively integiateu unuei the
leaueiship of Shaykh Ba'i al-Islam al-Shahhal, in the 2uuus, this situation
changeu. The main factions that I uiscusseu in Chaptei 1 emeigeu in Noith
Lebanese Salafism. At the same time, new leauing figuies appeaieu, who weie
inuepenuent of al-Shahhal anu built up theii own followei base.
In this chaptei I explain how anu why the netwoik of Ba'i al-Islam al-
Sahhal fiagmenteu. I show how the political enviionment, which was uominateu
by the occupying Syiian aimy anu secuiity seivices, playeu a iole in this piocess.
Then I analyze the uevelopment of the local puiist anu boroki factions. At the enu
of the chaptei I uiscuss how the Aiab ievolutions affecteu Lebanese Salafism anu
the powei balance between puiists anu borokis.

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The Salafi community in Tiipoli was ielatively unifieu until the seconu half the
199us. Although the Salafis in this city nevei uevelopeu foimal oiganizational
stiuctuies, they mainly gatheieu aiounu }ama'iyyat al-Biuaya wa-l-Ihsan anu its
leauei, Ba'i al-Islam al-Shahhal. As many of my infoimants iecalleu, this was uue
to Shaykh Ba'i's piestige, authoiity anu financial powei, since he was in contact
with many chaiitable oiganizations anu wealthy inuiviuuals in the uulf, who
geneiously financeu the Lebanese Salafi movement. Accoiuing to Shaykh 'Ali
Taha, one of the piominent Salafi 'ulomo in Tiipoli's Tabbana uistiict, "incieuible
amounts of money aiiiveu fiom Sauui Aiabia - mostly fiom the Huossosot ol-
Eoromoyn |the al-Baiamayn Institutionj - foi builuing mosques, uistiibuting
118
Salafi liteiatuie anu chaiitable puiposes".
1
Riyauh's geneiosity was in line with
its policy of counteibalancing Iian's effoit to win the heait of the Sunni
population in the Niuule East.
2
In Lebanon, the Salafis seemeu capable of
counteibalancing Bizbullah, Tehian's pioxy, in its attempt to gain allies among
the Islamic movements of the Noith.
In less than a uecaue, Ba'i al-Islam al-Shahhal was able to establish a vast
chaiitable anu euucational netwoik, not only in Tiipoli anu its extenueu uiban
aiea, but also in all of the countiy's Sunni iegions. This emeiging Salafi chaiitable
empiie was subsequently uismantleu, howevei, when the Lebanese juuiciaiy
oiueieu the closing of }ama'iyyat al-Biuaya wa-l-Ihsan in 1996, accusing the
oiganization of inciting sectaiian hatieu. This event can be unueistoou as pait of
the afteimath of the geneial ciackuown on Islamists aftei the muiuei of Nizai
Balabi, the favoiite of the Syiian-Lebanese secuiity iegime.
S
Al-Balabi was a
ienowneu Ash'aii 'ulomo' anu the leauei of al-Ahbash aftei 'Abuullah al-Baiaii
hau ietiieu. 0n S1 August 199S he was assassinateu by a gioup of }ihaui Salafis
fiom the 'Ain al-Bilwa camp neai Saiua. The secuiity iegime useu the events to
justify a ciackuown on the whole of the flouiishing Salafi movement, not only on
the militants. The Syiian iegime anu its agents in Lebanon aigueu that al-
Shahhal's netwoik was spieauing extiemist iueas, which hau eventually tuineu
many of the young Salafis to violence.
4

Accoiuing to Shaykh Ba'is youngei biothei, Abu Baki al-Shahhal, some
membeis of al-Ahbash iepoiteu to the inteinal secuiity seivice that in Na'hau al-
Biuaya (Biuaya School), one of the Salafi oiganization's euucational centeis in
Tiipoli's Abu Samia uistiict, stuuents weie being taught fiom a book that
containeu violent anti-Shi'a statements. Accoiuing to Abu Baki al-Shahhal, a
textbook publisheu by }ama'iyyat al-Biuaya wa-l-Ihsan containeu some pages
fiom this ominous book. Bowevei, these uiu not iefei to the Shi'a at all, but
focuseu on a completely uiffeient issue.

1
Inteiview with Shaykh Àli Taha, Tiipoli, S Becembei 2uu9.
2
al-Rasheeu, Contestinq tbe SouJi Stote, p. 1uS anu pp. 126-1SS.
S
Accoiuing to some souices, the Syiians wanteu Balabi to be electeu as Nufti of the Republic to
contiol the Sunni ieligious establishment. Inteiview with a shaykh in Bai al-Fatwa, Tiipoli, 26
Novembei 2uu9.
4
Rougiei, FveryJoy }iboJ, Cambiiuge, pp. 119-12S.
119
Shaykh Ba'is chaiity netwoik, howevei, was able to continue its activities
until 2uuu, when the final ciackuown occuiieu. Ba'i al-Islam al-Shahhal's name
was mentioneu in connection with a jihaui gioup composeu of between 2uu anu
Suu membeis, which hau fought against the aimy foi seveial uays in late 1999 in
the Binniya iegion.
S
Accoiuing to accusations maue by the Lebanese juuiciaiy,
some of the militants hau connections to }ama'iyyat al-Biuaya wa-l-Ihsan. Aftei
the battle, many membeis of the oiganization weie aiiesteu anu toituieu, anu
Shaykh Ba'i fleu to Sauui Aiabia to escape possible piosecution.
6
}ama'iyyat al-
Biuaya wa-l-Ihsan was ie-establisheu only aftei the withuiawal of Syiian foices
fiom Lebanon in 2uuS.
Aftei the battle of Binniya, the policy of the Syiian-Lebanese secuiity
iegime towaius Salafis changeu. Eailiei in the 199us it hau consiueieu the
Naionite opposition anu the iemnants of the PL0 to be its main enemies.
7
The
foimei weie iuentical to the membeis anu suppoiteis of the Lebanese Foices
militia, which fought the Syiian aimy uuiing the civil wai. Latei, aftei the
iestoiation of the peace, the Lebanese Foices became one of the stiongest
Chiistian political paities. Its leaueis opposeu the Syiian uomination of Lebanese
politics anu uemanueu the uepaituie of the occupying Syiian aimy. Since the
Assau iegime was unable ieach an agieement with the paity, it sought its
elimination. In 199S anu 1994, many membeis of the Lebanese Foices weie
aiiesteu anu toituieu. Its leauei, Samii }a'ja' was sentenceu to life impiisonment
anu the paity was banneu by the Lebanese juuiciaiy.
8

The PL0 unuei the leaueiship of Yasii 'Aiafat was also among Bamascus'
aich-enemies. Aftei Bamascus' inteivention in Lebanon in 1976 against the LNN
(see Chaptei S), the Syiian aimy also confionteu the PL0, which was the ally of
the LNN. The enmity between the 'Aiafat's oiganization anu Syiia continueu
until the PL0 leaueiship hau to ielocate to Tunis as a consequence of the 1982

S
The battle took place in the mountainous Binniyyeh iegion. A veteian jihaui who hau fought in
Afghanistan set up a tiaining camp with his followeis in the mountains neai Tiipoli, to tiain them
anu senu them to Chechnya. The gioup was allegeuly iesponsible foi seveial attacks on chuiches
in Tiipoli. The fight with the aimy eiupteu when the gioup took ovei the builuing of BaÌ al-Islam
al-Shahhal's iauio station in Sii al-Binniyeh anu left Su ueau, incluuing 11 soluieis, five civilians
anu 14 Salafi militants. Rougiei, FveryJoy }iboJ, pp. 229-241.
6
Shaykh Baì's uecision pioveu to be the iight one, as in the same yeai, the Lebanese militaiy
couit sentenceu him to ueath in his absence.
7
Salloukh, 'A Biotheihoou Tiansfoimeu'.
8
Baiiis, Tbe New Ioce of lebonon, p. 282.
12u
Isiaeli invasion. Aftei the Ta'if Agieement (see Chaptei S), the Syiian intelligence
kept a close check on the iemnants of the PL0 in Lebanon, pieventing it fiom
iegaining any of its foimei influence.
9

In the face of the thieat coming fiom the still stiong Naionite opposition
(uespite banning the Lebanese Foices) anu the PL0 activists, the secuiity iegime
saw the Salafis as a seconuaiy challenge. Befoie the battle of Binniya, the
authoiities believeu that the movement coulu be containeu without the neeu to
take stiict secuiity measuies. Beinaiu Rougiei suggests that Syiian anu
Lebanese intelligence believeu that any thieat coming fiom the Salafi community
coulu be counteieu uue to the piesence of many infoimants among the
movement's auheients.
1u
Aftei the battle, howevei, this view changeu. Feais
aiose that the pioselytization activity of al-Shahhal's netwoik woulu leau to the
uncontiolleu iauicalization of the youth in the Noith.
The uiying up of Sauui financial souices following the 911 teiioi attacks
anu the subsequent "wai on teiioi" also contiibuteu to the split in the Salafi
movement. The 0S accuseu vaiious Islamic chaiity oiganizations of uiiectly oi
inuiiectly financing teiioiists. Washington put piessuie on the goveinments of
the uulf States to contiol theii citizens' chaiity activities moie closely anu shut
uown oiganizations that might have links to al-Qaeua anu othei militant gioups.
The most notable case was the closuie of the biggest tiansnational chaiity,
Nu'assasat al-Baiamayn (see Chaptei S). 0wing to Ameiican piessuie aftei the
11 Septembei attacks, the Sauui goveinment iestiicteu the iights of al-
Baiamayn to suppoit Salafi gioups in foieign countiies anu then shut uown the
institution in 2uu4. Salafis in Lebanon thus lost theii souice of funuing, anu hau
to look foi alteinative channels.
Aftei Shaykh Ba'i's escape to Sauui Aiabia, seiious changes occuiieu in
Lebanese Salafism. 0ntil then, al-Shahhal hau been the almost unquestioneu
leauei of Lebanese Salafis uue to his peisonal authoiity, contacts in the uulf
countiies anu financial means. It appeais that theie weie minoi iueological
uiffeiences between the activists in the movement. Salafism in Lebanon
geneially followeu a boroki line. Although they piojecteu the image of a puiely

9
Rougiei, FveryJoy }iboJ, p. 26u.
1u
Ibiu., p. 261.
121
Jo'wo movement that was piimaiily conceineu with ieligious beliefs anu
piactices, unuei the suiface Salafis tiieu to change public opinion iegaiuing Syiia
anu Bizbullah. At that time in the 199us, the majoiity of the Sunni community
suppoiteu the Syiian piesence anu the Shi'ite paity was iegaiueu as a iesistance
movement against Isiael, not a sectaiian militia.
11
Shaykh Ba'is' gioup attempteu
to tiansfoim these views by holuing anti-Shi'a kbutbos in some mosques in
Tiipoli anu 'Akkai.
12

Although some Salafis weie moie inclineu towaius puiist iueas, they uiu
not oppose al-Shahhal's main boroki line. Foi instance, although Shaykh Ba'i
stoou as a canuiuate in the 1996 elections, he was not openly ciiticizeu by Salafis,
who in piinciple iejecteu any involvement in institutional politics. This is
because at that time, Salafism in Lebanon was still in its infancy anu was
associateu with his name. Nost of the Salafi activists in the countiy weie unuei
his pationage anu often ieceiveu theii main income fiom him. Bowevei, when he
hau to leave the countiy, the ielative unity that Lebanese Salafis hau foimeu
aiounu his peison quickly uisintegiateu. As one of the veteian Salafis iecalleu,
only al-Shahhal was in uiiect contact with the uulf chaiities, which weie the
main sponsois of Salafi activities in the Noith. Be uistiibuteu the money between
the othei shaykhs anu activists; otheis uiu not have access to the souices. When
he hau to leave the countiy, many of those who useu to woik with him founu
themselves without an income.
Although Shaykh Ba'i establisheu many institutions, he nevei manageu to
establish a sophisticateu oiganizational stiuctuie. When he left, his associates
anu followeis uiu not show much willingness to coopeiate with each othei.
Insteau, as my infoimant iemembeieu, "eveiyone withuiew to his own mosque
oi woqf"
1S
anu staiteu to look foi alteinative souices of pationage, eithei
inuiviuually oi with a few acquaintances. 0ne of theii stiategies was to contact
al-Shahhal's olu suppoiteis. Buiing the 199us Shaykh Ba'i was consiueieu a
successful Salafi leauei, anu uelegations fiom Sauui, Kuwaiti anu Qataii chaiities

11
Palmei Baiik, Tbe Cbonqinq Ioce of Terrorism, pp. 48-S2.
12
Rougiei, FveryJoy }iboJ, pp. 2S4-2S9. A Palestinian shaykh fiom Nahi al-Baiiu also confiimeu
that Salafis connecteu to al-Shahhal weie making an effoit to change the minuset of the Sunni
population iegaiuing the Shi'a. Inteiview, Tiipoli, 4 Apiil 2u12.
1S
Inteiview, Tiipoli, 11 Apiil 2u12.
122
anu inuiviuual sponsois woulu theiefoie visit him, offeiing theii suppoit. Some
of those who weie aiounu al-Shahhal socializeu with these inuiviuuals in the uulf
anu often ieceiveu phone numbeis that latei pioveu to be useful.
When al-Shahhal was no longei the main uistiibutoi of financial
iesouices, Salafis calleu these numbeis anu paiu visits to potential uonois in the
Aiabian uulf. The othei stiategy was to contact theii foimei couisemates anu
fiienus fiom the Islamic 0niveisity of Neuina, who weie well connecteu to
chaiities, the ieligious establishment anu businessmen. Nany Lebanese Salafis
staiteu to visit Sauui Aiabia anu Kuwait moie fiequently, anu paiticipateu in the
ieligious lessons of some well-known 'ulomo' theie. Accoiuing to one of the
Palestinian shaykhs fiom Nahi al-Baiiu, these weie excellent occasions to meet
people anu builu social netwoiks. In Kuwait, foi example, the Lebanese visitois
who weie piesent at some of these Jurus weie often subsequently intiouuceu in
a Jiwoniyyo (fiequent tiauitional gatheiings in a pation's home), which aie the
best places in the uulf to inciease one's social capital.
Thiough incieaseu paiticipation in the tiansnational movement,
Lebanese Salafis became pait of anu socializeu in netwoiks that hau evolveu
aiounu uiffeient iueological stieams. This leu to the piesence of the boroki anu
puiist factions in Lebanon as iamifications of laigei tiansnational netwoiks.
Puiists became paiticulaily influential, because theii main focus on the 'oqiJo
anu the 'iboJot meant that they uiu not uiaw the attention of the authoiities. It is
likely that the secuiity iegime also thought that the puiist Jo'is woulu be an
antiuote to the iauicalization of Salafis, uue to theii iefusal to uiscuss political
issues.
The tight secuiity contiol ovei Salafis was lifteu only aftei the fall of the
Syiian-Lebanese secuiity iegime in 2uuS. 0n 14 Febiuaiy 2uuS a massive
explosion in Beiiut killeu the foimei Piime Ninistei Rafiq al-Baiiii. Nany
believeu that Bamascus hau planneu the muiuei, which was followeu by massive
uemonstiations. The piotesteis uemanueu the iesignation of the goveinment
anu the withuiawal of the Syiian aimy. Wheieas anti-Syiia iallies in the past hau
consisteu mainly of Chiistians, now Sunnis anu Biuze joineu as well. At the same
time, inteinational piessuie on Bamascus also giew to implement 0N Resolution
12S
1SS9, which calleu foi the withuiawal of all foieign foices fiom Lebanon. The
Syiian aimy left the countiy on 1u Apiil 2uuS, aftei 29 yeais of occupation.
Aftei the tight secuiity contiols on Salafis hau been lifteu, the movement
began to flouiish in the Noith. The pioselytizing activity of both puiists anu
borokis ieacheu unpieceuenteu levels. The foimei ieceiveu financial suppoit
fiom the Kuwaiti }omo'iyyot lbyo ol-Turotb ol-lslomi, which by then hau become
exclusively puiist. The lattei was sponsoieu by the Qataii Huossosot ol-Sboykb
'AiJ ol-Kboyriyyo. Bue to theii uiffeient agenuas, in the following sections I
uiscuss the local manifestations of these two factions sepaiately.

.E) )():6)*2) #*5 5)<)$-I()*0 -% 0E) IC:&'0 *)04-:3' &* 9-:0E
+),#*-*

The emeigence of the politico-puiist faction in Lebanon is connecteu with the
tiansfoimation of the Salafi movement in Kuwait, which I uiscusseu in Chaptei 2.
Aftei puiist Salafis hau taken ovei the leaueiship of Ihya' al-Tuiath anu Shaykh
'Abu al-Rahman 'Abu al-Khaliq hau hau to leave the oiganization, the chaiity cut
its ties with borokis in Lebanon. Since the enu of the 199us it has been
exclusively sponsoiing Lebanese puiists.
Ihya' al-Tuiath has been piesent in Lebanon since 199u, but at that time it
was still unuei boroki influence. The chaiity suppoiteu }omo'iyyot ol-EiJoyo wo-
l-lbson anu Ba'i al-Islam al-Shahhal. Shaykh Ba'i befiienueu many membeis of
Ihya' al-Tuiath uuiing his stuuies in Neuina, anu one of them was 'Abuullah al-
Sabt. These inuiviuuals saw potential in Shaykh Ba'i to be theii agent in Lebanon.
Al-Shahhal followeu them to Kuwait, wheie he stayeu foi a couple of months.
While theie, he built up excellent contacts in Kuwait's boroki ciicles anu latei
became a fiequent guest at Jiwoniyyos, confeiences anu othei Salafi meetings in
the countiy. When he went back to Lebanon in 199u to stait his Jo'wo, Ihya' al-
Tuiath gave him hunuieus of thousanus of uollais, anu likely in excess of one
124
million uollais,
14
to establish sbori'o colleges in Tiipoli anu the southein poit city
of Saiua.
1S

Bowevei, when the leaueiship of the chaiity changeu in 1997, al-Shahhal
fell fiom giace. The new Ihya' al-Tuiath auministiation initially tiieu to convince
him to follow a puiist monboj anu uistiibute puiist liteiatuie among his
followeis. When he iefuseu to uo so, the oiganization cut the financial aiu to
}omo'iyyot ol-EiJoyo wo-l-lbson anu staiteu to look foi othei beneficiaiies. As
Shaykh Ba'i saicastically noteu, the only thing that Ihya' al-Tuiath consiueis
impoitant is that those who ieceive theii financial aiu "must not have fiqb".
16
By
this, the shaykh meant that puiists uo not have a sophisticateu uiscouise on
politics anu inteinational affaiis, which, accoiuing to him, shoulu have an
impoitant place in Islamic juiispiuuence (fiqb). In his view, issuing legal
opinions on iitual uoes not make somebouy an expeit in fiqb.
Aftei Ihya' al-Tuiath bioke with al-Shahhal, foi seveial yeais the
oiganization sent only small amounts of money foi a few puiist inuiviuuals to
publish booklets oi make iftor (fast-bieaking) foi the pooi. Laige-scale chaiity
woik in Tiipoli was iesumeu in the miu-2uuus. A membei of Ihya' al-Tuiath's
leaueiship spent some time in Lebanon as a touiist when he acciuentally met a
young Salafi in his eaily thiities, Safwan al-Za'bi. Al-Za'bi was inviteu to Kuwait,
wheie he spent some time stuuying boloqot (infoimal ieligious lessons usually
helu in the mosque oi piivate homes) anu was intiouuceu to leauing figuies
fiom Ihya' al-Tuiath. Aiounu 2uu4, a-Za'bi staiteu to builu an Islamic centei anu
a clinic in Tiipoli's Abu Samia uistiict, using funus he ieceiveu fiom Ihya' al-
Tuiath. In 2uuS he officially establisheu the local bianch of the Kuwaiti chaiity
unuei the name Woqf ol-Turotb ol-lslomi (the Islamic Beiitage Enuowment -
IBE).
The IBE became the backbone of the puiist netwoiks in Noith Lebanon.
Safwan al-Za'bi was the main agent of Ihya' al-Tuiath in the countiy anu
uistiibuteu the funus that aiiiveu fiom the Kuwait chaiity. This gave him
consiueiable influence ovei the Noith Lebanese Salafi scene until he left the

14
Inteiview with a Palestinian Salafi shaykh, Tiipoli, 11 0ctobei 2uu9, anu inteiview with
Shaykh Bilal Tuikomani, Niiyata, 18 0ctobei 2uu9.
1S
Inteiview with Ba'i al-Islam al-Shahhal, Tiipoli, 9 August 2u11.
16
Ibiu.
12S
oiganization in 2u11. Be launcheu seveial piojects that uiew the majoiity of the
puiists into his ciicle of pationage. The IBE has openeu seveial meuical clinics in
Tiipoli anu in the villages of 'Akkai anu Binniya. At the same time, the chaiity
sponsois mosques anu local woqfs wheie the neeuy ieceive mateiial aiu. Al-Za'bi
has also built an oiphanage, which pioviues basic amenities anu healthcaie anu
finances the euucation of hunuieus of oiphans.
17

Besiues helping the pooi, the IBE puts emphasis on Islamic euucation. It
sponsois two mo'obiJ sboro'iyyo (sbori'o colleges); one of them is Na'hau al-
Bukhaii in 'Akkai, the othei is Na'hau Taiablus in Tiipoli. Accoiuing to al-Za'bi,
some Salafi colleges in Tiipoli aie spieauing "extiemism anu kboriji iueology"
among the youth. By suppoiting "moueiate" teaching institutions, he intenus to
counteibalance those who enuoise a "ueviateu |munborifj monboj".
18
The IBE
also oiganizes boloqot in mosques anu makes iegulai payments to puiist
shaykhs to teach in them. Those who paiticipate in these lessons can ieceive an
ijozo (authoiization, license) issueu by the IBE, which enables them to teach
ceitain ieligious subjects.
Bankiolling many of Lebanon's puiist Salafis enableu Safwan al-Za'bi to
stait implementing the agenua that been pioposeu by the Kuwaiti chaiity. Ihya
al-Tuiath's main intention was to cieate a stiong puiist stieam in the countiy to
counteibalance the borokis, which woulu become a significant sociopolitical
actoi ovei time. At the beginning of 2uu9, many of the 'ulomo who weie counteu
as iepiesentatives of the puiist stieam anu ieceiveu suppoit fiom the Ihya' al-
Tuiath signeu a uocument (ol-Honboj ol-WoJib wo-l-Hitboq ol-SboJiJ - The
Cleai Nethouology anu the Stiong Agieement |upon itj) in which they agieeu on
a numbei of basic tenets of the methou of the Jo`wo that they woulu follow. This
event occuiieu aftei seiious uisagieements hau aiisen between puiist Salafis
iegaiuing an agieement between Safwan al-Za`bi, the iepiesentative of Ihya' al-
Tuiath in Tiipoli, anu Bizbullah. Nost piobably this uocument was suggesteu by
Ihaya' al-Tuiath, as a means of cieating a loose netwoik among its beneficiaiies
in Lebanon (anu piobably elsewheie). The main points of the agieement miiioi

17
Beie the categoiy of "oiphan", accoiuing to the Islamic uefinition, incluues those who have lost
theii fathei but whose mothei is alive. See: 'Yatim', in Bosswoith, FncyclopeJio of lslom.
18
Inteiview with Shaykh Safwan al-Za'bi, Tiipoli, 29 Septembei 2uu9.
126
the basic featuies of puiist Salafism anu can be iegaiueu as the conuitions foi
Ihya' al-Tuiath's sponsoiship.
The agieement stiesses the neeu to iemain loyal to the Sauui uieat
ùlomo' anu foibius "mocking them" (which is a iefeience to those borokis who
call some of the uieat ùlomo' the "ùlomo' of menstiuation", because of theii lack
of attention to political issues when lost in the uetail of uaily ieligious piactice).
The seconu main point is the call to cieate an Islamic society by peaceful Jo`wo
anu to be patient iegaiuing the injustices of the iuleis. The uocument also
foibius ievolt against the iuleis, even if they aie not Nuslim, anu conuemns the
unueistanuing of jihau piopagateu by militant gioups. Insteau, they call foi
peaceful coexistence with non-Nuslims anu iespect foi "the tieaties anu
contiacts maue with Nuslims anu non-Nuslims".
19
These points closely iesemble
the piefeiences of Ihya' al-Tuiath, which I have uiscusseu at length above.
The IBE also foimeu a fotwo council composeu of some of the most
ienowneu Salafi scholais. Its task was to issue legal opinions in local Lebanese
cases wheie the fotwos of the Sauui uieat 'ulomo uiu not fully apply oi aie weie
not specific enough. The council, foi example, legitimizeu al-Za'bi's attempt to
paiticipate in institutional politics anu mobilize voteis foi his piefeiieu
canuiuates in a fotwo. The wiiteis of the legal opinion state that, "we live in a
multiconfessional society wheie uiffeient ieligious gioups anu intellectual
stieams live togethei. It is not possible foi one of them to uominate the otheis,
this is one of the chaiacteiistics of Lebanese society".
2u
Theiefoie, "it uoes not
haim the |Nuslimj canuiuate if he uses the pailiament as a tool foi ol-omr bil-
mo`ruf wo ol-nobi òn ol-munkor |bisboj anu also as a tool foi the Jo`wo by
offeiing his thoughts anu piinciples, |especiallyj if he uoes that thiough the
meuia".
21

The wiiteis of the fotwo aigue that paiticipating in the election of
iepiesentatives to pailiament is legitimate, since Lebanese law uoes not oblige
them to make uecisions that aie un-Islamic. It is also possible to elect non-
Nuslim canuiuates if they seive Nuslim inteiests. In theii ieasoning, the authois
of the fotwo fiist iefei to the Qui'anic exegesis of Àbu al-Rahman bin Saùi

19
See Al-Sborq Al-Awsot newspapei, 2u August 2uu8.
2u
Ibiu.
21
Ibiu.
127
(1889-19S6), a wiuely-quoteu Sauui scholai who followeu the example of the
piophet Shuàyb (mentioneu in the Qui'an) when he uigeu Nuslims to
paiticipate in political life if they liveu in a society that hau no Nuslim majoiity:
22

uou may uefenu the believeis in many ways, some of which they may know anu
some they may not know at all. Be may uefenu them by means of theii tiibe oi
theii kofir compatiiots, as uou uefenueu Shu'ayb fiom the stoning of his people
by means of his clan. Theie is nothing wiong with stiiving to maintain these
connections by means of which Islam anu the Nuslims may be uefenueu, anu in
some cases that may be essential, because Jowo is iequiieu accoiuing to ability.
Baseu on this, if Nuslims help those who aie unuei the iule of the
kuffor, anu stiive to make the state a iepublic in which the ieligious anu
woiluly iights of inuiviuuals anu peoples aie piotecteu, then this is bettei
than theii submitting to a state that uenies theii ieligious anu woiluly
iights, anu is keen to uestioy them anu make them its seivants. Yes, if it is
possible to make the state an Islamic one that is iuleu by Nuslims, then
this shoulu be uone, but when this is not possible, the next piioiity is
suppoiting a type of state wheie ieligious anu woiluly inteiests aie
piotecteu. Anu uou knows best.
2S

Seconu, the fotwo iefeis to the example of the piophet Yusuf, when he accepteu
the Phaiaoh's offei to be the supeivisoi of Egypt's waiehouses. Although Yusuf
hau to act accoiuing to the law of the Phaiaoh anu not that of uou, by this action,
he was able to save his youngest biothei. As the Qui'an ielates, Yusuf's biotheis
wanteu to ietuin to theii homelanu, anu Yusuf was conceineu lest they might
haim the youngest biothei. Be theiefoie hau a piecious goblet belonging to the
Phaiaoh hiuuen in the lattei's baggage, anu hau his officials caiiy out an
inspection in which they uiscoveieu this item. This alloweu him to aiiest his
youngest biothei anu theieby save his life. Accoiuing to the authois of the fotwo,
this means that he "who tiusts himself that he is able to be of benefit |to the
Nuslim communityj, tuin away fiom coiiuption anu seive the common inteiest

22
Accoiuing to one of the membeis of the ùlomo council, although Shiites anu Sunnis togethei
make up moie then Su% of the Lebanese population, it is questionable whethei Shiites aie
Nuslims oi not. In such a case, the countiy cannot be iegaiueu as Islamic.
2S
Ibiu.
128
can be a iepiesentative in the pailiament anu |hej who tiusts him must vote foi
him".
24

The fotwo even states that political paiticipation in a non-Nuslim countiy
can be a ieligious uuty foi Nuslims if, by uoing so, they seive the inteiests of
theii community. Al-Za'bi claims that uue to this fotwo, many puiist Salafis who
hau nevei pieviously voteu went to the ballot boxes uuiing the 2uu9 elections.
Be believes that political paiticipation in the seculai state uefenus the Jo'wo. As
he explaineu, since his netwoik mobilizes voteis to elect uiffeient political
bosses in Tiipoli, it is in theii inteiest to suppoit Salafis by gianting them
piotection anu financial aiu, insteau of oppiessing them.
2S

Safwan al-Za'bi tiieu to fuithei boost his pationage ovei the puiist Salafis
by signing the so-calleu Nemoianuum of 0nueistanuing (Wotbiqot ol-Tofobum)
between a coalition of puiist 'ulomo leu by himself anu Bizbullah on 1S August
2uu8.
26
The uocument itself contains a numbei of clichs, such as accepting the
othei with all theii uiffeiences oi solving pioblems thiough uiscussion insteau of
confiontation. The only inteiesting point is the plan to set up a bouy of 'ulomo
between the Salafis anu the Shi'ites in oiuei to ieseaich the uiffeiences between
Sunnism anu the Shi'a. This can be iegaiueu as a unique initiative on the pait of
the Salafis, since they usually iefuse any such pioposition until the Shi'ites
uenounce theii sect anu "ietuin" to Sunni Islam. The ieal significance of the
memoianuum lies in the Salafi faction's motives anu ieasons foi appioaching
anu signing an agieement with Bizbullah, uespite the Salafis' inheient hostility
towaius the Shi'a.
The event happeneu thiee months aftei Bizbullah anu its allies hau
launcheu a militaiy opeiation anu occupieu most of Beiiut on 8 Nay 2uu8. This
confiontation hau eiupteu as a iesult of a thiee-yeai-long political conflict
between the goveining 14 Naich anu the opposition 8 Naich alliances. The
Sunni-uominateu goveinment ueciueu to shut uown Bizbullah's
telecommunications netwoik anu sack the pio-Bizbullah aiipoit commanuei,

24
Ibiu.
2S
Inteiview, Tiipoli, 1S 0ctobei 2uu9.
26
'Wathiqat al-Tafahum Bayn Bizb Allah Wa Ba'u al-}ama'iyyat al-Salafiya Bayn al-Taihib wa-l-
Tahaffuz ' ol-Sborq ol-Awsot, 2u August 2uu8.
129
Waliu Shukayi.
27
Bizbullah inteipieteu these measuies as the fiist step to uisaim
the movement. In iesponse, the aimeu biigaues of Bizbullah anu its allies, among
them the seculai Shi'ite ANAL anu the Syiian Social-Nationalist Paity,
28
took
ovei the Sunni uistiicts of Beiiut, the powei base of the al-Nustaqbal leu
goveinment. Fighting eiupteu between militants of the 8 Naich alliance anu pio-
goveinment gueiiillas in both the capital anu in othei iegions of the countiy,
among them Tiipoli.
29
Buiing the confiontation Bizbullah outgunneu its
opponents, which leu to the weakening of the 14 Naich alliance. Theiefoie the
Baiiii-camp hau to make concessions to Bizbullah. 0n 21 Nay 2uu8, in an
agieement between 14 Naich anu 8 Naich in Boha, the foimei gianteu veto
powei to the lattei in a newly foimeu goveinment.
Su

As one of the paiticipants in the Salafi uelegation that signeu the
memoianuum explaineu, aftei 8 Nay 2uu8, theie weie feais that Bizbullah
woulu tiy to upioot Salafism in Lebanon.
S1
By appioaching the paity anu
establishing contacts with it, al-Za'bi's netwoik hopeu to piotect itself anu tuin
the militia's anu its allies' attention, in teims of militaiy secuiity, towaius the
borokis.
S2
By uoing so, they woulu secuie theii autonomy to piactice theii Jo'wo,
which, being puiist in natuie, is not conceineu with the powei stiuggle between
the elites of the 8 Naich anu 14 Naich blocks. Safwan al-Za'bi anu his ciicle also
believeu that they coulu sign the memoianuum without losing theii
constituency, because they coulu not gain legitimacy by focusing on the "Shi'ite
conspiiacy" against the Sunnis, unlike the borokis. Theii ciiticism of the Shi'a

27
'Lebanon: Bizbollah's Weapons Tuin Inwaiu', lnternotionol Crisis 6roup Policy Briefinq (1S Nay
2uu8). http:www.ciisisgioup.oigeniegionsmiuule-east-noith-afiicaegypt-syiia-
lebanonlebanonbu2S-lebanon-hizbollahs-weapons-tuin-inwaiu.aspx (accesseu: 1S Novembei
2u12).
28
Ibiu.
29
'Bab al-Tabbanah Wa }abal Nuhsin: }aiah al-Shamal al-Lubnani al-Naftuh', ol-Sborq ol-Awsot,
2S }une 2uu8.
Su
'The New Lebanese Equation: The Chiistians' Cential Role', lnternotionol Crisis 6roup Policy
Briefinq (1S }uly 2uu8). http:www.ciisisgioup.oigeniegionsmiuule-east-noith-
afiicaegypt-syiia-lebanonlebanonu78-the-new-lebanese-equation-the-chiistians-cential-
iole.aspx (accesseu: 1S Novembei 2u12).
S1
Inteiview, S Becembei 2uu9.
S2
It is an open seciet on the Lebanese stieet that the leaueiship of the Lebanese militaiy
intelligence consists mostly of Shi'ites with a stiong affiliation to Bizbullah.
1Su
focuses on the 'oqiJo anu othei elements of the belief system,
SS
anu they tenu not
to connect the allegeu "ueviations" of the Shi'a to political events anu
piocesses.
S4
Za'bi also believeu that the ciackuown on the boroki Salafis woulu
come soonei oi latei, leauing to the impiisonment oi exile of most Salafi leaueis
in the countiy. If he weie able to secuie his position with Bizbullah, he woulu
have a chance of becoming the most poweiful Salafi pation in Lebanon.
The attempt to secuie an agieement with Bizbullah, howevei, pioveu
unsuccessful. Al-Za'bi anu the othei paiticipants hau to withuiaw uue to the
haish ciiticism they faceu fiom the borokis. Theii own puiist constituency also
ieacteu in an unexpecteu way, with many of them expiessing open hostility
towaius al-Za'bi anu the 'ulomo who hau suppoiteu his initiative. In the long
teim, the Nemoianuum of 0nueistanuing also leu to bieach with Ihya' al-Tuiath.
The Kuwaiti chaiity initially suppoiteu the iuea of tiying to ieach agieement
with Bizbullah anu piotect the puiist Jo'wo. Accoiuing to one of the leauing
figuies of the Kuwaiti politico-puiist stieam, the oiganization convinceu al-Za'bi
to make the step anu appioach Bizbullah.
SS

The Lebanese Salafi leauei hau to bieak with Ihy'a al-Tuiath thiee yeais
latei uue to inteinal uivisions within the lattei. At the time when the Lebanese
gioup signeu the memoianuum, Ihya' al-Tuiath was uominateu by a faction that
enuoiseu ieuucing the Sunni-Shi'i gap, even insiue Kuwait. Bowevei, this stieam
lost its influence on the eve of the Aiab Spiing in 2u11, when a iauically anti-
Shi'a faction took ovei.
S6
As Safwan al-Za'bi tolu me, the new leaueis of Ihya' al-
Tuiath staiteu to cuib his autonomy anu wanteu to foibiu him fiom
paiticipating in politics oi uefenuing the inteiests of Salafis "at the level of civil
society". Theiefoie he ueciueu to leave the Lebanese bianch of the Kuwaiti

SS
This was my expeiience when I fiequently paiticipateu in Jurus anu lectuies by puiist Salafis
anu talkeu to them uuiing my fieluwoik in Lebanon in 2uu9, 2u11 anu 2u12, anu in Kuwait in
2u1u anu 2u12.
S4
This might be changing in the wake of the Aiab Spiing, uue to giowing anti-Shi'a sentiment on
the Sunni stieet in the Niuule East anu the incieasing keenness of active paiticipants to
unueistanu the context of the events that aie now occuiiing, such as the ievolutions anu the
Syiian civil wai. When I spent a long peiiou of time with a puiist gioup with close contacts to
Ihya' al-Tuiath in Kuwait in Febiuaiy 2u12, uuiing the Jurus, the Shi'a weie not uiscusseu
beyonu theii "uoctiinal ueviations". Bowevei, among themselves, the paiticipants fiequently
toucheu the topic of the Shi'i conspiiacy (See Chaptei 8).
SS
Inteiview with Salim al-Nashi'.
S6
Inteiview Sami al-'Auwani, al-Zahia' uistiict, 7 Naich 2u12, anu inteiview with Safwan al-
Za'bi, Tiipoli, 26 Apiil 2u12.
1S1
oiganization. A new auministiation took ovei the Al-Sunna mosque anu Islamic
centei, along with the othei chaiity piojects launcheu by al-Za'bi. The lattei
staiteu to uevelop his own local chaiitable netwoik, }omo'iyyot ol-0kbuwwo (the
Biotheihoou Association), anu at the time of my fieluwoik he was builuing up
contacts with inuiviuual sponsois anu getting financial aiu fiom, as he expiesseu
it, Sauui "state actois".
S7

Purist-rejectionist networks

Salafis who belong to the puiist-iejectionist faction (explaineu in Chaptei 1) aie
also piesent in Noith Lebanon's Salafi scene. They aie moie scatteieu than the
politico-puiists uiscusseu above, anu theie is no tiace of even a iuuimentaiy
foim of cooiuination similai to that which was set up by Safwan al-Za'bi. Puiist-
iejectionists usually gathei aiounu a shaykh who eithei stuuieu in Sauui Aiabia
oi is a self-euucateu inuiviuual who gives boloqot to young people in his local
neighboihoou. The faction tenus to attiact committeu Salafis, anu the shaykhs
who belong to this stieam iaiely have passive followeis. The ieason foi this lies
in theii stance towaius society anu theii social habits, which aie similai to the
Kuwaiti Naukhali movement I uesciibeu above. 0nlike othei Lebanese Salafis,
many of them piefei to isolate themselves fiom the iest of the population. Theii
only concein is to follow what is piesciibeu in the Qui'an anu the boJitb in
minute uetail anu cieate the peifect Nuslim inuiviuual by peifecting eveiyuay
ieligious piactice. Politics anu social issues aie beyonu theii concein, since, as
one of them explaineu, "all haiuships that we aie facing now will be solveu when
the majoiity follow what is piesciibeu in the Sciiptuie."
S8

Besiues iejecting paiticipation in institutional politics, they often ciiticize
local anu tiansnational chaiities. As a puiist-iejectionist shaykh, Shaykh Wisam
tolu me that asiue fiom leauing to paitisanship (bizbiyyo), the activities of Ihya'
al-Tuiath anu othei oiganizeu chaiitable woik aie contiibuting to keeping the
population of Noithein Lebanon in a conuition of poveity:

S7
S8
Inteiview with uhassan, Tiipoli, 24 Apiil 2u12.
1S2

People aie accustomeu to getting a pittance fiom the chaiities oi the
zuòmo to fill theii stomachs anu they uo not have to uo anything foi it.
Theiefoie they have no aspiiations to impiove theii situation; to leain a
piofession oi open a business. Islam, howevei, tells people to be
haiuwoiking. Zokot funus shoulu also help people who want to stait an
enteipiise, as was the case in the time of the Salaf.
S9

Nost of these puiist-iejectionist inuiviuuals spenu theii fiee time stuuying the
Qui'an anu the boJitb, ieauing the books by those 'ulomo whom they iecognize
anu paiticipating in Jurus. Theii inteiactions with the wiuei society outsiue of
theii woikplace is limiteu to those activities which aie consiueieu useful foi the
Jo'wo.
In Noith Lebanon theie aie uozens of small puiist-iejectionist netwoiks.
0ne of these netwoiks is centeieu aiounu a highly knowleugeable, Neuina-
euucateu inuiviuual, Shaykh Ihab. The gioup has 1u-2u membeis, mostly
univeisity-euucateu, miuule-class young men. Shaykh Ihab's life stoiy miiiois
the typical tiajectoiy of a Lebanese Salafi 'olim. Be was boin in a seculai miuule-
class family in the 197us. Be uesciibeu how his mothei nevei put on a bijob anu
his fathei often cuiseu uou. Bespite this, he has hau an affinity with ieligion
since his chiluhoou. Be paiu special attention to ieligious subjects at high school.
Be iecalleu that two events pusheu him towaius Salafism. Fiist, one of his
teacheis, who hau Atbori 'oqiJo insteau of the mainstieam Asb'ori one, hau a
gieat impact on him. Seconu, he went to al-Azhai univeisity in Egypt to take a
summei couise. As he iecalleu, he was not impiesseu by what he leaineu theie.
Aftei finishing his uaily lessons at al-Azhai, he usually went to visit the boloqot of
a Salafi shaykh in Caiio. The aiguments he heaiu in Egyptian Salafi ciicles maue
moie sense to him than what he hau leaineu in al-Azhai. Aftei ietuining to
Lebanon, he joineu the local Salafis, paiticipateu in ieligious lessons on a uaily
basis anu visiteu both boroki anu puiist gioups. Bespite the objection of his
paients, he accepteu a scholaiship to Neuina 0niveisity. In Sauui Aiabia he
became a stuuent of Shaykh Rabi' al-Naukhali.

S9
Inteiview with Shaykh Wisam, 8 0ctobei 2uu9.
1SS
Buiing the boloqot of Shaykh Rabi', Shyakh Ihab met a couple of stuuents
fiom Kuwait who inviteu him to theii countiy, wheie he woikeu foi a couple of
months. Theie he met Shaykh Salim al-Tawil anu became close to the local
Naukhali netwoiks. Iionically, while he was shaiing activities with the Kuwaiti
puiist-iejectionists in the boloqot, he also met some inuiviuuals who weie close
to Ihya' al-Tuiath. When he went back to Lebanon, uue to this ielationship, he
got a job as a cleik at the Sunna Islamic Centei that hau oiiginally been built by
Safwan al-Za'bi. The income he eaineu theie enableu him to settle in Tiipoli anu
stait his Jo'wo activity in his neighboihoou, Abu Samia.
4u
Niuule-class young
men fiom the same uistiict anu also fiom al-Qubba joineu him anu paiticipateu
his weekly boloqot in the Sunna mosque. Shaykh Ihab's netwoik iaiely inteiacts
with that of othei Salafis in Lebanon. At the same time, they foim pait of the
tiansnational ciiculation of Salafism. Shaykh Ihab's stuuents often benefit fiom
theii mastei's contacts in Kuwait. Some of them have tiaveleu to the uulf emiiate
to paiticipate in puiist-iejectionist Jurus, finu a job oi puisue theii stuuies.
Kuwaiti shaykhs such as Salim al-Tawil, Ahmau al-Siba'i anu Bamau '0thman aie
fiequently followeu by the membeis of the gioup on social meuia such as
Twittei.

.E) P#:#3& *)04-:3 &* 9-:0E +),#*-*

Aftei the Syiian aimy left Lebanon, the piessuie on boroki Salafis fiom the
secuiity seivices significantly easeu. Aftei five yeais of passivity following the
ciackuown that hau occuiieu in the wake of the battle of Binniya in 2uuu, they
weie able to ie-launch theii activities. Shaykh Ba'i al-Islam al-Shahhal ietuineu
to Lebanon aftei he hau been exoneiateu fiom teiioiism chaiges, anu the ueath
sentence, which hau been imposeu in his absence, hau been withuiawn. Be ie-
openeu }omo'iyyot ol-EiJoyo wo-l-lbson anu attiacteu many young Salafis to the
gioup. Some of his foimei associates also went back to him.
41
Bue to his

4u
41
Inteiview with Ba'i al-Islam al-Shahhal, Tiipoli, 9 August 2u11.
1S4
excellent tiansnational contacts anu access to financial aiu fiom the uulf, he was
able to ie-establish himself as a pation.
The conuitions aftei the Syiian withuiawal weie geneially favoiable foi
boroki Salafis. Foi the upcoming elections in Nay 2uuS, two big coalitions weie
foimeu fiom the opponents anu the suppoiteis of Syiia. The foimei camp, calleu
"Naich 14", a composition of Sunni, Chiistian anu Biuze paities, was leu by the
son of Rafiq al-Baiiii, Sa'u. Foi Naich 14 it was ciucial to gain the majoiity of the
votes in Noith Lebanon to win the elections. Theiefoie they maue an alliance
with boroki Salafis leu by Ba'i al-Islam al-Shahhal, who helpeu them to mobilize
voteis. In exchange, the Salafis ieceiveu mateiial suppoit fiom the Baiiii clan to
ie-launch theii chaiity netwoiks, which hau been uisiupteu by the secuiity
iegime.
42

The iauically ueepening Sunni-Shi'ite tensions aftei the Baiiii-muiuei
also pioveu to be favoiable foi borokis to gain moie followeis. As mentioneu in
Chaptei S, sectaiianism between the two Nuslim communities was alieauy
piesent aftei the enu of the civil wai, although it was iathei limiteu in extent.
Bowevei, the situation changeu iauically in 2uuS. Between 1992 anu 2uuS
Bizbullah was satisfieu with holuing one of the laigest pailiamentaiy blocks in
the countiy, anu uiu not paiticipate in the goveinment. This was because it
enjoyeu enough political piotection fiom the Syiians, who effectively contiolleu
the extiemely fiagmenteu political mosaic of Lebanon. Theiefoie Bizbullah was
able to maintain its image as a pan-Islamic anu national iesistance movement
that tianscenueu sectaiian uivisions. Bowevei, the situation changeu aftei this
piotection was lifteu anu pio-Westein, anti-Syiian foices gaineu a majoiity in
the cabinet aftei the 2uuS elections. These lattei uemanueu the full
implementation of 0N iesolution 1SS9, which incluueu the uisaiming of
Bizbullah in auuition to the withuiawal of Syiian foices. The Shi'ite movement
theiefoie sent its own iepiesentatives to the goveinment to cieate political

42
Inteiview with Fiua' 'Itani, a leauing jouinalist on the ol-Akbbor newspapei anu a fiequent
publishei on Salafism in Lebanon, Beiiut, 6 0ctobei 2uu9. See also: Fiua' 'Itani, 'Al-Sa'uuiyya Fi
Lubnan Taiablus Wa al-Na'iaka al-Akhiia li-Tawhiu al-Sunna SS', ol-Akbbor, 4 Septembei 2uu8.
1SS
covei foi its aimeu wing. By uoing so, howevei, it became pait of the sectaiian
stiuggle.
4S

uiauually the image of the Paity changeu fiom being a national iesistance
movement to being a sectaiian militia that wants to enfoice its uominance at the
expense of othei communities. Sectaiian uivisions incieaseu moie shaiply aftei
the uisastious economic anu social consequences of the 2uu6 wai between Isiael
anu Bizbullah. The iesult of this chain of events was that anti-Shi'a sentiments
spilleu ovei fiom the ciicles of Islamists anu intellectuals anu took ueep ioot
among the wiuei Sunni population. Bizbullah has been fiameu by the meuia anu
even by the ùlomo of Bai al-Fatwa as a pait of a sectaiian stiuggle acioss the
Niuule East between the Sunnis anu Shi'ites, anu as the Lebanese agent of Iian,
an impeiial state that wants to iule the whole iegion anu oppiess, anu then
eiauicate, Sunnism.
This enviionment helpeu the borokis to inciease theii weight in society.
Theii anti-Shi'a fiaming - which poitiayeu the Shi'ites as pait of a global
conspiiacy against Islam that has been going on foi centuiies - pioveu to be
cieuible in the eyes of many Sunnis in the Noith (see the uiscussion on anti-Shi'a
fiaming in Chaptei 8). Fuitheimoie, some iepoits suggesteu that Baiiii's al-
Nustaqbal Novement, the leauing political foice of the Lebanese Sunnis,
intenueu to foim its own Salafi militia to counteibalance Bizbullah.
44
Aftei
winning the 2uuS elections, the Baiiii clan continueu to finance the boroki
Salafis. They allegeuly ieceiveu weapons in case conflict eiupteu with Bizbullah's
local allies in Tiipoli. These lattei consisteu of Baiakat al-Tawhiu al-Islami (see
Chaptei S), the militias of the Alawite minoiity, anu Fathi Yakan's }abhat al-'Amal
al-Islami (Islamic Action Fiont), which seceueu fiom the Lebanese Nuslim
Biotheihoou in 2uu6.

4S
'Bizbollah anu the Lebanese Ciisis', lnternotionol Crisis 6roup, 1u 0ctobei 2uu7.
http:www.ciisisgioup.oig~meuiaFilesNiuule%2uEast%2uNoith%2uAfiicaIiaq%2uSyii
a%2uLebanonLebanon69_hizbollah_anu_the_lebanese_ciisis.puf (accesseu: S 0ctobei 2u1u),
pp. 1-S.
44
See, foi example: Seymoui N. Beish, 'The Reuiiection: Is the Auministiation's New Policy
Benefitting 0ui Enemies in the Wai on Teiioiism.' Tbe New Yorker, S Naich 2uu7.
http:www.newyoikei.comiepoiting2uu7uSuSu7uSuSfa_fact_heish.cuiientPage=all
(accesseu: 9 Apiil 2uu9); Fiua' 'Itani,'Salafiyyun Wa Nustaqbaliyyun Na'an Fi Bubb al-Bayat wa-
l-'0nf', ol-Akbbor, Su }uly 2uu8. http:www.al-akhbai.comnoue11S21S (accesseu: 2S Nay
2uu9).
1S6
The appeaiance of the Shaykh 'Aiu Chaiity Association (SACA) (see
Chaptei 2) gieatly incieaseu the capabilities of the borokis. The leaueiship of the
Qataii chaiity saw an oppoitunity to establish a stiong piesence in Lebanon
aftei the Syiian withuiawal. They fiist establisheu connections with Lebanese
Salafis thiough one of the chaiity's high-ianking officials, a veteian Lebanese
boroki calleu Shaykh Khaliu Za'iui. In the 199us, Shaykh Khaliu was a close
associate of Ba'i al-Islam al-Shahhal anu spent a few months in piison aftei the
battle of Binniya. 0pon his ielease he settleu in the uulf, wheie he became an
activist in the local boroki netwoiks. In the eaily 2uuus he founu employment at
SACA, anu was maue iesponsible foi the chaiity's foieign ielations.
4S

In 2uuS Shaykh Khaliu ieconnecteu with the Lebanese borokis anu
offeieu them sponsoiship. SACA, foi example, helpeu Ba'i al-Islam al-Shahhal to
ie-open his iauio station, Iza'at al-Qui'an (The Qui'an Bioaucast), which hau
been banneu by the authoiities in 2uuu. Bozens of othei Salafi shaykhs ieceiveu
hunuieus of thousanus of uollais foi chaiitable anu Jo'wo puiposes. Almost all of
the ienowneu boroki 'ulomo at the centei of significant local sub-netwoiks
ieceiveu suppoit fiom SACA. Among them weie Shaykh Zakaiiya al-Nasii, an
influential pieachei fiom Tiipoli's Qubba uistiict, anu Shaykh Salim al-Rafi'i,
piobably the most populai ieligious scholai in Noith Lebanon (see my
uiscussion below). Seveial lessei-known shaykhs also ieceiveu significant
mateiial suppoit to builu mosques anu boost theii Jo'wo in the noithein villages
anu populai neighboihoous of Tiipoli.
Besiues contiibuting to the pieaching activity of local Lebanese shaykhs,
SACA uiiectly employs a laige numbei of Jo'is in the Sunni-inhabiteu aieas of
Lebanon. As Khaliu Za'iui explaineu to me, the oiganization pays them a fixeu
monthly salaiy, which in 2uu9 was 4uu-6uu 0SB, two-to-thiee times highei than
what they woulu ieceive fiom Bai al-Fatwa. Fuitheimoie, SACA coveis the
maintenance of theii mosques, ieimbuises the cost of petiol anu sponsois the
piinting anu uistiibution of Jo'wo mateiial such as leaflets anu booklets. In tuin,
the Jo'is have to spieau Salafism among theii local communities. 0sually they aie
in chaige of a small mosque, wheie they uelivei the Fiiuay seimon anu oiganize

4S
Inteiview with Shaykh Khaliu Za'iui, Boha, 29 }uly 2u1u.
1S7
uaily ieligious lessons. At the same time they pioviue auvice to the inhabitants of
theii village oi neighboihoou on uaily ieligious issues.
46

In a few yeais, SACA was able to establish a huge netwoik of ieligious
schools, mosques anu Salafi missionaiies in Noith Lebanon. As Shaykh Khaliu
Za'iui explaineu to me, the oiganization tiieu to establish some kinu of
cooiuination anu cohesion between the membeis of this netwoik. It nevei
aspiieu, howevei, to cieate a sophisticateu institutional stiuctuie similai to that
of the Nuslim Biotheihoou. SACA appointeu a meuiatoi in Lebanon, an ex-
Naionite conveit, Rabi' Bauuau. Bis task was to oiganize a iegulai foium, ol-
liqo ol-Solofi (Salafi Neeting), wheie borokis woulu have the oppoitunity to
uiscuss anu establish coopeiation in matteis of chaiity oi politics. The lattei
woulu mean enuoising ceitain canuiuates uuiing geneial anu municipal
elections.
By the enu of the 2uuus, uue to the favoiable local conuitions anu the
financial suppoit fiom SACA, a laige, polycephalous netwoik of boroki Salafis
hau emeigeu. Although Ba'i al-Islam al-Shahhal likes to pose as the leauei of the
Lebanese Salafis in his meuia appeaiances, in ieality, he uoes not even have
authoiity ovei the majoiity of the borokis. A numbei of othei shaykhs with
consiueiable populai bases anu access to sponsoiship fiom chaiities anu
meichants in the uulf, anu to Lebanese political pations, lie at the centei of the
extenueu sub-netwoiks.

Tbe network of Sboykb Solim ol-Rofi'i

Buiing my fieluwoik I uiscoveieu an impoitant boroki sub-netwoik that
competes with that of al-Shahhal in teims of influence anu the numbei of
followeis. It is centeieu aiounu Shaykh Salim al-Rafi'i, who is iegaiueu by many
as the most ienowneu anu iespecteu Salafi 'olim in Lebanon. Be became an
Islamic activist in the I0N in the miu-198us, when it hau contiolleu Tiipoli foi
neaily two yeais. When the Syiians conqueieu the city he was foiceu to flee anu
seek iefuge in ueimany. Aftei stuuying in seveial univeisities in the Niuule East

46
Inteiview with Shaykh Khaliu Za'iui, al-Waqia, 1 August 2u1u.
1S8
anu South Asia, anu giauuating fiom the Islamic 0niveisity of Neuina, he
establisheu himself as the main ieligious leauei of the Syiian-Lebanese-
Palestinian community in the Kieutzbeig uistiict in Beilin. Being the imam of the
al-Nui Islamic centei anu Nosque, as he put it, he fought against the "eiosion of
the tiauitional values of Nuslims anu theii westeinization".
47

When he hau to leave ueimany anu ietuin to Lebanon in 2uuS, he hau
alieauy built up a vast tiansnational netwoik of Euiope-baseu Salafis anu
financial uonois in the uulf. Bis ihetoiical skills, mouest lifestyle anu access to
mateiial iesouices enableu him to establish himself as one of the main Salafi
authoiities in Tiipoli. 0pon his aiiival he became the imam of the huge al-Taqwa
mosque in the al-Tabbana uistiict, wheie he quickly built up a vast followei base.
Following the outbieak of the Aiab Spiing anu the Syiian ievolution in
paiticulai, he ueclaieu the events to be the beginning of a new Sunni ascenuance,
wheieby the 0mmo woulu bieak the chains of "Westein colonialism" anu woulu
cuib the Shi'ites' attempt to "uominate the iegion" anu "uestioy tiue Islam".
Bis ihetoiic, which was thick with conspiiacy theoiies, pioveu to be
attiactive to the masses of Sunnis in Tiipoli. The lattei felt economically anu
politically maiginalizeu, foi which they blameu the West, Bizbullah, the Shi'ite
community anu the Assau iegime in Syiia, which they iegaiueu as one of the
closest allies of the Shi'ites (see Chaptei 8). At the time of my last visit to
Lebanon in the spiing of 2u12, aiounu thiee to foui thousanu people tuineu up
to listen to his Fiiuay seimon at the al-Taqwa mosque. Reflecting to his ability to
seize the oppoitunities cieateu by the climate of the Aiab ievolutions, the
Shaykh 'Aiu Chaiity Association, anu (accoiuing to some iumois) the Qataii state
pioviue him with mateiial suppoit in the foim of hunuieus of thousanus of
uollais eveiy month.
Shaykh Salim was able to gathei aiounu himself many of the youngei
Salafi shaykhs in the al-Tabbana iegion anu al-Nina, wheie he contiols the moie
mouest but neveitheless impoitant '0thman bin 'Affan mosque. Be uses his
access to uulf funus to help these young pieacheis to builu up theii Jo'wo. In
exchange, he can iely on them in vaiious matteis. Foi example, these young
shaykhs uige theii own constituents to vote foi Shaykh Salim's canuiuates

47
Inteiview, Tiipoli, 2 August 2u11.
1S9
uuiing elections. Along with heaus of local families, they also paiticipate in the
sburo (council), which was establisheu by Shaykh Salim in 2u12. The council is
uestineu to "make the Nuslims take theii own affaiis into theii own hanus". As I
will show in Chaptei S, the paiticipants uiscuss issues such as the Salafi
uetainees in Lebanese piisons oi oiganizing the "Sunni iesistance" against the
Alawites in }abal Nuhsin.
Shaykh Salim anu othei shaykhs who belong to his netwoik manageu to
attiact laige numbeis of local youth in al-Tabbana to join theii movement.
Woiking-class anu lowei-miuule-class young people in the uistiict weie
tiauitionally ieciuiteu by militias that fought unuei the banneis of Naixism,
Aiab Nationalism anu then Islamism in the Lebanese Civil Wai against the
Chiistians, anu then against the invauing Syiian aimy in 198S anu theii Alawite
allies who inhabit the neighboiing }abal Nuhsin. In 2uu8 these aimeu factions
iegioupeu when the conflict between the Sunnis of al-Tabbana anu the Alawites
ie-eiupteu as pait of the events suiiounuing 8 Nay 2uu8. Since then, theie have
been clashes between the two communities in the aiea eveiy yeai. Recently,
Salafis have been able to win the heaits of many militiamen (if not the majoiity
of them). Since the beginning, the conflict has been sectaiian. Salafis aie able to
fiame it as a Nuslim stiuggle against those who aie tiying to uestioy Islam fiom
within (since the Alawite sect is wiuely iegaiueu as an offshoot of Shi'a Islam).
Besiues pioviuing ieligious legitimacy foi theii fight against the Alawites, Salafis
also pioviue these young men with mateiial help anu monthly salaiies.
48

Tbe boroki oscenJonce ofter tbe Arob Sprinq

In the post-Aiab Spiing enviionment, the boroki stieam has staiteu to flouiish in
Noith Lebanon, taking ovei much giounu fiom the puiists. This ieflects the
uevelopments at the tiansnational level, wheie the ievolutions in 2u11 leu to the
iapiu expansion of boroki Salafism anu to a ueciease in the populaiity of the
puiists. The main ieason foi this is that the puiist shaykhs suppoiteu anu

48
An aveiage salaiy is about 4uu-6uu 0SB. Some of the leaueis can eain between 1uuu anu 2uuu
0SB. Inteiview with a gioup of young Salafis fiom al-Tabbana, 2S Apiil 2u12.
14u
legitimizeu the autociatic Aiab iegimes until the last moment, anu issueu fotwos
against the uemonstiations anu theii paiticipants all ovei the Niuule East. They
weie quick to label the piotests against uictatoiship as "kburuj 'olo ol-bokim" anu
fitno (civil stiife), which implies the iight of the iulei to oppiess them.
49

Shaykh Abu al-Basan al-Sulaymani, a ienowneu puiist scholai, aigueu
that "The Nuslim iulei has the iight to be obeyeu |by the iuleuj in what is
accepteu by the ieligion
Su
anu theie cannot be any ieason which allows the
ievolt against him . because the Piophet has foibiuuen the uethionement of the
iulei as long as he is Nuslim." Be justifies his aigument by iefeiiing to a boJitb:
"Ìbaua bin Samit
S1
tolu us: uou's Piophet calleu us |to accept him as leaueij anu
we pleugeu allegiance to him. Among othei things he obligeu us to listen to him
anu obey him . anu not to contest the iuleis only if we see that they commit
such acts which makes them unbelieveis." Accoiuing to this scholai, even if the
iuleis takes the piopeity of the people unjustly, the iulei's oiueis have to be
implementeu.
S2
Anothei puiist 'olim aigueu on the eve of the Aiab Spiing that
people shoulu not uemonstiate to achieve fieeuom, since "the human being anu
the }inn have been cieateu foi woishipping uou anu not foi fieeuom."
SS
This
stance laigely alienateu theii followei base in Niuule East. Aftei some hesitation,
the borokis
S4
suppoiteu the ievolutions anu subsequently theii populai suppoit
multiplieu.
Aftei the uemise of authoiitaiian goveinments in Egypt, Tunisia anu
Libya, boroki Salafi activism thioughout the Niuule East ieacheu unpieceuenteu
intensity. 0ne of the main ieasons foi this is that the lifting of stiict state contiol
cieateu oppoitunities to spieau theii message moie openly than befoie. As many
iepoits suggest, aftei the piessuie fiom the authoiities uisappeaieu, the Salafi
piesence significantly incieaseu in the Niuule Eastein public spheie, especially

49
Puiist scholais acioss the Niuule East issueu hunuieus of fatwas uenouncing the ievolutions
anu uiging the people to stay at home insteau of uemonstiating.
Su
Beie the meaning is that the iulei has no iight to oiuei people to neglect ieligious uuties such
as piayei.
S1
0ne of the companions of the Piophet.
S2
Fatwa of Shaykh Abu al-Basan al-Sulaymani. See the uiscussion on www.kulalsalafiyeen.com:
http:www.kulalsalafiyeen.comvbshowthieau.php.t=48698 (accesseu: 1u Febiuaiy 2u1S).
SS
Shaykh 'Abu al-Nalik al-Ramauani, a piominent Algeiian Salafi scholai, posteu this opinion on
his Facebook page on 1u Apiil 2u11. https:www.facebook.comAbuulmalek.Ramuhani.
S4
Some boroki shaykhs, such as Zakaiiyya al-Nasii in Tiipoli, expiesseu theii feais at the veiy
beginning of the Aiab Spiing that the uemonstiations might be connecteu to a Westein
conspiiacy. Khutba of Shaykh Zakaiiyya al-Nasii, Bamza mosque, Tiipoli, 21 }anuaiy 2u11.
141
in Egypt anu Tunisia.
SS
Buiing the uecaues of authoiitaiian iule in these
countiies, Salafis, while mostly avoiuing uiiect political involvement, weie able
to uevelop ueep ioots in society. Theii infoimal social netwoiks pioviueu
mateiial help anu pationage foi the young geneiation, which was stiuggling to
finu employment anu make a uecent living,
S6
anu fulfilleu the spiiitual neeus of
many thiough a uiscouise that emphasizeu puiity anu pioviueu easy access to
anu an unueistanuing of ieligious iulings
S7
(see also Chaptei S). Befoie the fall of
the Aiab uictatoiships, Salafis achieveu consiueiable success in attiacting people
uespite having to keep a ielatively low piofile, anu occasionally (in Egypt) oi
continuously (in Tunisia) facing peisecution fiom the authoiities.
S8

Aftei the fall of the iegimes, the movement was able to inciease its Jo'wo
activity anu become a key playei in politics (such as in Egypt, wheie the Salafi al-
Nui paity won 2S% of the votes in the last elections). When the piessuie fiom
the authoiities uisappeaieu, the Salafi Jo'is intensifieu theii pioselytizing
activities on the stieets, neighboihoous anu univeisity campuses. By combining
theii uemanu foi the intiouuction of Islamic iulings to iegulate public moiality
with an emphasis on social justice as one of the coie tenets of Islam, they appeal
to significant segments of post-ievolutionaiy societies. Nany people iegaiu
Salafism as a potential alteinative. Salafis aie piomising equality anu social
justice aftei uecaues of coiiuption anu favoiitism, anu many people in the iegion
appeai to finu them cieuible.

SS
uhassan Ben Khalifa, 'The Seciet of the Salafists' Appeal In Tunisia', Al-Honitor, 1 Nay 2u1S,
http:www.al-monitoi.compulsecultuie2u1SuSuisauvantageu-tunisian-youth-embiace-
salafism.html.utm_souice=&utm_meuium=email&utm_campaign=711u#ixzz2SBxLTKu9; Khalil
al-Anani, anu Naszlee Nalik, 'Pious Way to Politics: The Rise of Political Salafism in Post-Nubaiak
Egypt', B0HFS, vol. 22, no. 1, 2u1S.
S6
Al-Anani anu Nalik, 'Pious Way to politics', pp. 6u-62; Amel Boubekeui, 'Salafism anu Rauical
Politics in Postconflict Algeiia', Corneqie Popers, no. 11, Septembei 2uu8.
http:cainegieenuowment.oigfilessalafism_iauical_politics_algeiia.puf (accesseu: 1u
Septembei 2uu8), pp. 14-16.
S7
Samuli Schielke, 'Being uoou in Ramauan: Ambivalence, Fiagmentation, anu the Noial Self in
the Lives of Young Egyptians', }ournol of tbe Royol Antbropoloqicol lnstitute, vol. 1S, no. s1, 2uu9,
pp. s29-S4.
S8
A few months befoie the ievolution, the Egyptian goveinment was foiceu to close the Salafi
Satellite channels anu aiiesteu anu toituieu many of the 'ulomo. Bina Nuqalliu, 'al-Fiua'iyyat al-
Biniyya: al-Ighlaq Laysa Ballan', ol-Sborq ol-Awsot, 21 0ctobei 2u1u; al-Anani anu Nalik, 'Pious
Way to Politics', p. S9. In Tunisia Salafis weie not visible befoie the ievolution uue to haish
oppiession by the Ben Ali auministiation. Bowevei, theii poweiful appeaiance in the public
spheie aftei the fall of the iegime inuicates that theie was inueeu successful Jo'wo activity befoie
the 2u1u upiisings.
142
The iecent giowth of boroki Salafism in Tiipoli is connecteu to the
abovementioneu ascenuance of the movement at the tiansnational level. In the
Noith in the last few yeais, many lowei-miuule-class anu woiking-class
Lebanese Sunnis uescenueu into apathy uue to the lack of oppoitunities to
impiove theii lives anu the wiuespieau coiiuption anu favoiitism. Aftei the
outbieak of the Aiab ievolutions, many felt that while theie was change in the
Aiab woilu, in Lebanon eveiything was stagnating oi even becoming woise.
When Salafism became stiongei in the afteimath of the ievolutions thioughout
the Niuule East, laige numbeis of Lebanese Sunnis thought that the movement
coulu offei an alteinative foi them as well. This uoes not mean that they woulu
enuoise uiiect political paiticipation by Lebanese Salafis, but they aie attiacteu
to the movement's call foi social justice anu the aigument that Nuslims' lives will
impiove if they peifect theii ieligious piactices (see Chaptei 8).
The Syiian ievolution playeu an especially impoitant iole in this piocess.
The events in the neighboiing countiy have hau a ueep sociopolitical impact on
Lebanon. As Syiia has always playeu a significant iole in Lebanese politics, it is
no wonuei that the conflict that eiupteu in 2u11 fuithei fuelleu antagonism
between Lebanon's pio- anu anti-Assau camps. The political cleavages quickly
became sectaiian in natuie anu auueu to the Sunni-Shi'i tensions. This is because
the vast majoiity of Shi'ites stanu behinu Bizbullah anu its allies anu suppoit the
Syiian iegime's suppiession of the ievolutionaiies. If Assau weie to fall, the
community woulu lose one of its iegional pations anu this woulu leau to a
seiious uecline in the Shi'a's political anu economic powei.
By contiast, most of the Sunnis sympathize with the ievolutionaiies.
Sunni Nuslims have been alienateu fiom the Syiian iegime seveial times in the
past. Nost iecently, the Assau iegime was accuseu of being behinu the muiuei of
Rafiq al-Baiiii, anu the Sunni community has siueu against it anu its allies evei
since. At the same time, many Sunnis have ielatives in Syiia who aie fighting
against oi who have been haiasseu oi killeu by the iegime. In this climate, the
boroki Salafi fiaming of the events as being pait of a Nanichean stiuggle between
goou anu evil, between Islam anu those who have coiiupteu it (i.e. the Shi'a) has
positive iesonance, as I will explain fuithei in Chaptei 7. Salafis aie also
peiceiveu as playing the most active iole in helping Syiian iefugees anu aiuing
14S
the ievolutionaiies at home. Nany of the inhabitants of the Noith think that they
ueal honestly with the money they ieceive to catei foi the iefugees oi to senu to
Syiia. This is in contiast to the behavioi of many membeis of othei Islamic
movements oi Bai al-Fatwa shaykhs, who often misuse the financial iesouices
uestineu foi the Syiians.
The oppoitunity that emeigeu foi the borokis with the outbieak of the
Aiab ievolutions has been wiueneu by the leaueiship ciises within the Lebanese
Sunni community. In }une 2u11 the Sunni-leu Lebanese goveining coalition, with
Sa'u al-Baiiii as piime ministei, was biought uown by uisputes ovei the special
tiibunal investigating the muiuei of Rafiq al-Baiiii.
S9
The new goveinment leu
by Najib Niqati enjoyeu the backing of Bizbullah anu uiu not iepiesent the vast
majoiity of the Sunnis.
6u
Losing contiol of the state institutions leu to a
significant ueciease in the powei of the Baiiii clan.
61
Nany Sunnis staiteu to
question the ability of Sa'u al-Baiiii to leau the community, as he lost powei
uespite the fact that his coalition hau won the 2uu9 elections.
Boubt has also aiisen as to whethei the zu'omo ueseive to be the
iepiesentatives of the community. Niqati, who was iegaiueu as a capable
peison, significantly lost his populaiity aftei his pact with the Shi'a, which
alloweu him to be piime ministei. Nany Sunnis staiteu to look beyonu theii
tiauitional community leaueis. Foi a laige numbei of them, Salafis seem to
piesent an alteinative. Nany Noithein Sunnis feel that just like in Egypt, it woulu
be woith giving Salafis a chance to piove theii leaueiship skills.
62
Beie I have to
note that leaueiship of a community in patiiaichal societies such as Lebanon anu
the iest of the Aiab woilu is not confineu to institutional politics. In exchange of
theii suboiuination anu suppoit, the leauei is expecteu to look aftei his
followeis in socioeconomic matteis anu pioviue inuiviuuals with auvice in theii
spiiitual anu mateiial lives.

S9
Waaiu vloebeighs, 'The Baiiii Political Bynasty aftei the Aiab Spiing', vol. 17, no. 2, 2u12.
6u
'Sha'biyyat Niqati Fi Taiablus Tauannat', news piogiam on LBC, 19 Novembei 2u11.
61
vloebeighs 2u12 (page numbeis aie not available).
62
Aftei the Aiab Spiing, oiuinaiy Sunnis in Tiipoli often tolu me that Salafis shoulu be given a
chance to show whethei they aie capable of being the leaueis of the Sunni community.
144
As Suau }oseph explains, patiiaichy in Aiab societies is inteinalizeu anu
has become pait of the self.
6S
The aveiage Lebanese inuiviuual can only imagine
himself in a patiiaichal social context. Theiefoie, even if the cuiient stiuctuie of
patiiaichy is weakeneu, the system iepiouuces itself. Touay this is happening in
Lebanon's Sunni community. The legitimacy of the zu'omo has been somewhat
weakeneu, but it appeais that the Salafis aie filling this vacuum. Theie is anothei
ieason why they aie able to uo so. Accoiuing to some iepoits, the financial
abilities of the Baiiii clan weie seveiely weakeneu aftei Sa'au lost the
piemieiship.
64
Chaiities belonging to the family weie shut uown in some
noithein aieas. At the same time, uue to theii uiiect contact with the Syiian
iebels, Lebanese Salafis aie ieceiving incieasing amounts of financial suppoit
fiom the uulf. They might theiefoie gain auuitional followeis by taking ovei the
iole of Baiiii's social suppoit netwoiks.
The favoiable conuitions cieateu by the Aiab ievolutions leu to the boroki
shaykhs being iegaiueu by a laige segment of the people as potential leaueis.
Foi many, they appeai to be the iueal iepiesentatives of Sunnis, who claim
authoiity by behaving anu acting in accoiuance with the founuational texts of
Islam. As I show in Chaptei S, they boost this image by successfully taking caie of
the spiiitual anu munuane neeus of the community. As one of my infoimants
explaineu:

The zu'omo caie about filling theii pockets anu if theii inteiests uemanu
it, they even make a ueal with Satan. Salafis aie uiffeient. They act in
accoiuance with what uou anu the Piophet saiu. Touay they aie the ones
who aie ieally stanuing up against the Shi'a anu Bizbullah . They also uo
not uistiibute money befoie the elections only, but always help the
neeuy.
6S

As in othei Niuule Eastein countiies, puiists in Lebanon uistanceu themselves
fiom suppoiting the Aiab Spiing. Nany of them openly siueu against the

6S
Suau }oseph, 'Patiiaichy anu Bevelopment in the Aiab Woilu', 6enJer onJ Bevelopment, vol. 4,
no. 2, p. 18.
64
vloebeighs, 'The Baiiii Political Bynasty' (page numbeis aie not available).
6S
Inteiview, S Nay 2u12.
14S
piotests. Safwan al-Za'bi fiequently tolu the meuia that ievolution is not the way
to change sociopolitical ieality. Accoiuing to him, the cuiient events in the Aiab
woilu aie leauing to the ietuin of Westein colonization.
66
Be is ciitical of the
borokis, especially Shaykh Salim al-Rafi'i, foi employing populist ihetoiic to
seive theii own inteiests insteau of consiueiing what woulu benefit the 0mmo.
In his opinion, the borokis' activities will iesult in chaos anu civil wai. Be thinks
that Lebanese Salafis shoulu not focus on appealing to the masses. Insteau they
shoulu puisue the Jo'wo among those who aie willing to change theii lives fully
in accoiuance with the "tiue piinciples of Islam", even if theii numbeis aie veiy
limiteu.
67
Some puiists have even uistiibuteu leaflets containing the fotwos of
Sauui shaykhs against the ievolutions.
Nany of the puiist Salafis iefuse to ciiticize oi suppoit the iecent
ievolutions in Aiab countiies. Insteau, they withuiaw to teach the minute uetails
of belief anu ieligious piactice, laigely neglecting what is going on aiounu them.
0ne of my puiist infoimants, the imam of a small mosque in the aujacent uistiict
to the Castle in Tiipoli, thinks that the actions of al-Za'bi anu othei opponents of
the ievolutions aie foolish: "Cleaily, the majoiity of Ahl al-Sunna |in Noith
Lebanonj aie enthusiastic about the Aiab Spiing. Theiefoie, openly siuing
against |the piotestsj is unwise on the pait of |puiistj Salafis. Thiough theii
haish ihetoiic, they lose the iespect of the people while not gaining anything."
Be thinks that puiists shoulu iefiain fiom talking about the uemonstiations, anu
shoulu insteau focus on the Jo'wo: "If the numbei of tiue Nuslims becomes moie
than the muqossirun |sing. muqossir - those who uo not accomplish fully theii
ieligious uutiesj, they will iecognize that ol-kburuj 'olo ol-bokim will not leau to
any goou."
68

/-*2$C'&-*

66
http:aiabi-piess.cominuex.php.page=aiticle&iu=4S91.
67
68
Inteiview, Tiipoli, S Nay 2u12.
146
In this chaptei I uiscusseu how the boroki anu puiist factions emeigeu anu
uevelopeu in Noith Lebanon. In the fiist section I explaineu that Ba'i al-Islam al-
Shahhal's netwoik uisintegiateu at the enu of the 199us uue to the selective
iepiession by the Syiian-Lebanese secuiity iegime. When al-Shahhal, who hau
been the main uistiibutoi of money fiom uulf chaiities, was foiceu into exile, the
Salafis who hau stayeu in Lebanon neeueu to look foi alteinative souices of
sponsoiship.
Those who weie inclineu towaius puiist thinking ieceiveu massive
suppoit fiom the Kuwaiti }ama'iyyat Ihya' al-Tuiath al-Islami. Bue to the
chaiity's pationage, in the seconu half of the 2uuus a stiong puiist stieam
emeigeu in Noith Lebanon. Ihya' al-Tuiath's local bianch unuei the leaueiship of
Safwan al-Za'bi establisheu a vast welfaie netwoik in Tiipoli anu the
suiiounuing iegions. Be gatheieu most of the puiist scholais unuei his own
pationage. To fuithei extenu his influence, al-Za'bi even mobilizeu voteis uuiing
the 2uu9 elections.
Al-Za'bi's ielationship with Ihya' al-Tuiath latei enueu in abiupt fashion.
In 2uu8 he signeu a "Nemoianuum of 0nueistanuing" with Bizbullah. Bue to this
initiative, when a iauically anti-Shi'a faction gaineu influence ovei Ihya' al-
Tuiath' leaueiship thiee yeais latei, the Kuwaiti chaiity cut its ties with al-Za'bi.
Although the majoiity of Lebanese puiists can be classifieu as politico-
puiists, I showeu that theie aie also puiist-iejectionist netwoiks piesent in
Noith Lebanon. They aie ciitical of political paiticipation by othei Salafis anu the
activities of chaiitable oiganizations, accusing them of paitisanship (bizbiyyo).
I explaineu that the boroki faction ie-emeigeu aftei the Syiian aimy's
withuiawal fiom Lebanon in 2uuS. The context following the political changes of
2uuS was favoiable foi them. Bue to the emeiging Sunni-Shi'i tensions, the
borokis' stiiuently anti-Shi'a ihetoiic became attiactive to many Sunnis. Eoroki
Salafis also ieceiveu financial suppoit fiom the Baiiii clan because they
mobilizeu voteis foi the lattei.
The appeaiance of the Qataii Shaykh 'Aiu Chaiity Association on the
Lebanese scene gieatly incieaseu the influence of the borokis. The chaiity
establisheu a huge netwoik of ieligious colleges, mosques anu Jo'is acioss the
147
countiy. Paitly uue to the financial suppoit fiom SACA, by the enu of the 2uuus a
laige, polycephalous boroki netwoik hau emeigeu in Noith Lebanon.
In the final section I analyzeu how the Aiab ievolutions influenceu
Lebanese Salafism. The post-2u11 context was favoiable to borokis acioss the
Aiab woilu. In auuition to this, in Noith Lebanon many people saw boroki Salafis
as alteinative canuiuates foi leaueiship of the Sunni community, in view of the
ueclining legitimacy of political pations such as Sa'u al-Baiiii oi Najib Niqati.

148
/E#I0): M
.E) /-*'0:C20&-* -% "#$#%& W)$&6&-C' 1C0E-:&0=

In the following chaptei I will analyze how the Salafi shaykhs who constitute the
backbone of the Noith Lebanese Salafi movement constiuct theii ieligious
authoiity. I will aigue that theii authoiity ovei oiuinaiy believeis is baseu on
theii intention to naiiow oithouoxy by uiminishing the accepteu Islamic
intellectual tiauition. They boost theii aigument as to what constitutes iight
belief by behaving in ways that aie peiceiveu as exemplaiy by many membeis of
the community. I will show how this piocess is unfoluing in Noith Lebanon,
wheie Salafis combine moueiate ascetic behavioi with bisbo anu fulfilling the
eveiyuay neeus of the Sunni community. To explain this lattei aspect, in the final
section of the chaptei, I will uiscuss how meuiation in social conflicts anu
pationage aie ielateu to authoiity.

.E) ()#*&*6 -% #C0E-:&0= &* B'$#(

Authoiity in the Webeiian sense (Webei also useu the teim "legitimate
uomination") means the piobability that one voluntaiily subjects oneself to
uomination because one believes this uomination to be legitimate.
1
In othei
woius, an authoiity possesses the ability to make otheis to follow oi obey his
iules anu iulings without iecouise to thieats anu coeicive powei. Baseu on this
concept, "ieligious authoiity can assume a numbei of foims anu functions: the
ability (chance, powei, oi iight) to uefine coiiect belief anu piactice, oi
oithouoxy anu oithopiaxy, iespectively; to shape anu influence the views anu

1
Nax Webei, Fconomy onJ Society: An 0utline of lnterpretive Socioloqy (Beikeley, Los Angeles,
Lonuon: 0niveisity of Califoinia Piess, 1978), pp. 212-21S.
149
conuuct of otheis accoiuingly; to iuentify, maiginalize, punish oi excluue
ueviance, heiesy anu apostasy anu theii agents anu auvocates."
2

It is useful to auu Khaleu Abou El Faul's concept of peisuasive authoiity in
oiuei to unueistanu how the Webeiian notion of legitimate uomination woiks in
a moie uetaileu way.
S
As the authoi puts it, "being an authoiity oi being
authoiitative necessaiily involves the element of tiust, anu any behavioi
consistent with justifying this tiust, incluuing the offeiing of peisuasive
aiguments, will pieseive oi bolstei such an authoiity."
4
It follows that
"peisuasive authoiity influences people to believe, act, iefiain fiom acting in a
ceitain fashion by peisuauing them that this is what ought to be. It influences
people to believe that acting accoiuing to a ceitain uiiective is consistent with
theii sense of iesponsibility."
S

Abou El Faul connects this notion of authoiity with the concept of
exclusionaiy ieasons elaboiateu by }oseph Raz. Accoiuing to the lattei, when an
inuiviuual ueciues to uo something, he oi she has to choose fiom uiffeient
conflicting set of ieasons. An exclusionaiy ieason justifies picking one set of
ieasons anu excluuing all the otheis when making the uecision. Accoiuing to
Abou El Faul, an exclusionaiy ieason is often the iesult of submitting oneself to a
ceitain authoiity.
Baseu on the abovementioneu uiscussion, a peison (oi institution such as
the Chuich oi al-Azhai) possesses ieligious authoiity baseu on the social

2
uuuiun Kiamei anu Sabine Schmiutke, 'Intiouuction: Religious Authoiity anu Religious
Authoiities in Nuslim Societies. A Ciitical 0veiview', in uuuiun Kiamei anu Sabine Schmiutke
(eus), Speokinq for lslom: Reliqious Autborities in Huslim Societies (Leiuen anu Boston: Biill,
2uuu), p.1. The authois iightfully note that ieligious authoiity is a fluiu concept anu uifficult to
uistinguish fiom powei. In fact, one can asseit a ieligious iuling paitly by claiming legitimacy anu
paitly by thieatening physical oi othei foims of coeicion oi punishment if the subject ueviates
fiom oithouoxy oi oithopiaxy (non-physical coeicion can be the thieat of exclusion fiom oi
being cast out of the community). Islamic anu Chiistian histoiy offeis countless examples of this.
S
Abou El Faul contests Fiieuman's aigument, which uistinguishes between authoiity anu
peisuasion. Accoiuing to Fiieuman, when somebouy submits to a ceitain authoiity, he
completely suiienueis his inuepenuent juugment to the lattei. Peisuasion, on the othei hanu, is
anothei kinu of uepenuence, "in which one man influences anothei to auopt some couise of
action by helping him to see the meiits of that paiticulai action." Abou El Faul, howevei, iegaius
this kinu of uistinction as too iestiictive. Accoiuing to him, equating the notion of authoiity with
blinu obeuience is unieasonable, since usually those who aie authoiities, such as uoctois, expeits
on Islamic law oi teacheis, only have uiiective noimative powei anu theii subjects might iefuse
theii instiuctions. Khaleu Abou El Faul, Speokinq in 6oJs Nome: lslomic low, Autbority onJ
Women (0xfoiu: 0newoilu, 2uu1), pp. 18-2S.
4
Ibiu. p. 21.
S
Ibiu. p. 22.
1Su
peiception that the instiuctions coming fiom the inuiviuual (oi institution)
geneially iepiesent uou's (oi moie geneially, the tianscenuent's) will. This then
enables him to uefine foi his followeis the bounuaiies of iight belief, influence
theii unueistanuing of how they shoulu behave to please the tianscenuent, anu
excluue fiom the community those whom he iegaius as apostates oi heietics. In
the following I will uiscuss how the authoiity of the iathei inclusive, bioau
categoiy of "men of ieligion" is constiucteu in Islam.
Reseaicheis commonly explain the evolution of ieligious authoiity in
Islam by using Webei's concept of the "ioutinization of the chaiisma". This
means that chaiismatic authoiity, the thiiu type in Webei's typology of authoiity
(aftei legal-iational anu tiauitional),
6
becomes uepeisonalizeu anu
institutionalizeu. Chaiismatic authoiity lies in the belief in a leauei's
extiaoiuinaiy peisonal qualities.
7
Aftei the leauei uisappeais oi uies, the
authoiity ovei the uomains that weie contiolleu by him is tiansfeiieu to
multiple offices anu institutions.
8
In the case of Islam, in the absence of
Nuhammau, his compiehensive authoiity, which was solely baseu on chaiisma,
was uiffuseu into uiffeient iealms. The Piophet's political authoiity was vesteu
in the Caliph, anu his ieligious anu (paitly) legal authoiity in the 'ulomo anu the
Sufis.
9
To be suie, this pattein has been in continuous flux thioughout Islamic
histoiy anu the uiffeient offices anu institutions oveilap, but it woulu be beyonu
the scope of the piesent stuuy to uiscuss this. Beie I am only inteiesteu in the
authoiity of inuiviuuals commonly known as rijol ol-Jin in the local Lebanese
context. This categoiy is iathei bluiieu anu incluues all those who aie peiceiveu
by wiuei society to peifoim ieligious seivices. In this sense, it incluues ieligious
scholais, Sufi shaykhs anu some of the Islamists.

6
Webei, Fconomy onJ Society, pp. 21S-24S.
7
Ibiu. pp. 241-24S.
8
Ibiu. pp. 246-249.
9
Bamiu Babashi, Autbority in lslom: Irom tbe Rise of HubommoJ to tbe Fstoblisbment of tbe
0moyyoJs (New Biunswick, Lonuon: Tiansaction Publisheis, 1989), pp. 71-94; Liyakat Takim,
Tbe Eeirs of tbe Propbet: Cborismo onJ Reliqious Autbority in Sbi'ite lslom (Albany: State
0niveisity of New Yoik Piess, 2uu6), pp. S-7. Takim uistinguishes ieligious authoiity fiom
spiiitual authoiity, though I aigue that spiiitual authoiity in the Islamic context belongs to
ieligious authoiity, since the claim of spiiitual contact with the tianscenuent legitimates one's
attempt to influence one's followeis' ieligious beliefs anu piactices.
1S1
The authoiity of the rijol ol-Jin chiefly ielies on theii claim to possess 'ilm
(knowleuge).
1u
The possession of 'llm confeis the ability to biing the uivine
oiuei fiom the abstiact to ieal life. The natuie of 'ilm can be vaiy, anu can be
both scholaily anu esoteiic. The piivilegeu position of the possessoi of the
foimei "iests upon achievements in leaining anu specifically his supposeu
masteiy of the ievealeu canon togethei with ielateu juiiuical anu peihaps othei
texts."
11
Those whose authoiity is ueiiveu fiom the lattei claim to have insight
into the botin oi innei, esoteiic uimension (opposeu to the zobir oi exoteiic,
outwaiu uimension) to ieveal uou's concealeu puiposes. Knowleuge of the botin
is not leaineu but iathei infuseu. It is "uistinguisheu as mo'rifo |gnosisj which
has its souice in a vital innei powei oi compelling uivine foice known as
boroko".
12
Scholaily knowleuge is usually associateu with the 'ulomo while the
esoteiic knowleuge is associateu with Sufis, although one shoulu mention that
these two categoiies often oveilap, since Sufis can also be scholais.
Beie, we aie inteiesteu in how the 'ilm possesseu by men of ieligion is
conveiteu into authoiity. When oiuinaiy people accept the knowleuge of rijol ol-
Jin, they usually submit pait of theii juugment to them, assuming that the men of
ieligion eithei unueistanu the piimaiy texts anu the intellectual tiauition baseu
on them oi aie connecteu to the uivine in an esoteiic way that enables them to
uiscein the ieligious iulings that Nuslims have to apply. Bowevei, this
submission of juugment is not unconuitional. Theie aie alteinatives to following
a specific inuiviuual: the laity can abanuon a shaykh to accept someone else's
authoiity, oi they can even tuin to uiiectly examining the Text themselves. Those
who possess ieligious authoiity have to convince theii followeis that they
iepiesent the tiuth anu possess the sufficient 'ilm to asceitain the will of gou. In
othei woius, rijol ol-Jin pioviue an exclusionaiy ieason foi oiuinaiy people to
ieject othei sets of ieasons anu foiego the alteinatives.
1S

Bowevei, in oiuei to be able to pioviue an exclusionaiy ieason, puie 'ilm
is not sufficient. Someone might be highly knowleugeable in ieligious matteis yet

1u
Patiick uaffney, Tbe Propbets Pulpit (Beikeley, Los Angeles, Lonuon: 0niveisity of Califoinia
Piess, 1994), p. S4.
11
Ibiu. p. S9.
12
Ibiu, p. S7.
1S
Abou El Faul, Speokinq in 6oJs Nome, pp. Su-S4.
1S2
have a limiteu numbei of followeis. It is ciucial to possess sufficient chaiisma
anu exploit the oppoitunities pioviueu by a given social context. Foi example,
those who claim authoiity shoulu embouy the ieligious iueals of the community
in which they opeiate anu successfully fiame this community's neeus anu
giievances. Below I will show that Salafis constiuct theii ieligious authoiity on
the basis of ieuefining oithouoxy anu by posing as the vanguaiu of Sunni Islam.
Fiist, I shall uiscuss what oithouoxy means in Islam anu how is it ie-
conceptualizeu by Salafis. Then I will show how Salafis utilize this ieuefineu
"iight belief" in oiuei to asseit theii authoiity ovei oiuinaiy Sunni Nuslims at
the local level.

Conceptuolizinq ortboJoxy in lslom

The concept of oithouoxy in Islam is uifficult to uefine. Nany authois even ueny
the necessity of uiscussing the concept in an Islamic context. Some of these
scholais ueal with oithouoxy as it is unueistoou in Chiistianity; that is, it
piesupposes an institutional bouy which uefines the iight tenets of belief anu
attempts to eliminate those iueas anu piactices that it consiueis to be heietical.
Foi this ieason, Watt anu uoluzichei ueny its existence in Islam.
14
0theis aigue
that it is not possible to speak about Islam as one entity. El-Zein, foi example,
uenies that it is possible to finu something that links the uiffeient "local islams"
togethei. Fiom this viewpoint it is meaningless to talk about "iight belief" in
Islam, as Islam per se is not a categoiy of analysis.
In my opinion, howevei, it is possible to iuentify impoitant attempts anu
uebates to uefine oithouoxy thioughout the Islamic histoiy. These uebates iefei
to common founuational texts anu elements of an intellectual tiauition that is
uetacheu fiom the local level anu commonly accepteu in wiuely uispeiseu
localities. In the following I will attempt to uefine oithouoxy in Sunni Islam.
Ny two staiting points aie Caluei's concept of oithouoxy as manifesteu
by a huge bouy of intellectual tiauition accumulateu ovei the centuiies, anu Talal

14
Wilson N. Biett, 'The Failuie of Nomenclatuie: The Concept of "0ithouoxy" in the Stuuy of
Islam', Comporotive lslomic StuJies, vol. S, no. 2, 2uu7, p. 174.
1SS
Asau's appioach, which ielates oithouoxy to the uynamics of powei. At the
beginning of his aigument Caluei iejects the claims maue by some scholais that
Islam is in fact oithopiaxy. Accoiuing to Caluei, "in oiuei to achieve salvation as
a Nuslim, one has to have iight belief in some sense oi anothei. If one has iight
belief, wiong actions aie not a baiiiei to salvation. 0ne may go to Bell foi a shoit
time, but all times aie shoit by contiast with eteinity."
1S
Though this inuicates
that theie shoulu inueeu be some kinu of oithouoxy, the authoi asks how this
shoulu be conceptualizeu, since theie is no institutional bouy to uefine iight
belief anu uistinguish it fiom heiesy. Bis answei is that oithouoxy "lies insiue the
uiscuisive tiauition of juiists who wiite cieeus."
16
It is caught up in an ongoing
uiscuisive piocess to continuously inteipiet anu ieinteipiet it.
The othei pioblem, howevei, is how to uefine the limits of oithouoxy. In
oiuei to answei this question, Caluei applies a five-pillai typology with which,
he claims, any kinu of ieligious beliefs can be analyzeu. The heauings of this
typology aie sciiptuie, community, gnosis, ieason anu chaiisma. Applying these
to Islam, Caluei finus that it is "a ieligion of community, sciiptuie, gnosis,
maiginally of ieason anu haiuly at all of chaiisma."
17
These limits of oithouoxy
aie set in a bouy of intellectual tiauition accumulateu ovei the centuiies, which
chiefly builus upon the Qui'an anu the Bauith. The paits of this liteiaiy tiauition
can be classifieu unuei the genies of boJitb, kolom, fiqb, tofsir anu sborob:

Anything that is biought unuei these heauings anu helu insiue the
uiscuisive tiauition of Nuslim liteiaiy expeiience belongs within the
limits of Islamic oithouoxy. Anu these aie uiscuisive limits, foi the
question of what can be helu insiue these woiks is not fixeu by iefeience
to one woik, oi the woiks of one centuiy, one school oi one geogiaphical
iegion.
18

1S
Noiman Caluei, 'The Limits of Islamic 0ithouoxy', in Anuiew Rippin (eu), Befininq lslom: A
ReoJer (Lonuon: Equinox, 2uu7), p. 222.
16
Ibiu. p. 224.
17
Ibiu. p. 2S4.
18
Ibiu. p. 229.
1S4
I aigue that the abovementioneu uiscuisive limits aie continuously changing
ovei time anu in uiffeient localities. The shifts of the bounuaiies of oithouoxy
aie chiefly the iesult of the ielationship between Nuslims anu theii intellectual
tiauition. To unueistanu this piocess it is useful to complement Caluei's concept
of oithouoxy with that of Talal Asau. As mentioneu above, Caluei ueals with
Islam as an intellectual tiauition. Asau's uiscussion of the issue helps us to
unueistanu in a moie uetail how the uynamics of a uiscuisive tiauition uefine
oithouoxy.
Asau ciiticizes both essentialist appioaches (ueeitz)
19
anu those which
ueny the valiuity of "Islam" as a possible object of anthiopological inquiiy (El-
Zein).
2u
Accoiuing to him, Islam is a constantly tiansfoiming uiscuisive tiauition.
As he puts it,

a tiauition consists essentially of uiscouises that seek to instiuct
piactitioneis iegaiuing the coiiect foim anu puipose of a given piactice
that, piecisely because it is establisheu, has a histoiy. These uiscouises
ielate conceptually to a past (when the piactice was instituteu, anu fiom
which the knowleuge of its point anu piopei peifoimance has been
tiansmitteu) anu a futuie (how the point of that piactice can best be
secuieu in the shoit oi long teim, oi why it shoulu be mouifieu oi
abanuoneu), thiough a piesent (how it is linkeu to othei piactices,
institutions, anu social conuitions).
An Islamic uiscuisive tiauition is simply a tiauition of Nuslim
uiscouise that auuiesses itself to conceptions of the Islamic past anu
futuie, with iefeience to a paiticulai Islamic piactice in the piesent.
21

19
Accoiuing to ueeitz, ieligion is "a system of symbols which act to establish poweiful, peivasive
anu long-lasting moous anu motivations in men by foimulating conceptions of a geneial oiuei of
existence, anu clothing these conceptions with such an auia of factuality that the moous anu
motivations seem uniquely iealistic." Quoteu in Talal Asau, 6eneoloqies of Reliqion (Baltimoie:
}ohns Bopkins 0niveisity Piess, 199S), p. 28.
2u
Abuul Bamiu el-Zein, 'Beyonu Iueology anu Theology: The Seaich foi the Anthiopology of
Islam', Annuol Review of Antbropoloqy, vol. 6, 1977.
21
Talal Asau, Tbe lJeo of on Antbropoloqy of lslom, 0ccasional Papei Seiies (Washington B.C.:
Centei foi Contempoiaiy Aiab Stuuies, ueoigetown 0niveisity, 1986), p. 14.
1SS
In othei woius, this uiscuisive tiauition ielates back to anu ievolves aiounu the
Qui'an anu the Bauith. The iulings of the founuational texts aie constantly
ieinteipieteu, uepenuing on the given mateiial context. Put in this fiamewoik,
all uiscouises intenu to establish oithouoxy. Yet, which one is able to become
uominant in a specific histoiical anu social context uepenus on powei. Accoiuing
to Asau, "Wheievei Nuslims have the powei to iegulate, upholu, iequiie, oi
aujust correct piactices, anu to conuemn, excluue, unueimine, oi ieplace
incoiiect ones, theie is the uomain of oithouoxy."
22

It is useful to combine Caluei's anu Asau's appioaches, as each explains
the othei. Cleaily, when Nuslims uebate oithouoxy, theii aiguments ielate in a
way to the intellectual tiauition. An aigument is baseu eithei on its continuous
ieinteipietation oi its iejection, as I will show latei in the case of Salafism. When
an "oithouoxy" is establisheu in a ceitain locality, it is the iesult of powei
ielationships, but its intellectual fiamewoik is uefineu by the continuous
ieinteipietation of the woiks of juiists that constitute the Islamic intellectual
tiauition.
When authois uiscuss oithouoxy, they often inteipiet Asau's concept on a
local level.
2S
I agiee with Anjum's obseivation that Asau uoes not examine how
local oithouoxies ielate to a global one.
24
In my view, seveial factois inuicate
that a tiansnational oithouoxy exists. Fiist, as explaineu by Caluei (see above),
theie is a moie oi less common intellectual tiauition within Sunni Islam that is
accepteu by Nuslims in uiffeient localities. Seconu, the uominant uiscouises in a
ceitain locality, which uefine oithouoxy, aie influenceu by oi aie even pait of
tiansnational uiscouises.
2S
In fact, Nuslim tiansnational netwoiks have always
playeu a ciucial iole in shaping what is iegaiueu as iight belief on both the local

22
Ibiu., p. 1S.
2S
Salwa Ismail, foi example, shows how oithouoxy was establisheu in Egypt by the inteiaction of
the Islamic movements anu the coeicive powei of the state. Salwa Ismail, Retbinkinq lslomist
Politics: Culture, tbe Stote onJ lslomism (Lonuon anu New Yoik: I. B. Tauiis, 2uu6), pp. S8-81. See
also Chailes Biischkinu, 'Beiesy oi Beimeneutics: The Case of Nasi Bamiu Abu Zayu', SFER, vol.
S, no. 1, 1996, http:www.stanfoiu.euugioupSBRS-1texthiischkinu.html (accesseu: 7
August 2u12).
24
0vamii Anjum, 'Islam as a Biscuisive Tiauition: Talal Asau anu Bis Inteilocutois', Comporotive
StuJies of Soutb Asio, Africo onJ tbe HiJJle Fost, vol. 27, no. S, 2uu7, pp. 668-669.
2S
In Nalaysia the official 'ulama' aie continuously attempting to suppiess local Sufi piactices anu
inciease theii moial contiol ovei the local population. Accoiuing to some obseiveis, this is paitly
the iesult of the influence of Salafism on the uiscouise of high-ianking Nalaysian ieligious
scholais. Conveisation with Piofessoi Ahmau Fauzi Abuul Bamiu, Penang, 6 August 2u12.
1S6
anu the tiansnational levels. Nauiasa netwoiks in the meuieval peiiou pioviue a
goou example of this.
26

Thiiu, the 'ulomo, who until the 2u
th
centuiy weie the piimaiy agents
uefining iight belief, weie paiticipants in a tiansnational uiscuisive fielu.
27

Zaman shows that the Naghiebi scholai Ibn Battuta was able to finu his way in
such iemote places as Inuia oi the Naluives uue to the existence of a common
scholaily language that was useu by the ieligious elite of the Islamic woilu.
28
I
woulu aigue that those who employeu Ibn Battuta as a qoJi in Inuia anu the
Naluives uiu so because they iuentifieu him as peison who possesseu the iight
knowleuge. This piesupposes the existence of a shaieu uomain of oithouoxy
linking themselves anu the Naghiebi scholai.
Fouith, contempoiaiy uiscouises that attempt to uefine what is iight
belief anu what is heiesy aie incieasingly occuiiing in tiansnational space, often
via the Inteinet oi satellite television channels. Touay, if a Syiian Sunni stuuent
goes to Nalaysia to stuuy, he is likely to shaie at least 8u% peicent of his
ieligious iueas with his local colleagues. Theie is a supposeu 2u% uiffeience in
case the Syiian stuuent iefuses to visit shiines, a common piactice in Nalaysia.
Bowevei, he will still iuentify the piactitioneis of this custom as Sunnis, because
on the one hanu many Sunnis in Syiia uo the same, anu on the othei, visiting
shiines is incluueu in the intellectual tiauition of Sunni Islam (even if the stuuent
peisonally uisagiees with it). The ieason foi this is that when euucateu Syiian
anu Nalaysian Nuslims foim theii concepts of iight belief, they often come
acioss the same uiscouises.
29

These factois imply that theie is a continuously ienegotiateu oithouoxy
at the tiansnational level. Now my task is to locate the uomain in which this

26
ueoige Nakuisi, Tbe Rise of Colleqes, lnstitutions of leorninq in lslom onJ tbe West (Euinbuigh:
Euinbuigh 0niveisity Piess, 1981).
27
vincent }. Coinell, 'Ibn Battuta's 0ppoitunism: The Netwoiks anu Loyalties of a Neuieval
Nuslim Scholai', in Niiiam Cooke anu Biuce B. Lawience (eus), Huslim Networks: Irom Eojj to
Eip Eop (Chicago: The 0niveisity of Noith Caiolina Piess, 2uuS), pp. S1-Su.
28
Nuhammau Qasim Zaman, 'The Scope anu Limits of Islamic Cosmopolitanism anu the
Biscuisive Language of the '0lama'', In Cooke anu Lawience, Huslim Networks, pp. 84-1u4.
29
I inteivieweu two Syiian stuuents at 0niveisiti Sains Nalaysia in Penang. Both of them
confiimeu my statement in this passage (Penang, S August 2u12). 0ne coulu ask whethei this
also applies to the iuial population, who aie semi-liteiate oi illiteiate. They aie ceitainly moie
influenceu by local tiauitional piactices, but they also shaie the same uomain of oithouoxy with
liteiate Nuslims. The ieason foi this is that ieligious uiscouises aie also meuiateu by the lattei
(Imams of the Nosques, schoolteacheis, etc.) to the foimei.
1S7
piocess of ienegotiation occuis. Foi this, voll's concept of "Islam as a woilu
system" is veiy useful.
Su
Biawing on Walleistein's woik,
S1
voll uefines the
Islamic woilu system as a "vast netwoik of inteiacting peoples anu gioups, with
consiueiable uiveisity anu yet some sufficiently common elements so that it is
possible to speak of these uiveise communities as being pait of the 'Islamic
woilu'".
S2
0nlike Walleistein, voll uoes not uefine these common elements as
chiefly economic anu mateiial in natuie, but iathei iuentifies them with a shaieu
pattein of communication that binus people togethei: "It is built on the shaieu
souices of the Islamic expeiience, which pioviue the basis foi mutually
intelligible uiscouise among all who iuentify themselves as Nuslims."
SS

In othei woius, this Islamic woilu system is a netwoik of netwoiks helu
togethei by a shaieu pattein of communication. Ceitain netwoiks among these,
such as Islamic social movements, institutions of leaining such as al-Azhai anu
mauiasa netwoiks, aie conceineu with establishing the uominance of what they
uefine as iight belief. Those netwoiks have moie influence on oithouoxy, as they
aie bettei positioneu in the stiuctuie of powei ielations in the Islamic woilu
system.
In shoit, we can say that theie is a tiansnationally negotiateu but
geneially accepteu Sunni oithouoxy that has wiue anu fluiu bounuaiies. Those
who aie within these bounuaiies iecognize the uiffeiences between themselves,
yet as long as somebouy uoes not step outsiue of these bounuaiies in a iauical
way, he will be iegaiueu as being within the limits of oithouoxy. These limits aie
set by the Sunni intellectual tiauition anu aie continuously ienegotiateu,
uepenuing on powei ielations in the tiansnational fielu.

Solofism onJ tbe reJefinition of ortboJoxy

Su
}ohn 0beit voll, 'Islam as a Special Woilu System', }ournol of WorlJ Eistory, vol. S, no. 2, 1994.
S1
Immanuel Walleistein, 'Woilu-Systems Analysis: The Seconu Phase', Review, vol. 1S, no. 2,
199u.
S2
voll, 'Islam as a Special Woilu System', p. 217.
SS
Ibiu., p. 219.
1S8
The basic aim of Salafism as a social movement anu the most impoitant element
of its constiuction of authoiity is that Salafis intenu to ieuefine oithouoxy. Aftei
"centuiies of abeiiation", Salafis want to ie-establish the "tiue Islam". This
means that they intenu to abolish all tiauitions anu appioaches to inteipieting
the founuational texts of Islam that uo not agiee with theii methouology anu
woiluview.
Caluei iightly obseives that the Islamic intellectual tiauition is becoming
naiiowei, oi less inclusive, in mouein times, anu Salafism is a majoi contiibutoi
to this tienu. The Salafi concept of "iight belief" is baseu on theii unueistanuing
of towbiJ (see Chaptei 1). Theii appioach iejects the laigei pait of the Islamic
intellectual tiauition uesciibeu above. Salafis leave out logic anu gnosis of the
limits of oithouoxy. 0f the woiks of eaily scholais, they accept only those that
coinciue with theii woiluview oi can be explaineu in such a way that agiees with
the Salafi appioach.
S4
Salafi authois mostly iefei only to limiteu paits of books
by Ibn Taymiyya, Ibn Qayyim al-}awziyya anu the Najui scholais who weie the
followeis of Nuhammau bin 'Abu al-Wahhab.
Salafis have also laigely abanuoneu the centuiies-long juiistic tiauition in
the methouology of inteipieting the Sciiptuie. Piioi to the 2u
th
centuiy, juiists
nevei attempteu to inteipiet the Qui'an anu the Sunna inuepenuently,
uisiegaiuing the views of eailiei scholais. At the same time, they intenueu to
unueistanu the context in which a ceitain iuling was ievealeu anu then
ieinteipiet it in accoiuance with the contempoiaiy ciicumstances. The juiists
also maue an effoit to unueistanu Bivine Law, but nevei coulu be suie that theii
opinions weie coiiect.
SS

The Salafi concept of Islamic law is iathei static by compaiison. Accoiuing
to Salafis, Islam is cleai: the iulings of the Text aie self-explanatoiy anu aie not
subject to ie-inteipietation. They believe that in the majoiity of cases, Nuslims
can be suie what is the will of uou. uou's woiu is valiu at all times anu in all
ciicumstances anu has the same meaning iegaiuless of the context. In this sense,

S4
This tenus to mean a selective ieauing of the eaily juiists; accepting sections oi passages which
affiim the views of Salafism anu ignoiing the iest. See, foi example: al-uhazali, ol-Sunno ol-
Nobowiyyo Boyn Abl ol-Iiqb wo-Abl ol-EoJitb, pp. 17-42.
SS
Ruuolf Peteis, 'Fiom }uiists' Law to Statute Law oi What Bappens When the Shaii'a is
Couifieu', HeJiterroneon Politics, vol. 7, no. S, 2uu2, pp. 84-8S.
1S9
Islamic law is couifieu anu functions in a similai way to mouein positive law.
Accoiuing to Salafis, Nuslims must focus on the exact implementation of the
Shaii'a anu uisiegaiu any kinu of moial consiueiations. They usually aigue that
humans shoulu not seaich foi any kinu of logic in the Bivine Law oi link it to
moial impeiatives, which can altei the oiiginal meaning. This is because while a
specific iuling might sounu illogical oi even immoial, latei its iightfulness will
unuoubteuly be pioven.
S6
The Sbori'o is a total, peifect anu unchangeable
system, not a subject of human analysis.
Salafis geneially aigue that the uecline of the 0mmo in mouein times is
uue to the fact that Nuslims have uisiegaiueu this. Insteau they have maue space
foi pluialism in theology anu juiispiuuence (fiqb) anu uiffeient methous of
inteipieting the Text. They have also valiuateu toqliJ anu the hegemony of the
moJbobib (as explaineu in Chaptei 1). In oiuei to ieveise this uecline, Salafis
believe that Nuslims must auopt theii veision of iight belief anu abanuon all
othei piactices, methouologies anu inteipietations. Salafi authois have been
piolific in uiscussing theii unueistanuing of oithouoxy anu why anything else
shoulu be iejecteu anu eiauicateu. 0ne of the most systematic anu influential
wiiteis on this topic is Shaykh 'Abu al-Rahman 'Abu al-Khaliq.
Shaykh 'Abu al-Rahman, as the pioneei of the Kuwaiti Salafi Jo'wo, maue
a gieat effoit to uefine anu explain what Salafis iegaiu as iight belief anu to
piove that this is the only iight manifestation of Islam. In his highly populai
wiitings on this topic he holus the toqliJ of the moJbobib, which he iuentifies as
blinu anu unciitical following, iesponsible foi the uecline of the 0mmo. In his
opinion, toqliJ foibius the inuiviuual to inuepenuently tuin to the sciiptuie anu
check the Jolil (pioof) of a ceitain iuling. Not looking at the pioof makes the
founueis of a moJbob infallible, which is foibiuuen in Islam. Be is also ciitical of
the fact that the uiffeient instiuctions of the foui moJbobib on the same pioblem
aie iegaiueu as valiu. Be thinks that this uiviues the 0mmo. The fiist step in the
unification of Nuslims is thus to abolish toqliJ anu install a single couifieu
'monboj that eveiy Nuslim is obligeu to follow, which is baseu on the "ievealeu
tiuth" anu not on the "inventions of Abl ol-Abwo |people of whimj anu Abl ol-

S6
I have encounteieu this ieasoning in many conveisations with Salafis aiounu the woilu. See,
foi example: Salih al-Fauzan, 'Al-'Aql wa-Naua Buiiiyat al-Ra'y',
http:www.sahab.nethome.p=84S (accesseu: S }une 2u12).
16u
BiJo' |people of inventionsj". This monboj is supposeu to cleaily uistinguish
between oithouoxy anu heiesy.
At the outset, Shaykh 'Abu al-Rahman claiifies that Nuslims must not
follow uiffeient inteipietations of the 'oqiJo, since this is the basis of belief.
Without this, unity is not possible. 0nly a limiteu uiffeience of opinion (kbilof) is
accepteu in juiispiuuence. Accoiuing to him, most cases of kbilof can be
explaineu by the fact that the juiist issues a fotwo without knowing a ceitain
boJitb oi an alteinative naiiative (riwoyo) of that boJitb. This lack of knowleuge
useu to be causeu by the uifficulty of accessing the ielevant ieligious liteiatuie.
Touay, though, mouein technology enables scholais to ieach all boJitb
collections, so these kinus of uiffeiences must be eliminateu. To minimize kbilof
in fiqb Shaykh 'Abu al-Rahman suggests the couification of monboj, a piocess that
woulu consist of five main steps.
Fiist, the souices of juiispiuuence have to be uefineu. These aie the
Qui'an anu the Sunna in the "coiiect", liteial ieauing, the consensus of the
Sahaba anu the 'ulomo anu the analogy (qiyos). The seconu step woulu be the
cieation of a Qui'anic encyclopeuia (mowsu'o quroniyyo). This woulu contain the
"coiiect meaning" of all woius anu teims to be founu in the Qui'an, along with
common misinteipietations (which have been "whispeieu |to the humansj by
Satan",
S7
accoiuing to the authoi). Aftei this, it woulu be foibiuuen to inteipiet
the Qui'an in any way othei than that baseu on the coiiect meaning.
S8
Similaily,
as the thiiu step, an encyclopeuia of Bauith woulu be cieateu, containing all
coiiect (sobib) oboJitb. The iest of the books, which contain coiiupteu
naiiations oi chains of tiansmission (isnoJ), woulu be buineu. Fouith, the ijmo'
woulu be couifieu as well. The collection woulu contain all matteis agieeu on by
all of the Sahaba anu the 'ulomo anu woulu be the only souice of iefeience to the
consensus.
S9
Fifth, the iules of the qiyos woulu be establisheu in similai
fashion.
4u
0nfoitunately heie Shaykh 'Abu al-Rahman fails to give any fuithei
explanation.

S7
'Abu al-Rahman Abu al-Khaliq, Kbutut Roisiyyo li-Bo'tb ol-0mmo ol-lslomiyyo, 1987,
www.salafi.net (accesseu: 1u Apiil 2u1u).
S8
Ibiu.
S9
Ibiu.
4u
Ibiu.
161
Afteiwaius eveiy fotwo woulu have to be issueu accoiuing to these iules,
anu the methouology of fiqb woulu thus be unifieu. This woulu mean the
exclusion of the roi (opinion)
41
anu any kinu of logical oi metaphoiical
inteipietation (towil). Accoiuing to Shaykh 'Abu al-Rahman, the biggest obstacle
to achieving this aim is the existence anu availability of the "olu books" of
juiispiuuence which "chaim" anu influence the ieauei to stiay fiom the stiaight
path. Theiefoie, of these huge Islamic collections, only those shoulu be kept that
agiee on the abovementioneu souices of fiqb.
42

The Nuslim chaiactei woulu be built upon this shaip uemaication of the
limits of oithouoxy. Shaykh 'Abu al-Rahman's uiscouise miiiois the views of
Salafis in geneial, who iegaiu Islam as a complete system that iegulates eveiy
aspects of life.
4S
Theiefoie, in the Salafi view, local cultuie anu tiauitions shoulu
not influence the woiluview anu behavioi of the Nuslim. Rathei, he shoulu act
anu think in accoiuance with what is couifieu in Sciiptuie anu uisiegaiu that
which he has inheiiteu fiom his family anu social enviionment. Accoiuing to
Salafis, moiality is also in the Text; the moial iulings of the sbori'o cannot be
inteipieteu by concepts anu notions fiom elsewheie.
44
This is why Salafis ieject
the notion of finuing equivalents to the Westein concepts of human iights anu
fieeuom in Islam. That kinu of appioach leaus Salafis to a polaiizeu, Nanichean
woiluview. At one enu is Islam as a peifectly constiucteu Bivine system that
incluues instiuctions foi eveiy issue in human life. At the othei enu is eveiything
that is not iooteu in Sciiptuie; this is iegaiueu as the iealm of kufr anu theiefoie
iejecteu. This categoiy incluues local tiauitions, logic, philosophy, moial systems
cieateu by humans, anu so foith.
In shoit, accoiuing to Salafis, oithouoxy is static anu cleaily uefineu; as
Sciiptuie is self-explanatoiy anu has one meaning, the bounuaiies of iight belief
aie cleaily maikeu. 0ithouoxy is iepiesenteu by the liteial ieauing of the Qui'an

41
Ibiu.
42
Ibiu.
4S
I chose 'Abu al-Rahman 'Abu al-Khaliq's woiks to explain the Salafi views on oithouoxy
because these booklets aie wiuely ciiculateu in the tiansnational Salafi milieu. This is because
they aie well-wiitten anu well-euiteu, unlike many othei Salafi publications.
44
Salafis geneially agiee on this. This view is explicitly piesent in the above-citeu book by
Shaykh 'Abu al-Rahman 'Abu al-Khaliq. Fiom anothei authoi, see: Nuhammau bin Ibiahim, 'Al-
Falsafa wa-l-Falasifa', http:www.al-aqiuah.com.aiu=show&uiu=ejfqom4f (accesseu: 22
August 2u1S).
162
anu the Sunna anu by a limiteu intellectual tiauition that agiees with the Salafi
methouology. In othei woius, while othei schools of thought believe that
humans can nevei can be suie whethei they know the uivine tiuth anu theiefoie
accept uiffeient opinions as equally valiu, Salafis ieject those views that aie not
baseu on theii methouology.
0thei Islamic social movements often allow much uiveisity in theii lines
in teims of 'oqiJo anu fiqb. Foi example, many membeis of the Nuslim
Biotheihoou follow Ash'aii 'oqiJo, while otheis believe the Salafi cieeu. In
auuition, many of them piactice the toqliJ of a moJbob,
4S
anu some aie involveu
in Sufism as well. The ieason is that the aim of the movement is to implement
sociopolitical agenuas baseu on Islam, not to set the bounuaiies of iight belief.
0nlike Ikhwanis, the whole piogiam of Salafism as a social movement ievolves
aiounu the exact uefinition of oithouoxy. Salafis see Islam as a sociopolitical
pioject baseu on towbiJ. As Baj puts it, "towbiJ piesumes the existence of a
(moial anu histoiical) community, one in which Nuslims aie bounu to each othei
thiough a set of authoiitative texts anu piactices."
46
In the view of Salafism, these
authoiitative texts anu piactices aie exactly uefineu. Tawhiu can be maintaineu
by a moial community whose woiluview, thinking anu actions aie uiiecteu by
theii abstiact concept of oithouoxy. Theiefoie the aim of Salafism is to ieoiuei
the oithouoxy that is accepteu by the 0mma anu leau Nuslims back to the tiue
foim of Islam by puiifying theii belief anu piactices (see also Chaptei 1).
In conclusion, the Salafis' claim to ieligious authoiity is baseu on the
ieuefinition of oithouoxy. Theii "techniques of authoiity" seive to inuicate that
they - as opposeu to any othei Islamic movement oi school - possess the iight
belief uefineu by uou. These techniques incluue a moueiate foim of asceticism,
bisbo (if it is peifoimeu in such a way that it incieases the legitimacy of the
peifoimei anu uoes not alienate the majoiity), auopting a ceitain univeise of

4S
In my expeiience, Ikhwani activists only follow those iulings of the moJbobib that concein
peisonal matteis. In politics anu public issues, they accept the legal ieasoning of theii iespective
local Nuslim Biotheihoou oiganization. Inteiview with a Lebanese Ikhwani activist, Beiiut, 6
0ctobei 2uu9, anu inteiview with the heau of a local office of the Kuwaiti Nuslim Biotheihoou,
Kuwait, 4 Febiuaiy 2u12.
46
Samiia Baj, 'Reoiueiing Islamic 0ithouoxy: Nuhammau Ibn 'Abuul Wahhab', Tbe Huslim
WorlJ, vol. 92, no. S, 2uu2, p. SS9.
16S
uiscouise anu, in many cases, auuiessing the pioblems anu neeus of the Nuslim
community. By using these techniques of authoiity, Salafis pose as iueal Nuslims.
Naitin anu Baizegai aigue that in Islamic histoiy, populai heietical
movements have fiequently gaineu uominance anu become centeis of
oithouoxy.
47
In my view, touay the same is happening with Salafism. 0ntil the
seconu half of the 2u
th
centuiy, the liteialist Athaii school to which
contempoiaiy Salafis also belong (see Chaptei 1) useu to be on the maigins of
'Bai al-Islam'. Touay, howevei, Salafis seem to be successful in influencing
Islamic oithouoxy globally. The message of Salafism offeis easy answeis to the
pioblems anu questions that aie tioubling many contempoiaiy Nuslims. It
pioviues them with an alteinative iuentity anu empoweis uisenfianchiseu
Nuslim youth by gianting a sense of belonging to a supeiioi community. With
this in minu, it is no wonuei that the Salafi message is spieauing fast via the
Inteinet anu satellite television channels. Foi the same ieasons, Salafi shaykhs
tenu to be highly influential among local populations. Nany oiuinaiy believeis
thus equate Islam with Salafism anu have auopteu seveial of its elements in theii
belief anu piactices.
In the following section I will show how Salafis constiuct theii ieligious
authoiity in paiticulai localities, baseu on theii claim to iepiesent the tiue
Islamic oithouoxy, fiee fiom auuitions anu ueviations.

.E) #C0E-:&0= -% 0E) +),#*)') "#$#%&'

The liteiatuie tenus to uepict Salafism as a laigely unifoim movement, anu
authois to uate have paiu ielatively little attention to how Salafism auapts to
local patteins. Inueeu, while the Salafi notion of the iueal Nuslim community is a
unifoim uenial of the legitimacy of cultuial uiffeiences anu uistinct local
customs, the situation on the giounu is uiffeient. The movement's activists
iecognize that uomestic stiuctuies cannot easily be changeu, so they auapt to a

47
Richaiu C. Naitin anu Abbas Baizegai, 'Foimations of 0ithouoxy: Authoiity, Powei anu
Netwoiks in Nuslim Societies', in Cail W. Einst anu Richaiu C. Naitin (eus), Retbinkinq lslomic
StuJies: Irom 0rientolism to Cosmopolitonism (Columbia: The 0niveisity of South Caiolina Piess,
2u1u), p. 18u, pp. 189-191.
164
given social context in oiuei to puisue theii Jo'wo moie effectively. The methous
they use to asseit authoiity ovei believeis at the local level ieflect this
accommouation, as I will uemonstiate in the case of Noith Lebanon.
Fuitheimoie, I aigue that contiaiy to the claims of many ieseaicheis, Salafism
cannot be conceptualizeu as an entiiely post-mouein phenomenon.
48
Below I
will show that in many iespects, Salafis constiuct a foim of ieligious authoiity
that is similai to that of pie-mouein otbori movements.
Salafism in Lebanon has taken a unique foim that uiffeis in many aspects
fiom that of Salafi gioups in othei Niuule Eastein anu Euiopean countiies.
Although it is expanuing iapiuly, Lebanese Salafism is not yet a mass movement
with laige numbeis of giassioots followeis. Rathei, the coie of Salafism in
Lebanon is constituteu by a vanguaiu of ieligiously-euucateu inuiviuuals,
shaykhs, who contiol mosques, chaiity enuowments anu ieligious colleges. A
limiteu numbei of committeu activists anu a wiue passive followei base of
oiuinaiy believeis suiiounu these shaykhs anu seek ieligious seivices fiom
them. Examining the evolution of the authoiity of these shaykhs pioviues us with
an answei to the question of how this iathei veitical stiuctuie of authoiity in
Lebanese Salafism uevelopeu.
Accoiuing to my obseivations, Salafis in Tiipoli anu the suiiounuing aiea
fulfill the many tasks that aie noimally associateu with rijol ol-Jin. These incluue
pieaching anu teaching in anu outsiue of the mosque, giving non-binuing legal
opinions (fotwo, pl. fotowo), anu auvising people in matteis of ieligion anu life.
The shaykhs also visit families, console the sick anu the uying anu meuiate in
social conflicts. It is also impoitant to mention that they pioviue mateiial aiu anu
access to pationage. Bue to the weakening of the official ieligious establishment,
Salafis aie giauually taking ovei its iole. As I explaineu in Chaptei S, until the
Lebanese Civil Wai, the Sunni ieligious community was ielatively well oiganizeu
unuei the auspices of Bai al-Fatwa. The mostly Ash'aii 'ulomo shaieu the
ieligious uomain with vaiious Sufi toriqos anu, fiom the beginning of the 196us,
the Nuslim Biotheihoou, which was then still in its infancy. Bai al-Fatwa lost

48
0liviei Roy, 6lobolizeJ lslom (New Yoik: Columbia 0niveisity Piess, 2uu4), p. 24S; Nelanie
Reuuig, 'Powei Stiuggle in the Religious Fielu of Islam: Noueinization, ulobalization anu the Rise
of Salafism', in Tugiul Keskin (eu), Tbe Socioloqy of lslom (Reauing: Ithaca Piess, 2u11), pp. 1SS-
176.
16S
much of its influence uuiing the civil wai anu the populaiity of the Sufis was also
uiminisheu. Salafis filleu the vacuum left by the foimei, anu weie able to exploit
the fact that the ieputation of the 'ulomo associateu with Bai al-Fatwa suffeieu a
significant uecline in the 21
st
centuiy.
These scholais aie tiauitionally euucateu in one of the majoi Islamic
leaining centeis in Egypt, Syiia oi the Lebanese bianch of al-Azhai. Touay, uue
to theii financial weakness, the official ieligious institutions aie unable to
pioviue Sunni ieligious scholais with a uecent living. The salaiies of the shaykhs
aie below the Lebanese aveiage, anu most of them aie employeu on a
contiactual basis. Somebouy who ueliveis the Fiiuay seimon (kbotib) ieceives a
monthly salaiy of 66 0SB, anu a teachei who teaches ieligious subject in public
schools ieceives S 0SB pei houi. The monthly income of scholais who aie
peimanently employeu is also closei to the Lebanese minimum wage,
49
that is,
7uu,uuu Lebanese Liia (SSS 0SB) pei month.
Su
Foi that ieason, being a ieligious
scholai at Bai al-Fatwa is one of the least iespecteu jobs among those that
iequiie highei euucation. Paients tenu not to encouiage theii chiluien to stuuy
ieligious sciences, but insteau peisuaue them to enioll in engineeiing piogiams
oi become meuical uoctois.
S1

Those who complete theii stuuies at one of the Lebanese Sunni Islamic
euucational institutions, such as the Lebanese bianch of the Egyptian al-Azhai
0niveisity, the Ba'wa Faculty (Kulliyat al-Ba'wa) oi al-Awza'i 0niveisity, aie
theiefoie often puisuing ieligious stuuies because they uo not have anothei
choice. Nany of them come fiom pooi families that cannot affoiu to suppoit
them financially uuiing theii univeisity yeais. Foi them, one of the above-
mentioneu institutions is an attiactive option, since they offei stuuents fiee
accommouation, foou anu often a mouest scholaiship.
S2
0theis aie unable to

49
Inteiview with Bai al-Fatwa official, Tiipoli, S Becembei 2uu9.
Su
See, foi example: 'Lubnan Yaziu Al-hauu Al-auna Li-l-ujui', Aljozeero 0nline, 12 0ctobei 2u11.
http:www.aljazeeia.netebusinesspagesef7e7e82-6ucc-42e9-88eS-u72cu6eb7c2b.
S1
Inteiview with Shaykh Nuhammau al-Nasii, Tiipoli, S Nay 2u12. The shaykh tolu me that his
fathei agieeu to his stuuying sbori'o only aftei he hau completeu his BA in histoiy at the
0niveisity of Balamanu anu staiteu his Nastei's couises in philosophy anu political sciences.
S2
Beinaiu Rougiei explains that young Palestinians who want to acquiie a uegiee often entei
one of the Islamic univeisities, because aumission to Lebanese univeisities became incieasingly
uifficult anu expensive in the 199us. Rougiei, FveryJoy }iboJ, 2uu7, pp. 21S-21S.
166
gain aumission to most Lebanese univeisities uue to theii low high school
giaues. They iegaiu Islamic institutions as an easy way to acquiie a uegiee.
SS

Nany of the iesiuents of Tiipoli whom I inteivieweu expiesseu theii
uisappointment in the ieligious elite. They felt that some shaykhs aie exploiting
Sunni Nuslims' tiauitional iespect foi the 'ulomo.
S4
Accoiuing to them, shaykhs
who engage in chaiitable activities often steal pait of the uonations anu use this
to impiove theii own economic situation. People often contiast the heuonistic
anu selfish lifestyle of the Bai al-Fatwa shaykhs with the puiitanism anu helpful
attituue of many of the Salafi shaykhs. Nost of the Salafis inueeu have a stiong
missionaiy minuset. They saciifice much of theii time to seive theii
communities; changing anu puiifying theii ieligious piactices anu helping them
solve socioeconomic pioblems.
This is not a novel phenomenon, though. We can finu paiallels in Islamic
histoiy foi when a puiitan movement paitly ieplaces the uominant ieligious
elite when the lattei's legitimacy has been unueimineu. I woulu aigue that theie
is a stiong iesemblance between the meuieval Banbali movements anu
contempoiaiy Salafis in Lebanon. We can uiaw paiallels between how Salafi men
of ieligion anu Banbalis in the 8-1S
th
centuiies constiucteu theii ieligious
authoiity. Pievious ieseaich shows that the Banbalis who foimeu poweiful
social movements uuiing the Abbasiu peiiou weie close to the masses anu that
theii agents took caie of the affaiis of theii community,
SS
while the membeis of
othei moJbobib weie often elitist, uistanceu themselves fiom oiuinaiy believeis
anu tenueu to focus on abstiact pioblems in the ieligious sciences.
S6

SS
0ne of the piofessois at al-Awza'i 0niveisity in Beiiut expiesseu his uissatisfaction with the
commitment anu peifoimance of the stuuents in his institution. Inteiview, Tiipoli, 11 Apiil 2u12.
See also inteiview with Shaykh Nuhammau al-Nasii, Tiipoli, S Nay 2u12.
S4
In ceitain cases some shaykhs even use theii status to covei up theii ciiminal activities. These
stoiies aie ciiculating among oiuinaiy people, fuithei coiiouing iespect foi the 'ulomo. See:
Rauwan Nuitaua, 'Naimulak al-Lubnani: Nawlana al-Nassab, Nan Yuhasibahu.', ol-Akbbor, 27
Septembei 2u11.
SS
See, foi example: Nimiou Buivitz, 'Fiom Scholaily Ciicles to Nass Novements: The Foimation
of Legal Communities in Islamic Societies' Americon Eistoricol Review, vol. 1u8, no. 4, 2uuS;
Baniella Talmon Bellei, 'The Shaykh anu the Community: Populai Banbalite Islam in 12th-1Sth
Centuiy }abal Nablus anu }abal Qasyun', StuJio lslomico, no. 79, 1994.
S6
Nichael Wintei, ''0lama` Between the State anu the Society in Pie-mouein Sunni Islam', in Neii
Batina (eu), 6uorJions of Ioitb in HoJern Times: '0lomo in tbe HiJJle Fost (Leiuen anu Boston:
Biill, 2uu9), p. 26.
167
0sing meuieval souices, Talmon Bellei uiaws a uetaileu pictuie of the
ielationship between Banbali shaykhs anu the iuial communities of Palestine in
the 12
th
anu 1S
th
centuiies. She uesciibes these men of ieligion as multi-faceteu
inuiviuuals who seiveu theii community both in ieligious anu eveiyuay matteis.
Theii authoiity lay in theii knowleuge anu chaiisma, built upon theii exceptional
piety anu asceticism. These attiibutes of the shaykhs "tuineu Islam into a living
ieality foi the simple people".
S7
}ust like mouein Salafis, these Banbali Shaykhs
intenueu to puiify the beliefs anu piactices of theii followeis. A main focus was
to peifoim bisbo by taigeting illicit behavioi such as playing music oi uiinking
liquoi. They weie not only conceineu with the ieligious life of theii communities,
but they weie active in the socioeconomic spheie as well. In times of haiuship
they pioviueu mateiial help foi the neeuy anu meuiateu in conflicts, just as we
can obseive Salafis uoing in contempoiaiy Lebanon.
Like the meuieval Banbalis, Salafis peisuaue theii constituency to accept
theii authoiity on the basis of the claim that they, unlike otheis, iepiesent iight
belief. They boost this claim by using uiffeient techniques of authoiity to
constiuct theii image as iueal Nuslims in the eyes of oiuinaiy people. In the case
of Lebanese Salafis, one of the most impoitant techniques is to live one's life
exactly as piesciibeu in the Sbori'o, by piacticing a moueiate foim of asceticism
(zubJ).
Foi puiitan movements, moueiate asceticism has been a souice of
activism anu a means of attiacting oiuinaiy people thioughout histoiy. In his
Socioloqy of Reliqion, Nax Webei uistinguishes two type of asceticism: an
extieme oi "woilu-iejecting" one, anu an innei-woiluly one. Pioponents of the
fiist type withuiaw fiom society anu the enjoyment of woiluly pleasuies. "0ne
with such an attituue may iegaiu any paiticipation in these affaiis as an
acceptance of the woilu, leauing to alienation fiom uou."
S8
Those who follow
moueiate oi milu asceticism intenu to live a viituous life while actively
inteiacting with the wiuei society. Accoiuing to them, "salvation may iequiie
paiticipation within the woilu (oi moie piecisely: within the institutions of the

S7
Talmon Bellei, 'The Shaykh anu the Community', p. 1u9.
S8
Webei, Fconomy onJ Society, p. S42.
168
woilu but in opposition to them)"
S9
. These inuiviuuals iegaiu themselves as
instiuments of uou, meaning that theii piactice of asceticism often tuins to
activism in oiuei to puiify the suiiounuing society. Thioughout histoiy, a wiue
iange of movements has auopteu such attituues, incluuing Cisteicians, Calvinists
anu even Communists.
6u

Buivitz gives a uetaileu pictuie of how milu asceticism was piacticeu by
Banbalis in Abbasiu Baghuau, leauing to the emeigence of a social movement.
61

Eaily Banbalis, like mouein Salafis, auopteu a liteial inteipietation of the Text.
Foi them, Asceticism meant only the exact, uetaileu application of the iulings
(obkom) of the Qui'an anu the Bauith. As Buivitz claims, unlike some Sufis, who
wanteu to iepiess all woiluly uesiies, Banbalis intenueu only to contiol them.
The lattei "piomulgateu iueals that weie within the ieach of oiuinaiy
believeis"
62
. As a iesult, they iemaineu close to the society anu theii behavioi
constituteu an iueal in contiast to the heuonistic lifestyle of the membeis of the
Abbasiu couit.
In this social enviionment, the Banbalis' milu asceticism was conveiteu to
activism by piacticing bisbo anu puiging un-Islamic elements fiom the public
spheie. "Thus the two have a common goal, which they tiy to attain in uiffeient
aienas: foibiuuing wiong opeiates in the public spheie (oi in othei people's
homes), while milu asceticism ueals with one's own bouy anu peisonal habits in
the piivacy of one's own home."
6S
While those who followeu the iules of
Banbalism in full weie few compaieu to wiuei society, theii influence went well
beyonu theii numbeis. They "weie placeu on a peuestal anu weie ieveieu by
men anu women who coulu not live up to theii stanuaius",
64
anu weie able to
gain a sufficient social base fiom which to contiol the stieets of Baghuau,

S9
Ibiu.
6u
, Waltei E. A. van Beek (eu), Tbe uest for Purity: Bynomics of Puriton Hovements (The Bague:
Nouton ue uiuytei, 1988).
61
See: Nimiou Buivitz, 'Biogiaphies anu Nilu Asceticism: A Stuuy of Islamic Noial Imagination',
StuJio lslomico, vol. 8S, 1997, anu Buivitz, 'Fiom Scholaily Ciicles to Nass Novements'.
62
Buivitz, 'Fiom Scholaily Ciicles to Nass Novements', p. 991.
6S
Ibiu., p. 1uu1.
64
Ibiu., p. 994.
169
exeiting a stiong influence on its social noims anu occasionally inciting iiots in
the city.
6S

The milu asceticism of Lebanese Salafis takes a similai foim anu awakens
poweiful sentiments among ceitain segments of the population in Tiipoli anu in
the noithein iegion of the countiy. Accoiuing to the uiscouise of local Salafis,
zubJ is a basic element of a Nuslim's behavioi anu conuuct that is
inteiconnecteu to the concept of puiity (toboro). The fiequently quoteu Sauui
Salafi scholai Ibn '0thaymin uistinguisheu between two types of toboro: sensoiy
puiity (toboro bossiyyo) anu abstiact puiity (toboro mo'nowiyyo).
66
The lattei
iefeis to the puiity of the soul, which is equal to towbiJ. The moueiate foim of
asceticism is the methou foi getting iiu any kinu of sbirk anu ieaching this iueal
state. In othei woius, it is a tool foi puiification of the self.
Salafis often iefei to the woiks of Ibn Qayyim al-}awziyya when
uiscussing toboro anu zubJ. Accoiuing to him, toboro means the peifection of
one's ueeus ('omol) anu manneis (okbloq) anu puiification of the heait fiom the
sin anu ignoiance that woulu otheiwise leau to sbirk.
67
In Ibn Qayyim's thinking,
auopting a moueiate lifestyle helps to achieve this. Be gives the example of
clothing. Some of the oboJitb (in his view) foibiu uiessing in the skin of the tigei
anu othei pieuatois, foi the ieason that the behavioi of those who uo so might
become similai to that of the pieuatois. Nen aie piohibiteu fiom weaiing golu
anu silk foi the same ieason: this leaus to a heuonistic lifestyle anu incieases
gieeuiness.
68
Accoiuing to the explanation given by one of my infoimants, if
these attiibutes aie attacheu to someone, this leaus to sbirk, since the inuiviuual
will piefei mateiial goous anu pleasuies to the feai anu love of uou.
This uoes not mean, howevei, that one has to get iiu of such pleasuies
altogethei. Inueeu, enjoying them in accoiuance with the iulings of the sbori'o
even pleases uou. What is impoitant heie is that "you shoulu not be happy when
you acquiie them anu shoulu not be sau if you lose them. Youi tiust, love anu

6S
Niiiam Boextei, Shmuel N. Eisenstaut, anu Nehemia Levtzion (eus), Tbe Public Spbere in
Huslim Societies (Albany: State 0niveisity of New Yoik Piess, 2uu2), pp. S1-48.
66
Nuhammau bin Salih al-0thaymin, Kitob ol-Toboro,
http:www.ibnothaimeen.comallbooksaiticle_18u41.shtml (accesseu: 7 August 2u12).
67
Ibn Qayyim al-}awziyya, lqbotbot ol-lobfon Hin HosoyiJ ol-Sboyton,
http:saaiu.netbookseaich.php.uo=all&u=%C7%C8%E4%BE%EB%ES (accesseu: 7 August
2u12), pp. S2-SS.
68
Ibiu., p. S4.
17u
feai of uou have to oveishauow these".
69
Insteau, the inuiviuual shoulu use them
to please uou. Ibn Qayyim cites a stoiy about the thiiu Caliph '0thman bin 'Affan.
0nce, at a time of staivation '0thman possesseu one thousanu Camels. Some
meichants wanteu to buy them anu initially offeieu twice the usual piice. When
the Caliph iefuseu, saying that he hau alieauy solu them, they offeieu thiee times
theii oiiginal value. '0thman tolu them that he alieauy solu them to uou by
offeiing them to the staiving, because the piofit fiom this ueal woulu last
foievei.
7u

Nany of the Salafi shaykhs have successfully built up an image of being
knowleugeable anu zobiJ. Some of them uo inueeu live veiy simple lives, with
the same stanuaius of living as those of the inhabitants of Tiipoli's populai
quaiteis. 0theis aie quite wealthy anu possess successful piivate businesses, yet
they aie still able to maintain the image of the milu ascetic if they enjoy theii
wealth within the stiict limits uefineu by the sbori'o. The most impoitant
element of this milu asceticism is the uetaileu application of the iulings of the
Qui'an anu Sunna that covei a iange of issues, fiom a stiict coue of uiess to the
ethics of behavioi.
The question heie is how is this milu asceticism tiansfoimeu into
authoiity. Why uo oiuinaiy people iespect anu follow these shaykhs. The
answei lies in the Salafis' vision of the ielationship of Islam to the woilu anu
human society (Junyo). The conuuct of the Salafi shaykhs ieflects many oiuinaiy
believeis' concept of a pious lifestyle. Nany local Sunnis in Tiipoli uespise those
ieligious scholais who expose theii wealth anu luxuiious, sometimes even
heuonistic, lifestyles. By contiast, the Salafis' puiitan conuuct anu lifestyle
inspiies theii sympathy.
As I have alieauy explaineu, accoiuing to Salafism Islam is a total system;
its iulings extenu to all aspects of human life anu miiioi the peifect uivine oiuei
on eaith. Theiefoie the sbori'o is a complex system that iepiesents puiity;
anything that lies outsiue its fiamewoik is polluteu. As one of the Salafi shaykhs

69
Inteiview with Shaykh Baytham al-Sa'iu, 0iebio, Sweuen, 2S }une 2u12. Shaykh Baytham hau
been an imam of a mosque close to Tiipoli befoie he was appointeu as heau of an Islamic centei
in Sweuen.
7u
Ibiu.
171
in Tiipoli explaineu, the sbori'o fulfills a similai iole foi humans as the "opeiating
instiuctions" foi an electionic uevice. As he saiu:

when you follow what is wiitten in the instiuctions youi uevice functions
peifectly, when you uo not uo that then it might bieak. When people
follow the iules of Islam exactly as uou has ievealeu them they aie always
happy, theii life goes well anu they aie puie in both theii soul anu theii
bouy. When someone uisiegaius the sbori'o things often go wiong foi him
anu he feels anxiety because his soul is not cleai.

Accoiuing to the shaykh, puiity can only be iestoieu if the inuiviuual ietuins to
the full implementation of the Sbori'o.
71

As Shakh 'Abu al-Rahman 'Abu al-Khaliq saiu in a public lectuie,
"eveiything in Islam |has been cieateuj foi puiity." Peifect puiity is iepiesenteu
by towbiJ. All the iulings of the sbori'o aie cieateu to establish towbiJ, anu by
that theii aim is puiification (tozkiyo). As the shaykh explaineu, sbirk is equal to
pollution (Jonos): "the musbriks aie impuie. Theii bouy anu theii clothes can
appeai cleai but as long as they stick to sbirk anu apostasy theii soul anu feelings
aie embeuueu in pollution." Any auuition to the uivine system of the Shaii'a is
pollution as well. As he aigueu, the spieau of Sufi piactices in the Abbasiu
Caliphate leu to the uecline of Islam anu the uisintegiation of the empiie. The
'iboJot seive to ieach towbiJ anu by this, puiity as well. When somebouy
neglects a pait of them, his soul becomes polluteu. Implementing the iules of
Islam leaus to a puie soul anu latei to Paiauise. If a Nuslims uies anu his soul is
still impuie, he goes to Bell foi a ceitain peiiou of time, until he has been puiifieu
fiom bieaking the system of the sbori'o.
72

Reaching puiity thiough milu asceticism means getting closei to the
uivine oiuei, which is manifesteu by towbiJ. Puiification theiefoie means
iestoiing oiuei by eliminating that which leaus to its uisintegiation. In the eyes
of oiuinaiy people, Salafis iepiesent this uivine oiuei by theii intention to live a

71
Inteiview with a Salafi shaykh, al-Qubbah, Tiipoli, 1S 0ctobei 2uu9.
72
Public lectuie given by Shaykh 'Abu al-Rahman 'Abu al-Khaliq, Kuwait, al-Salam, Bauiiyya al-
Bajiii Nosque, 1u Naich 2u12. Similai aiguments can be founu in his book ol-0sul ol-'llmiyyo li-l-
Bo'wo ol-Solofiyyo, 1982, www.salafi.net (accesseu: 17 Apiil 2u1u).
172
peifect Islamic life. People aumiie the fact that they nevei weai Westein clothes,
unlike the membeis of the official ieligious establishment, but always appeai in
"libos sboro'i |ieligiously piopei clothingj", cieating a tiuly Islamic appeaiance
anu avoiuing imitation of unbelieveis (tosbobbub bi-l-kuffor).
The image of the shaykhs is fuithei boosteu by the mannei in which they
ueal anu communicate with othei people. Some of the 'ulomo of Bai al-Fatwa aie
suiiounueu by a climate of ioyalty, anu they spenu moie time in the company of
political leaueis than of oiuinaiy people. Salafis, by contiast, aie moie
appioachable. Theii constituents often iecall theii avoiuance of aiiogant
behavioi anu tenuency to ueal with eveiyone as equals, not as supeiiois. Salafis
also have a uistinctively Islamic vocabulaiy. They avoiu using English anu Fiench
woius anu fiequently use ieligious quotations anu iefeiences in theii uaily
conveisations. Foi example, they avoiu gieeting Nuslims with "morbobo" (the
common foim in Lebanon); insteau they use "ol-solomu 'oloykum". To thank
someone, they fiequently say "jozokum Allob kboyron |Nay uou iewaiu youj".
When they aigue, they often quote a boJitb to piove theii opinion. Some of them
use foimulas that aie common in the uulf, such as "boyyok Allob |Nay uou giant
you long lifej".
Although a significant segment of the Sunni Nuslim community in the
Noith consiueis the shaykhs to constitute iueal Nuslims, most oiuinaiy believeis
nevei themselves become committeu Salafis. Theii iueals of Islamic moiality,
which aie often iepiesenteu by Salafism, coexist with othei, often contiauictoiy,
iueals in othei fielus of life. As Schielke puts it in anothei context, "people always
live complex lives; a peison's iuentity is in piactice uialogical, maue up of
uiffeient voices anu expeiiences".
7S
In his analysis of the moiality of young
Egyptian Nuslims, he obseives that "people can aigue foi veiy conseivative anu
stiict stanuaius of genuei ielations at one time, but expiess iathei libeial iueals
of iomantic love at othei times".
74
I maue similai finuings when inteiviewing the
Salafi constituency in Tiipoli. Young people often piaise anu iespect the shaykhs
becouse they uo not shaie theii lifestyles. As one of them, Ziau, tolu me about one
of the Salafi scholais, "Be is peifecting himself in ieligion while we aie wasting

7S
Schielke, 'Being uoou in Ramauan', p. SS.
74
Ibiu., p. Su.
17S
oui time in the cafs with meaningless things". Though he aumiieu the shaykh
foi living a puie life, he explaineu that he woulu not be able to auopt a similai
lifestyle. Be aigueu that life in Lebanon is full of temptations; he cannot iesist
occasionally going out with giils, not to say spenuing nights with fiienus
smoking anu often uiscussing ieligiously unacceptable topics.
It shoulu be mentioneu that not all Salafis aie helu in such high iespect in
the community, though. People often talk negatively about those who suuuenly
uiess Islamic clothes, giow beaius, memoiize a few oboJitb anu claim to be
shaykhs. These inuiviuuals aie iiuiculeu when they enthusiastically tiy to auvise
otheis on how to live a piopei life. This signifies that ieaching the level of puiity
claimeu by Salafi shaykhs shoulu be the iesult of a long piocess of leaining anu
peifecting one's ieligious piactices, cleansing one's soul. The image of the Salafi
is the image of the iueal Nuslim uue to the effoit he has maue to ieach a state of
puiity. As one of the shaykhs explaineu to me, puiity is the iesult of long
piactice, leaining anu zubJ. The zobiJ shoulu tiy to abstain fiom telling even
small lies, shoulu iesist temptation foi yeais anu must uevote laige paits of his
fiee time to ieligious activities.
7S

Those Salafis who enjoy the iespect of the community aie able to
tiansfoim theii milu asceticism into activism, namely bisbo. Although, as I
showeu in Chaptei 1, bisbo has thiee uimensions, in Lebanon it is mostly
peifoimeu by "heait" anu "tongue", since neithei the state noi the wiuei
community woulu toleiate seiious actions by "hanu" (i.e. vigilante activism),
such as foicing music stoies to close, foibiuuing shops to sell alcohol, anu so
foith.
76
Rathei, the Lebanese shaykhs constantly ieminu people about the neeu
to believe in the coiiect way anu abanuon ueviations like Sufi piactices. They
aigue that the Sunnis in Lebanon can only be saveu if believeis stick to the iight
'oqiJo. In theii view, the sect is thieateneu fiom two siues. Fiist, by the Shi'a who
want to uominate the countiy anu tuin Sunnis into seconu-class citizens. Seconu,
by the West, which wants them to tuin theii back on Islam anu follow
seculaiism. In the cuiient climate of sectaiian tensions anu socioeconomic

7S
Inteiview with Shaykh Baytham al-Sa'iu, 2S }une 2u12.
76
Salafis uiu successfully foice the gioceiy stoies in the al-Tabbanah iegion of Tiipoli to stop
selling alcohol, anu in the 199us they also bombeu viueo stoies in Siuon that weie allegeuly
selling poinogiaphy. These events aie exceptions, howevei.
174
fiustiation, this kinu of bisbo meets a positive iesponse. Nany oiuinaiy Sunnis
think that the Salafis aie the only ones who tiuly caie about the fate of the
community anu who uaie to face up to Bizbullah. I will explain this in moie
uetail in Chaptei 8.
Anothei typical way of peifoiming bisbo is to look aftei young people anu
coiiect theii behavioi. Salafi shaykhs anu theii pupils often engage in
conveisations with young people who aie seemingly on the "wiong path". They
tiy to peisuaue them to abanuon womanizing, uiinking oi aimlessly hanging out
with fiienus on the stieet anu in cafs. Rathei, Salafis tiy to convince them to
puisue theii stuuies oi woik, anu they often help them to finu a job. I obseiveu
that the shaykhs sometimes saciifice quite a lot of theii time to give extia
ieligious lessons to young people, anu these activities often mean that they aie
helu in gieatei esteem by the paients anu family membeis. As these two
examples show, it is necessaiy to have authoiity in oiuei to successfully peifoim
bisbo. At the same time, peifoiming bisbo boosts the authoiity of Salafi shaykhs
in the Sunni community yet fuithei.

W)$&6&-C' #C0E-:&0= #*5 (#0):&#$ '):<&2)'

Anothei impoitant technique that incieases the authoiity of Salafi shaykhs is
taking caie of the social anu mateiial neeus of the people. It is geneially expecteu
that rijol ol-Jin in Lebanon will look aftei ceitain affaiis in the community. This
often iequiies the shaykhs to possess quite a high level of authoiity, pieviously
gaineu fiom milu asceticism anu bisbo. Foi example, Salafi shaykhs aie quite
active in meuiating in cases of social conflicts. }ust as in othei Niuule Eastein
countiies, often the state uoes not inteifeie uiiectly in uisputes ovei piopeity oi
even in cases of acciuental killing. Insteau, the community has the oppoitunity to
solve these issues accoiuing to local tiauitions. Neuiation is usually peifoimeu
by highly-iespecteu inuiviuuals, such as notables oi ieligious leaueis. The lattei
have even moie potential to be effective in settling uisputes, since they aie
supposeu to be inuepenuent of clan affiliations anu local powei games. Touay
people peiceive that Salafis fulfill most of these iequiiements. The shaykhs that
17S
aie inviteu to peifoim such tasks aie usually those who possess the tiust of the
community anu aie influential ieligious authoiities. At the same time, when a
conflict is solveu, the shaykh's authoiity incieases anu he gains moie followeis.
Buiing my fieluwoik in Lebanon I collecteu substantial uata on social meuiation,
anu I will piesent a moie uetaileu analysis on this issue in the fiist half of the
next section.
0nlike the movement's activists in many othei countiies, Salafis in
Lebanon aie also quite active in pioviuing people with mateiial help. The
inhabitants of Tiipoli often accuse the shaykhs associateu with the official
ieligious establishment of being coiiupt anu stealing the chaiitable funus they
ieceive fiom uonois. Islamic chaiitable activity has iecently incieaseu in Tiipoli
uue to the laige numbeis of Syiian iefugees in the city. Resiuents of the
Tabbanah uistiict complaineu to me that many of the shaykhs who ieceive
financial suppoit to help the iefugees aie in fact stealing most of the money. By
contiast, they stiesseu that if they uo not get aiu fiom othei souices, Salafis will
even help those who escapeu fiom Syiia out of theii own pockets. 0ne of the
Salafi shaykhs useu half of his monthly income to ient two flats foi Syiian
families, wheie they coulu stay until they weie able go back to theii countiy oi
finu a way to suppoit themselves. The Salafis believe that showing an altiuistic
attituue complements anu ieinfoices theii image as "iueal Nuslims".
The ieligious authoiity of the Salafis, at the same time, enables them to
become pations oi "miuulemen" in pationage netwoiks. As authoiitative
peisonalities, Salafi shaykhs aie able to attiact many followeis. Political pations
often appioach them, pay them oi pioviue them with othei seivices if they aie
willing to mobilize theii constituency foi the zu'omo (see below). Sometimes
Salafis acquiie money foi a ceitain puipose fiom othei souices. They aie able to
collect uonations fiom the faithful simply because they aie seen as "puie" anu
fiee of selfishness. People tiust that theii soJoqo will ieach those who neeu it.
Contiolling a ielatively laige flow of uonations elevates the social position of the
shaykhs, anu in the seconu half of the following section, I will uiscuss the
connections of Salafis to pationage.

176
HeJiotion in sociol conflicts

Neuiation in social uisputes is one of the most impoitant tasks that Salafi
shaykhs peifoim when seiving theii local communities. Successfully fulfilling the
iole of the meuiatoi anu ieconciling quaiieling paities ieinfoices a shaykh's
social position anu gieatly boosts his Jowo. In the following sections I will
explain the place anu impoitance of the piocess of meuiation in Noithein
Lebanese society. I will look at how Salafis have been able to become piominent
anu fiequent meuiatois in social uisputes, how the piocess of meuiation takes
place anu how Salafis aie able to utilize theii successes as meuiatois in
enhancing the pieaching of theii message.
In the Niuule East in geneial anu in Noithein Lebanese society in
paiticulai, meuiation is a common methou to solve social uisputes anu avoiu
state inteifeience in the affaiis of local communities. Neuiation is an integial
aspect of the pait of the Islamic justice system that is conceineu with uispute
iesolution. Its piefeiieu outcome is sulb (amicable settlement), as uistinguisheu
fiom tobkim anu qoJo, which aie ieacheu aftei the paities subject themselves to
a uecision by a thiiu paity.
77
Bespite the impoitance of the topic, theie aie
ielatively few acauemic woiks on meuiation in mouein Niuule Eastein society,
78

anu stuuies that focus on the meuiatoiy iole of ieligious scholais aie even
fewei.
79

The seculai juuiciaiy, which was fiist installeu in Lebanon with the
beginning of the Fiench manuate in 192u,
8u
has not been able to fully ieplace
tiauitional uispute solution mechanisms foi thiee main ieasons. Fiist, it is
fiequently the case that one oi both of the quaiielling paities uo not accept the

77
In the case of tobkim, the uisputants can withuiaw fiom the aibitiation piocess befoie the
uecision. By contiast, uuiing qiJo' it is not possible to withuiaw, anu the uisputants have to
follow the piocess until the enu anu subject themselves to the juuge's uecision. See: Aiua 0thman,
'"Anu Amicable Settlement Is Best": Sulh anu Bispute Resolution in Islamic Law', Arob low
uorterly, vol. 21, 2uu7, p. 68.
78
Among these: Lynn Welchman, 'The Beuouin }uuge, the Nufti, anu the Chief Islamic }ustice:
Competing Legal Regimes in the 0ccupieu Palestinian Teiiitoiies', }ournol of Polestine StuJies,
vol. S8, no. 1, 2uu8; Alean al-Kienawi anu }ohn R. uiaham, 'Conflict Resolution thiough a
Tiauitional Ritual Among the Beuouin Aiabs of the Negev', Ftbnoloqy, vol. S8, no. 2, 1999; victoi
F. Ayoub, 'Conflict Resolution anu Social Reoiganization in a Lebanese village', Eumon
0rqonizotion, vol. 24, no. 1, 1967.
79
See: Welchman, 'The Beuouin }uuge'.
8u
Elisabeth Thompson, Coloniol Citizens: Republicon Riqbts, Poternol Privileqe, onJ 6enJer in
Irencb Syrio onJ lebonon (New Yoik anu Chichestei: Columbia 0niveisity Piess, 2uuu), p. S8.
177
seculai juuge's uecision if no infoimal ieconciliation has been maue. Aftei the
Lebanese couit's veiuict has been enfoiceu, they often seek justice themselves,
which can have tiagic consequences. A Salafi shaykh in one of the Noithein
Lebanese Palestinian iefugee camps gave me an example. At the beginning of the
199us, a seconuaiy school stuuent killeu one of his classmates uuiing a fight
(acciuentally, accoiuing to the shaykh). The ieligious leaueis of the camp
immeuiately staiteu a piocess of meuiation between the killei's anu the victim's
families. Bowevei, at the enu the victim's fathei iefuseu the ieconciliation anu
insteau uemanueu the ueath of his son's killei, who was 1S yeais olu at the time.
Since the shaykhs weie unable to ieach a solution, the case was ueliveieu to the
Lebanese couit anu the killei was hanueu ovei to the state authoiities. The
victim's fathei founu the seven-yeai sentence hanueu to his son's killei
insufficient anu maintaineu his uemanu that he be killeu. Touay theie aie
incieasing feais in the camp that the tensions between the two families will
eiupt. Foi the past 2u yeais, the venuetta (tbor) hau been pieventeu because the
killei's family hau a goou ielationship with poweiful inuiviuuals in the
neighboiing Syiian iegime anu contiolleu ceitain smuggling ioutes between
Syiia anu Lebanon. Since the Syiian ievolution, the family's foimei influence has
been shaken anu theie aie feais that the victim's family will attempt to take
ievenge.
81
If meuiation leaus to sulb it iestoies stability, anu tensions nevei flaie
up aiounu the same issue again.
The seconu ieason why the Lebanese juuiciaiy system is unable to
ieplace the tiauitional mechanisms of conflict iesolution is its inefficiency. Nost
veiuicts aie only ieacheu aftei a long peiiou of time. Theie aie also many
complaints that juuges aie coiiupt anu that winning a case uepenus on having
political contacts. Salafi shaykhs aie usually iegaiueu as unbiaseu anu tiustful. In
uisputes ovei money, in paiticulai, one shoulu not expect an efficient anu quick
uecision fiom the Lebanese couit. Theiefoie most people piefei to ask the
shaykhs to solve these cases. Accoiuing to one of my infoimants, a Salafi shaykh
with long expeiience in meuiation, it sometimes takes the Lebanese couit ten
yeais to come to a uecision on a uispute involving a laige amount of money

81
Inteiview with a ieligious leauei of the camp, Tiipoli, 14 Apiil 2u12.
178
(about 2u,uuu 0SB). Salafi shaykhs can solve such issues in a few months by
pioposing a solution that is acceptable foi all of the paities involveu.
The thiiu ieason is the suspicion felt by the Noithein Lebanese Sunni
population towaiu the state. In geneial, people feel that the goveinment is
neglecting the iegion because it is home to the Sunni community. These feelings
of unease towaiu the state incieaseu aftei 2u11, when Piime Ninistei Saau al-
Baiiii iesigneu anu Najb Niqati's new goveinment incluueu the Shi'ite Bizbullah.
These paiticulai events leu many Sunnis to feel alienateu fiom the Lebanese
state anu its institutions. Although Bai al-Fatwa also offeis ieligious meuiation, it
is associateu with the state anu the institution is seen as weak anu incompetent,
theiefoie people often avoiu tuining to it. Bue to the mistiust of theii political
leaueiship anu feeling uisenfianchiseu, Lebanese Sunnis aie incieasingly tuining
to what they peiceive to be theii tiue ieligious iuentity anu theii tiauitional
social institutions. Theiefoie those shaykhs who aie well integiateu in theii local
communities aie gaining piominence. It seems that at piesent, most of these
shaykhs aie Salafis.
82

Shaykhs aie not the only authoiities to which people can tuin foi conflict
iesolution. Tiibal chiefs (sbuyukb ol-'osboir) can play the same iole in those
places wheie the tiibe ('osbiro, pl. 'osboir) is still the main social unit. This is the
case in the Binniya iegion anu in some uistiicts of 'Akkai. Bowevei, in most
places in the Noith communities aie not tiibal. In these communities in the
iecent past the zu'omo, the local notables {o'yon) anu Sufi shaykhs often playeu
meuiatoiy ioles. Buiing the civil wai eia (197S-199u) in paiticulai, militias anu
political paities peifoimeu the same task. Touay, political leaueis anu the 'oyon
have less contiol ovei society than they useu to, anu the influence of the Sufis is
also uecieasing, especially in the cities. Nany Salafis have sufficient authoiity in
theii communities to fill this vacuum. Salafi shaykhs have iecently become the
most active paities in meuiation in social uisputes. Buiing my fieluwoik, I
inteivieweu many Salafi shaykhs anu theii followeis ovei the foimeis' iole in
conflict iesolution. In the following I will uesciibe the activities of thiee shaykhs
- two Lebanese anu one Palestinian - in meuiation. I will highlight the factois

82
0ne piominent Bai al-Fatwa official aumitteu to me that most of the meuiatois in social
conflict in Tiipoli aie Salafis. Inteiview with a Bai al-Fatwa official, Tiipoli, 29 Apiil 2u12.
179
that make somebouy a successful meuiatoi anu use ethnogiaphic examples to
explain why Salafis have been paiticulaily successful in biokeiing sulb.

Sboykb Towfiq of tbe Hino Jistrict

Shaykh Tawifq, a miuule-ageu Tiipolitan man, is one of the leauing Salafi
pieacheis in the Nina uistiict (the poit uistiict). The uistiict itself uiffeis
significantly fiom the othei paits of Tiipoli. Nany of the inhabitants of the
uistiict have moie seculai lifestyles than elsewheie in the city. Noie women go
on the stieets without a heauscaif than in the al-Qubbah oi Abu Samia iegions.
The piopoition of miuule-class citizens among the population is also
significantly highei than in most othei uistiicts. The only stieet wheie bais can
be founu in Tiipoli is also in the Nina uistiict. Bowevei, theie has always been a
uevout Nuslim pait of the population, anu the giowing numbei of Salafis also
signifies the incieasing ieligiosity of the locals.
8S

The centei of Shaykh Tawfiq's ieligious activities is the '0thman bin 'Affan
mosque, which is maintaineu by the netwoik of Shakh Salim al-Rafi'i, one of the
most piominent Salafi pieacheis in Tiipoli. When I askeu the people about
inuiviuuals who coulu solve uisputes, most of them immeuiately iecommenueu
Shaykh Tawfiq. When I inteivieweu him, the Shaykh tolu me that he iegaius
meuiation as pait of ol-'omr bi-l-mo'ruf wo ol-nobi 'on ol-munkor (oi bisbo).
Accoiuing to him, uisputes eiupt between inuiviuuals when they violate the
sbori'o. By inteivening in theii conflict, the ieligious scholai leaus the believeis
back to the way of Islam anu pieseives the social oiuei uefineu by uou. In the
opinion of the Shaykh, those who peifoim this pait of bisbo must be well
embeuueu in society. Respect, authoiity anu having a uense netwoik of social
contacts aie pieiequisites foi being able to ieconcile quaiieling paities. Shaykh
Tawfiq has seiveu his community since his auolescence, when he tuineu to
ieligion.
84
Be uesciibes himself as one of the most ieligiously committeu young

8S
When I staiteu ieseaiching Salafism in Lebanon in 2uu9, theie weie only a uozen oi so
committeu Salafis in the Nina uistiict. In 2u12 I founu hunuieus in the same iegion.
84
It coinciueu with the ieligious ievival in Tiipoli in the seconu half of the 198us. Inteiview with
Shaykh Tawfiq, Tiipoli, 18 Apiil 2u12.
18u
people {owwol ol-iltizom) in the uistiict. Be acquiieu ueep knowleuge of Islam at
a veiy eaily age anu offeieu ieligious auvice to oiuinaiy people. When necessaiy,
he also helpeu to solve theii moie munuane pioblems, such as getting
appiopiiate health caie, jobs anu financial aiu. When at the enu of the 198us he
ieceiveu a scholaiship to stuuy sbori'o at the Islamic 0niveisity of Neuina, the
inhabitants of the Nina uistiict expecteu him to come back as theii shaykh aftei
getting his uegiee. The tiust anu authoiity that he has eaineu as a pious man anu
ieligious scholai leu him to become a famous meuiatoi. It is woith mentioning
that anothei shaykh, an Ash'aii shaykh who was appointeu by Bai al-Fatwa,
nevei succeeueu in getting involveu in ieconciliation piocesses. As one of the
local inhabitants uesciibeu him: "Be always behaveu like he was supeiioi to
oiuinaiy people. 0nly meichants, lawyeis anu uoctois weie able to appioach
him, while we only saw him uuiing the Fiiuay seimon."
Shaykh Tawfiq mostly solves conflicts within families, such as
uisagieements between maiiieu couples, paients anu sons, anu uisputes ovei
money anu piopeity. Be mentioneu a typical case that hau iecently aiisen in the
Nina uistiict. A uisagieement occuiieu between a fathei anu his auult sons ovei
nofoqot 'olo ol-woliJoyn (financial suppoit foi the paients). In Islamic law, sons
have to give pait of theii monthly income to theii fathei if he uoes not have
enough money to suppoit himself anu his wife(s).
8S
The sons iefuseu the
payment, saying that theii fathei hau quite a uecent income anu they weie
theiefoie not obligeu to suppoit him. The fathei, howevei, aigueu the opposite
anu piepaieu to file a complaint in the seculai couit. To avoiu the shame that a
lawsuit between fathei anu sons woulu biing on the whole family, othei family
membeis askeu the shaykh to inteivene. As shaykh Tawfiq explaineu, in this case
his peisuasive skills anu contact with othei kin membeis anu family fiienus
pioveu to be as essential as his knowleuge of the sbori'o. The shaykh's aigument
containeu two points. Fiist, by quoting fiom the Qui'an anu the Sunna, he
ieminueu the sons of the neeu to obey the paients. It might be legitimate but it is

8S
Plenty of fotwos have been issueu on this topic by muftis with vaiious intellectual
backgiounus. See, foi example: http:olamaa-yemen.netmainaiticles.aspx.aiticle_no=94S8
(accesseu: S August 2u12);
http:fatwa.islamweb.netfatwainuex.php.page=showfatwa&0ption=FatwaIu&Iu=S6749
(accesseu: S August 2u12).
181
not ethical foi a son to inquiie whethei his fathei is ieally in neeu of financial
suppoit oi not. Pioviuing as high a living stanuaiu as possible foi one's paients
is ueai to uou anu will be iewaiueu. Seconu, he aigueu that if Nuslims weie
unable to agiee among themselves anu hau to go to the non-Nuslim couit,
86
it
woulu signify the weakness anu uisintegiation of the Sunni community. As he
was able to gathei family fiienus anu kin to suppoit his stance, the sons agieeu
to pay the nofoqo foi the fathei. In piivate he inteipieteu this event as having
inteiveneu as one of the 'ulomo of the Sunnis who guaius the values anu
integiity of the community, especially in times of uangei. When Sunni Nuslims
neeu a thiiu, seculai oi non-Nuslim paity to solve theii uiffeiences, it is a sign of
fiagmentation within the 0mmo anu gives the gieen light to Bizbullah, in
paiticulai, to stiengthen its uomination ovei the countiy.
Aftei such a successful ieconciliation, the membeis of the family will
become suppoiteis of Salafism, most likely as passive paiticipants. Solving a
seiious pioblem significantly incieases the shaykh's ieputation in the eyes of
those who weie involveu. Aftei this, they aie likely to accept the opinion of the
shaykh in othei matteis as well. Theie is a significant chance that many male
family membeis will attenu Shaykh Tawfiq's Fiiuay seimon insteau of seimons
by those who belong to Bai al-Fatwa oi othei movements. As a iesult, they will
encountei the Salafi fiaming of contempoiaiy events, which might influence
theii univeise of uiscouise anu woiluview.
Sboykb Abu So'J, tbe "sociol octivist" of tbe ubbo

0nlike Shaykh Tawfiq, Shaykh Abu Sa'u euucateu himself in sbori'o. Baving
oiiginally acquiieu a BSc in engineeiing, he built up an impiessive uegiee of
ieligious knowleuge ovei yeais of stuuying with Salafi 'ulomo in stuuy ciicles in
the mosques. Shaykh Abu Sa'u is veiy active in helping oiuinaiy people with
theii eveiyuay affaiis. As he has basically saciificeu his life to the Jo'wo anu to
his community, he is highly iespecteu anu possesses a veiy uense social netwoik.
Be can usually be founu between the 'osr anu the moqbrib piayeis in his Islamic
auuio shop anu Inteinet caf, situateu next to the Rahma mosque in the Qubba
iegion. The city uistiict itself uiffeis significantly fiom the Nina uistiict. The

86
The juuge in the Lebanese couit can be also a Chiistian, Shi'ite oi Biuze.
182
socioeconomic conuitions heie aie much less favoiable, anu the majoiity of the
population is tiauitional; most of them belong eithei to the "uiban pooi" oi the
"uevout miuule class", in Kepel's teiminology.
87

Shaykh Abu Sa'u is known as a veiy open-minueu peison, compaieu to
the aveiage Salafi. As one of his acquaintances uesciibeu him, "when you talk to
a|n aveiagej Salafi you feel a climate of puiity aiounu him, so you iefiain fiom
shaiing eveiything with him, especially anything about youi sexual life. Shaykh
Abu Sa'u is uiffeient, he has been always easy-going, he knows how to talk to the
people as a man of ieligion but without making them feel embaiiasseu."
88
The
shaykh's attituue helpeu him to become a skilleu meuiatoi, especially in social
anu family matteis, although he also ueals with a wiue iange of issues, even
muiueis. In one case he was askeu to ieconcile a wife with hei husbanu, who hau
"ueviateu fiom the tiue path." The man was uiinking anu visiting piostitutes
iegulaily, anu this hau become an open seciet in the neighboihoou. The wife was
ueteimineu to ask foi kbul (sepaiation),
89
which woulu biing yet moie shame on
the man anu his family, especially in the enviionment of the Qubba uistiict. The
shaykh helu sepaiate consultations with the wife anu the husbanu. Be convinceu
the wife to wait anu give hei husbanu a chance to abanuon his bau habits. Be
gave the example of the Piophet's companion, who took yeais to leain the iules
anu left un-Islamic customs giauually. She shoulu only uivoice hei husbanu if he
uiu not appeai to be committeu in a given time fiame.
9u

Shaykh Abu Sa'u ciiticizes those Salafis who keep a uistance fiom the less
committeu pait of the Sunni community in the name of pieseiving theii own
ieligious puiity (although these aie a minoiity among Lebanese Salafis). Be
thinks that in the absence of an Islamic state, bisbo anu Islamic punishments
(buJuJ) can only be peifoimeu by fully living with the people anu "sitting even

87
Kepel, }iboJ, pp. 1-22.
88
Casual conveisation with Sulayman, a miuule-ageu Palestinian acquaintance of the shaykh,
Tiipoli, S Nay 2u12.
89
If the wife uislikes hei husbanu anu this can leau to tiansgiession on hei siue, oi the husbanu
uiinks, has extia-maiital affaiis oi often beats his wife, she can ask the qoJi to sepaiate hei fiom
him. In this case she is not entitleu to any mateiial compensation fiom the husbanu, but on the
contiaiy, she has to pay back the mobr (uowiy). See: }uuith E. Tuckei, Women, Iomily onJ 6enJer
in lslomic low (Cambiiuge, New Yoik: Cambiiuge 0niveisity Piess, 2uu8), pp. 9S-1uu.
9u
Inteiview, Tiipoli, Su Apiil 2u12.
18S
with those who uiink, uo not piay oi belong to Ahl al-Biua'", anu tiying to biing
them back to Islam.
91

Sboykb Eisbom, tbe intercommunity peoce-broker

Shaykh Bisham, a Palestinian scholai in his miu-thiities, is well known foi his
effoits to minimize communal tensions between the Lebanese anu the
Palestinians. Be lives in one of the noithein iefugee camps neai Tiipoli anu the
iuial aieas of 'Akkai piovince. Be is the heau of a laige Islamic centei anu also
imam of one the mosques. Bis activities aie not limiteu to the camp anu to aieas
inhabiteu by Palestinians, though; he often goes to give the Fiiuay Seimon in the
neaiby Lebanese Sunni villages. Be also engages in chaiitable activities among
pooi Lebanese, anu maintains a goou ielationship with the leauing peisonalities
in the villages anu the most significant families. Bis uense social netwoiks in
both communities enable him to meuiate in uisputes between Lebanese anu
Palestinians. Nost of the time he is inviteu to meuiate in cases of manslaughtei
anu acciuental killing. Accoiuing to him, uuiing such meuiation one of the biggest
challenges is maneuveiing in the fiamewoik of thiee legal systems: Lebanese
law, the sbori'o anu customaiy {'urfi) law. At the same time, his embeuueuness in
the Salafi netwoiks of the Noith facilitates uispute iesolution. In the following I
will illustiate this by piesenting a typical case that was meuiateu by Shaykh
Bisham.
In 'Akkai, a Palestinian bus uiivei ciusheu two Lebanese schoolboys anu
one of them uieu fiom his injuiies. The case was paiticulaily sensitive because
the uiivei was woiking illegally, using a bus with piivate numbei.
92
If the
victim's family weie to iefuse to solve the case via meuiation, the uiivei woulu
face a much haishei sentence than usual. Lebanese law leaves ioom foi
meuiation anu sulb. In a case of acciuental killing, the suspect is helu in one of the

91
This attituue stanus in opposition to the HoJkboli netwoik's views in Abu Samia uistiict that I
also have ieseaicheu. They wain theii fellow Salafis fiom spenuing time with those "who stiayeu
fiom the path (munborifin)", unless they aie seeking ieligious auvice.
92
Palestinians in Lebanon cannot woik in a iange of piofessions, incluuing being uiiveis in
public tianspoit. In auuition, they cannot own a taxi oi bus useu foi public tianspoit.
184
police stations (anu not in a jail) until the case is solveu. When the juuge is
convinceu that a ieal sulb
9S
has occuiieu, he uiops the chaiges between the two
families. In the bus uiivei's case, the negotiations began immeuiately, thiee uays
aftei the ueceaseu boy hau been buiieu.
94

Theii woik was facilitateu by the fact that the victim's family hau a close
ielationship with Salafi shaykhs in 'Akkai. Along with othei lowei-ianking
shaykhs fiom his Islamic centei, Shaykh Bisham staiteu to negotiate a solution
with these Salafi shaykhs, who in this case iepiesenteu the family. The scholais
togethei pioposeu a solution anu piesenteu it to the two families. Tiauitionally, a
ceitain amount of bloou money (Jiyyo) has to be paiu, even in cases of acciuental
killing, anu the Piophetical Tiauition has histoiically stateu how much shoulu be
paiu as Jiyyo.
9S
Bowevei, in the mouein application of Islamic ciiminal law
uiffeient amounts of bloou money can be set, especially in mouein times.
96
In
Lebanon, customaiy law sets the amount at 1u,uuu 0SB. In view of the pooi
economic situation of the suspect's family, the Salafi shaykhs askeu the victim's
family to foigo the Jiyyo anu make othei uemanus that woulu be even ueaiei to
uou. Aftei long talks, the fathei of the victim agieeu to waive the Jiyyo, anu
insteau askeu the killei to go on pilgiimage to Necca in the same yeai foi the
sake of his son's salvation.
The case illustiates the effectiveness of Salafi infoimal netwoiks in the
Noith of Lebanon. It is unlikely that the victim's family woulu have foigone the
bloou money foi a shaykh fiom Bai al-Fatwa who lackeu a seiious scholaily
netwoik. In this case, though, they consiueieu it moie impoitant to please the
Salafis whom they follow, anu to stiengthen the ielationship with them (which

9S
The juuge has to be assuieu that the two families have been tiuly ieconcileu anu no tbor
(venuetta) will be committeu afteiwaius. Inteiview with Shaykh Bisham, al-Ninya, 2 Nay 2u12.
94
Accoiuing to customaiy law, negotiations can begin thiee uays aftei the ueath, when the
ueceaseu has been buiieu. Seconu anu thiiu-level ielatives of the killei also have to be piesent at
the ceiemony. Ibiu.
9S
"In eaily Islam the stanuaiu blooupiice was given a monetaiy value of 1,uuu uinais oi 12,uuu
(accoiuing to the Banafites 1u,uuu) uiihams. This equals 29.7 oi SS.64 kg of silvei oi 4.2S kg of
golu." Ruuolph Peteis, Crime onJ Punisbment in lslomic low (Cambiiuge; New Yoik: Cambiiuge
0niveisity Piess, 2uuS), p. S1.
96
'Biya', in Bosswoith, Tbe FncyclopoeJio of lslom. The amount of Jiyyo usually uiffeis accoiuing
to countiy oi iegion. See: Tahii Wasti, Tbe Applicotion of lslomic Criminol low in Pokiston (Leiuen
anu Boston: Biill, 2uu9), p. 179, 228; uunnai }ochen Weimann, lslomic Criminol low in Nortbern
Niqerio: Politics, Reliqion, }uJiciol Proctice (Amsteiuam: Amsteiuam 0niveisity Piess, 2u1u), pp.
2S, 27, 1u9.
18S
was possibly also a pation-client ielationship), iathei than asking foi a 1u,uuu-
0SB Jiyyo. At the same time, the ueal was woith something to both paities: the
Lebanese Salafis who iepiesenteu the victim's family eaineu a favoi fiom the
Palestinian one, anu the Palestinian bus uiivei became obligeu to Shaykh
Bisham.

Sulb onJ tbe ocquisition of sociol copitol

Bow aie Salafis' effoits to achieve sulb seiving the Jo'wo. Bow uoes this help the
shaykhs to access iesouices, anu what aie these iesouices. In the following
section I will tiy to answei these questions. Neuiation in conflicts is a veiy
effective tool of iesouice mobilization foi the Salafi movement. Successfully
achieving sulb ieinfoices the social position of the shaykhs. People iespect anu
tiust them moie, theii embeuueuness in social netwoiks incieases anu theii
netwoik ties aie extenueu. In othei woius, meuiation leaus to an inciease in the
shaykhs' social capital, which they can exchange, in tuin, foi othei foims of
capital in the Bouiuieuian sense. To fuithei unueistanu this piocess, we neeu to
biiefly uiscuss the concepts of ieligious anu social capital anu the inteiielations
between them.
In Bouiuieu's theoiy of fielus, ieligious capital is the commouity that is
exchangeu by the actois in the ieligious fielu to achieve stiongei positions (see
Chaptei 1). Religious capital, accoiuing to Bouiuieu, is manifesteu in myths,
iueologies, ieligious knowleuge oi the masteiy of ieligious piactices.
97
I also
classify ieligious authoiity as a manifestation of ieligious capital, because
authoiity itself can be useu as a commouity anu can be investeu to achieve a
highei place in the ieligious fielu.
The notion of "social capital" is ueiiveu fiom the assumption that social
ielationships can leau to the acquisition of ceitain piofits oi benefits. Bouiuieu
uefines social capital as "the aggiegate of the actual oi potential iesouices which
aie linkeu to possession of a uuiable netwoik of moie oi less institutionalizeu

97
Pieiie Bouiuieu, 'uenesis anu Stiuctuie of the Religious Fielu', Comporotive Sociol Reseorcb,
vol. 1S, no. 1, 1991, pp. 22-2S.
186
ielationships of mutual acquaintance oi iecognition".
98
That is, gioup
membeiship, netwoiks of fiienus, followeis oi access to pationage netwoiks
incieases someone's social capital. The impoitance of social capital is that it can
be conveiteu into othei foims of capital, such as economic oi ieligious capital.
99

In oui case, by peifoiming social meuiation, the Salafi shaykhs invest
theii authoiity to gain social capital. This social capital can then be conveiteu
into economic capital oi incieaseu ieligious authoiity. Those people whose
conflicts aie successfully iesolveu usually intenu to stiengthen theii ielationship
with the shaykh in oiuei to ask him foi othei seivices in the futuie.
Consequently, they aie moie willing to assist the shaykh in his activities anu help
him to access the necessaiy iesouices. All of the shaykhs whom I inteivieweu
tolu me that inuiviuuals who have been ieconcileu aie moie ieauy to pioviue
mateiial suppoit.
Foi example, Shaykh Abu Sa'u wanteu to oiganize ieligious lessons
(boloqo, pl. boloqot) in uiffeient mosques in the Qubba iegion. Be neeueu money
to hiie some othei Salafi shaykhs to uo the woik. Since he was at that time
unable to contact chaiity oiganizations, he neeueu piivate inuiviuuals to sponsoi
his plan. Thiee families foi whom he hau pieviously pioviueu meuiating seivices
in social conflicts in which they hau been involveu collecteu about 7,uuu 0SB to
pay the salaiies of the teacheis foi six months. This case shows that the effoit
that Shaykh Abu Sa'u investeu in meuiating foi these families cieateu social ties,
which then pioviueu him with mateiial ievenues. 0sing these mateiial ievenues,
that is, by financing shaykhs to give boloqot, boosteu the spieau of the Salafi
message. At the same time, it is likely that Shaykh Abu Sa'u will be able to iely on
these shaykhs as clients, since he pioviues at least a pait of theii monthly
income. All six shaykhs aie young men fiom Tiipoli who staiteu theii ieligious
stuuies with Shaykh Abu Sa'u. They weie his pupils in his boloqot in the Qubbah
iegion, anu he latei encouiageu them to continue leaining in one of the Salafi
colleges (mo'boJ sboro'i) in the Abu Samia iegion.
The shaykhs also iepoiteu that inuiviuuals whose cases have been
successfully iesolveu often tuin to them when they want to pay soJoqo (make

98
Alejanuio Poites, 'Social Capital: Its 0iigins anu Applications in Nouein Sociology', Annuol
Review of Socioloqy, vol. 24, 1998, p. S.
99
Ibiu., p. 4.
187
voluntaiy uonations). The shaykhs eithei collect the alms themselves oi uiiect
the uonoi to some of the neeuy. Nany of these pooi people aie alieauy (at least
passive) followeis of Salafism, anu ieceiving mateiial ievenues supposeuly
encouiages them to ietain close ties with the movement. The shaykhs can also
ask these inuiviuuals foi othei favois to extenu theii clientele. Some of those
whom the shakyhs help to achieve sulb aie entiepieneuis who own vaiious
kinus of businesses. The scholais can iequest that they give jobs to theii pupils
oi otheis whom they pationize. Shaykh Bisham has come into contact with many
influential anu wealthy peisons uuiing his meuiation activities in 'Akkai, anu
uses these ielations to help his fellow Palestinians, who seem to be ieceptive to
the Salafi message in oiuei to get employeu.
Contacts establisheu via meuiation uo not only help Salafi shaykhs to
access mateiial iesouices (oi in othei woius, economic capital), but they also
pioviue them with new avenues to uisseminate theii message. The shaykhs
iepoiteu that they weie usually inviteu to all the occasions anu events of the
families that they hau helpeu to achieve sulb. Salafi shaykhs aie theiefoie
fiequent guests at weuuings, which pioviue an excellent oppoitunity foi Jo'wo.
At the weuuings of conseivative Sunni families, men anu women celebiate in
segiegateu places. At a ceitain point uuiing the event, the Salafi scholai who is
piesent is inviteu to give a small talk oi lectuie. The weuuing also seives as an
open foium foi oiuinaiy inuiviuuals to appioach the shaykh anu ask theii
questions about ieligion.
Foi Aiab families, social conflicts can have seiious consequences. Retieat
means losing face in society, while ongoing, uniesolveu uisputes can leau even to
aimeu clashes anu huge human anu mateiial losses. It is no wonuei that
oiuinaiy people holu those who can help the paities to ieach a settlement that is
acceptable foi all in high esteem. Theiefoie the Salafi shaykhs' meuiation
activities make a substantial contiibution to incieasing theii ieligious authoiity
anu influence in the Sunni community. As a iesult, they gain significant social anu
mateiial iesouices to extenu theii Jo'wo.

188
Solofis onJ tbe lebonese potronoqe networks

0f all the Aiab states, pationage is piobably the most visible anu piominent in
Lebanon. Theie aie at least two ieasons foi this. Fiist, in ceitain iegions the
piesence of the state is negligible anu the piovision of basic seivices foi the
population uepenus on political pations (zoìm, pl. zuòmo). This is especially
tiue in ceitain paits of the Noith, such as the Binniya iegion oi Àkkai. The
seconu factoi lies in the unique chaiacteiistics of the Lebanese pationage system
itself. Piioi to the Aiab Spiing, in all of the othei Niuule Eastein countiies, one
gioup oi family uominateu the whole political system. This aiiangement still
exists in most of the Aiab states. In such cases, the uominant gioup constitutes
the top of the pationage system. 0thei pations uepenu on them anu aie
simultaneously the clients of the iuleis.
The stiuctuie of pationage in Lebanon is uiffeient. Theie is no uominant
gioup that has been able to take ovei the state. The zuòmo compete with each
othei foi influential positions in the state auministiation. They neeu to fill
goveinment offices iegulaily in oiuei to get access to state iesouices anu
uistiibute them among theii clients, theieby ietaining theii status as zuòmo. In
oiuei to achieve this, pations neeu to mobilize theii clientele at the time of
elections anu collect enough votes to ietuin to pailiament.
The contempoiaiy Lebanese pationage system is iooteu in the 0ttoman
eia. Between the late 18
th
anu eaily 19
th
centuiies, the society of Nount Lebanon
was uominateu by muqto`ji families. The muqto`jis weie foimally appointeu by
the 0ttoman auministiation in oiuei to collect the taxes. In exchange they got a
shaie of the ievenues, anu Istanbul uiu not inteifeie in the inteinal affaiis of the
teiiitoiy contiolleu by the muqto`jis. The legitimacy of the muqto`jis iule was not
baseu on coeicion, but on the peisonal allegiance of the peasants on his lanu.
Sectaiianism was not involveu in this foim of pationage; in most cases, the
lanuloiu was Biuze while the peasants weie Naionites.
1uu

As I have shown in Chaptei S, aftei the civil wai in 186u, the sect became
the main component of the iuentity of the population, anu not belonging to a

1uu
A. Nizai Bamzeh, 'Clientalism, Lebanon: Roots anu Tienus', HiJJle Fostern StuJies, vol. S7, no.
S, 2uu1), pp. 168-169.
189
ceitain pation. Theiefoie pationage itself was uefineu by the ieligious
community. Aftei this time, pations anu clients mainly belongeu to the same
sectaiian gioup. Following the emeigence of the mouein Lebanese state, fiist
uuiing the Fiench manuate fiom 192u anu then fiom inuepenuence in 194S,
pationage became tieu to the state institutions. In this system pations mobilize
theii constituencies uuiing elections. Between elections, they expect them stanu
by them in times of political tuimoil. Foi example, the client might take the
pation's siue in uemonstiations oi even uuiing inteinal fights.
Touay, pationage in Lebanon can be iegaiueu as mouein because most of
the clientele, unlike in the 18
th
anu 19
th
centuiies, uo not have moial bonus to
theii pations. They seive them only foi mateiial ieasons. Fuitheimoie,
contempoiaiy Lebanese pationage is not exclusive. 0nlike eailiei, a client can
seive moie than one pation at a time. Bue to the special featuies of the Lebanese
election system, pations usually compete each othei in the same sectaiian
gioup
1u1
while making alliances with pations of othei confessions. The majoi
cleavages between uiffeient political coalitions in Lebanon uefine the political
map of Tiipoli anu the Noith. In the pieuominantly Sunni iegion, pations ally
themselves with the pio-Westein anu pio-Sauui Naich 14 movement anu with
the pio-Syiian Naich 8 giouping. Salafis aie usually well integiateu into one of
these pationage netwoiks. The highest numbei of them suppoits the pio-
Westein gioup leu by Saù al-Baiiii. Baiiii, though oiiginally fiom Siuon anu
iesiuing in Beiiut, has a vast pationage netwoik in the Noith. Be is also
suppoiteu by local pations, who aie allieu to his block anu ieceive political
backing fiom him. Foi example, most of the borokis have some kinu of access to
Baiiii's pationage netwoik. The most famous "Baiiiii clients" incluue Baì al-
Islam al-Shahhal, Salim al-Rafiì, Zakaiiya al-Nasii anu Rai'u Bulayhil.
The cuiient piime ministei, Najib Niqati, is the most poweiful local
pation in Tiipoli. Aftei a political ciisis in 2u11, the self-maue billionaiie allieu
himself with the pio-Syiian siue. In spite of the fact that that this camp contains
the Shiìte Bizbullah, Niqati has seveial clients fiom the Salafi movement.

1u1
In each electoial uistiict theie is a ceitain numbei of seats in each of the communities, so
electoial competition cannot iesult in a ueciease in the numbei of pailiamentaiy seats helu by
one of the sects, Bassel F. Salloukh, 'The Limits of Electoial Engineeiing in Biviueu Societies:
Elections in Postwai Lebanon', ConoJion }ournol of Politicol Science, vol. S9, no. S, 2uu6, p. 64u.
19u
Bowevei, these belong eithei to the netwoik of Nuhammau Khouoi oi Safwan
al-Za'bi. The foimei iejects the anti-Shi'a stance of the majoiity of the Salafis anu
aigues that of all those in the iegion, only Bizbullah has a tiuly Islamic, puiist
pioject. The lattei aigues that only peaceful coexistence anu coopeiation with
Shi'ite political foices will cieate the stability necessaiy foi the Jo'wo.
In pationage netwoiks theie is always a hieiaichy of "uominance
ielations". In mouein Niuule Eastein societies theie aie seveial figuies that
meuiate between "the little man" anu the "big man".
1u2
Salafis typically play the
iole of the meuiatoi oi miuule-man between oiuinaiy people anu the zuòmo.
The shaykhs aie in a goou position to benefit fiom Lebanese pationage
netwoiks. They possess significant ability to mobilize followeis foi the pations.
Foi the pation himself, ielying on Salafis anu paying them to mobilize followeis
foi elections anu othei occasions costs less than attempting to uiiectly mobilize
laige numbeis of people. Natuially, Lebanese pations have theii masses of
suppoiteis, but they aie unable to ieach out in this way to all the people whose
vote oi piesence in uemonstiations is neeueu. If they aie using the Salafis as
miuule-men, they neeu to finance the shaykhs. The lattei use theii moial
authoiity to peisuaue theii constituencies to vote foi the canuiuates suppoiteu
by the pation. At the same time, most of the shaykhs ieceive funuing fiom othei
souices as well, which is necessaiily useu foi the sake of the pation when the
Salafis have to take siues with one of the political camps.
Theii ielations with pations enable Salafis to pioviue a wiuei iange of
seivices to theii followeis. Since they often ieceive laige amounts of money fiom
the zuòmo, they aie able to give moie mateiial incentives to theii constituencies.
This might take the foim of uiiect financial aiu in the case of a ueath in the
family, paying foi meuical tieatment oi foi the tuition fees of stuuents fiom pooi
families. Buiing my fieluwoik in Noith Lebanon, I hau a chance to examine the
mechanism of pationage anu how Salafis utilize it. In the following I will piesent
some of the cases that I was able to obseive in uetail. 0ne of the best examples of
a Salafi who actively seives one oi moie pations is Shaykh Safwan al-Za`bi,
alieauy mentioneu above. I inteivieweu him about this issue in the summei of

1u2
ueio Eiumann anu 0lf Engel, 'Neopatiimonialism Reconsiueieu: Ciitical Review anu
Elaboiation of an Elusive Concept', Commonweoltb & Comporotive Politics, vol. 4S, no. 1, 2uu7, p.
1u7.
191
2u11. Be always talkeu openly about his coopeiation with the zuòmo anu
justifieu it by explaining that this is how Lebanese society woiks.
Shaykh Safwan mentioneu two cases in which he hau inteiceueu foi his
clients with one of the zuòmo. In the fiist case Ahmau, the heau of a lowei
miuule-class family fiom the Binniya uistiict, auueu a new flooi to his house
without a peimit fiom the municipality. When officials fiom the municipal
council founu out, they oiueieu the man to be fineu foi an extoitionate amount.
Accoiuing to Shaykh Safwan the sum ieacheu almost Su,uuu 0SB. Ahmau tuineu
to Shaykh Safwan foi help. The shaykh has ielatively stiong ties with some of the
pations in Tiipoli, most notably Najib Niqati, the cuiient piime ministei, anu
Nouhammau Safaui. Sahykh Safwan hau only to make some phone calls to
Niqati's close aius, anu aftei a few uays the issue hau been settleu. Ahmau was
no longei obligeu to pay a fine anu he subsequently ieceiveu the peimit fiom the
municipality. Shaykh Safwan acknowleugeu that Ahmau ueseiveu to be helpeu
because he is a uevout Nuslim anu uiges his family membeis to piactice theii
ieligion piopeily. At the same time, he is also able to mobilize a numbei of voteis
uuiing the elections.
The othei case occuiieu in the Tabbaneh uistiict, wheie Safwan has also
succeeueu in builuing up a netwoik of clients. 0ne of these, Ra'iu, was aiiesteu
by the militaiy intelligence seivice on chaiges of having inciteu sectaiian
tensions uuiing the clashes between the Sunni anu the Alawite communities in
the summei of 2u11.
1uS
Although he claimeu that he hau not been involveu, Ra'iu
hau attiacteu the attention of the authoiities because he hau pieviously been a
membei of an unspecifieu militant Palestinian cell. Long befoie he was aiiesteu,
he hau been in contact with Safwan's netwoik anu hau unuoubteuly encouiageu
otheis to attenu the mosques suppoiteu by Safwan. Immeuiately aftei the aiiest,
the shaykh tuineu to both Niqati anu Safaui anu paiu peisonal visits to both
pations. Be uiu not tell me which one finally helpeu, but aftei two weeks oi so,
Ra'iu left piison.
Safwan explaineu that the logic of pationage is such that these people aie
afteiwaius expecteu to show theii uevotion anu appeai iegulaily in one of his
mosques. Naximizing his numbei of followeis incieases his social status among

1uS
Inteiview with Safwan al-Za'bi, Sii al-Binniya, 17 }uly 2u11.
192
the Salafis in Lebanon. Accoiuing to him, unueitaking Jo'wo in this mannei has
two aims. Fiist, it shows the way of tiue Islam to many people, even if some of
them initially staiteu to follow it out of financial inteiest. Seconu, having a
significant followei base attiacts moie funus fiom the uulf States. Fuitheimoie,
it helps him to builu stiongei ielationships with the zuomo. In times of political
tuimoil, Salafi shaykhs such as Safwan aie expecteu to visit the pation with a
uelegation. Such visits foim pait of Lebanese political tiauition anu uemonstiate
that theie aie plenty of people who stanu on the zoims siue. Safwan also
mobilizeu his clientele uuiing the elections. Be maue a list of foui canuiuates:
two belonging to the Baiiii camp, anu the othei two to the Naich 8 giouping.
Accoiuing to Safwan, such moves fuithei inciease his financial options, since he
ieceives payments fiom all the canuiuates he has suppoiteu.
Pation-client ielationships in the Salafi movement aie not always linkeu
to the zuòmo. Salafis fiequently pioviue seivices to inuiviuuals without
inuiiectly ieciuiting them foi the zoìm. I obseiveu such a case when I spent a
few uays in the Waui Khaliu iegion in the summei of 2u11. 0ne of my
infoimants, shaykh Ìmau, who is a piominent Salafi shaykh in the iegion, playeu
an active iole in helping Syiian iefugees who hau fleu fiom the iepiession of the
ongoing uemonstiations. An oluei Syiian woman's leg hau been bioken when
the secuiity foices hau beaten hei up, back in hei hometown. When she aiiiveu
in Waui Khaliu she was alieauy in a ciitical conuition. Shaykh Ìmau gave hei
sheltei in his own home anu spaieu no time anu effoit in oiganizing hei caie in a
goou hospital anu collecting the Su,uuu 0SB neeueu foi hei opeiation. Be was
able to get one thiiu of the money fiom families in Waui Khaliu who sympathizeu
with the Salafis oi the Syiian ievolution. The netwoik of Shaykh Baì al-Islam al-
Sahhal, to which Shaykh Ìmau is also connecteu, uonateu 1u,uuu 0SB.
Suipiisingly, the iest of the money came fiom the Reu Cioss. Shaykh Ìssa got in
touch with the Lebanese iepiesentative of the oiganization, uespite the fact that
Salafis often blame the Reu Cioss foi being one of the Westein "colonizing
poweis."

19S
/-*2$C'&-*

In this chaptei I explaineu how Lebanese Salafi shaykhs constiuct theii ieligious
authoiity, anu how this pioviues them with influential positions in the Sunni
society of Noith Lebanon.
Following Nax Webei, I uefineu authoiity as "legitimate uomination". To
explain ieligious authoiity I useu Khaleu Abou El Faul's concept of "peisuasive
authoiity". Accoiuing to him, someone possesses ieligious authoiity if he is
peiceiveu by the wiuei society as iepiesenting uou's way. People have to believe
that a given peison is able to uefine the bounuaiies of iight belief anu excluue
heietics anu unbelieveis. To explain the constiuction of ieligious authoiity I
applieu Webei's notion of "ioutinization of chaiisma". Following the mainstieam
liteiatuie on ieligious authoiity, I aigueu that ceitain tasks anu attiibutes of the
Piophet have been tiansfeiieu to offices anu institutions. The Piophet's legal
authoiity has been vesteu in the "men of ieligion", oi rijol ol-Jin.
The authoiity of the rijol ol-Jin chiefly ielies on theii possession of
knowleuge, oi 'ilm. 0iuinaiy people submit pait of theii juugment to the men of
ieligion, assuming that the lattei can uiscein the iight ieligious iulings foi them.
Salafis claim authoiity by ieuefining oithouoxy. Tiauitional Nuslim scholais
accept uiffeiences in opinion anu iegaiuing belief anu piactice, as long as these
opinions uo not cleaily violate the continuously negotiateu "uiscuisive limits" of
oithouoxy. The Salafi concept of iight belief, howevei, is iathei static. Salafis
ieject the use of uiffeient methous to ieau the Text anu aigue that in most cases
the iulings of the sbori'o aie cleai anu uo not constitute matteis of
inteipietation. Theiefoie what falls within anu beyonu the bounuaiies of
oithouoxy can be exactly uefineu.
Salafis aigue that they aie in exclusive possession of iight belief. I aigue
that they use uiffeient "techniques of authoiity", which aie supposeu to piove to
theii constituencies that they aie following the tiue path. By piacticing
"moueiate asceticism" Salafis uemonstiate that they live exemplaiy, puie anu
balanceu peisonal lives. This appeals to many oiuinaiy people, who compaie the
Salafis' viituous lifestyles with those of the often selfish anu heuonistic
tiauitional Sunni ieligious elite. Salafis often tiansfoim theii moueiate
194
asceticism into activism in the foim of bisbo. In the Lebanese context this means
constantly coiiecting people's ieligious piactices anu ieminuing them about
auopting a iight belief. A specific foim of bisbo is looking aftei young people anu
peisuauing them to abanuon the "wiong path", such as uiinking, womanizing, oi
being lazy anu unpiouuctive.
I aigueu that fulfilling the socioeconomic neeus of the community is an
impoitant technique of authoiity. The Salafis peiceive that having an altiuistic
attituue, manifesteu in pioviuing mateiial aiu foi the neeuy, often fiom theii own
pocket, ieinfoices theii image as "iueal Nuslims". Fuitheimoie, the ieligious
authoiity that Salafis have alieauy gaineu legitimizes theii iole as meuiatois in
social conflicts anu miuulemen in the pationage netwoiks of the Lebanese
zu'omo. I useu thiee case stuuies to explain how Salafis engage in social
meuiation. I aigueu that if sulb is achieveu, this gieatly incieases the "social
capital" of the shaykhs. This social capital enables them to access mateiial
suppoit fiom the community anu bioauen theii own followei base.

19S
/E#I0): 8
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The mobilization stiuctuie of Salafism is laigely uiffeient fiom that of othei
mainstieam Islamic movements, such as the Nuslim Biotheis oi Bizb ut-Tahiii.
The movement lacks elaboiate institutional stiuctuies. Although theie aie
foimal oiganizations anu institutions such as chaiities anu ieligious colleges,
infoimal netwoiks uominate the iesouice mobilization of the movement. 0nlike
othei movements, in Salafism theie is no cleai hieiaichical stiuctuie of
authoiity, anu membeiship is even less cleaily uefineu. The eailiei liteiatuie on
iesouice mobilization, which mainly focuses on foimal institutions, is theiefoie
of little use in this case. In the past two uecaues, uesciibing social movements as
netwoiks has been incieasingly populai among ieseaicheis. In the following
uiscussion I will uemonstiate that applying a social netwoik appioach helps us
to unueistanu anu explain the stiuctuie of social movements in Niuule Eastein
countiies, especially the stiuctuie of Salafism. Although it mentions the
impoitance of infoimal netwoiks, the liteiatuie on Salafism lacks analysis of the
stiuctuie of these netwoiks.
Theoiists have obseiveu that iathei than being a monolithic entity, a
social movement contains multiple anu heteiogeneous actois which engage in
collective action togethei. A social movement cannot be equateu with a single
oiganization, as eailiei iesouice mobilization theoiists thought, oi with stiings
of piotest events. Reseaicheis on "new social movements" have obseiveu that
social movements stay alive even when no piotest events occui, oi even when
theii institutional fiamewoiks have been uisiupteu (oi nevei establisheu at all).
1

Taking a netwoik appioach towaius social movements theiefoie pioviues a

1
Nelucci, NomoJs of tbe Present; Nancy Whittiei, Ieminist 6enerotions: Tbe Persistence of tbe
RoJicol Womens Hovement (Philauelphia: Temple 0niveisity Piess, 199S); veita Tayloi anu
Nancy Whittiei, 'Analytical Appioaches to Social Novement Cultuie: The Cultuie of the Women's
Novement', in Bank }ohnston anu Beit Klanueimans (eus), Sociol Hovements onJ Culture
(Ninneapolis: 0niveisity of Ninnesota Piess, 199S).
196
wiuei peispective foi analyzing social movements. Biani uefines social
movements as "netwoiks of infoimal inteiactions, between a pluiality of
inuiviuuals, gioups oi associations, engageu in a political oi cultuial conflict, on
the basis of a shaieu collective iuentity".
2
If we appioach the topic fiom a
tiauitional netwoik theoiy peispective, these inuiviuuals, gioups anu
associations (social movement actois) aie the noues of social movement
netwoiks that aie connecteu to each othei by uiiect oi inuiiect ties ("spokes").
These ties aie uiiect if the noues aie uiiectly linkeu to each othei in "explicit
inteiaction anu inteiuepenuence".
S
They might uemote peisonal ielationships
(eithei viitual oi ieal), foi instance, anu intei-gioup oi oiganizational contacts.
Inuiiect ties exist when noues aie not linkeu uiiectly but some kinu of
ielationship is assumeu between them, such as paiticipating in the same activity
oi belonging to the same movement. In the case of Salafism, uue to the
pieuominance of infoimal, inteipeisonal ielationships I will consiuei inuiviuuals
as noues in the netwoiks.
A veiy impoitant question is that of how to uefine whethei a specific noue
is pait of a social movement netwoik oi not, since social movement actois
simultaneously belong to multiple social netwoiks. It is alieauy known that
ceitain ties facilitate, while otheis impeue, paiticipation in a social movement. If
the facilitating ties aie pieuominant, the inuiviuual engages in collective action.
Nellucci, along with othei new social movement theoiists, emphasizes the
impoitance of having a collective iuentity that uiaws people into anu keeps them
in inteipeisonal netwoiks.
4
Latei in this chaptei I will uesciibe how collective
iuentity is constiucteu in Salafism. Aftei this biief uefinition of social movement
netwoiks, in the following I shall seek to examine the kinus of functions that
netwoiks fulfill in Salafism. Bow uo netwoiks link uiffeient noues in the

2
Biani, 'The Concept of a Social Novement', p. 1S.
S
Biani, Naiio. 'Intiouuction: Social Novements, Contentious Actions, anu Social Netwoiks: Fiom
Netaphoi to Substance.', In Biani, Naiio, anu Boug NcAuam eu., Sociol Hovements onJ Networks.
0xfoiu 0niveisity Piess, 2uuS, p. 7.
4
Albeito Nelucci, 'The Piocess of Collective Iuentity', in }ohnson anu Klanueimans, Sociol
Hovements onJ Culture; Caiol N. Nuellei, 'Conflict Netwoiks anu the 0iigins of Women's
Libeiation', in Eniique Laiana, Bank }ohnston anu Robeit R. uusfielu (eu), Sociol Hovements:
Irom lJeoloqy to lJentity (Philauelphia: Temple 0niveisity Piess, 1994); Boiothy Bollanu,
uietchen Fox anu vinci Baio, 'Social Novements anu Collective Iuentity: A Becenteieu, Bialogic
view', Antbropoloqicol uorterly, vol. 81, no. 1, 2uu8; Biani, 'Intiouuction: Social Novements', p.
1u.
197
movement, anu how uoes the movement's netwoik stiuctuie facilitate collective
action. Piecisely how is the stiuctuie of Salafism uiffeient fiom that of othei
Islamic movements, such as the Nuslim Biotheis, Bizb ul-Tahiii oi Sufi oiueis.

9)04-:3' #*5 2&<&$ '-2&)0=

Befoie answeiing these questions, we neeu to locate Salafism, along with othei
social movements, in the wiuei Niuule Eastein society. Westein liteiatuie
locates social movements in the iealm of civil society. Cohen anu Aiato, foi
example, call social movements "the self uefense of the society against the state",
eithei to block the lattei's attempts to uominate civil institutions oi to change
anu uefine the accepteu social iules anu noims.
S
In Babeimas' social theoiy
social movements uefenu the "life woilu" that is goveineu by noimative
consensus against colonization attempts by the "system", which is goveineu by
money anu powei.
6

In oiuei to analyze Salafism as a pait of Niuule Eastein civil society we
have to ie-conceptualize the notion of civil society itself, since the uominant
appioaches aie giounueu in a Westein social context. The Westein concept of
civil society - which is ueiiveu fiom Enlightenment thought - is of a pluiality of
associations that meuiate between the piivate iealm oi family anu the state.
Theoiists usually unueistanu civil society as composeu of foimal institutions
such as tiaue unions, inuepenuent newspapeis, civil associations, clubs, chaiities
anu Nu0s. Tiauitional, piimoiuial social institutions aie usually iegaiueu as
anathema to civil society, as they block the fieeuom of exchange anu association
of inuepenuent inuiviuuals. Civil society is mostly iegaiueu as a space that is
sepaiate fiom the state, with its main ioles being uefenuing against anu
iegulating political powei anu the peaceful management of conflict. At the same
time, civil society is the iealm wheie collective iuentity anu citizenship (ielateu
to specific nation states) emeige.

S
}ean L. Cohen anu Anuiew Aiato, Civil Society onJ Politicol Tbeory (New Baskeiville:
Nassachusetts Institute of Technology, 1992), pp. 492-S6S.
6
Buechlei, 'New Social Novement Theoiies', p. 44S.
198
The existence of a civil society is iegaiueu as one of the main
pieconuitions foi uemociacy. A significant bouy of liteiatuie suggests that the
key to uemociatization in Niuule Eastein countiies will be the emeigence of a
stiong civil society composeu of foimal associations that aie fiee fiom state
supeivision anu patiiaichal influences.
7
Tiauitional institutions like the mosques
oi the Jiwoniyyo in Kuwait aie mentioneu, but not explaineu. Saau Euuin
Ibiahim iecognizes the existence of a tiauitional public space in the Aiab woilu
ovei the centuiies, wheie "vaiious gioups coexisteu anu inteiacteu with a gieat
ueal of autonomy", but he aigues that this space uisappeaieu aftei the
emeigence of the mouein Aiab states.
8
Accoiuing to him, as the state has
withuiawn, piimoiuial ties anu Islamist associations have become stiongei. The
authoi aigues that this will not maik the emeigence of a kinu of civil society
unless they accept "the piinciple of pluialism anu obseive a mouicum of civility
in behavioi towaiu the uiffeient othei".
9

0theis aie also unable to go beyonu the Westein concept of civil society.
They piesciibe anu pieuict a Westein tiajectoiy of uevelopment foi Niuule
Eastein societies, in which a Euiopean type of civil society is supposeu to emeige
anu push the Aiab woilu into a moie "civilizeu" phase of uevelopment. Accoiuing
to Noiton, foi example, civil society is supposeu to emeige fiom voluntaiy
associations of uoctois anu engineeis.
1u
Nost of the authois ignoie the playeis in
the abovementioneu tiauitional public space, such as ieligious associations anu
movements, Sufi toriqos, the ùlomo', mosques oi clans anu tiibes.
The Westein concept of civil society offeis an impeifect staiting point foi
obseiving anu analyzing a numbei of social phenomena in the Niuule East. Civil
society in the classical unueistanuing (i.e. composeu of voluntaiy associations)
secuies political anu piopeity iights. Bowevei, in Niuule Eastein societies, the
social anu economic oiuei is mostly maintaineu by piimoiuial ties, such as the

7
See, foi example, the contiibutions in Augustus Richaiu Noiton (eu), Civil Society in tbe HiJJle
Fost., vols. 1-2 (Leiuen anu New Yoik: Biill, 1996) anu Robeit B. Putnam, Hokinq Bemocrocy
Work: Civic TroJitions in HoJern ltoly (Piinceton: Piinceton 0niveisity Piess, 199S), especially
pp. 16S-18S.
8
Saau Euuin Ibiahim, 'Civil Society anu Piospects of Bemociatization in the Aiab Woilu', in Saau
Euuin Iniahim, Fqypt: lslom onJ Bemocrocy: Criticol Fssoys (Caiio: The Ameiican 0niveisity in
Caiio Piess, 2uu2), p. 247.
9
Ibiu., p. 26S.
1u
Augustus Richaiu Noiton, 'The Futuie of Civil Society in the Niuule East', Tbe HiJJle Fost
}ournol, vol. 47, no. 2, 199S, pp. 2u9-211.
199
tiibe, the family, the pation-client system oi the sect. It is theiefoie misleauing
anu neglectful to wiite about the iegion's social movements using the classical
unueistanuing of civil society. Insteau of using an ethnocentiic concept that is
only applicable to ceitain societies, it is moie fiuitful to seek an alteinative, moie
compiehensive notion of civil society.
Chiis Bann offeis a useful appioach foi this puipose. Be states that

theie is something inheiently unsatisfactoiy about the inteinational
piopagation by westein scholais of an iueal of social oiganisation that
seems to beai little ielation to the cuiient iealities of theii own countiies;
an iueal which, fuitheimoie, uevelopeu in histoiical conuitions that
cannot be ieplicateu in any othei pait of the woilu touay. I shall suggest
that the teim is iiuuleu with contiauictions anu the cuiient vogue
pieuicateu on a funuamental ethnocentiicity.
11

Bann aigues that the two uominant stianus of civil society liteiatuie, the Naixist
anu the libeial, uo not leave ioom "foi the exploiation of alteinative foims of
social ielationship to those assumeu by libeial-inuiviuualism, of cultuially
specific patteins of geneiating tiust in human communities that aie giowing
evei moie ciowueu anu complex".
12
Foi this ieason, tiauitional customs anu
piactices cannot be neglecteu. "Theie is theiefoie a neeu to shift the uebates
about civil society away fiom foimal stiuctuies anu oiganisations anu towaius
an investigation of beliefs, values anu eveiyuay piactices."
1S

Bann offeis a uefinition of civil society which is moie applicable to Niuule
Eastein societies anu also moie useful foi anthiopologists. Bis thesis is that all
societies uevelop "specific piactices anu noimative coues thiough which people
aie maue accountable anu iesponsible to othei membeis of society".
14
Theiefoie
insteau of ieplicating Westein mouels, it is bettei to "unueistanu civil society to
iefei moie loosely to the moial community, to the pioblems of accountability,
tiust anu co-opeiation that all gioups face. In this sense, all human communities

11
Bann, 'Intiouuction', in Bann anu Bunn, Civil Society, p. 1.
12
Ibiu., p. S.
1S
Ibiu., p. 1S.
14
Ibiu., p. 19.
2uu
aie conceineu with establishing theii own veision of a civil society."
1S
0sing this
unueistanuing, specific tiauitional social foimations like tiibal anu pation-client
ielations can also be incluueu as paits of civil society.
Richaiu Antoun uses Bann's concept to aigue that tiibal piocesses foim
an oiganic pait of civil society in }oiuan. Be analyzes tiibal conflict iesolution
piocesses to uemonstiate that inuigenous piactices can fulfill the same iole in
Niuule Eastein societies as that of foimal institutions in Westein societies.
16
Be
also ciiticizes the sepaiation of the uomains of politics, the public spheie anu the
piivate spheie that is commonly to be founu in Westein civil society theoiies. Be
conceptualizes social ielations as a seamless web, which influence each othei
anu cut thiough uiffeient segments of society. Theiefoie, the abovementioneu
sepaiation might not be applicable to Niuule Eastein societies.
17

Antoun fuithei uevelops Bann's uefinition of civil society by aiguing that
"civil society is constituteu by univeisal piocesses of tiust anu coopeiation that
have sepaiate inflections in uiffeient cultuies." Be imagines civil society as being
composeu of wiue-ianging social netwoiks anu "the piocess of civil society foim
a seamless web with state piocesses iathei than a shaip uichotomy with
them."
18
I aigue that social movements shoulu be unueistoou in the context of
this seamless web. Novements like Salafism utilize the netwoiks of infoimal
associations to fulfill people's eveiyuay social neeus, such as the neeu foi
mateiial help, uiscussion of public affaiis anu conflict iesolution. 0ccasionally
they also use the iesouices pioviueu by foimal institutions such as chaiities, oi
even political paities.
In shoit, social movements paiticipate in a web of exchange of iesouices
anu infoimation that constitutes civil society. 0nueistanuing Salafism in this
context, in the following I will uemonstiate how the movement's mobilization
stiuctuies aie oiganically connecteu to the piocesses anu institutions of Niuule
Eastein civil society. I will analyze the special featuies of the stiuctuie of

1S
Ibiu.
16
Richaiu T. Antoun, 'Civil Society, Tiibal Piocess, anu Change in }oiuan', lnternotionol }ournol of
HiJJle Fost StuJies, vol. S2, no. 4, 2uuu.
17
Ibiu., p. 46u.
18
Ibiu., pp. 441-442.
2u1
Salafism anu show how it incoipoiates inuigenous social institutions such as
conflict iesolution oi pationage in its mobilizing stiuctuies.

"I)2&%&2 %)#0C:)' -% 0E) '0:C20C:) -% "#$#%&'(

In the following I will analyze the shape anu function of the netwoik stiuctuie of
Salafism in Lebanon at the local level. Bowevei, befoie uoing so, we neeu to
unueistanu why Salafis mobilize. The Salafis netwoik uoes not mobilize
iesouices foi collective action against the state oi the capitalist economic
system. Noimally, Salafis aie not (oi only inuiiectly) inteiesteu in such goals. The
aim of the movement is to achieve social change thiough changing the inuiviuual.
The social movement netwoiks of Salafism tiansmit symbols anu values anu
mateiial iesouices to piomote a ceitain lifestyle. In othei woius, iesouices aie
not mobilizeu to launch mass uemonstiations, but iathei to make the Salafi
vision of life the accepteu social noim. We can obseive that collective action in
Salafism iesembles that of othei "lifestyle movements".
19
As Baenflei et al. put it,
"paiticipation occuis piimaiily at the inuiviuual level with the subjective
unueistanuing that otheis aie taking similai action, collectively auuing up to
social change".
2u
Netwoiks seive to facilitate this "inuiviuualizeu collective"
action. They pioviue space foi inuiviuuals to expiess theii iuentity anu moial
suppoit to auopt oi maintain the Salafi way of life, anu by that expoit theii value
system to the wiuei society. As I will show latei, even when Salafis mobilize
mateiial iesouices, they uo this in oiuei to encouiage otheis to accept theii
noims anu habits anu to keep committeu Salafis within the movement.
When Salafis engage in "conventional" collective action in the fiamewoik
of contentious politics, they aie often unsuccessful. In the spiing of 2u12, some
Salafi shaykhs maue seveial unsuccessful calls foi uemonstiations in oiuei to
uemanu that the goveinment ielease oi put on tiial theii aiiesteu fellow Salafis
anu Islamists.
21
Bespite the huge effoit they put into mobilizing people to

19
Baenflei, 'Lifestyle Novements'.
2u
Ibiu., p. S.
21
Aftei the battle in Nahi al-Baiiu camp in 2uu7, seveial young Salafis weie aiiesteu anu accuseu
of having been in contact with Fath al-Islam anu othei jihaui oiganizations. Nany of them aie still
in jail five yeais latei, anu a tiial uate has not been set.
2u2
piotest, the iesults weie iathei mouest. The majoiity of committeu Salafis
ignoieu the call, on the giounus that these uemonstiations uo not seive the
inteiest of the captives, but only uegiaue "uou's call" to a "political oiganization
such as the Nuslim Biotheihoou".
22
Nost of the paiticipants in the
uemonstiations appeaieu to be young (ageu 16-2S), unemployeu men who hau
little ielationship with Salafism. As many of them explaineu to me, they uiu not
have anything bettei to uo, so they joineu the piotest in the hope of having some
fun.
The mobilization stiuctuies of the Salafi movement consist almost
exclusively of infoimal netwoiks. As mentioneu above, infoimal contacts aie
essential in all social movements anu they cannot be equateu with foimal
oiganizational stiuctuies. But in the case of some movements, infoimal ties aie
uominant anu foimal stiuctuies play a veiy limiteu iole. Salafism is among these
movements, anu this is tiue foi both borokis anu puiists. Although uuiing the
Aiab Spiing, the puiists foimeu political paities such as Eizb ol-Nur (the al-Nui
Paity) in Egypt, those lack the usual chaiacteiistics of mainstieam Islamist
paities. While the lattei have a top-uown institutional stiuctuie that iesembles a
Leninist oiganization, Salafi paities seive as umbiella oiganizations foi the
movement's uiveise netwoiks.
The piogiam of the al-Nui Paity uoes not piopose the establishment of an
Islamic state anu the abolishment of the existing seculai one. Rathei, it puts
emphasis on social justice anu issues that implicitly encouiage Islamization on
the social level. Foi example, the paity piomises to help small enteipiises.
2S
This
can be beneficial foi two ieasons. Fiist, in geneial in the Niuule East establishing
a small enteipiise such as a iestauiant oi shop is the only way out of poveity foi
the majoiity of the population (since getting well-paiu state employment oi a
goou position in a piivate company is the piivilege of the well-connecteu anu
well-euucateu). People aie awaie of this anu they aie keen to suppoit a political
foice that enuoises this.
Seconu, suppoiting the emeigence of small-scale businesses is a way to
establish a pious miuule class, a laige pait of which woulu supposeuly be Salafi

22
Inteiview, Tiipoli, 9 Nay 2u12.
2S
http:www.alnouipaity.oig.
2uS
sympathizeis. This is piobably the ieason why many, if not the majoiity, of
Egypt's influential Salafi 'ulomo, with theii numeious constituencies, lineu up
behinu Eizb ol-Nur. This, howevei, uoes not mean foimal membeiship; most
Salafis have infoimal contacts to the paity thiough the uense netwoik stiuctuie
of the movement. In shoit, the al-Nui paity is only a political platfoim oi official
face foi the laigely infoimal Salafi movement. It is not unlike ol-Tojommu' ol-
Solofi in Kuwait, which also lacks an elaboiate institutional system (see also
Chaptei S).
A numbei of acauemic publications have alieauy shown how infoimal
social netwoiks aie significant in Islamic movements.
24
Bowevei, most of these
infoimal netwoiks aie oiganically connecteu to the movements' foimal
oiganizational bouies anu aie influenceu by theii uecision-making mechanisms.
We cannot imagine the Nuslim Biotheihoou oi Bizb ul-Tahiii, foi example,
without theii sophisticateu institutional stiuctuies. Infoimal social netwoiks aie
connecteu to these stiuctuies anu facilitate the effective functioning of the
foimal oiganizations.
2S
In othei woius, the foimal oiganizational anu the
infoimal paits complement each othei anu aie of equal impoitance in the
uynamics of the movement.
The Nuslim Biotheihoou's oiganizational stiuctuie consists of two main
paits that cooiuinate with each othei: the political bouy anu a laige netwoik of
chaiitable institutions, which aie uensely inteiconnecteu. This kinu of foimal
institutional stiuctuie is almost totally lacking in Salafism. While mainstieam
Islamist movements aie moie oi less centializeu, at least at the local level, the
opposite is tiue foi Salafism. Salafis fiequently ueny anu usually uo not even
iecognize that they aie pait of the movement. As many of my infoimants in
Lebanon anu Kuwait explaineu, they aie simply following the puie Islam, fiee
fiom any kinu of innovation anu heietical piactices. Boing this cannot be
iuentifieu with a kinu of "boroko" (the Aiabic teim foi "movement").

24
Biane Singeiman, 'The Netwoikeu Woilu of Islamist Social Novements', in Wiktoiowicz (eu),
lslomic Activism; }anine A. Claik, 'Islamist Women in Yemen: Infoimal Noues of Activism', in
Wiktoiowicz, lslomic Activism.
2S
0ne shoulu mention that foimal institutions in the Nuslim Biotheihoou aie stiong at the local
level. At the tiansnational level, infoimal, inteipeisonal netwoiks aie pieuominant. See Alison
Paigetei, Tbe Huslim BrotberbooJ: Tbe BurJen of TroJition, Kinule e-book euition (Lonuon: SAQI,
2u1u), location: 2u91-296S.
2u4
Theie aie at least two ieasons foi this exclusive ieliance on infoimal ties.
Fiist, infoimal netwoiks avoiu iepiession moie effectively. Reseaicheis who
have examineu social movements in oppiessive enviionments like the foimei
Communist countiies, oi othei autociatic iegimes oi patiiaichal social
stiuctuies, emphasize the impoitance of infoimal ties. Bue to the oveiwhelming
piesence of the state's secuiity seivice, movements in East ueimany weie only
able to mobilize people via infoimal fiienuship netwoiks.
26
The black civil iights
movement utilizeu the infoimal contacts uevelopeu in the Chuich,
27
while the
feminist movement suiviveu in infoimal intellectual ciicles in the Reagan eia.
28

Scholais of the Niuule East also emphasize the infoimal netwoik stiuctuie of the
social movements in the iegion uue to the piesence of iepiessive political
iegimes.
29
Wiktoiowicz has shown how Salafis effectively avoiu the attention of
the }oiuanian secuiity seivices by utilizing infoimal social contacts anu stuuy
gioups at home.
Su

Wiktoiowicz, howevei, neglecteu the othei ieason why Salafis avoiu
foimal oiganization, which is that Salafi teachings themselves ieject it. Foimal
institutions cieate uivisions among Nuslims, while Islam intenus to unify
Nuslims in one bouy. Theiefoie foimal institutions aie often iegaiueu as biJo`
anu establishing them leaus Nuslims away fiom the tiue path. They commonly
iefei to this as bizbiyyo (paitisanship), which holus the uangei that the
inuiviuual will become loyal to the oiganization insteau of uou. 0ne of my
infoimants, Shaykh Saàu al-Bin al-Kibbi, explaineu to me that, "the Ikhwan
ieplaceu uou with the oiganization. What you, as a Nuslim, have to saciifice foi
uou, they uo it foi the oiganization".
S1
As Nuhammau bin al-`0thaymin (192S-
2uu1), one of the most piominent Salafi authoiities, wiote:

26
Kail-Bietei 0pp anu Chiistiane uein, 'Bissiuent uioups, Peisonal Netwoiks, anu Spontaneous
Coopeiation: The East ueiman Revolution of 1989', Americon Socioloqicol Review, vol. S8, no. S,
199S.
27
Luthei P. ueilach anu viiginia B. Bine, People, Powei, Change: Hovements of Sociol
Tronsformotion. lnJionopolis (New Yoik: The Bobbs-Neiiill Company, INC, 197u).
28
Whittiei, Ieminist 6enerotions, pp. 191-224.
29
Singeiman, 'The Netwoikeu Woilu of Islamist Social Novements'; Asef Bayat, 'Islamism anu
Social Novement Theoiy', TbirJ WorlJ uorterly, vol. 26, no. 6, 2uuS.
Su
Wiktoiowicz, 'The Salafi Novement in }oiuan'.
S1
Inteiview with Shaykh Saàu al-Bin al-Kibbi, 'Akkai, 12 0ctobei 2uu9.
2uS
I think that Ahl al-Sunnah wa-l-}amaa'ah shoulu unite, even though they
uiffei in the ways in which they unueistanu those texts that may be
inteipieteu in uiffeient ways. This is a mattei in which theie is ioom foi
uiffeience, may uou be piaiseu. What matteis is haimony anu unity. No
uoubt the enemies of Islam want the Nuslims to be uiviueu, whethei they
aie enemies who expiess theii enmity openly oi they aie enemies who
make an outwaiu uisplay of fiienuliness towaius Nuslims anu Islam, but
that is not ieal. We must be uiffeient |fiom othei communitiesj by being
uniteu, because unity is the chaiacteiistic of the saveu gioup.
S2

Accoiuing to Shaykh Rabi` al-Naukhali, the Text cleaily foibius the
establishment of any kinu of oiganization. In one of his books, which is ciitical of
Islamist movements anu the activist Salafism iepiesenteu by Àbu al-Rahman
Àbu al-Khaliq, he iefeis to some Qui'an veises to boost his stance: "Bolu fast to
uou's iope all togethei; uo not split into factions";
SS
"As foi those who have
uiviueu theii ieligion anu bioken up into factions, have nothing to uo with them
|Piophetj";
S4
"This is Ny path, leauing stiaight, so follow it, anu uo not follow
othei ways: they will leau you away fiom it."
SS
Accoiuing to the authoi, when
Nuslims stoppeu paying attention to these veises, this leu to the uecline of the
0mmo. In his opinion, Nuslims fiom Noiocco to Inuonesia woulu have been able
to libeiate theii lanus fiom the aimies of the unbelieveis at the time of
uecolonization, hau the colonial poweis not spieau the iuea of paitisanship,
which leu to the foimation of Islamist movements. These, along with theii
seculaiist counteipaits, keep the Nuslims scatteieu anu allow the unbelieveis to
inuiiectly influence anu govein Islamic countiies.
S6

S2
Seimon of Shaykh Ibn '0thaymin, unuateu, available online at:
www.ibnothaymeen.comallkhotabaiticle_46u.shtml (accesseu: 12 0ctobei, 2u1u).
SS
Al-'0mian 1uS, tianslateu by Abuel-Baleem.
S4
al-An'am 1S9, ibiu.
SS
Al-Ana'm 1SS, ibiu.
S6
Rabi' bin Baui al-Naukhali, }omo'o WobiJo lo }omo'ot Wo Sirot WobiJ lo 'Asborot: Eiwor Ho'
'AbJ ol-Robmon 'AbJ ol-Kboliq (without uate anu publishei).
http:www.iabee.netshow_ues.aspx.piu=1&iu=17&giu= (accesseu: 11 0ctobei 2u11).
2u6
.E) '0:C20C:) -% "#$#%& *)04-:3' &* 9-:0E +),#*-*

Wiktoiowicz coiiectly notes that Salafis in the Niuule East use inuigenous
patteins of mobilization when utilizing infoimal netwoiks. A huge bouy of
liteiatuie has shown that the people of the Niuule East use infoimal social
contacts almost exclusively to fulfill theii uaily neeus anu inteiests. Since foimal
institutions in the Aiab countiies aie usually weak anu unieliable, theie has
always been a high level of infoimality in eveiyuay social exchanges. To give
some examples, pation-client ielationships aie pieuominant in the uistiibution
of goous, mateiial aiu anu jobs.
S7
White shows how woiking-class women in
Istanbul maintain infoimal associations foi mutual help that aie baseu on
tiauitional patteins.
S8
Bistoiically, the oiganization of the ieligious life anu
euucation has also mostly been infoimal. 0ntil the 2u
th
centuiy, ieligious
knowleuge was pieuominantly tiansmitteu infoimally in stuuy ciicles helu in the
mosques anu to this uay, this type of euucation continues to fulfill a significant
iole besiues sboriò faculties.
S9
Novements in the Niuule East have tiauitionally
utilizeu these channels. These inuigenous paits of Niuule Eastein civil society
constitute the main avenues of mobilization foi Salafism.
The shape of Salafi netwoiks in Noith Lebanon is influenceu by the
movement's stiuctuie of authoiity, as uiscusseu in Chaptei 4. The movement's
sub-netwoiks that constitute the basic elements of laigei netwoiks aie moie
veitically shapeu than those in othei countiies, such as Kuwait, foi example.
4u

This is uue to the exceptionally significant iole playeu by the shaykhs, as
uiscusseu in Chaptei 4. These sub-netwoiks aie gioupeu aiounu a ieligious
leauei anu consist of his stuuents anu passive followeis in the neighboihoou
wheie his activities aie concentiateu. The sub-netwoiks connect to each othei to

S7
uuilain Benoux, 0rbon 0nrest in tbe HiJJle Fost: A Comporotive StuJy of lnformol Networks in
Fqypt, lron onJ lebonon (Albany: State 0niveisity of New Yoik Piess, 199S), pp. 16-2u, pp. 29-44.
Suau }oseph, 'BiotheiSistei Relationships: Connectivity, Love anu Powei in the Repiouuction of
Patiiaichy in Lebanon', Americon Ftbnoloqist, vol. 21, no. 1, 1994.
S8
}enny B. White, 'Civic Cultuie anu Islam in 0iban Tuikey' (New Yoik: Routleuge, 1996).
S9
Almost all stuuents at foimal Islamic euucational institutions, such as al-Azhai, tolu me that
they paiticipateu in infoimal stuuy ciicles on at least a weekly basis besiues theii official
cuiiicula.
4u
Accoiuing to my obseivations, in many cases, Kuwaiti shaykhs have much less authoiity ovei
committeu Salafi activists than in Lebanon. Active paiticipants often uo not belong to one
shaykh's netwoik, but visit many. The ieason foi this piobably lies in the fact that the aveiage
Kuwaiti Salafi is not uepenuent on a shaykhs' pationage, unlike the Lebanese.
2u7
constitute laigei netwoik stiuctuies at the local anu tiansnational levels (see
latei in this chaptei).

Tbe men of reliqion

At the top of the sub-netwoiks aie those inuiviuuals who aie associateu with
peifoiming ieligious tasks oi outstanuing piety. They aie consiueieu pait of the
ieligious elite. Nost of them peifoim ieligious tasks such as giving seimons,
holuing ieligious lessons, taking caie of mosques, auministeiing ieligious
enuowments, anu so foith. They aie geneially given the title "shaykh". This is a
wiue categoiy, howevei, which incluues inuiviuuals who posses uiffeient levels
of ieligious knowleuge. Some of them aie iecognizeu scholais oi influential
pieacheis with huge followei bases, otheis aie less euucateu, aie only influential
in theii neighboihoous anu aie counteu as clients of othei shaykhs. To uiaw a
cleaiei pictuie of the categoiy of the Salafi shaykhs anu to facilitate the analysis,
I classify them in two uiffeient subgioups. Beie I shoulu stiess that the following
classification is bluiieu anu can be applieu only to the situation in Lebanon.
The ùlomo aie the most knowleugeable anu euucateu membeis of the
Salafi community. The mouein Westein liteiatuie usually consiueis the ùlomo
class in Sunni Islam to consist of those who possess some kinu of foimal ieligious
euucation. Accoiuing to Neii Batina, the ùlomo aie those "who acquiieu theii
foimal ieligious tiaining anu cieuentials in establisheu mauiasas anu ieligious
colleges, anu weie iuentifiable by theii attiie of cloaks anu tuibans {òmoim)."
41

The pioblem with this uefinition is that it uoes not covei fully those who the
wiuei Sunni community consiuei to be ùlomo. Although most of the Salafis in
Lebanon who belong to this class stuuieu eithei at the Islamic 0niveisity of
Neuina oi in one of the Lebanese Salafi colleges, this is not always the case. To
give an example, Shaykh Nui al-Bin Àmmai, a leauing scholai fiom the Binniyeh
iegion, east of Tiipoli, has nevei stuuieu at any kinu of ieligious college oi
univeisity. Be uoes not even posses a foimal ijozo (license) fiom a iecognizeu
scholai. Rathei, he acquiieu his knowleuge in a wholly autouiuactic fashion.

41
Batina, 6uorJions of Ioitb in HoJern Times, p. 1.
2u8
Bespite this, Shaykh Nui al-Bin is iegaiueu as one of the most knowleugeable
Salafis in Lebanon. Thousanus ask him to issue fotwos, anu on Fiiuays aiounu
6uu people usually appeai in his mosque to listen to his seimon. Be has acquiieu
wiue iecognition as a boJitb scholai anu aibitiatoi in the semi-tiibal society of
al-Binniyeh.
In my opinion, Nuhammau Qasim Zaman's uefinition is moie appiopiiate.
Be aigues that "it is a combination of theii intellectual foimation, theii vocation,
anu ciucially, theii oiientation viz., a ceitain sense of continuity with the Islamic
tiauition that uefines the ùlomo as ùlomo."
42
Accoiuing to Zaman, this is what
uistinguishes the ùlomo fiom moueinists anu Islamist intellectuals. The lattei
often shaie the belief "that one uoes not necessaiily neeu that tiauition |i.e. the
Islamic intellectual anu ieligious tiauitionj to unueistanu the 'tiue' meaning of
Islam, anu that one ceitainly uoes not neeu the ùlomo to inteipiet Islam to the
oiuinaiy believeis. That authoiity belongs to eveiyone anu to no one in
paiticulai."
4S
Although Salafis emphasize the neeu foi eveiybouy to be able to
ieau anu unueistanu the Text, anu will accept anyone's opinion aftei being
assuieu by stuuying the souices, many of them still stiess that the ùlomo aie
not uispensable. Accoiuing to them, society is in neeu of expeits on the Qui'an
anu the Sunna who can uiaw the bounuaiies of ieligious inteipietation.
Fuitheimoie, they also believe that it is impoitant not to uismiss the intellectual
tiauition of Islam; that is, to use those paits of this tiauition which aie acceptable
accoiuing to the Salafi inteipietation. In Salafi wiitings - at least in the puiist
ones - when uiscussing a ceitain issue, the ienowneu ùlomo of past centuiies
aie usually quoteu.
With this in minu, the uesciiption of ùlomo shoulu be applieu to those
who match the following ciiteiia. Fiist, those who iely on the Islamic intellectual
tiauition in builuing theii ieligious authoiity. Seconu, those who fulfill a iole in
society that is supposeu to be fulfilleu by the ùlomo. This means pioviuing
believeis with the inteipietations of the Text they neeu to live theii uaily lives as
pious Nuslims, anu peifoiming ceitain ieligious seivices such as giving seimons
oi holuing ieligious lessons. The thiiu conuition is to be iecognizeu as an òlim

42
Nuhammau Qasim Zaman, Tbe 0lomo in Contemporory lslom (Piinceton: Piinceton 0niveisity
Piess, 2uu2), p. 1u.
4S
Ibiu., p. 1u.
2u9
by a substantial pait of the fellow ùlomo anu the wiuei Sunni community. This
last ciiteiia is veiy impoitant in view of the fact that many of those among the
Salafis who aie not consiueieu to be ùlomo fulfill similai ieligious uuties (see
below). 0niveisal iecognition, howevei, is pieventeu by the fact that many ciitics
iegaiu Salafism as a heietical anu supeificial iueology. Nany Ash'aii 'ulomo with
a Sufi oiientation believe that a Salafi cannot be a scholai because what he
iepiesents is not 'ilm. A shaykh fiom Bai al-Fatwa tolu me that Salafis lack
insight into the ieal meaning of the Sciiptuie, anu that theii methous aie insteau
confineu to "boJitb hustling", a teim boiioweu fiom Nuhammau al-uhazali.
44

Neithei uo Salafis iecognize Sufis as 'ulomo. I have encounteieu some activists
who use the teim 'olim only to iefei to Salafi scholais, because those who follow
othei cieeus anu monboj aie "inventois" (mubtoJi'un) anu uo not ueseive to be
iegaiueu as scholais.
4S

The ùlomo aie the backbone of the Salafi movement in Lebanon. Some of
them even have tiansnational influence: theii publications aie ieau in seveial
Niuule Eastein countiies anu Euiope anu they aie in contact with othei Salafi
mosques, gioups anu chaiities abioau. Shaykh Salim al-Rafiì, Raìu Bulayhil anu
Zakaiiya al-Nasii aie among these. Bowevei, the majoiity of the Salafi ùlomo
only have local influence, which uoes not extenu beyonu theii city quaiteis oi
villages. The ùlomo aie usually imams of mosques, oi uiiectois anu senioi
teacheis of ieligious colleges (moòbiJ sboroìyyo). 0sually they have a numbei
of stuuents who iegulaily attenu theii ieligious lessons, which they give in the
mosques oi in theii homes. The ùlomo teach these ieligiously committeu young
inuiviuuals accoiuing to theii specialization. Some shaykhs aie expeits in the
boJitb, otheis aie uistinguisheu in fiqb. Foi example, one of the most ienowneu
Lebanese Salafi ùlomo, Zakaiiyya al-Nasii, is well known foi his lessons on the
mouein inteipietation of Ibn Bazm. Nost of the ùlomo aie full-time ieligious
scholais anu eain theii income exclusively fiom theii ieligious activities. They
tenu to ieceive a salaiy fiom the woqf they auministei - the money in many
cases comes fiom sponsois in the uulf (see below) - oi fiom the college oi

44
Inteiview, 2S Apiil 2u12.
4S
Some puiists even iefuse to iefei to anyone who uoes not belong to theii faction as 'olim.
21u
univeisity wheie they teach. Some of them also have piivate businesses, like Nui
al-Bin Àmmai, who is a successful meichant as well.
To the categoiy of the lessei-ianking shaykhs belong those inuiviuuals
whose knowleuge uoes not compaie with that of the ùlomo but who aie still
counteu among rijol ol-Jin (see Chaptei 4). In the Noith of Lebanon, people
simply call these people "shaykhs" oi sometimes Joìs (pieachei). Nost of these
inuiviuuals nevei hau any kinu of ieligious euucation asiue fiom paiticipation in
infoimal stuuy ciicles. Bespite this, they still possess a much highei level of
knowleuge about ieligion than uo oiuinaiy people. Noieovei, they aie counteu
among those who have an outstanuing level of ieligious commitment, since they
tenu to be establisheu membeis of the Salafi Jo`wo. Theiefoie the authoiity of
these shaykhs is not built on ìlm (knowleuge) to the extent that this is tiue of the
ùlomo, but moie on milu asceticism (see Chaptei 4). This piety is tianslateu into
ueeus that aie usually inteipieteu as saciifices foi the well-being anu goou of the
community. This is because the lessei-ianking shaykhs usually peifoim ieligious
tasks without getting any kinu of iewaiu in ietuin. Nost of them eain theii
income fiom having a job oi piivate business.
These shaykhs have similai uuties to the ùlomo. Nany of them give
kbutbos on Fiiuay, holu ieligious lessons anu issue fotwos, although not on the
same level as the ùlomo. They usually pieach in small, less fiequenteu mosques
oi musollos,
46
often in subuibs oi villages. Theii seimons aie much simplei than
those of the ùlomo, anu theii ieligious lessons aie mostly attenueu by oiuinaiy,
less euucateu people. Those who intenu to continue leaining on a highei level
usually go to the ùlomo. It is often the case that those who initially become
involveu in Salafism stait taking lessons fiom these lessei-ianking shaykhs. If
they want to ueepen theii knowleuge, they stait visiting the stuuy ciicles of an
òlim. The fotwos issueu by the lattei aie only veibal anu ueal with simple issues
in which it is possible to ieach a conclusion with a somewhat limiteu knowleuge
of the sboriò. Foi moie uifficult issues, they usually tuin to the ùlomo. 0ne
shoulu emphasize that theie aie no cleai bounuaiies between the two categoiies
uesciibeu above. While ceitain inuiviuuals might iefei to a shaykh as 'olim,

46
The teim "musalla" in the Sham iegion means a builuing oi space uesignateu foi piayei, but
smallei than a mosque.
211
otheis might iefuse to uo so, saying that he still uoes not possess enough
knowleuge.

Tbe octive followers

Shaykhs aie usually suiiounueu by a ielatively small but nowauays giowing
numbei of active followeis; in Tiipoli, I woulu estimate this to consist of between
thiee anu foui thousanu inuiviuuals. These aie mostly young people ageu
between 18 anu 4S, fiom all social classes. These inuiviuuals follow a Salafi
lifestyle by tiying to apply all of the iulings of the Salafi inteipietation of Islam.
Weaiing a beaiu anu (most of the time) Islamic clothing is theiefoie manuatoiy
foi them. They also tiy to peifoim all Islamic iituals in the coiiect mannei,
accoiuing to Salafism. It is no wonuei that when askeu which book hau hau the
gieatest impact on them, most of them answeieu, al-Albani's Sifot Solot ol-Nobi
(Betoils of tbe Propbets Proyer).
The majoiity of them have paiticulaily close bonus with one specific
shaykh whom they iegaiu as theii mastei. They attenu his lessons anu listen to
his seimons moie fiequently, anu often ieceive economic suppoit fiom him in
exchange foi helping him in his activities. The shaykh can even pay a iegulai
salaiy to those uisciples who assist him, foi example, in taking caie of the
mosque. 0theis iegulaily visit families who belong to the shaykh's constituency
but whom he uoes not have the time to visit peisonally. Stuuents also can fulfill a
quasi-secietaiial function by euiting the shaykh's publications oi aiianging foi
the piinting anu uistiibution of books anu leaflets foi the wiuei followei base.
Accoiuing to my obseivations, the amount of money that these uisciples ieceive
is not paiticulaily high, mostly 2uu-Suu 0SB a month. This inuicates that the
ielationship between stuuents anu shaykhs is not mainly baseu on economic
consiueiations.
Baving a special ielationship with one mentoi, howevei, uoes not pievent
these committeu Salafis fiom joining the stuuy gioups of othei shaykhs anu
scholais, anu some of them visit a uiffeient mosque each week to listen to the
Fiiuay seimon. Biffeient shaykhs aie stiong in uiffeient uisciplines; stuuents
212
piefei taking lessons fiom the most ienowneu shaykh in eveiy fielu of the
Islamic sciences. Theiefoie it is not unusual to see these committeu Salafis
visiting the stuuy gioup of a boroki shaykh about fiqb one uay, while on anothei
uay they might be piesent at a boJitb lectuie by a puiist scholai. When I askeu
why they uiu this, they tenueu to answei that Nuslims shoulu listen to the
opinions of moie than one peison; otheiwise this can leau to biJo`, oi in the
woist case, toqJis (sanctification) of peisons, which is iegaiueu as a lessei sbirk.
The most canuiu of them also gave me anothei ieason. Nany young Salafis aspiie
to become Joìs anu highly iespecteu ùlomo in the futuie. Finishing theii
stuuies at univeisities in Sauui Aiabia oi Kuwait gieatly facilitates theii caieeis.
Nany Salafi shaykhs have extensive tiansnational contacts anu can help to
fuithei these young people's ambitions. Baving moie than one influential shaykh
among theii close contacts natuially incieases theii chances.
Iueologically, it is not always possible to classify these young people. They
aie fiequently in contact with both boroki anu puiist ùlomo, anu ieau the
liteiatuie of both factions. They can even vacillate between puiist anu jihaui
teachings. In extieme cases they can be the pupils of an oiuinaiy boroki oi puiist
shaykh who uoes not suppoit violence, but secietly visit militant cells anu slowly
auopt theii way of thinking. That happeneu with foui of the stuuents of a
piominent Palestinian boroki shaykh in Nahi al-Baiiu iefugee camp. They
iegulaily attenueu the lessons of theii mentoi, who is highly ciitical of jihauis,
anu aiueu him in peifoiming his uaily ieligious uuties. Bowevei, when the battle
bioke out in 2uu7 between Fath al-Islam anu the Lebanese aimy, they fought in
the fiist lines on the siue of the militant gioup. Two of them weie killeu, anu two
weie captuieu anu aie still being helu in Roumiyeh piison. The shaykh suspects
that they hau been influenceu by iauical shaykhs yeais befoie the inciuent.
47

0ne shoulu note heie that hoiizontal, inteipeisonal ielationships aie
especially uense among these young committeu Salafis, anu sometimes even
stiongei than the veitical bonus to the shaykhs. Thiough these netwoiks they
exchange not only iueas, but also mateiial iesouices. Being Salafi gives them a
sense of belonging to a community othei than theii kinship gioup. Buiing my
fieluwoik I obseiveu the piesence of infoimal associations between these

47
Inteiview, Tiipoli, 24 Novembei 2uu9.
21S
committeu Salafis. They often help each othei finu jobs oi just suivive the
haishness of the economic conuitions in Noith Lebanon. Such voluntaiy,
infoimal associations foim impoitant paits of Niuule Eastein civil society, yet
uespite this, they aie laigely oveilookeu by the liteiatuie on civil society.
0ne of the few helpful analyses on the topic is pioviueu by }enny White,
who examineu the associations of woiking-class women in Istanbul. These
associations aie not foigeu on the basis of kinship; iathei, ieligion anu
pieuicament (i.e. similai economic conuitions) aie the oiganizing factois.
Associations of young committeu Salafis aie veiy similai, though it is cleai that in
theii case, ieligion is even moie impoitant than foi the women in Istanbul. Since
they come fiom vaiious economic backgiounus, the only factoi that cieates a
kinu of gioup iuentity is Salafism. As one of my infoimants explaineu, theie aie
two ieasons foi helping each othei. Fiist, Salafis have the sense of belonging to
the vanguaiu iepiesenting the tiue community of uou
48
in a society that is
composeu of a mosaic of uiffeient sects anu ethnic gioups - most of whom aie
heietics anu unbelieveis. Believeis anu especially those who follow the puie
Islam shoulu help each othei in oiuei to uefenu Ahl al-Sunna wa-l-}amaà in this
enviionment. Seconu, Salafis can iely on each othei anu expect that the othei
will ietuin the favoi, since honesty foims a majoi pait of theii ieligion. In othei
woius, these netwoiks aie helu togethei by iueology anu iecipiocity.
While uoing my fieluwoik in Lebanon, I was able to follow a case that
showeu how these infoimal associations woik. 0ne of my infoimants, Basan,
helpeu one of the membeis of the local Salafi netwoik to get out of a hopeless
economic situation. Basan belongs to the netwoik evolveu aiounu one of the
famous Salafi euucational institutions, Bai al-Bauith. By teaching theie anu
paiticipating in the ieligious lessons given by uiffeient shaykhs, he manageu to
get access to vaiious pation-client netwoiks. When one of his Salafi
acquaintances, Ahmau (22), fiom Tiipoli's Tabbaneh uistiict, lost his fathei in a
cai acciuent, he was able to help him. The family's only income came fiom
Ahmau's fathei's business. Aftei his ueath, they hau to finu a way to suivive,
since they coulu not expect any long-teim assistance fiom theii ielatives, who
live in impoveiisheu city quaiteis oi in the villages of Àkkai piovince (noith of

48
Be puiposefully calleu it sbi'ot Allob (sbi'o means paity oi community in Aiabic).
214
Tiipoli). Basan was able ask one of the shaykhs teaching at Bai al-Bauith to
uonate some money to the family fiom the funus pioviueu by the Shaykh 'Aiu
Chaiity Association. Following this emeigency solution, Ahmau got a job in Qatai
thanks to the contacts that the same shaykh hau in the uulf countiy.

Tbe possive followers

At the thiiu level, we finu what might be calleu the shaykhs' passive followeis;
they aie numeious, but theii level of commitment is moie moueiate than that of
the Salafis. These inuiviuuals aie oiuinaiy people who aie attiacteu by the
Salafis' ieligious knowleuge, ascetic behavioi anu peiceiveu altiuistic social
activities (see Chaptei 4), meaning that the Salafis possess vaiying uegiees of
authoiity ovei them. Common to the gioup, though, is the fact that they uo not
fully apply the iulings of Salafism: they may shave theii beaius, they may smoke,
anu in some cases, theii wives anu uaughteis uo not weai heauscaives; but they
uo take pait in Fiiuay piayeis anu listen to seimons, anu they may even attenu
the shaykh's ieligious lessons. Theii chiluien may go to summei schools
oiganizeu by the mosque, wheie shaykhs anu committeu young men anu women
teach them the basics of (theii unueistanuing of) Islam.
Nany of these passive followeis have iegulai contact with the shaykh via
mutual visits, anu they may ask seivices of him, such as aibitiation in uisputes
(see below). These netwoiks aie not only helu togethei by ieligious sentiment;
pationage also plays an impoitant iole, as it uoes thioughout Lebanese society.
Families living in haish economic conuitions often ieceive suppoit fiom the woqf
auministeieu by the shaykh. In exchange, they visit the shaykh's Fiiuay seimons
anu senu theii chiluien to be taught ieligion by the shaykh. At the same time,
Salafi shaykhs often ieceive economic suppoit fiom theii followeis, who pay
theii zokot to the woqf oi even give voluntaiy suppoit. Accoiuing to one of my
infoimants, Shaykh Ra'iu Bulayhil, the uiiectoi of Na`hau al-Amin (Amin
Religious School), a laige pait of the income of Salafi euucational institutions anu
enuowments comes fiom the meichant families of Tiipoli.
21S
The social composition of the passive followeis is quite uiveise anu
membeis of almost all segments of society aie piesent among them, although
accoiuing to my obseivations, the majoiity belong eithei to the pious miuule
class oi to the uiban pooi (using Kepel's teims).
49
The foimei sympathize with
the Salafi shaykhs foi two main ieasons. Fiist, foi the membeis of the pious
miuule class, belonging to Sunnism anu the laigei Islamic 0mmo has always been
a main component of theii iuentity. Bistoiically, anu in the 2u
th
centuiy at least,
they have always siueu with these political foices, which in one way oi anothei
gaineu legitimacy uue to theii piogiam to unify a laige pait of the Islamic Nation
against foieign oppiessois.
Su
Since both Aiab Nationalists anu mainstieam
Islamists faileu to fulfill theii piomises to impiove the political anu social
situation of Sunnis in the Noith (see Chaptei 2), Salafi ihetoiic is becoming
incieasingly attiactive to this social class. As mentioneu above, Salafis blame
both seculai nationalists anu Islamists foi the cuiient miseiable pieuicament of
Nuslims. They say that these movements auopteu a way of thinking anu action
that is foieign to the ieligion. In theii view, the movements have contiibuteu to
the loss of the tiauition of Ahl al-Sunna, which is iooteu in Islam, leauing in
paiticulai to the socio-political uecline of the Sunnis in Lebanon. Salafis often
pose as those who will ievive this tiauition anu theieby impiove the situation of
the Sunni community.
S1

Seconu, membeis of the pious miuule class fiequently inteiact with rijol
ol-Jin in socio-economic matteis. Since many Salafis belong to the lattei gioup,
this piesupposes stiong ties with them. Beyonu using the ieligious seivices
pioviueu by Salafis, meichants oi piofessionals often suppoit them financially
anu aie connecteu to them via pation-client netwoiks.
Salafis aie also able to ielieve the suffeiing of the Sunni uiban pooi. The
membeis of this social gioup live in laige numbeis in the Tabbana anu Qubba
uistiicts. Nany of them aie unemployeu anu finu it extiemely uifficult to pioviue
foi theii families. Salafis aie able to utilize theii fiustiation anu ieciuit followeis

49
Kepel, }iboJ, pp. 1-22.
Su
Khalaf, Civil onJ 0ncivil violence in lebonon, pp. 11S-114; Sune Baugbolle, Wor onJ Hemory in
lebonon (New Yoik: Cambiiuge 0niveisity Piess, 2u1u), p. SS.
S1
Salafis tenu to ignoie the fact that the tiauitions of the Lebanese Sunni community aie laigely
iooteu in Sufism.
216
among them. Pieacheis aigue that the uominant political foices have neglecteu
the noithein teiiitoiies of Lebanon because they aie mostly inhabiteu by Sunnis.
In theii uiscouise, they often uiaw compaiisons between the uynamic economic
uevelopment of the Shi'ite South anu the poveity-stiicken Noith. They aigue that
the Shi'ite community wants to uominate Lebanon anu weaken the Sunnis as
much as possible (I will uiscuss this in the chaptei on ieciuitment). At the same
time, Salafis aie quite active in suppoiting pooi Sunnis, which fuithei incieases
the numbei of theii followeis.
Beie one shoulu note that the passive followeis aie also ieceptive to the
messages of othei cuiients in Islam, such as the Nuslim Biotheis, Tabligh, Sufis
oi the Bai al-Fatwa shaykhs. A contest foi the soul of Sunni Nuslims is taking
place, anu the Salafis have competitois. At the time of wiiting (0ctobei 2u12), it
seems that Salafis aie gaining moie giounu among oiuinaiy Sunnis than othei
Islamic movements.
S2

.E) )<-$C0&-* -% )R0)*5)5 *)04-:3'

In oiuei to unueistanu how these sub-netwoiks evolve into laigei netwoik
stiuctuies, I fiist have to show what makes social movement netwoiks cohesive
anu uistinguishable fiom othei netwoiks. Social movement theoiists focusing on
new social movements have uiscoveieu that shaieu values anu symbols play an
impoitant iole foi activists who engage in collective action togethei. This system
of values anu symbols is commonly iefeiieu to as a movement's "collective
iuentity". Accoiuing to the uefinition useu by Bollanu et al.,

the collective iuentity of a social movement as paiticipants' shaieu sense
of the movement as a collective actoi - as a uynamic foice foi change -
that they iuentify with anu aie inspiieu to suppoit in theii own actions.
Elaboiateu moie fully, a collective iuentity uevelops within an imagineu
woilu oi, to use anothei teim, a figuieu woilu which is a iealm of

S2
Since the Aiab ievolutions al-}ama'a al-Islamiyya is also gaining moie sympathizeis than
befoie, although accoiuing to my obseivations, Salafism is spieauing much fastei.
217
inteipietation anu action geneiateu by the paiticipants of a movement
thiough theii shaieu activities anu commitments that imagines the
teiiain of stiuggle, the poweis of opponents, anu the possibilities of a
changeu woilu.
SS

This uefinition is paiticulaily applicable to social movements opeiating in
Westein, post-capitalist societies. Bowevei, it is less useful foi explaining
movements such as Salafism, which uo not engage in contentious politics (at
least uiiectly), but insteau focus on people's lifestyles. The abovementioneu
concept of collective iuentity piesupposes a cleai entity with a ueclaieu aim of
achieving a ceitain kinu of social change. The collective iuentity of the membeis
is baseu on the peiceiveu existence of a cleaily uefineu movement. The case of
Salafism is uiffeient. 0ften, Salafis uo not iuentify themselves with a movement;
they uo not even iecognize that they belong to a social movement. Nany of them
say that Salafism is an iuea (fikr), which is equal to the puie veision of Islam
followeu by the Piophet anu the fiist Nuslims. They iefuse to iegaiu Salafism as
one of the many Islamic movements, which they often iegaiu as abeiiant (Joll).
Accoiuing to my obseivations, the aveiage Salafi sees himself as an inuiviuual
who intenus to fulfill what uou uemanus fiom him, whethei it be peifoiming
iituals oi coiiecting the belief anu piactices of othei people. Be uoes not iegaiu
himself as an activist, only as someone who has a special commitment to his
ieligion.
In light of the above, we neeu a uiffeient way to appioach the
constiuction of collective iuentity in of the case Salafism. Beie, the concept of
"aesthetic foimations" elaboiateu by Neyei is veiy useful. Neyei takes
Anueison's theoiy of "imagineu communities"
S4
as the staiting point in hei
uiscussion of what holus ieligious gioups togethei. Accoiuing to Anueison,
communities uevelop aiounu "imaginations" that aie meuiateu by the piinteu
meuia wiitten in a stanuaiuizeu national language. Neyei aigues that
communities shoulu foim aiounu something moie than meie imaginations. As
she puts it,

SS
Bollanu et al., 'Social Novements anu Collective Iuentity', p. 97.
S4
Beneuict Anueison, lmoqineJ Communities Reflections on tbe 0riqin onJ SpreoJ of Notionolism
(Lonuon, New Yoik: veiso, 2uu6), pp. S7-46.
218

in oiuei to achieve this anu be expeiienceu as ieal, imaginations aie
iequiieu to become tangible outsiue the iealm of the minu, by cieating a
social enviionment that mateiializes thiough the stiuctuiing of space,
aichitectuie, iitual peifoimance, anu by inuucing bouily sensations. In
biief, in oiuei to become expeiienceu as ieal, imagineu communities neeu
to mateiialize in the conciete liveu enviionment anu be felt in the
bones.
SS

In othei woius, a sense of belonging emeiges between inuiviuuals when they
shaie the same iituals, the same iueals of uiess anu behavioi, anu even the same
notion of how to use language in eveiyuay conveisations.
Neyei calls gioups that aie helu togethei by theii "shaieu sensoiy
expeiiences"
S6
"aesthetic foimations".
S7
Accoiuing to my fielu obseivations, the
concept of aesthetic foimations applies to Salafism in Noith Lebanon (anu
Salafism eveiywheie, I suspect). The shaieu sensoiy expeiiences of Salafism aie
manifolu. Beie I summaiize the most obvious anu common expeiiences that play
the most impoitant ioles in constiucting the movement's collective iuentity.
Biess coues aie one of the main uistinguishing featuies of Salafism. If
somebouy lets his beaiu giow long anu shaves his moustache it stiongly
inuicates that he sympathizes with Salafi iueas. This can be complementeu with a
JisbJosbo, an ankle-length iobe. Salafis also use a uistinct foim of eveiyuay
uiscouise. Salafis piefei to attach ieligious iefeiences to almost eveiy subject of
conveisation anu fiequently quote oboJitb to piove theii statements, even when
uiscussing munuane matteis. Salafis tenu to fiame even minoi events in uaily life
in theii Nanichean woiluview (see Chaptei 1), while on ieligious matteis, theii
univeise of uiscouise is almost totally lacking in ambiguities.
Theii eveiyuay talk is infuseu with symbols fiom the Text. Foi example, a
young Salafi shaykh in one of the olu quaiteis of Tiipoli once gave me the

SS
Biigit Neyei, 'Fiom Imagineu Communities to Aesthetic Foimations: Religious Neuiations,
Sensational Foims, anu Styles of Binuing', in Biigit Neyei (eu), Aestbetic Iormotions: HeJio,
Reliqion, onJ tbe Senses (New Yoik: Palgiave Nacmillan, 2uu9), p. S.
S6
Ibiu., p. 9.
S7
Ibiu., pp. 6-11.
219
following explanation foi why chiluien aie often impolite in his neighboihoou:
"In oui quaitei people uo eveiything minulessly anu uou is not in the centei of
theii lives. When a husbanu anu wife make love they neglect to peifoim two sets
of piayeis (roko'toyn) befoie the act. Theiefoie Satan penetiates the wife
togethei with the husbanu anu theii chilu is affecteu by the Bevil."
S8
Among the
impoitant shaieu sensoiy expeiiences aie the peifoiming of ceitain iituals such
as piayei (see Chaptei 1) anu using symbols such as a black flag with lo ilobo ill-
ollob (theie is no uou but uou) wiitten in white sciipt.
Baving shaieu sensoiy expeiiences implies having a similai woiluview.
Beie we shoulu note that these sensoiy expeiiences take on vaiying significance
in the lives of uiffeient inuiviuuals. It is possible to obseive that they play a moie
impoitant iole in the lives of committeu Salafis than those of passive followeis.
The lattei iaiely follow the coue of uiess, but most piobably uo auopt ceitain
elements of the Salafi univeise of uiscouise, such as fiaming cuiient sectaiian
tensions in teims of the Nanichean conflict between iymon anu toqbut. The moie
impoitant a iole they play in someone's life, the moie likely he is to be involveu
in a Salafi netwoik. In othei woius, the moie that the elements anu symbolism of
Salafism foim pait of someone's social iuentity, the moie he will paiticipate in
the movement's activities anu the moie likely he will be to iuentify with those
who auopt the same elements anu symbolism of Salafism as "we". Appioacheu in
this way, collective iuentity in Salafism is highly fluiu anu uynamic. It is often
tempoiaiy in the case of many of the movement's followeis.
This is paiticulaily the case at times of sectaiian tensions. Since the stait
of the Aiab Spiing anu the Syiian ievolution of 2u11, which has been
accompanieu by incieasing Sunni-Shi'i sectaiianism, many Lebanese Sunnis have
staiteu to associate themselves with Salafism. Buiing my stay in Tiipoli in that
peiiou, I obseiveu many oiuinaiy Sunnis auopting the Salafi fiaming of the
Syiian ievolution as one of the signs of }uugment Bay {'olomot ol-so'o). Some
inuiviuuals whom I hau known pieviously iefeiieu moie fiequently to Salafism
in theii eveiyuay uiscouise. The uisplays of theii mobile phones weie uecoiateu
with symbols that aie common among Salafis. The shaykhs aie often iefeiieu to
as the leaueis of the community. When the political winu changes, it is likely that

S8
Inteiview, Tiipoli, 4 Nay 2u12.
22u
theii lives will be oveishauoweu by the stiuggle to pioviue theii families with
foou anu clothing. Then the "we" is moie likely to become the family anu the
neighboihoou again, oi the Sunni community, iathei than Salafism.
Salafi netwoik hubs usually evolve aiounu activities that aie intenueu to
cieate, stiengthen anu ieinfoice collective iuentity. These can be oiganizeu
activities, such as the Fiiuay seimon anu ieligious lessons, oi au hoc ones, such
as evening meetings between fiienus oi uiscussions in the mosque. These
gatheiings constitute the backbone of the movement's netwoik stiuctuie, as they
pioviue space to establish inteipeisonal contacts. At the local level, infoimal,
inteipeisonal gatheiings aie uominant uue to the small size of the geogiaphical
aiea, the unueiuevelopeu state anu the cost of the mouein communications
infiastiuctuie. The patteins of netwoik inteisections I uesciibe below not only
play a iole in cieating anu tiansmitting symbols anu othei non-mateiial
iesouices, but also fulfill impoitant functions in the socialization of membeis.
They pioviue them with space anu oppoitunities to establish inteipeisonal
contacts insiue the movement anu beyonu, such as accessing pationage
netwoiks. In the following I will uesciibe these activities baseu on my fieluwoik
uata.

Reliqious lessons

Religious lessons (Jurus, sing. Jors oi boloqot, sing. boloqo) aie one of the
eailiest foims of knowleuge tiansmission in Islam.
S9
They iemaineu the main
methou of ieligious euucation in the Nuslim woilu until the 2u
th
centuiy. Besiues
theii function in leaining, Jurus aie an integial pait of the public space, since
they seive as a foium foi the exchange of views anu foi community affaiis anu
othei kinus of infoimation. Bistoiically, Islamic movements utilizeu them as one
of the chief avenues of mobilization.
6u
Salafism in Lebanon has evolveu fiom the

S9
}onathan Beikey, Tbe Iormotion of lslom: Reliqion onJ Society in tbe Neor Fost, 600-1800
(Cambiiuge: Cambiiuge 0niveisity Piess, 2uuS), p. 22S.
6u
Claik, 'Islamist Women in Yemen', pp. 174-177.
221
Jurus anu they iemain one of the most impoitant hubs in its netwoik stiuctuie
at the local level.
The lessons in Tiipoli aie helu both in mosques anu in piivate homes.
They aie usually given by an inuiviuual who is iegaiueu as competent in
uiscussing ieligious matteis. Nost Jurus aie helu by shaykhs. 0thei people can
also give lessons, as long as they possess a ceitain level of ieligious euucation
(the title of shaykh is not usually attacheu to theii name). Foi example,
piofessionals, uoctois anu engineeis who aie well ieau in ieligious sciences anu
aie wiuely thought to be knowleugeable aie fiequently inviteu by mosques to
give Jurus, mostly once a week oi once eveiy two weeks. Buiing my fieluwoik in
Tiipoli, I obseiveu that the Salafi-oiienteu mosques I visiteu also piomoteu othei
Jurus given by Salafis in othei places. The lessons aie usually helu aftei the òsr
(miu-afteinoon) oi the ìsbo (evening) piayei, mostly on Tuesuays, Thuisuays
anu Satuiuays.
Although a wiue iange of Jurus is available, taught by shaykhs with
uiffeient affiliations (fiom Sufism to the Nuslim Biotheihoou), Salafis aie
especially active in giving ieligious lessons. This is because they iegaiu them as
being one the most effective means of Jo`wo, uue to theii infoimal chaiactei
baseu on uiscussions between the shaykh anu the attenuants. Accoiuing to my
own estimations, about 6u% of the Jurus aie helu by Salafi inuiviuuals in Tiipoli.
In the suiiounuing aieas of the city, this peicentage is even highei. Accoiuing to
my obseivations theie aie thiee types, oi let us say thiee levels, of Jurus in the
aiea. Nost of the lessons aie helu foi the òmmo oi oiuinaiy people. In such
cases, the attenuants uo not have any substantial ieligious euucation but they uo
have a ceitain inteiest in wiuening theii ieligious knowleuge. The seconu level is
visiteu by Tolobot ol-`llm oi "those who aie seeking knowleuge." These
inuiviuuals intenu to ueepen theii knowleuge of the ieligious sciences anu often
aspiie to be shaykhs in the futuie. The thiiu level is foi the pieacheis of the
mosques who aie themselves pait of the vanguaiu of the Salafi movement.
The Jurus continue to be at the centei of the public spheie in Tiipoli.
Nany people visit them in oiuei to ueepen theii ieligious knowleuge anu to seek
answeis to questions about uaily life. Theiefoie these lessons pioviue an
excellent oppoitunity to uisseminate the message of Salafism. Foi most of the
222
people in Tiipoli anu Noith Lebanon, Jurus aie one of the main ways to access a
somewhat ueepei level of ieligious knowleuge anu to synthetize anu ieaffiim
what they have leaint fiom othei souices. When a Salafi shaykh gives the lesson,
he by uefinition gives answeis fiom a Salafi viewpoint anu shapes the ieligious
imagination of the paiticipants in a way that is iuentical to Salafism. Bue to the
Salafis' extenueu ieligious authoiity in the Noith, the Jurus aie cuiiently
stiongly influencing the ieligious behavioi of the paiticipants.
At the same time, ieligious lessons function as spaces wheie people can
establish new inteipeisonal ielationships anu connect to netwoiks. Accoiuing to
my obseivations, fiienuships often emeige, especially between the youngei
paiticipants of the Jurus. Those who fiequently paiticipate also have the chance
to get closei to the shaykhs anu establish contacts that can facilitate theii lives in
munuane matteis such as access to pationage oi ieceiving chaiity. 0ften the
Jurus aie the occasions wheie committeu Salafis can iegulaily meet each othei.
Theiefoie they seive as impoitant spaces foi exchanging infoimation about
intia-movement matteis.
I fiequently attenueu the lessons of Shaykh Kamal, one of the piominent
young scholais in the impoveiisheu Tabbanah uistiict. The S2-yeai-olu òlim
gives most of his lessons to oiuinaiy people thiee times a week in uiffeient
mosques in the city quaitei. These occasions aie usually attenueu by a hanuful of
men (between 1u anu 2u, although uuiing Ramauan, when ieligious life is moie
intensive, the numbei of the paiticipants can ieach Su), although theii numbei
has been giowing substantially since I fiist staiteu conuucting fieluwoik in
Tiipoli in 2uu9. The lessons aie attenueu by both oiuinaiy Sunni Nuslims who
live seculai lifestyles anu committeu Salafis. Theie is always a "coie" who
iegulaily paiticipate in the same Jors, but theie is also a high uegiee of
fluctuation.
Shaykh Kamal usually begins his lessons with a ieauing fiom one of the
collections of the piophetical tiauition. Be usually chooses a boJitb that can be
inteipieteu to give an answei to a topical social pioblem oi ethical question.
Nost of the Jurus touch on issues like how to solve uisputes ovei piopeity oi
money, how to tieat women, uivoice, oi the impoitance of peifoiming ieligious
iituals iegulaily anu in the coiiect way. Since the Aiab ievolutions, politics has
22S
become a moie fiequent topic of ieligious lessons. Aftei ieauing the oiiginal text,
the shaykh explains the meaning in colloquial language. Aftei this, the attenuants
aie fiee to ask questions if they aie unsuie about the meaning of the citation. In
the next phase, Shaykh Kamal inteipiets the content of the boJitb in oiuei to
iaise a cuiient issue. Aftei giving his opinion on the given pioblem oi question,
the attenuants aie fiee to give theii iemaiks oi ask fuithei questions. Buiing a
Jors, which usually lasts between 4u minutes anu one houi, two oi thiee oboJitb
aie uiscusseu.
These Jurus - unlike the kbutbo oi Jurus that take the foim of a lectuie -
featuie a faii amount of give anu take between the shaykh anu his auuience, anu
they also uiffei fiom the ieligious lessons that aie uesciibeu by Richaiu Antoun.
In his case stuuy on a }oiuanian village, Antoun states that

the uais in Kufi al-Na, then, uoes not take place in an atmospheie of give
anu take; iathei, it is an oppoitunity foi the pieacheiteachei to expounu
the woiship anu inteipeisonal noims of Islam as well as its theology anu
its soteiiology in a homely mannei anu in an atmospheie conuucive to an
appieciation of ieligious messages.
61

Accoiuing to Antoun's obseivations, the shaykh uominates the uiscussion anu
the auuience uoes not challenge his aiguments in any way. In Tiipoli the
situation is veiy uiffeient. 0n many occasions, I noticeu the attenuants expiess
theii own opinions anu auu theii own aiguments oi inteipietations of the texts.
This is especially tiue if a laige numbei of committeu Salafis aie piesent. In some
cases, the puipose of theii piesence is to challenge the shaykh, whose opinions
they uisagiee with. Fieice uebates often aiise between the paiticipants
themselves, which continue to iage even aftei the foimal enu of the Jors.
I was also a fiequent attenuee of the Jurus of Shaykh Ihab. These lessons
aie quite uiffeient fiom those uesciibeu above. They not auveitiseu anu oi open
to the public, only to a small numbei of committeu Salafi youth. If somebouy
wants to join, it is necessaiy to have the piioi agieement of the shaykh anu the

61
Richaiu Antoun, 'Themes anu Symbols in the Religious Lesson: A }oiuanian Case Stuuy',
lnternotionol }ournol of HiJJle Fost StuJies, vol 2S, no. 4, 199S, p. 61u.
224
othei paiticipants. Shaykh Ihab is a young man in his eaily thiities anu belongs
to the puiist faction. Be holus a Nastei's uegiee fiom the Islamic 0niveisity of
Neuina anu also stuuieu at the boloqot of Rabi' al-Naukhali anu othei puiist
authoiities. When he came back fiom Sauui Aiabia, he staiteu to teach some of
the enthusiastic youth.
The stiuctuie of his Jurus is quite uiffeient fiom that of Shaykh Kamal. Be
uoes not focus on the basics, but insteau ieaus anu explains a book (at that time,
ol-Iotowo ol-Kubro fiom Ibn Taymiyya
62
) that iequiies a ueepei level of
ieligious knowleuge. Consequently, the level of the uiscussion afteiwaius is
moie sophisticateu than that at the "mainstieam" lessons. At the time I was
obseiving the Jurus, stiong fiienuships hau evolveu between the paiticipants in
Shaykh Ihab's boloqot, who fiequently engage in Jo'wo activities togethei. Foi
example, fiom time to time they tiavel to the Binniya iegion, wheie one of the
young men has a house in one of the villages. They spenu one oi two nights theie
holuing uiscussions on 'oqiJo anu fiqb. 0n these occasions some of the villageis
also join them, anu they answei theii questions iegaiuing ieligious matteis.
Buiing the uay, they often tiavel aiounu the neighboiing towns anu villages anu
visit Salafis who aie iesiuing theie.

Fveninq qotberinqs

Evening gatheiings (sobrot, sing. sobro) pioviue a moie spontaneous space foi
ieligious exchanges than Jurus. At the same time they aie just as impoitant in
builuing anu stiengthening netwoik ties anu challenging society's uominant
symbols. Sobrot aie common in eveiy Aiab society. In some places they aie even
institutionalizeu, such as the Jiwoniyyos in Kuwait. In Tiipoli sobrot aie laigely
infoimal, but neveitheless play a significant iole in the eveiyuay lives of the
city's inhabitants. Sobrot in Tiipoli aie laigely spontaneous, anu people usually
paiticipate in such events once oi twice a week. The paiticipants aie fiienus anu
family membeis, anu mostly belong to the youngei geneiations. 0nlike the

62
This collection of Ibn Taymiyya's fotwos is one of the main classical souices of contempoiaiy
Salafism. Nost of the active paiticipants leain some of the volumes (it consists of six volumes)
with instiuction fiom a moie knowleugeable inuiviuual uuiing infoimal ieligious lessons. The
fotwos touch on vaiious topics, such as matteis of theology, cieeu oi boJitb.
22S
Jiwoniyyobs wheie people uiscuss ceitain topic oi engage in activities like
playing music oi ieciting poems, in the sobrot they talk about vaiious issues in
uaily life. When Salafis holu these gatheiings, they aie uominateu by topics
ielateu to Islam.
I took pait in some sobrot in `0thman's house. `0thman is 2S yeais olu
anu a veiy committeu, active Salafi. Although he left school aftei the seventh
class, aiounu the age of 1S, he is quite well ieau, not only in ieligion, but also in
politics anu Aiabic liteiatuie. Be cuiiently woiks as a shopkeepei in Sahat al-
Tall (the centei of the city), woiking foi his eluei biothei anu selling peifumes.
Aftei seveial yeais of haiu woik anu saving money he has been able to establish
himself financially, buy a flat in the Tabbanah uistiict anu get maiiieu. Be is well
connecteu to Tiipoli's boroki Salafi netwoiks anu enjoys the iespect of othei
meichants in Sahat al-Tall uue his knowleuge on ieligious matteis. At least once
a week he invites his fiienus foi sobrot, mostly on Thuisuay oi Fiiuay evenings,
when he can close his shop a little eailiei than usual. Nost of the paiticipants aie
young men of the same age oi a little oluei.
When I attenueu sobrot in `0thman's home, theie weie usually about six
oi seven people theie. Nost of them liveu in the same stieet as `0thman anu
otheis knew him fiom the mosques that he usually attenus. We useu to stait
with coffee anu some oiuinaiy chat. Aftei a while, ieligious topics came up
spontaneously. 0sually we woulu uiscuss some oboJitb that came up in ielation
to oui pievious conveisation, oi questions such as whethei the kbimor (a piece
of cloth coveiing the Nuslim woman's face)
6S
is obligatoiy foi women oi not. At
that time (in 2u11 anu 2u12), oui uiscussions fiequently toucheu on the Syiian
ievolution. The Salafis expiesseu theii ieauing of the events in accoiuance with
theii Nanichean woiluview. They often give weight to theii woius by showing
anu exchanging viueos, uploaueu to theii mobile phones, about maityiuom oi
how the iegime's soluieis aie abusing the symbols of Islam. 0nce they even

6S
Theie is a uisagieement between Salafis iegaiuing this mattei. Accoiuing to al-Albani theie is
no eviuence in the Text that women have to covei theii faces, while many oboJitb point out that
the face can be exposeu. 0theis aigue the opposite. See:
http:maktabasalafiya.blogspot.com2u11u6shaykh-alabanis-position-of-niqab-of.html
(accesseu: 7 0ctobei 2u12).
226
uiscusseu Yusuf al-Qaiauawi's last statements on his website, vehemently
opposing his inteipietations of paits of the Text.
64

It is obvious that these sobrot aie impoitant spaces foi ieinfoicing anu
stiengthening collective iuentity. Since non-Salafis often paiticipate alongsiue
Salafis, they play a key iole in expoiting the movement's iueas anu in
ieciuitment as well. }ust as in the Jurus, netwoiks fiequently inteisect in the
evening gatheiings. Since theie is a high uegiee of fluctuation in the paiticipants,
uue to the highly infoimal chaiactei of these events, new contacts aie often
establisheu. Youngei shaykhs also show up fiom time to time to maintain anu
stiengthen contact with theii constituency anu peifoim Jo'wo among the non-
committeu paiticipants.

Biscussions ofter proyer

Nany of my Salafi infoimants tolu me that aftei peifoiming piayeis, they often
sit uown with othei Salafis in the mosque foi 1u-2u minutes. Buiing these
occasions the conveisation often evolves into a uiscussion about ieligion. This is
the most spontaneous foim of collective gatheiing in the movement, yet it
pioviues an impoitant space foi the ciiculation of uiscouise anu the
stiengthening of netwoik ties. In Islam piaying in the mosque is piefeiieu to
peifoiming piayei at home. Theiefoie, when they aie not hinueieu by uigent
matteis, Salafis usually piay in the mosque.
People usually spenu a little moie time in the mosque aftei the afteinoon
piayei (solot ol-òsr), ieauing the Qui'an oi chatting. Ny Salafi infoimants tenueu
to use these occasions to uiscuss cuiient ieligious topics. As one of them
explaineu, these small aftei-piayei gatheiings aie excellent oppoitunities foi
wiuening one's ieligious knowleuge. Since many Salafis uo not always piay in the
same mosque, these aftei-piayei uiscussions give them an oppoitunity to
exchange theii views with many uiffeient people. At most of these meetings the

64
Puiist Salafis often uisagiee with the piominent Egyptian scholai's views. They have been
attacking him veibally especially since the 2u11 Aiab Spiing. The ieason is that Al-Qaiauawi is a
vocal suppoitei of the ievolutions.
227
paiticipants talk about uiffeient inteipietations of paits of the Text, like Qui'an
veises oi oboJitb. These uiscussions aie often connecteu to actual political oi
social issues.
Like Jurus, these small meetings aftei piayei aie piimaiy spaces in which
to establish anu maintain netwoik ties anu ciiculate within the movement. 0ne
of my infoimants uesciibeu theii impoitance veiy eloquently:

Even though I uo not have time to go fiequently to paiticipate in boloqot
anu spenu much time with people who have the same views on Islam,
meeting with othei Salafi fiienus in the mosque aftei the 'osr piayei
shows me that theie is still a community of Nuslims who give ieligion
piioiity in theii lives. Ten minutes of chat in the mosque gives me the
sense of belonging to a tiue biotheihoou anu ieinfoices my commitment
to the Book anu what the Piophet taught us. 0theiwise I woulu be too
occupieu with uaily pioblems to pay enough attention to uou, like most of
the Nuslims in Tiipoli.
6S

Burus, sbobrot anu uiscussions aftei piayeis function as impoitant "fiee spaces"
foi Salafism in times of political iepiession. When it is uifficult to expiess one's
views openly oi act fieely in the wiuei society, fiee spaces pioviue oppoitunities
foi membeis of social movements to uiscuss theii beliefs anu iueas anu exchange
infoimation, skills anu expeitise without iisk.
66

Foi Lebanese Salafis, both aftei the Binniya affaii (see Chaptei 2), which
was followeu by a huge wave of aiiests anu the oppiession of Islamic
movements, anu aftei the battle of Nahi al-Baiiu, it was not safe to communicate
openly anu engage in obvious Jo'wo activity. Nany of them even shaveu off theii
beaius, staiteu to weai oiuinaiy clothes anu avoiueu conveying the symbols of
Salafism in wiuei society. Foi example, ciiticizing the Shi'ites oi Bizbullah uuiing
the Fiiuay seimon coulu leau to impiisonment. At this time, the movement's
activities laigely withuiew to the boloqot, sobrot anu to othei foims of infoimal,
piivate uiscussions. Naiiatives anu uiscouises, as well soliuaiity anu netwoik

6S
Inteiview with an active paiticipant of Salafism, 1 August 2u11.
66
Fiancesca Polletta, 'Fiee Spaces in Collective Action', Tbeory onJ Society, vol. 28, no. 1, 1999.
228
ties, weie pieseiveu anu have been utilizeu uuiing the cuiient peiiou of
upheaval in Lebanese Salafism.

U-:(#$ &*'0&0C0&-*#$ '0:C20C:)

Salafism in Lebanon has a loose institutional stiuctuie consisting of ieligious
colleges anu chaiity institutions. Bowevei, theie aie no foimal links connecting
them, only infoimal ties baseu on inteipeisonal ielations. These institutions
neveitheless play an impoitant iole in the movement as netwoik inteisections
both at the local anu tiansnational levels. In Tiipoli anu its suiiounuings theie
aie about seven oi eight ieligious colleges (mo'boJ sboro'i). Nost of them
pioviue theii giauuates with seconuaiy school uegiees, anu some of them have
been gianteu the iight by the Islamic 0niveisity of Neuina to awaiu Bacheloi's
anu Nastei's uegiees (as in the case of Shaykh Ba'i al-Islam al-Shahhal's Ho'boJ
ol-EiJoyo wo-l-lbson. The mo'boJs aie impoitant hubs in inteipeisonal netwoiks,
since many of the Salafi shaykhs in Tiipoli gain theii main income by teaching in
one oi moie of these institutions. Theiefoie the mo'boJs function as spaces foi
netwoiking anu stiong fiienuship netwoiks usually emeige aiounu the
employees anu the stuuents.
The colleges also play an impoitant iole in conveying the Salafi message
to society. People who uo not know much about Salafism often join them foi one
oi two couises in oiuei to extenu theii ieligious knowleuge. They also function
as alteinatives foi those who aie otheiwise unable to get any kinu of euucation,
as is the case foi many Palestinians.
67
The mo'boJs also iun summei couises foi

67
In the past many Lebanese Palestinians woikeu in the uulf anu eaineu high incomes, anu weie
theiefoie able to finance theii stuuies in piestigious Aiab univeisities such as the Ameiican
0niveisity of Beiiut. Aftei the uulf Wai of 1991, masses of Palestinian woikeis weie foiceu to
ietuin to Lebanon uue to theii suppoit foi Sauuam Bussain. Those who uiu not have ielatives in
the uulf weie able to access scholaiships in the Eastein Block. Aftei the collapse of Communism
in Eastein Euiope, this uooi was also shut to Palestinians. Touay, often the only way to get some
soit of highei euucation is to join one of the ieligious colleges. See: Rougiei, FveryJoy }iboJ, pp.
2uu-2u1. Foi many Palestinians even acquiiing seconuaiy euucation is uifficult, because
0NRWA's (the 0N bouy iesponsible foi helping the Palestinian iefugees) buuget was slasheu in
the 199us. Salafi colleges offei them a solution, since they can attenu foi fiee to get a high school
uiploma.
229
piimaiy anu seconuaiy school stuuents, wheie they gain a basic knowleuge of
ieligion (accoiuing to the Salafi unueistanuing).
The othei types of foimal institutions aie the chaiity institutions in the
foim of woqfs. Sometimes they aie connecteu to mosques anu mo'boJs anu take
pait in financing theii maintenance. Noie often, the woqfs pioviue financial anu
othei types of suppoit anu alms to those who aie living in poveity oi unable to
pay theii meuical costs. I will uiscuss these chaiities latei in moie uetail.
The netwoiks that inteisect in the infoimal activities uesciibeu above anu
the loose netwoik of mo'boJs anu woqfs have iesulteu in a polycephalous
movement stiuctuie that lacks significant foimal oiganization oi a cleai,
pyiamiual leaueiship stiuctuie. Leaueiship in Salafism is laigely baseu on
peisonal chaiisma anu access to financial iesouices. Some Salafis have
attempteu to unify the lines of the movement, at least in Tiipoli, without any
success. Nost of these initiatives have met fieice iesistance fiom the majoiity of
Salafis. Foi example, Nuhammau Khouoi pioposeu setting out cleai institutional
stiuctuies foi Salafis anu tiying to play a moie significant iole in civil society
68

(unueistoou in conventional teims) anu politics. Be was accuseu of stiaying
fiom the iight path of Islam anu hau to leave Na'hau al-Amin, wheie he hau been
teaching. Ba'i al-Islam al-Shahhal maue seveial similai attempts. Be aspiies to
leau the Salafis in Lebanon unifieu unuei the bannei of "al-Tayyai al-Salafi" (the
Salafi Stieam). Bis initiatives have always faileu eithei uue to iepiession by the
goveinment authoiities oi the iefusal of othei Salafi shaykhs with substantial
chaiismatic bases to join him. Such attempts to cieate an institutional stiuctuie
aie usually labeleu as biJ'o. Nost Salafis think that if they weie to cieate a
political oiganization they woulu be no uiffeient fiom the Nuslim Biotheihoou.
Initiatives to cieate a loose oiganizational fiamewoik, one that can uiaw
Salafis anu theii suppoiteis togethei iegulaily to aujust theii activities anu
exchange infoimation without cieating a foimal leaueiship stiuctuie anu
imposing obligations, have been moie successful. In the fiist half of 2u12, boroki
shaykhs unuei the leaueiship of Salim al-Rafi'i anu Zakaiiyya al-Nasii cieateu a

68
Nuhammau Khouoi himself thinks that Salafis shoulu embiace the institutional iealm of
Lebanese civil society, such as clubs, uiscussion foiums anu non-piofit oiganizations. Be also
thinks that a Salafi political paity shoulu be establisheu. Inteiview, Tiipoli, Su }uly 2u11.
2Su
weekly sburo (council).
69
It consists of two levels; one foi the 'ommo (oiuinaiy
people) anu one foi the kbosso (elite), in which piominent shaykhs paiticipate.
The foimei is helu eveiy Nonuay in the Taqwa mosque aftei solot ol-moqbrib
(late afteinoon piayeis). 0sually between five anu ten shaykhs paiticipate, along
with leauing figuies fiom local families (mostly fiom the Tabbana anu Qubba
uistiicts) anu a numbei of young Salafis anu sympathizeis.
This event pioviues a foium to uiscuss the affaiis of the communities in
uiffeient city uistiicts. It makes uecisions on such matteis as whethei they
shoulu fight the Alawites in }abal Nuhsin anu oiganize a militia against them, oi
whethei they shoulu insteau iely on the Lebanese Aimy anu the goveinment's
othei secuiity foices. The iuea of oiganizing uemonstiations in suppoit of the
Salafi uetainees (mentioneu above) also emeigeu fiom the sburo. Buiing the
council Salafis also iaise money foi the Syiian iefugees. Quite obviously, the aim
is to utilize the tempoiaiily heighteneu populaiity of the Salafi shaykhs (as an
effect of the Aiab anu the Syiian ievolutions) anu piomote them as ue facto
leaueis of the Sunni community in the Noith.
Nany Salafis uistance themselves fiom this sburo, accusing Salim al-Rafi'i
in paiticulai of using it to piomote his peisonal ambition of becoming the chief
ieligious authoiity in Tiipoli. 0ne of the piominent puiist shaykhs tolu me that it
is incoiiect to call such a gatheiing a sburo. In his view, sburo shoulu be calleu
togethei by woli ol-omr anu not an imam of a mosque, "even if he ieceives a lot of
money fiom Qatai anu Sa'u al-Baiiii."
7u

The seconu level of the sburo is moie exclusive anu secietive. As a
ieseaichei, I was not alloweu to paiticipate. Accoiuing to one of its membeis,
this level ueciues which issues to uiscuss at the gatheiing that is open to the
'ommo.
Since at the time of wiiting, the sburo is a iecent uevelopment, it is haiu to
measuie its impact on Salafism anu the society in Tiipoli. Neveitheless, if the

69
The sburo (consultation in Aiabic) is iooteu in Aiab tiibal tiauitions anu iefeis to a
consultation bouy. In eaily Islamic histoiy it was an auvisoiy bouy of the Rashiuun Caliph. Latei
it was ieinteipieteu seveial times. In the Aiab uulf the auvisoiy bouies of the iuleis aie also
calleu sburo, as aie the uiffeient uecision-making councils of Islamic movements such as the
Nuslim Biotheihoou oi Bizbullah. See: 'Shuia', in Bosswoith, FncyclopoeJio of lslom; Ahmau
Nizai Bamzeh, ln tbe Potb of Eizbullob (Syiacuse anu New Yoik: Syiacuse 0niveisity Piess,
2uu4), pp. 4S-48.
7u
Inteiview, 26 Apiil 2u12.
2S1
Salafi shaykhs who aie oiganizing it aie able to ietain theii incieaseu authoiity,
it has the potential to uevelop as an effective tool foi gaining significant influence
in the Sunni community.

/-*2$C'&-*

In this chaptei, I showeu that Salafi netwoiks in Noith Lebanon at the local level
have a unique shape, uue to the exceptional authoiity of the shaykhs. I also built
up a pictuie of the social composition of these netwoiks anu analyzeu the
mouality of the evolution of inteipeisonal netwoik ties. Analyzing the netwoik
stiuctuie at the local level is ciucial foi unueistanuing the evolution of
tiansnational netwoiks, anu this will be the topic of the next chaptei.

2S2

/E#I0): J
.:#*'*#0&-*#$ 9)04-:3' -% +),#*)') "#$#%&'

In this chaptei I shall answei the question, how is Salafism stiuctuieu at the
tiansnational level. I will uo this by showing how inteipeisonal netwoiks evolve
anu extenu fiom Lebanon to othei countiies, anu by uiscussing the function of
tiansnational chaiity oiganizations. In the last section of the chaptei I will
uiscuss in uetail the Salafi netwoiks that connect Tiipoli to Euiope, using
ethnogiaphic uata collecteu in Sweuen, the Netheilanus anu ueimany. I will
show that like local netwoiks, tiansnational Salafi netwoiks aie also laigely
infoimal. Institutional stiuctuies aie not elaboiate but aie iathei embeuueu in a
uense web of infoimal links.
Local Salafi netwoiks, as uiscusseu in the pievious chaptei, aie not
isolateu within the boiueis of Lebanon, but foim oiganic paits of laige,
tiansnational webs. The civil society conceptualizeu by Bann anu Antoun as a
web of tiust anu coopeiation
1
(see Chaptei 6), wheie social movements aie
embeuueu, extenus beyonu the nation state. I consiuei tiansnational Salafi
netwoiks, whose stiuctuie anu function will be uiscusseu below, as pait of this
tiansnational civil society.
2

.:#*'*#0&-*#$ *)04-:3' &* 0E) GC'$&( 4-:$5X I#'0 #*5 I:)')*0

1
Antoun, 'Civil Society, Tiibal Piocess, anu Change in }oiuan', pp. 441-442.
2
In the mainstieam civil society liteiatuie, the teim 'tiansnational civil society' iefeis to
netwoiks of foimal, voluntaiy oiganizations, which extenu beyonu boiueis. Bowevei, foimal
oiganizations make up a maiginal pait of the tiansnational web of tiust anu coopeiation in the
Niuule East. Foi a uefinition of the Westein concept of tiansnational civil society, see: Richaiu
Piice, 'Tiansnational Civil Society anu Auvocacy in Woilu Politics', WorlJ Politics, vol. SS, no. 4,
2uuS, p. S8u.
2SS
Theie have been extensive anu uense tiansnational exchanges in the Nuslim
woilu since the emeigence of Islam. In the pie-mouein peiiou, social netwoiks
connecteu the Niuule East with Afiica anu Cential, South anu Southeast Asia. The
liteiatuie on this topic mentions seveial patteins in how these tiansnational
links weie histoiically stiuctuieu.
Religion pioviueu a key motive foi tiavel anu establishing tiansnational
links with othei Nuslims. The uoctiines of Islam explicitly encouiage tiavel in
the fiamewoik of the annual pilgiimage to Necca (Eojj), which was a majoi
souice of the establishment of long-uistance contacts.
S
People in the meuieval
Bai al-Islam fiequently tiaveleu thousanus of miles to visit the shiines of holy
peisons (woli). These shiines often constituteu noues of extenueu Sufi netwoiks.
In the meuieval Nuslim woilu, Sufi toriqos connecteu iegions such as Cential
Asia anu Anatolia,
4
Inuia anu Southeast Asia
S
anu Yemen anu the Nalay
Aichipelago.
6
These oiueis pioviueu assistance to theii followeis, even if they
hau to tiavel laige uistances.
Netwoiks often connecteu centei anu peiipheiy. Tiavel foi the sake of
leaining (riblo li-tolob ol-'ilm) was of funuamental impoitance in facilitating
exchange between Nuslim societies.
7
Seeking knowleuge in highly iespecteu
centeis of leaining such as the sacieu cities of Bijaz, oi in intellectual centeis
such as Caiio anu Nishapui, often incieaseu the ieligious authoiity of scholais
aftei they hau ietuineu home.
8
Foi example, laige numbeis of Nuslims fiom the
Nalay Aichipelago stayeu in Necca anu Neuina foi yeais aftei peifoiming the
Bajj, in oiuei to obtain ieligious knowleuge. Some of the most ienowneu
scholais among them playeu a ciucial iole in spieauing the Sufi intellectual
tiauition anu establishing affiliation to Sufi oiueis in theii home iegions.
9

S
Eickelman anu Piscatoii, Huslim Politics, p. S.
4
Bina Le uall, A Culture of Sufism: NoqsbbonJis in tbe 0ttomon WorlJ, 14S0-1700 (Albany: State
0niveisity of New Yoik Piess, 2uuS).
S
Ahmau Fauzi Abuul Bamiu, 'The Impact of Sufism on Nuslims in Pie-colonial Nalaysia: An
0veiview of Inteipietations', lslomic StuJies, vol. 41, no. S, 2uu2.
6
Ibiu.
7
Sam I. uellens, 'The Seaich foi Knowleuge in Neuieval Nuslim Societies: A Compaiative
Appioach', in Bale F. Eickelman (eu), Huslim Trovellers: Pilqrimoqe, Hiqrotion, onJ tbe Reliqious
lmoqinotion Comporotive StuJies 0n Huslim Societies (Beikeley anu Los Angeles: 0niveisity of
Califoinia Piess, 199u).
8
Ibiu.
9
Naitin van Biuinessen, 'The 0iigins anu Bevelopment of Sufi 0iueis (taiekat) in Southeast
Asia', StuJio lslomiko - lnJonesion }ournol for lslomic StuJies, vol. 1, no.1, 1994, pp. 6-1u.
2S4
Religious netwoiks weie often inteitwineu with tiaue in the pie-mouein
Islamic woilu. Thiough its ieligious anu tiaue netwoiks, the Bauiami (fiom
Bauiamaut) uiaspoia establisheu a piesence in seveial paits of the Islamic
woilu. In Southeast Asia, East Afiica anu Nalabai they maiiieu local women,
cieateu communities with a cieole iuentity anu extenueu civil society netwoiks.
Accoiuing to Engseng Bo, "thioughout this space, a Bauiami coulu tiavel anu be
put up by ielatives, who might be Aiab uncles maiiieu to foieign, local aunts."
1u

'0lomo anu meichants coulu iely on these contacts uuiing theii tiavels oi when
setting up theii businesses oi activities in a foieign place with a Bauiami
community.
The uominant template of the political systems of the Islamic woilu
enableu this mobility anu univeisalism. Pie-colonial Nuslim societies weie iuleu
by sultanates "baseu on the concept of piotection as business".
11
The sultan
piotecteu the population in a given teiiitoiy against local violence anu exteinal
thieats. In ietuin, the iuleu paiu taxes that suppoiteu the iulei anu his aimy.
12

This foim of goveinance uiu not involve the concept of teiiitoiial soveieignty.
Boiueis weie not static anu saciosanct, anu moie impoitantly, iaiely impeueu
the fieeuom of movement. The only bounuaiy that set limits to the pie-mouein
Nuslim tiansnational netwoiks was the enu of Bai al-Islam ("the whole teiiitoiy
in which the law of Islam pievails"
1S
).
The imposition of colonial iule, anu latei the cieation of nations states
anu national bounuaiies, weie not able to significantly impeue Nuslim
tiansnationalism. Bue to the uevelopment of tianspoitation anu communication
technologies in the 2u
th
centuiy, Nuslim connectivity even incieaseu. In
Robeitson's foimulation, oiganizational anu technological auvancements have
leu to the compiession of the woilu anu the emeigence of a global fielu.
14
In this,
"inuiviuuals anu societies become pait of a laigei system of societies anu iuentify

1u
Engseng Bo, 'Empiie Thiough Biaspoiic Eyes: A view fiom the 0thei Boat', Comporotive
StuJies in Society onJ Eistory, vol. 46, no. 2, 2uu4.
11
Coinell, 'Ibn Battuta's 0ppoitunism, in Cook anu Lawience, Huslim Networks, p. SS.
12
Ibiu., pp. SS-4u.
1S
'Bai al-Islam', in Bosswoith, FncyclopoeJio of lslom.
14
Rolanu Robeitson, 6lobolizotion: Sociol Tbeory onJ 6lobol Culture (Lonuon: SAuE Publications,
1992).
2SS
themselves in ielation to global stanuaius."
1S
Touay the uiffeient paits of the
Niuule East aie connecteu to each othei anu to othei paits of the woilu thiough
chaiity netwoiks, business enteipiises anu infoimal, inteipeisonal anu
computei-meuiateu netwoiks. This has cieateu a tiansnational Nuslim civil
society in which tiansnational social movements, among them Salafism, aie
embeuueu.
The high uensity anu quick expansion of the Salafi tiansnational netwoiks
can only paitly be explaineu by the uevelopment of tianspoitation anu
communication technologies. At the same time, as Lauient Bonnefoy points out,
Salafis have a special keenness foi establishing tiansnational contacts anu
netwoiking.
16
Salafis, as I have alieauy explaineu in Chaptei 1 anu Chaptei S,
attach little impoitance to local cultuie anu tiauitions. Salafis feel at home wheie
Islam can be piacticeu anu wheie conuitions aie given to the living of a puie
lifestyle (i.e. bolol foou anu ielative fieeuom of woiship). Theiefoie they feel fiee
to tiavel laige uistances foi the sake of the Jo'wo oi to acquiie knowleuge.
In auuition to the Salafis' affinity foi builuing tiansnational contacts, the
Lebanese in geneial also have a tiauition of tiansnational netwoiking. Since the
seconu half of the 19
th
centuiy, hunuieus of thousanus of Lebanese have
migiateu anu settleu in West Afiica, the Ameiicas, Austialia anu Euiope.
17
In
many cases, the Lebanese uiaspoia establisheu uense tiaue links with theii
mothei countiy,
18
which nowauays seive as a main souice of investment anu
income foi the Lebanese economy.
19
Family netwoiks anu social netwoiks that
tiansmit political anu ieligious iueas aie also significant.
2u
Foi example, the

1S
Chanuiashekhai Bhat anu K. Laxmi Naiayan, 'Inuian Biaspoia, ulobalization anu Tiansnational
Netwoiks: The South Afiican Context', }ournol of Sociol Science, vol. 2S, nos. 1-S, 2u1u, p. 14.
16
Lauient Bonnefoy, Solofism in Yemen: Tronsnotionolism onJ Reliqious lJentity (Lonuon: Buist &
Company, 2u11), p. 1S9.
17
Lebanese migiateu fiom theii countiy in a numbei of waves. Nost of them weie eithei skilleu
migiants looking foi bettei oppoitunities aboaiu, oi people fleeing fiom economic haiuship anu
violence. See: Paul Tabai, lebonon: A Country of Fmiqrotion onJ lmmiqrotion. Repoit, Centei foi
Nigiation anu Refugee Stuuies at the Ameiican 0niveisity of Caiio, 2uu7,
http:www.aucegypt.euugappcmisiepoitsuocumentstabaiu8u711.puf (accesseu: 12
August 2u1S).
18
Naia A. Leichtman, 'The Legacy of Tiansnational Lives: Beyonu the Fiist ueneiation of
Lebanese in Senegal', Ftbnic onJ Rociol StuJies, vol. 28, no. 4, 2uuS.
19
Tabai, 'Lebanon: A Countiy of Emigiation anu Immigiation', pp. 1S-17.
2u
Ibiu., pp. 672-67S anu 677-68u.
2S6
migiants aie often involveu in public uebates anu engage in sociopolitical
activism in Lebanon.
21

As I mentioneu eailiei, Lebanese Sunnis geneially consiuei Lebanon to be
an aitificial entity anu have not uevelopeu a Lebanese iuentity that woulu
connect them to the membeis of othei sectaiian communities in the countiy.
Since the establishment of "uieatei Lebanon" in 192u, Lebanese Sunnis have
continuously tiieu to ieconnect with the laigei Sunni woilu, often by being
pioponents of iueological stieams that piomise the abolishment of the
fiagmentation of the 0mmo (see Chaptei S). This minuset also enhances the
establishment of tiansnational connections, especially with locations that aie
peiceiveu as centeis of Sunnism, such as the monaichies of the Aiabian
Peninsula in oui case.

.E) '0:C20C:) -% "#$#%& 0:#*'*#0&-*#$ *)04-:3'

Accoiuing to my obseivations, tiansnational connections can be uiiect anu
inteipeisonal, maintaineu by visits anu communication by phone oi thiough the
Inteinet. At the same time, inuiiect ties also play an impoitant iole.
22
Someone
can be connecteu to a tiansnational netwoik by having ties to someone else in
his local netwoiks, who in tuin possesses tiansnational contacts. Foi example, an
active paiticipant who uoes not have uiiect inteipeisonal ties outsiue of Lebanon
can still be connecteu tiansnationally by being close to an 'olim who is a fiequent
tiavelei anu maintains a consiueiable social netwoik in the uulf countiies. Foi
example, many beneficiaiies of uulf chaiities aie connecteu to these
oiganizations inuiiectly via a Lebanese agent (see also Chaptei 4).
Belonging to one of the majoi Salafi factions significantly shapes the
stiuctuie of tiansnational links. Netwoiks usually evolve along puiist oi boroki
iueological lines. Accoiuing to my obseivations, tiansnational links within the

21
Balia Abuelhauy, 'Beyonu BomeBost Netwoiks: Foims of Soliuaiity among Lebanese
Immigiants in a ulobal Eia', lJentities, vol. 1S, no. S, 2uu6, pp. 441-44S.
22
0n the impoitance of inuiiect ties see: Yanjie Bian, 'Biinging Stiong Ties Back in: Inuiiect Ties,
Netwoik Biiuges, anu }ob Seaiches in China', Americon Socioloqicol Review, vol. 62, no. S, 1997,
pp. S68-S72.
2S7
iespective factions aie much moie uense than between puiists anu borokis. As I
explaineu befoie, the paiticipants of the two factions piefei what aie often
iauically uiffeient methouologies foi puiifying people's belief anu ieligious
piactices (See Chaptei 1 anu Chaptei 2). The uiffeient views about the iulei's
iole aie a paiticulai cause of mistiust between them, anu they label each othei
"innovatois" (mubtoJi') oi murji'o (one whose actions uo not ieflect his belief).
Theiefoie tiansnational contacts that link borokis anu puiists aie ielatively iaie.
Although, as I have shown in Chaptei 6, the stiuctuies of the puiist anu
boroki netwoiks aie similai on the local level, the situation is iathei uiffeient on
the tiansnational level. Tiansnational puiist netwoiks aie geneially moie
veitical than the boroki ones. At the top of the puiist netwoiks we finu a few
ienowneu scholais (mostly fiom the uulf) whose fotwos aie wiuely followeu,
fiom Euiope to Southeast Asia. Foi example, as Nooihaiui explains, the founueis
of the Inuonesian puiist militia, Laskai }ihau, hau to ask foi fotwos fiom the
highest puiist Salafi authoiities in Sauui Aiabia anu Yemen befoie they coulu
legitimize theii involvement in the sectaiian conflict in Naluku.
2S
The
involvement of the Sauui Aiabian anu Yemeni authoiities was necessaiy uespite
the fact that Nuslim paiticipation in the civil wai in Naluku was consiueieu by
Salafis to be uefensive jihau, which is forJ 'oyn (a peisonal uuty) foi the believeis
in the given countiy.
24
The puiist 'ulomo in the uulf also playeu a iole in the
uisbanument of Laskai jihau. In 2uu2 the leauei of the gioup, }a'fai 0mai Thalib,
iefeiieu to the fotwo of Rabi' al-Naukhali when he announceu its uissolution.
2S

The fact that the fotwos of the local Salafi shaykhs weie not enough to justify the
actions of the militia uemonstiates the veitical natuie of puiist tiansnational
netwoiks.
The gieat scholais of the uulf possess significant ieligious authoiity ovei
the Lebanese puiists as well. As I mentioneu in Chaptei 4, Lebanese puiists
establisheu a fotwo council consisting of local scholais. Bowevei, this council
only issues inuepenuent legal opinions when the fotwos of the Sauui uieat

2S
Nooihaiui Basan, loskor }iboJ: lslom, militoncy onJ tbe uest for lJentity in post-New 0rJer
lnJonesio (0tiecht: PhB thesis submitteu at 0tiecht 0niveisity, 2uuS), pp. 118-119.
24
Nuhammau bin Salih al-'0thaymin, Kitob ol-}iboJ,
http:www.ibnothaimeen.comallbooksaiticle_18u9S.shtml (accesseu: 4 Apiil 2u1S).
2S
Nooihaiui, loskor }iboJ, p. 22S.
2S8
'0lomo aie not specific enough. Nost of the fotwos issueu by this council simply
inteipiet the opinion of the scholais in the uulf anu apply it to local
ciicumstances. Accoiuing to my obseivations, when an oiuinaiy believei asks foi
a fotwo fiom a Lebanese puiist 'olim, the scholai tenus to iefei back to legal
opinions given by the uieat '0lomo.
Eoroki tiansnational netwoiks aie much moie hoiizontal. They aie iaiely
stiuctuieu aiounu a few ienowneu shaykhs. When netwoiks in uistinct localities
establish links to each othei, theii ielationship tenus to be moie equal than in
case of the puiists. Iueology plays a majoi iole in this; when Salafism in Sauui
Aiabia fiagmenteu uuiing anu aftei the 199u-1991 uulf ciisis, borokis
complaineu about the oveiwhelming uomination of the uieat '0lomo' in the
ieligious fielu anu theii monopoly in inteipieting the Sciiptuie. They iegaiu this
as a uistoition of the teaching of Islam, which auvocates the inuiviuual fieeuom
of the leaineu (those who aie capable of unueistanuing the Qui'an anu Sunna) to
inteipiet the Text.
26

Lebanese boroki shaykhs, although usually well connecteu to the uulf, act
iathei inuepenuently. Although shaykhs such as 'Abu al-Rahman 'Abu al-Khaliq,
Bamiu al-'Ali, Safai al-Bawali anu Nasii al-'0mai aie wiuely iespecteu, they
cannot issue oiueis to boroki shaykhs in othei localities, as Naukhali uiu with
the leaueis of Laskai }ihau. Lebanese activist scholais usually piouuce
inuepenuent fotwos. Shaykh Salim al-Rafi'i aigueu that iuolizing shaykhs in the
uulf technically elevates them to the position of Chiistian piiests. Be iefeiieu to
the following Qui'anic veise: "They take theii iabbis anu theii monks as theii
loius (insteau of uou)."
27
Accoiuing to Shaykh Salim, local Salafi shaykhs also can
be highly knowleugeable anu almost ceitainly have ueepei insights into what is
going on in theii own countiy. They shoulu tuin to the woiu of uou uiiectly anu
shoulu not unconuitionally accept the opinion of the uieat '0lomo.

"#$%& '( ")*+$)&) ,+-+(#& .' ./) 01-(

26
Al-Rasheeu, Contestinq tbe SouJi Stote, pp. 71-72, p. 21S.
27
Suiat al-Tawba, oyo S1 (my own tianslation).
2S9
Lebanese Salafis tenu to extenu theii netwoiks in the uiiection of the Aiabian
uulf: mostly Sauui Aiabia, Kuwait anu Qatai. The uulf is the main souice of
funuing anu centei of leaining foi them. Netwoiking with Salafi gioups in the
uulf often pioviues valuable ieligious capital oi social capital that can be
conveiteu into othei foims of capital, such as ieligious anu economic capital. In
the following I explain how ieligious anu social capital is acquiieu as a iesult of
establishing contacts in the monaichies of the Aiabian Peninsula.

Acquirinq reliqious copitol

Lebanese Salafis acquiie two foims of ieligious capital in the uulf. The fiist foim
exists in the "embouieu state" in the Bouiuieuian sense, which iefeis to
knowleuge anu abilities.
28
If they can affoiu it oi if they possess the iight
contacts, Salafis tiavel to the uulf to puisue theii ieligious stuuies. Iueally, they
enioll on uegiee piogiams at the piestigious univeisities, such as the Islamic
0niveisity of Neuina, 0mm al-Quia 0niveisity in Necca anu Imam Nuhammau
Ibn Sa'uu Islamic 0niveisity in Riyauh. A less piestigious but still favoieu
uestination is the Shaii'a Faculty of Kuwait 0niveisity, wheie many ienowneu
Salafi scholais teach (such as Bakim al-Nutayii oi Bamiu al-'Ali).
Tiaveling to the Bijaz to peifoim 'umro (lessei pilgiimage)
29
can also be
combineu with ieligious leaining. The 'umro visa might giant the beaiei a thiee
oi six-month stay in the Boly Places. Aftei peifoiming the iituals, Salafis often
visit the boloqot of ienowneu shaykhs iesiuing eithei in Necca oi Neuina.
Among the most piestigious ieligious lessons aie those of Shaykh Abu 'Abuullah
al-Lahayuan, Rabi' al-Naukhali anu Safai al-Bawali. Some of the Lebanese stay in
Necca oi Neuina foi a few weeks oi months to pay iegulai visits to some of
these boloqot.

28
Biaufoiu veitei, 'Theoiizing Religion with Bouiuieu against Bouiuieu', Socioloqicol Tbeory, vol.
21, no. 2, 2uuS, p, 1S9.
29
The uiiection of the 'umro is also the Ko'bo, but it is not compulsoiy, involves fewei iituals anu
can be peifoimeu at any time of the yeai.
24u
Besiues knowleuge, stuuying in the uulf pioviues stuuents with what one
might call the iecognizeu oi "institutionalizeu state" of ieligious capital.
Su
In the
case of Salafis, this mostly means ieligious authoiity. Sauui Aiabia, anu the uulf
in geneial, is iegaiueu as the centei of leaining foi Salafis. Those who belong to
the Salafi community in Noith Lebanon, anu those oiuinaiy inhabitants who
sympathize with Salafism, piesuppose that an inuiviuual who has stuuieu in the
uulf has acquiieu a supeiioi level of knowleuge.
Possessing a uegiee fiom one of the abovementioneu univeisities in the
uulf elevates one's cieuentials within the Lebanese Salafi community. A shaykh
who has a Bacheloi's oi Nastei's uegiee fiom Neuina oi 0mm al-Quia can
potentially attiact moie active paiticipants anu passive followeis than someone
who is self-euucateu oi has a uegiee fiom a Lebanese Islamic euucational
institution.
S1
Being a giauuate of one of the leaining centeis of the uulf also
paves the way foi the shaykhs to get a job at one of the Salafi colleges of Tiipoli,
oi to access funuing fiom the uulf.
Paiticipating in the boloqot of some of the famous Salafi scholais in Sauui
Aiabia might also inciease the inuiviuual's ieligious authoiity. Be can claim that
he is the stuuent of some of the most ienowneu Salafi 'ulomo, oi can simply say
that he stuuieu in Necca oi Neuina. In the eyes of the passive followeis, this still
elevates him above those who nevei stuuieu in the uulf. In puiist-iejectionist
ciicles it is often moie iespectable to have spent a peiiou of time visiting the
boloqot of Shaykh Rabi' al-Naukhali in Neuina, oi Shaykh Salim al-Tawil in
Kuwait, than to have giauuateu fiom one of the Islamic univeisities. This is
because theie is a significant boroki anu non-Salafi piesence in the sbori'o
faculties theie, which might coiiupt an inuiviuual's beliefs.

Acquirinq sociol copitol

Su
Ibiu, p. 16u.
S1
Although theie aie exceptions: Shaykh Nui al-Bin 'Ammai, whom I mentioneu in Chaptei 6,
nevei hau any foimal euucation, yet he can be consiueieu one of the most ienowneu Salafi
scholais in Lebanon.
241
Establishing anu maintaining vaiious foims of contact with Salafis in the uulf
countiies incieases the social capital of Lebanese Salafis. Buiing my fieluwoik I
hau the oppoitunity to obseive how Lebanese Salafis open anu maintain
channels with the monaichies of the Aiabian Peninsula, anu I will uiscuss this in
the following.
To claiify the analysis, I classify tiansnational exchanges between Salafis
as taking place on two main levels. 0n the fiist, links aie uevelopeu anu
maintaineu between the shaykhs. The seconu level conceins the contacts
between active followeis anu between active followeis anu shaykhs. Passive
followeis uo not usually foim an integial pait of these tiansnational exchanges,
with peihaps the only exception being when someone asks foi a fotwo fiom a
uulf-baseu shaykh by telephone oi online. Bowevei, accoiuing to my
expeiiences, these piactices aie not yet wiuespieau among oiuinaiy Lebanese
Salafi sympathizeis.

1. Tbe level of tbe sboykbs: 0n this level I uiscuss both links between the shaykhs
themselves anu between the shaykhs anu the sponsois. Tiansnational contacts
between the 'ulomo aie often establisheu uuiing theii stuuent yeais at one of
the univeisities in the uulf, mostly in Sauui Aiabia. Shaykh Nahii, a young
pieachei fiom the Qubba iegion in Tiipoli, spent foui yeais at the Islamic
0niveisity of Neuina acquiiing his uegiee. As he iecalleu, he useu to spenu most
of his fiee time with thiee othei stuuents, who came fiom Sauui Aiabia, Kuwait
anu Nauiitania. Be uesciibeu how theii thinking anu woiluview was shapeu
when they paiticipateu in extiacuiiiculai activities, mostly in the boloqot of
boroki shaykhs such as Safai al-Bawali.
Aftei they giauuateu, they maintaineu iegulai contact, with the exception
of the Nauiitanian stuuent. Aftei ietuining to his home countiy, this lattei
stuuent hau limiteu ability to use the Inteinet anu tiavel abioau. Shaykh Nahii,
howevei, often communicates with the othei two. They exchange messages
almost uaily via Facebook anu follow each othei on Twittei. Since his giauuation
he has visiteu them both in Kuwait anu Sauui Aiabia a couple of times. These
242
occasions pioviueu him with the oppoitunity to fuithei expanu his netwoik anu
even to acquiie some mateiial suppoit to puisue his Jo'wo activities.
S2

Netwoik ties also often emeige uuiing vaiious foimal anu infoimal visits
abioau, mostly to the uulf countiies. Such tiavel can be foi a puiely social
puipose, oi to look foi financial aiu (as I uiscuss below), oi to paiticipate in
Islamic confeiences. The lattei aie usually exceptionally goou oppoitunities foi
tiansnational netwoiking. Such events aie often oiganizeu by one of the Salafi
centeis oi chaiity oiganizations in the uulf. }ama'iyyat Ihya' al-Tuiath al-Islami,
foi example, fiequently calls foi such events in Kuwait. 0n many occasions the
oiganizeis have inviteu ienowneu scholais fiom Sauui Aiabia oi Egypt to give
lectuies.
These confeiences seive as impoitant platfoims foi netwoiking. They
pioviue space foi shaykhs who alieauy know each othei to maintain
ielationships, oi to foige new ones. At the same time these events aie excellent
oppoitunities foi contacting potential sponsois. Accoiuing to my infoimants at a
confeience oiganizeu in the uulf, paiticipants aie often inviteu to spenu the
night at the house of one of the local Salafis aftei the seminais. These meetings in
the evening function as one of the most effective platfoims foi making contact
with otheis. In the ielaxeu enviionment of the infoimal home gatheiings,
Lebanese Salafi shaykhs often make valuable contacts that pioviue them with
access to chaiities oi othei kinus of pationage. Salafis fiom the uulf fiequently
intiouuce like-minueu movement membeis to businessmen, who aie willing to
sponsoi ceitain Jo'wo activities.
SS

I hau an oppoitunity to obseive infoimal tiansnational exchanges
between Salafis uuiing my fieluwoik in Kuwait, when I often paiticipateu in
Jiwoniyyos. Accoiuing to Kuwaitis, these events have been oiganizeu since the
founuing yeais of the countiy, anu can be tiaceu back to olu tiibal tiauitions. The
Jiwoniyyo is usually hosteu by the heau of a piominent Kuwaiti family on a given
uay each week (usually a Tuesuay oi a Satuiuay). At aiounu 9 pm, men (usually
membeis of the extenueu family, fiienus, clients of the host, oi those who wish to
uiscuss something with him) gathei in a specific place in a Kuwaiti house that

S2
SS
Seiies of inteiviews with Lebanese Salafi shaykhs in Tiipoli uuiing }uly-August 2u11 anu Apiil-
Nay 2u12.
24S
has been cieateu foi Jiwoniyos. The people sit back against the wall, to the iight
anu left of the host. A Pakistani oi Egyptian seivant offeis them uiinks, usually
tea oi Aiabic coffee.
The uiscussions in the Jiwoniyyos covei a iange of issues. Sometimes
people gathei at a Jiwoniyyo only to socialize anu talk about eveiyuay issues, oi
to watch an impoitant football match. Biwoniyyos foi poetiy aie also populai.
Noie impoitant aie those Jiwoniyyos wheie people uiscuss economic oi political
issues. The fate of millions of uollais can be ueciueu at such gatheiings (iathei
than in the offices of Kuwait City's skysciapeis). At election time, Jiwoniyos can
be extiemely ciowueu, as key campaigning takes place theie. 0sually the time
anu place of a Jiwoniyyo is auveitiseu online, inuicating the social impoitance of
such events.
S4

Salafis fiom othei Niuule Eastein countiies oi Euiope often paiticipate in
Jiwoniyos when they visit Kuwait. Ny Lebanese Salafi infoimants who fiequently
visit the uulf emiiate also make use of the oppoitunities these gatheiings
pioviue. 0ne of the most impoitant functions of the Jiwoniyyo is pioviuing a
"fiee space"
SS
foi tiansnational actois to exchange infoimation. Biwoniyyos aie
piotecteu by Kuwaiti social customs. Accoiuing to Kuwaiti law, the state has no
iight to put them unuei suiveillance oi cuib theii fieeuom by any means.
S6

Theiefoie the uiscussions can be helu ielatively fieely. Salafis fiom abioau aie
often biought to uiffeient Jiwoniyyos by theii local contacts. As Salafis fiom
Tiipoli who aie fiequently in Kuwait tolu me, most of the time uuiing the
Jiwoniyyos they only exchange iueas with otheis anu establish new contacts.
Kuwait Salafis often ask them to talk about the situation in Lebanon anu how
they peiceive the thieat coming fiom the Shi'ite community anu Bizbullah.
Biwoniyyos pioviue space to establish contact with chaiity oiganizations.
Foi example, to ieceive suppoit fiom Ihya' al-Tuiath, it is usually necessaiy to
have pieviously establisheu contact with shaykhs who aie associateu with the
chaiity. Funus also can be collecteu fiom inuiviuual uonois who might not even
be Salafis. Since Ihya' al-Tuiath often coveis only pait of the expenses, the extia
funus collecteu uuiing tiips to the uulf emiiate can be veiy impoitant. Salafis

S4
http:www.uewan.ws (accesseu 18 Apiil 2u1u).
SS
Polletta, '"Fiee Spaces" in Collective Action'.
S6
Naiy Ann Ttieault, Stories of Bemocrocy, pp. 278-281.
244
usually ask foi extia suppoit foi theii mo'boJ sboro'i, to be able to pioviue moie
alms foi the pooi oi to publish books anu leaflets. Kuwaiti uonois usually offei
theii zokot oi pay soJoqo.
S7

2. Tbe level of tbe octive followers: The tiansnational netwoiks of the committeu
Salafis aie less uense than those of the shaykhs. This is because the young men
tenu not to have the financial means to tiavel fiequently to the uulf. Bespite this,
active paiticipants can gain social capital, which they can conveit into ieligious
capital (mostly knowleuge) anu economic capital.
Committeu Salafis often mix with young Salafis fiom Kuwait oi Sauui
Aiabia who aie visiting Lebanon, usually foi a vacation. Activists fiom Westein
Euiope anu Austialia aie also a fiequent piesence in the Salafi ieligious colleges.
Bue to the Inteinet, long-lasting links anu netwoiks can emeige fiom these
encounteis. Seiies of stuuies have emphasizeu the impoitance of online
communication in the evolution of tiansnational netwoiks. Social netwoiks aie
emeiging that consist of inuiviuuals fiom vaiious uistant localities, who can be in
uaily contact with each othei.
S8
Twittei, Facebook anu online Salafi foiums
enable the movement's followeis to tianscenu locality anu cieate communities
that aie establisheu puiely on the giounus of shaieu iueology. Accoiuing to my
uata, these tiansnational netwoiks can evolve eithei aiounu ceitain websites,
such as kulalsalafiyeen.com,
S9
oi on social meuia. In the fiist case, the membeis
of the netwoiks iaiely know each othei peisonally anu aie only familiai with
each othei's viitual piofiles.
In the seconu case, netwoiks on Facebook anu Twittei often evolve aftei
the netwoik's membeis have pieviously establisheu peisonal contact. These
netwoiks tenu to have a stiongei impact, at least in the case of the Salafi youth in
Noith Lebanon, anu last longei. I hau conveisations with Khaliu, a 2S-yeai-olu
Kuwaiti Salafi anu stuuent at the Islamic 0niveisity of Neuina. Bis family owns a

S7
Inteiview with a piominent Palestinian shaykh fiom Nahi al-Baiiu, 2S Apiil 2u12, anu
peisonal conveisations anu obseivations uuiing my fieluwoik in Kuwait, Febiuaiy-Naich 2u12.
S8
Lynusay NC. Bayhuist, 'Navigating Neolibeial Netwoiks: Tiansnational Inteinet Platfoims in
Spoit foi Bevelopment anu Peace', lnternotionol Review for tbe Socioloqy of Sport, vol. 46, no. S,
2u11.
S9
Kulalsalafiyeen.com is one the most populai Aiabic language puiist Salafi Inteinet foiums. It is
supeiviseu by the piominent }oiuanian 'olim, 'Ali al-Balabi.
24S
villa in the Binniya iegion, close to Tiipoli. Be has spent most of his summeis
theie since his chiluhoou. When he is in Lebanon he often socializes with fellow
Salafis fiom the villages in the Binniya iegion oi Tiipoli. As he iecalleu, 4-S yeais
ago, aftei he hau left Lebanon at the enu of the summei, he hau haiuly kept in
contact with these young people uue to the lack of means of communication. In
the past few yeais, howevei, Inteinet access has become moie wiuespieau anu
even people fiom pooi economic backgiounus can have connections at home. As
Khaliu tolu me, he is now able to auu many of his Lebanese acquaintances to
Facebook anu Twittei, anu exchanges between them have become quite
fiequent.
4u
They tenu to shaie aiticles, e-books anu ieligious mateiials oi infoim
each othei about what is happening in the Salafi communities in Kuwait,
Lebanon anu Neuina (since Khaliu is a stuuent theie).
In othei cases, howevei, especially if peisonal visits aie ielatively
fiequent, Salafis in the uulf can help theii Lebanese acquaintances to finu a job
anu establish themselves in the uulf emiiate. I biiefly encounteieu two Lebanese
Palestinians in Kuwait who weie assisteu by the 22-yeai-olu Faisal, one of the
pupils of Shaykh Salim al-Tawil (See Chaptei 4). Be tolu me that the Palestinian
youths weie connecteu to him thiough anothei stuuent of Shaykh Salim, who
hau pieviously met them in Lebanon. At the time when I was in Kuwait, Faisal
was helping them to secuie new jobs aftei theii pievious contiacts hau enueu.
Be mobilizeu his local contacts anu access to pationage to finu employment foi
his piotges. As he tolu me, he is uoing all of this because he sees the young
Palestinians as "iight-thinking," anu aftei theii ietuin to Lebanon they will
spieau the iight foim of the Jo'wo anu challenge the mubtoJi's, who
"unfoitunately aie the majoiity among those who call themselves Salafis" in the
countiy.
41

.E) :-$) -% 0:#*'*#0&-*#$ 2E#:&0= -:6#*&Y#0&-*'

4u
Inteiview, Kuwait, Su Febiuaiy 2u12 anu S, 7 anu 14 Naich 2u12.
41
Inteiview anu obseivation, Kuwait, 11 Febiuaiy 2u12.
246
uulf-baseu chaiity oiganizations aie among the most impoitant elements in
tiansnational civil society in the Nuslim woilu anu Salafi tiansnational
netwoiks. They aie the main sponsois of Salafi activism woiluwiue anu foim
significant hubs in tiansnational netwoiks. Chaiities aie also the only significant
institutional actois in tiansnational Salafi netwoiks. Pieviously I mentioneu that
two laige uulf chaiity oiganizations play a ciucial iole in the Salafi fielu in Noith
Lebanon. Since it split into two in 1997 (see Chapteis 2 anu S), }ama'iyyat Ihya'
al-Tuiath al-Islami has sponsoieu the puiist Salafis, while Nu'assasat al-Shaykh
'Aiu al-Khayiiyya finances the Noith Lebanese boroki netwoik. Baving analyzeu
theii iole in the emeigence of Salafism in Noith Lebanon, in this section, aftei a
biief histoiical oveiview, I examine the impoitance of these chaiities in the
tiansnational uynamics of the movement.
Islamic chaiity oiganizations emeigeu in the 197us uue to thiee main
factois. The fiist was the six uecaues of ongoing wais, civil conflicts anu
humanitaiian uisasteis in the Nuslim woilu. The seconu factoi was the 197S oil
boom (see Chaptei S), which enableu the uulf States to finance chaiity activities.
The thiiu factoi was the neeu on the pait of the Sauui Aiabian monaichy anu the
othei monaichies in the Aiabian uulf foi legitimacy, especially aftei the Iianian
Revolution (see Chaptei S). Suppoiting tiansnational chaiities was an excellent
way of seiving this aim anu impioveu the ieputations of these countiies in the
eyes of Nuslims woiluwiue.
42
Chaiity woik gave cieuibility to the conseivative
Sunni monaichies' countei-piopaganua against Iian's ievolutionaiy iueology.
4S

The Afghan wai (1979-1988), which causeu millions to flee anu seek iefuge in
neighboiing Pakistan, tiiggeieu Islamic chaiity activity as both inuiviuual uonois
anu the uulf States pouieu money into chaiity oiganizations.
44
The peiipheiies
of Islam in Afiica likewise pioviueu goou oppoitunities foi chaiity woik
inteitwineu with Jo'wo. In poveity-stiicken countiies such as Chau these

42
Naiie }uul Peteisen, 'Islamizing Aiu: Tiansnational Nuslim Nu0s Aftei 9.11.' voluntos, vol. 2S,
no. 1, 2u12, p. 1SS.
4S
See Kepel, }iboJ.
44
Foi a moie uetaileu analysis, see my book: Pall, lebonese Solofis between tbe 6ulf onJ Furope,
pp. 79-82.
247
institutions founu feitile giounu to spieau theii iueologies among local Nuslims,
anu to conveit otheis to Islam as well.
4S

In the beginning, the piofile of most Islamic chaiities iepiesenteu the
iueology of the Nuslim Biotheihoou. This is because most of the employees of
the chaiities useu to belong to the Ikhwan, as in the 197us they weie the ones
who possesseu the skills anu euucation neeueu foi ielief woik. Salafis also
iefiaineu fiom paiticipating in the newly establisheu chaiity oiganizations, uue
to theii iejection of foimal oiganizations that aie not mentioneu in the Sciiptuie
(as woqf foi example), labeling them biJo'. This attituue began to change fiom
the 198us onwaius, when the Sauui goveinment staiteu to spieau its Salafi
iueology woiluwiue. The senioi 'ulomo affiliateu to the state issueu fotwos that
legalizeu chaiity oiganizations. In auuition, many of the new geneiation of Salafi
scholais who weie influenceu by othei Islamist cuiients no longei thought that
all oiganizational foims weie unacceptable. Since then, tiansnational chaiities
have come to constitute one of the most impoitant pillais of Salafism.
46

Tiansnational Salafi chaiities uiffei fiom othei ielief oiganizations on
many points. Piobably the most impoitant uistinctive featuie, as Peteisen also
pointeu out when examining the Sauui Inteinational Islamic Relief 0iganization,
is that in the activities of these chaiities, "Islam anu aiu aie intimately
inteitwineu".
47
As I have often heaiu fiom membeis of these institutions, the aim
of ielief woik shoulu not only be poveity alleviation anu the fulfillment of othei,
mateiial neeus; chaiity woik has to be uone foi the sake of uou. It means the
iecipients shoulu benefit iegaiuing the piospect of theii heieaftei. In othei
woius, mateiial aiu shoulu seive the aim of biinging the beneficiaiies closei to
the iight 'oqiJo, anu by that salvation.
48

The institutional stiuctuie anu opeiating foims of the two Salafi chaiities
that I examineu aie laigely similai. 0nlike Ikhwan chaiities anu the mainstieam
seculai oi Chiistian ielief oiganizations, they geneially lack an elaboiate

4S
Nayke Kaag, 'Aiu, 0NNA, anu Politics: Tiansnational Islamic Nu0s in Chau', in Benjamin F.
Soaies anu Ren 0tayek (eus), lslom onJ Huslim Politics in Africo (New Yoik: Palgiave
Nacmillan, 2uu7).
46
Pall, lebonese Solofis, p. 82.
47
Peteisen, 'Islamizing Aiu', p. 14u.
48
Seiies of inteiviews conuucteu with the officials anu uonois of Ihya' al-Tuiath anu SACA
between 2uu9 anu 2u12.
248
oiganizational fiamewoik, anu theii opeiations aie uominateu by infoimal
exchanges. Ihya' al-Tuiath might constitute a slight exception, howevei. Aftei the
puiist takeovei (see Chaptei 4) the chaiity staiteu to coopeiate moie closely
with the Kuwaiti state anu the authoiities of the host countiies in which it has
piesence. An official fiom Ihya' al-Tuiath tolu me that befoie launching any
majoi piojects, they consult the ioyal family anu ask foi theii appioval. In
Lebanon, foi example, the local agents of Ihya' al-Tuiath aie obligeu to iepoit to
the Kuwaiti Embassy whenevei they ieceive a laige amount of money fiom the
mothei institution. The official whom I inteivieweu tolu me that "All of this is
pait of the obeuience to the iulei".
49
When I visiteu Ihya' al-Tuiath's office in
}akaita, they tolu me that as a sign of "active obeuience to the iulei" they closely
coopeiate with the Inuonesian police by infoiming them iegulaily about theii
activities anu iepoiting any tensions with othei Islamic stieams (such as Sufis).
Su

0nlike Ihya' al-Tuiath, SACA uoes not have any official bianches in foieign
countiies. 0n papei they only subsiuize piojects launcheu by inuepenuent local
chaiities. Bowevei, in ieality, uense infoimal, inteipeisonal netwoiks connect
these foimally unattacheu institutions to the mothei oiganizations in Qatai anu
Kuwait. These allow the leaueiship in the uulf chaiities to contiol theii
beneficiaiies effectively. Buiing my fieluwoik I hau an oppoitunity to obseive
how aiu is uistiibuteu in Noith Lebanon. The main agent of SACA in Tiipoli, as
mentioneu in Chaptei 4, is Shaykh Khaliu Za'iui. Although he was the chaiity's
inteinational ielations chief foi seveial yeais, since his iesignation, he has not
hau any official links with the chaiity. Touay Shaykh Khaliu eains his living as a
ieal estate agent woiking with a Qataii company. Bowevei, he has kept his
netwoik ties to the leaueiship anu auvisoiy boaiu of SACA anu in ieality he is the
one who uistiibutes the chaiity's money in Tiipoli anu the Binniya iegion (but
not in Nahi al-Baiiu anu the suiiounuing iegion, wheie Shaykh Baitham al-Sa'iu
is the agent of SACA).

49
Su
Inteiview with 0stauz Zaikashi anu Shaykh Setiawan, }akaita, 11 Becembei 2u12.
249
I was a fiequent visitoi to Shaykh Khaliu's office
S1
in Sobot ol-Nur (Stai
Squaie) in the centei of Tiipoli uuiing the summei of 2u11 anu spiing of 2u12.
While he was mostly busy with his clients anu business paitneis, sometimes
local Salafi shaykhs also appeaieu. They usually came to uiscuss the possibility of
ieceiving subsiuies to builu a mosque oi puisue theii Jo'wo activities. Nost of
the time, when the amount of money iequiieu is only a few thousanu oi tens of
thousanus of uollais, Shaykh Khaliu has the authoiity to ueciue. If the given plan
is appioveu, the beneficiaiy has to piepaie a foimal application anu senu it to
SACA's heauquaiteis in Qatai. 0pon ieceiving it, they tiansfei the money to the
iecipient. If the amount of iequesteu aiu is moie than the abovementioneu sums,
eithei the iecipient has to visit Qatai oi some membeis of SACA's leaueiship visit
Lebanon to inspect the pioposeu pioject.
Embeuueuness in the infoimal netwoiks of Salafism is essential foi
someone to become a local iepiesentative of a tiansnational uulf chaiity. None of
the agents of SACA oi Ihya' al-Tuiath in Lebanon whom I inteivieweu went
thiough any foimal ieciuitment piocess. Theii way leu thiough the
tiansnational netwoiks of fiienus anu fellow Salafi 'ulomo whom they hau
encounteieu both in Lebanon anu the uulf countiies. This was the case with
Safwan al-Za'bi, as I explaineu in Chaptei 4. Khaliu Za'iui's netwoik evolveu
thiough his business activity in the uulf, while Baitham al-Sa'iu, as I will show in
the next section, was able to establish his contacts with SACA aftei yeais of
tiieless netwoiking with Salafis fiom the uulf anu Euiope.
As a chief official in Ihya' al-Tuiath explaineu to me, when the
oiganization wants to establish a piesence in a given countiy, they look foi
someone who is alieauy in theii netwoik. As he explaineu, theii local agents
tenueu to be foimei fellow stuuents of 'ulomo who aie affiliateu to the chaiity,
oi fiienus whom they meet on vaiious occasions, at Islamic confeiences foi
example. Be tolu me that in this way it is easiei to check whethei someone's way
of thinking meets the iequiiements of Ihya' al-Tuiath; that is, that the inuiviuual
agiees with puiist views anu opposes jihaui activism (see also Chaptei 4).
S2

S1
I woulu use the Inteinet in his office, wheie he hau installeu a much fastei connection than was
available elsewheie in the city. Buiing the time I spent theie, saving my fieluwoik notes anu
checking my emails, I hau plenty of oppoitunity foi obseivation.
S2
Inteiview, 'Isa al-Qauuumi, Kuwait, 6 }anuaiy 2u1u.
2Su

Tbe finonciol sources of tronsnotionol cbority orqonizotions

Examining the financial backgiounu of the chaiities in the uulf woulu allow us to
unueistanu how these chaiities maintain links between tiansnational Salafi
netwoiks, the state appaiatus of the uulf monaichies anu the Islamic financial
sectoi. Bowevei, gatheiing infoimation about this issue tenus to be uifficult.
When I askeu the agents anu employees of chaiities about theii financial souices,
they tenueu to give geneial answeis anu usually tiieu to change the couise of the
conveisation. Such inquiies always iaise suspicions in the minus of Islamists,
since Westein secuiity seivices aie also paying moie attention to this topic.
0nce, when I askeu one of the officials fiom Ihya' al-Tuiath in Kuwait how they
finance theii activities, he askeu me uiiectly which secuiity seivice neeueu this
infoimation. The iesponses weie similai when I inteivieweu membeis of SACA
in Qatai. Bespite these expeiiences, I was able to collect meaningful uata about
Ihya' al-Tuiath uuiing my fieluwoik in Kuwait by means of infoimal
conveisations in Jiwoniyos anu othei piivate meetings. It is highly likely that the
othei chaiities have similai financial souices chaiities. Theiefoie this case stuuy
also seives to inuicate how Salafi ielief institutions in geneial gathei theii
funuing.
Accoiuing to my obseivations, the two main souices of financial suppoit
foi Ihya' al-Tuiath aie the state anu income fiom the Islamic financial sectoi. In
Kuwait, all chaiitable oiganizations iegisteieu in the countiy ieceive
goveinment funuing, which coveis the salaiies of the employees. Bowevei, all of
my infoimants who weie willing to speak about this issue aumitteu that Ihya' al-
Tuiath ieceives fuithei funuing fiom the state buuget, uue to its loyalty to the
ioyal family. The oiganization plays an impoitant iole in the puisuit of Kuwait's
ambitions to extenu its inteinational influence. Since it piomotes a puiist foim of
Salafism that legitimizes contempoiaiy Aiab iegimes, the uulf States shaie a
common inteiest in suppoiting it.
Financing puiist gioups helps to contiol them anu ensuies that they focus
theii activities on puiifying ieligious piactices anu beliefs. In auuition, the active
2S1
piesence of its chaiitable oiganizations significantly enhances Kuwait's influence
in the host states. It suffices to mention that uuiing the Lebanese election of
2uu9, the local bianch of Ihya' al-Tuiath in Tiipoli helpeu to ieciuit voteis foi
those canuiuates that the Kuwaiti goveinment iegaiueu as acceptable. It is
possible that Ihya' al-Tuiath plays a similai iole elsewheie, especially in
Southeast Asian countiies anu in the Balkans.
Possibly the biggest suppoitei of Ihya' al-Tuiath is the Islamic financial
sectoi. Islamic banks anu financial institutions have sponsoieu chaiities
woiluwiue since theii emeigence in the seconu half of the 2u
th
centuiy. Although
Islam incluues pionouncements on economic matteis, mouein sboriò-baseu
financial institutions weie only establisheu in the eaily 197us. 0ntil this time, the
Westein financial system was the only financial system in the Islamic woilu.
Islamic banking emeigeu foi political, iathei than economic, ieasons. Its main
tiiggei was the Aiab uefeat by Isiael in the 1967 wai. Aftei this event, it became
obvious that theie woulu not be any political unity in the Niuule East, eithei
unuei the umbiella of Aiab nationalism oi pan-Islamism.
The (ie)-uiscoveiy of the Islamic financial system was basically intenueu
to palliate the failuie of the abovementioneu political pioject. As Benthall anu
Bellion-}ouiuan aigue, "In the face of the impossibility of political union, the
tiansnational uimension of Islamic finance anu piactices of soliuaiity steppeu in
to maintain the utopia of the unity of the Nuslim Woilu".
SS
Theiefoie it is
unsuipiising that the uulf States puisueu mutual inteistate coopeiation in the
Islamic woilu on the economic anu social levels, but stiictly iefuseu to give up
any political soveieignty. The uesigneis of the Islamic financial system wanteu to
cieate a "thiiu way" between the capitalist anu Naixist economic systems. The
main iuea behinu it was the combination of fiee piivate owneiship with social
sensitivity anu iesponsibility.
S4
The Islamic banks' basic piinciple is the
piohibition of inteiest (ribo). To avoiu this, they offei alteinative piactices foi
theii clients.

SS
}onathan Benthall anu }eiome Bellion-}ouiuan, Tbe Cboritoble Crescent: Politics of AiJ in tbe
Huslim WorlJ (Lonuon, New Yoik: I. B. Tauiis, 2uuS).
S4
Timui Kuian, 'Islamic Economics anu the Islamic Subeconomy', }ournol of Fconomic
Perspectives, vol. 9, no. 4, 199S, pp. 1S9-16u.
2S2
The Islamic financial sectoi of Kuwait is one of the stiongest, anu plays its
iole in sponsoiing chaiities. Thiee of the biggest banks in the countiy, the
Kuwait Financial Bouse, the Boubyan Bank anu the Kuwait Inteinational Bank,
function accoiuing to sboriò iules. In 2uu9, theie weie SS Islamic investment
companies in Kuwait.
SS
Since most of these institutions foim pait of global
financial netwoiks, they cannot avoiu coopeiating with banks that use inteiest
iates. To conveit the borom to bolol, Islamic financial institutions give the money
that they have eaineu with inteiest-iate-baseu tiansactions to chaiity. Islamic
banks anu investment companies also have to pay zokot, anu a laige pait of this
money also goes to suppoit chaiitable oiganizations. Noieovei, sboriò-baseu
financial institutions usually voluntaiily uonate huge amounts foi ielief
puiposes. Salafis close to Ihya' al-Tuiath aie active in these institutions, oi even
own paits of them. The most impoitant of these is Khaliu Sultan (see Chaptei 2),
a piominent membei of the meichant class anu the biggest shaieholuei in the
Sultan Centei investment company. Theiefoie, it is no wonuei that chaiitable
oiganizations gain the gieatest pait of theii buugets fiom this sectoi.

.E) $&*3' -% +),#*)') "#$#%&' 0- QC:-I)

Besiues the connections to the uulf, the netwoiks of Lebanese Salafis extenu to
vaiious Euiopean countiies. 0ften the cential elements of these links aie
shaykhs who aie connecteu to chaiity oiganizations anu inuiviuual uonois in the
Aiabian uulf, anu piactice Jo'wo among the Nuslim communities of Euiope.
Bespite the still ielatively small numbei of Salafis in Noith Lebanon, many of
them have settleu in Euiope anu become leauing membeis of the movement
theie. In the following I will piesent a uetaileu account of the life stoiy of a
Lebanese Palestinian Shaykh who caiiies out Jo'wo in Sweuen. The case
illustiates impoitant aspects of the natuie of Salafi netwoiking. It shows how a
Lebanese shaykh becomes pait of the tiansnational movement, how he
establishes contacts with tiansnational chaiities thiough infoimal netwoiking

SS
See: http:www.gulfbase.comSiteInteifaceNewsAichiveBetails.aspx.n=978S2 (accesseu: S
Naich 2u1u).
2SS
anu how his inteipeisonal links enable him to stait a caieei as a pieachei in
Westein Euiope. Aftei this ethnogiaphic sketch I also piesent less uetaileu
examples of two othei Jo'is who aie active in the Netheilanus anu ueimany.

Sboykb Eoitbom ol-So'iJ between Nobr ol-BoriJ onJ SweJen

The life stoiy anu Euiopean activities of Shaykh Baitham al-Sa'iu offei a goou
illustiation of how Salafi tiansnational netwoiking woiks. In the following I will
explain how a young Palestinian fiom Nahi al-Baiiu camp became quite an
influential tiansnational Jo'i anu how the uynamics of the movement's
netwoiking leu him to a leauing position in Sweuen's Salafi community. Shaykh
Baitham's case uemonstiates that Salafis aie exceptionally mobile, even in
compaiison to the activists of othei Islamic movements.
Shaykh Baitham was boin in Beilin in the fiist half of the 197us, as his
fathei was a guest woikei theie. The family ietuineu to Lebanon anu settleu in
Nahi al-Baiiu camp when Baitham was about five oi six yeais olu. Like many
othei Lebanese Salafis, his paients weie not piacticing Nuslims. Bowevei,
Baitham hau two uncles who weie ueeply ieligious anu with whom he hau a
veiy goou ielationship. Bue to theii influence he became inteiesteu in Islam at
quite an eaily age. As an auolescent he became involveu in the vibiant ieligious
life of Tiipoli in the 198us. Be visiteu a uiffeient mosque almost eveiy uay,
wheie he paiticipateu in the boloqot of shaykhs fiom vaiious Islamic
movements, such as the Ikhwan, al-Ahbash, Sufis anu Salafis. At the age of fifteen
Baitham joineu the oJiriyyo Sufi oiuei wheie he, as he emphasizeu, became an
exceptionally active membei. When the civil wai in Lebanon enueu anu tiavel
became safei, he often went to uiffeient paits of Syiia to visit Qauiiiyya gioups
anu take pait in theii activities.
As he explaineu, the "Salafi tuin" in his life occuiieu when he staiteu to
take lessons fiom a "toqliJi |tiauitionalj" shaykh who followeu an otbori 'oqiJo
(see Chaptei 1). The scholai auviseu him to stick to the Qui'an anu Sunna, since
these two souices aie not uebateu anu challengeu, unlike Sufi piactices. Aftei his
stuuies with this shaykh he giauually uistanceu himself fiom the Sufis. At this
2S4
time Shaykh Ahmau al-Bajj, one of the piominent Salafi scholais of Nahi al-Baiiu
touay, ietuineu fiom Sauui Aiabia aftei finishing his stuuies anu staiteu his
Jo'wo among the youth of the camp. Baitham joineu the gioup of young people
that evolveu aiounu him, left Sufism foi goou anu auopteu the Salafi monboj.
Buiing his high-school yeais he stuuieu in Shaykh Ba'i al-Islam al-Shahhal's
Na'hau al-Biuaya. Accoiuing to him, his expeiiences at the college maue him
ueciue to ueuicate his life to the Jo'wo. Latei he giauuateu fiom }inan 0niveisity
in Tiipoli in sbori'o anu staiteu to teach in Tiipoli's Salafi colleges.
Aftei ieceiving his univeisity uegiee in the miu-199us, he began woiking
in the vaiious mo'boJs, which subsequently leu him to get involveu in the
tiansnational Salafi movement. Accoiuing to his account, the yeais he spent
lectuiing in Tiipoli weie ciucial in builuing up his tiansnational inteipeisonal
netwoik, which leu him to become one of the main authoiities among Lebanese
Palestinian Salafis anu an impoitant tiansnational Jo'i. In othei woius, this was
the peiiou when he collecteu social capital that he latei conveiteu into ieligious
anu economic capital.
As he tolu me, befoie the battle in Binniya in 1999 (see Chaptei S) theie
was a lively Salafi community in Tiipoli. Theie weie many Austialian Lebanese
anu Euiopean Nuslim stuuents of Aiab, Albanian anu Bosnian oiigins who weie
puisuing theii stuuies in the Salafi ieligious colleges. Accoiuing to Shaykh
Baitham, he was a well-likeu teachei anu he foigeu close ielationships with
some of his stuuents outsiue of the classioom as well. As he tolu me, some pupils
fiom ueimany "piaiseu his qualities" in fiont of the leaueiship of a Salafi mosque
in Beilin. As a iesult he ieceiveu an invitation to unueitake a Jo'wo toui in the
ueiman capital anu some othei majoi cities. Buiing his tiip, which lasteu a
couple of weeks, he ueliveieu a seiies of lectuies anu issueu many fotwos. Be
also hau the oppoitunity to get closei to a numbei of leauing Euiopean Salafi
scholais, who latei pioveu to be veiy beneficial to his caieei.
Foi Shaykh Baitham, the othei souice of connections with tiansnational
netwoiks was the milieu aiounu Shaykh Ba'i al-Islam al-Shahhal. The young Jo'i,
uesciibeu by many as capable anu tiieless (Juub), quickly became close to the
shaykh, who was then the main Salafi leauei in Lebanon. As I mentioneu in
Chaptei 4, shaykhs anu agents of chaiity oiganizations fiom the uulf fiequently
2SS
visiteu al-Shahhal. 0n these occasions Shaykh Baitham acquiieu many contacts
in Qatai anu Sauui Aiabia, which he employeu to boost his Jo'wo activities. Fiom
the seconu half of the 199us he fiequently tiaveleu to the uulf to paiticipate in
confeiences oi leain fiom piominent scholais in theii boloqot. 0nlike many
othei Lebanese Salafis he coulu affoiu such tiips even without exteinal financial
help, since he owneu a numbei of successful businesses in Nahi al-Baiiu. Buiing
one of these visits he was intiouuceu to the leaueis of SACA in Boha anu was
gianteu subsiuies foi spieauing Salafism among the inhabitants of the
Palestinian iefugee camps. As Shaykh Baitham explaineu, aftei this he became
pait of a "poweiful" netwoik, which openeu uoois to moie effectively fulfill his
mission to spieau the "coiiect foim of uou's ieligion".
Aftei seveial yeais of coopeiation with the Qataii chaiity oiganization to
implement local chaiity piojects, mainly in Nahi al-Baiiu anu the suiiounuing
aieas (which aie mostly inhabiteu by Lebanese Sunnis), in 2u11 Shaykh Baitham
was appointeu as one of the heaus of a Sweuish Islamic centei sponsoieu by
SACA. As he tolu me when I inteivieweu him in Sweuen, he was iecommenueu
by the Euiopean Salafis whom he hau met uuiing his Jo'wo toui in ueimany anu
tiavels to the uulf. Be thinks that the stiongest aspect of his canuiuatuie was his
euucational backgiounu in auministiation anu accounting. Aftei giauuation in
sbori'o he hau acquiieu a uegiee in the lattei subject as well, anu is theiefoie
able to contiibute to the financial management of the centei, besiues pioviuing
ieligious seivices. By woiking as the imam anu kbotib of a mosque in the city of
0iebio anu uiiecting the Islamic centei that is attacheu to the mosque, Shaykh
Baitham became the centei of a tiansnational netwoik connecting Scanuinavia
anu Lebanon. Although he spenus most of his time in Sweuen, he goes back to
Lebanon eveiy yeai foi a couple of months to take caie of the affaiis of his
institution, Bai al-Aiqam, in Nahi al-Baiiu.
In the summei of 2u12 I spent seveial uays at the 0iebio Islamic centei
inteiviewing co-woikeis anu oiuinaiy believeis, anu obseiving the activities
theie. The institution is one of five similai establishments built by SACA in
Sweuen. It was completeu in 2uu7 aftei buying anu ienovating a builuing that
was pieviously useu as a chuich foi the }ehovah Witnesses. Touay about S,uuu
people visit the establishment iegulaily. Nost of them have Somali oiigins, but
2S6
theie aie some Afghans, Iiaqis, Syiians, Egyptians anu Bosnians as well. As
membeis of the mosque's leaueiship committee tolu me, the aiiival of Shaykh
Baitham "biought fiesh bloou to the Islamic centei", which is attempting to
"puiify the eiioneous ieligious customs" of the local Nuslims, customs which
"weie biought fiom the Boin of Afiica".
S6
In fact, Shaykh Baitham staiteu his
new appointment with exceptional activity. As I witnesseu, the piogiams that he
launcheu attiact young people in paiticulai, many of them fiom the euucateu
classes.
0ne of the fiist initiatives that Shaykh Baitham launcheu upon his aiiival
in Sweuen was to stait the Jo'wo among univeisity stuuents anu young
piofessionals ageu 2S-SS. Be gatheis these inuiviuuals eveiy two weeks. Be
gives them a ieligious lesson anu then they continue with a small socializing
event with some foou in the community hall of the mosque. Be entiusteu a S2-
yeai-olu Afghan Tajik computei piogiammei, Ansaie
S7
, to tiy to attiact his
Nuslim fiienus anu acquaintances to these events. As Ansaie tolu me when I
inteivieweu him,
S8
he uoes not know too much about Islam anu he is unable to
iecognize the uiffeient movements anu schools of thought. Be was only able to
leain the veiy basics of ieligion fiom his paients, who belongeu to the woiking
class anu weie "not ieally piacticing". Ansaie thinks that many young Nuslim
piofessionals of the same age aie in the same position; they have a woiking-class
family backgiounu with paients who hau little to pass to theii chiluien about
Islam. At the same time they aie not fully accepteu as Sweuish by the majoiity,
uespite the fact that they have ieceiveu a Sweuish euucation anu speak the
language with native pioficiency. Foi most of them, the only iuentity they can
auopt - as has been ievealeu by seveial acauemic stuuies on Euiopean Islam
S9
-
is being Nuslim. Accoiuing to Ansaie, many who belong to this segment of the

S6
Inteiview with a shaykh fiom Syiia, 26 }une 2u12.
S7
"Ansaie" is the Sweuish spelling; the oiiginal Aiabic oi Tajik tiansciiption woulu be "Ansaii".
S8
Inteiview, 2S }une 2u12.
S9
Stuuies on Euiopean Nuslims which aie baseu on ethnogiaphic uata often concluue that
seconu anu thiiu-geneiation Euiopean Nuslims can accept neithei the iuentity of theii paients
anu gianupaients noi that of the host countiy, wheie they feel excluueu oi iejecteu. Islamic
movements, which claim to iepiesent the authentic Islam, usually appeal to them. Naitijn Be
Koning, 'Changing Woiluviews anu Fiienuship: An Exploiation of the Life Stoiies of Two Female
Salafis in the Netheilanus', in Neijei, 6lobol Solofism; Nohameu-Ali Auiaoui, 'Salafism in Fiance:
Iueology, Piactices anu Contiauictions', in Ibiu.; Sauek Bamiu, 'The Attiaction of "Authentic"
Islam: Salafism anu Biitish Nuslim Youth', in Ibiu.
2S7
society iesponu positively to Shaykh Baitham's call, since at least "they get some
answei |to the question ofj who they aie".
0ne of the most inteiesting aspects of Shaykh Baitham's activism in
0iebio is how he woiks on expanuing his Jo'wo to neighboiing Scanuinavian
countiies. Aftei his aiiival in Sweuen he pioposeu that othei membeis of SACA's
netwoik who aie baseu in Noiway anu Finlanu shoulu cooiuinate theii activities.
In 2u11 they launcheu a yeaily Qui'an-memoiizing couise at the 0iebio centei
in the summei holiuays. The foui-week-long couise was being helu while I was
theie, meaning that I hau an oppoitunity foi obseivation. Nost of the
paiticipants weie ageu between 12 anu 16 anu moie than half of them came
fiom Finlanu, Noiway anu othei, uistant paits of Sweuen. SACA fully financeu
theii tiavel expenses anu stay in 0iebio. Buiing the peiiou they spent in the
Islamic centei, the stuuents leaineu a couple of suros fiom the Qui'an by heait.
Aftei the memoiizing sessions, Shaykh Baitham, along with some othei scholais
who weie affiliateu with the institution, gave them Aiabic lessons anu an
intiouuction to fiqb.
The shaykhs who belong to SACA's netwoik fiequently visit each othei's
mosques to give guest lectuies anu boloqot. The Qataii chaiity also gives
financial aiu to some of the oiiginally non-Salafi mosques in localities wheie
theie is a consiueiable Nuslim population. In exchange, these institutions let
Salafi Jo'is visit them anu uelivei lectuies. Shaykh Baitham himself fiequently
tiavels to smallei towns in Sweuen anu elsewheie in Scanuinavia. 0nce he even
maue a tiip to Kiiuna, Sweuen's noitheinmost town, well beyonu the Aictic
Ciicle, which has a few hunuieu Nuslim inhabitants who aie woiking in heavy
inuustiy. Accoiuing to Shaykh Baitham, these tiips aie especially beneficial foi
the Jo'wo. As he tolu me, theie aie haiuly any tiaineu ieligious scholais in the
smallei towns of Scanuinavia. Local mosques even lack basic ieligious liteiatuie.
The Salafis usually offei to senu some auuitional copies of the Qui'an, hauith
collections anu books such as al-Albani's Sifot Solot ol-Nobi, 'Aiu al-Qaini's lo
Tobzin (Bon't be Sau) oi 'Abu al-Rahman 'Abu al-Khaliq's ol-0sul ol-'llmiyyo li-l-
Bo'wo ol-Solofiyyo (The Scientific Roots of the Salafi Ba'wa). If they have the
capacity, the Salafi centeis senu some scholais to these places on a foitnightly oi
monthly basis to give some lessons oi lectuies oi uelivei the Fiiuay piayei.
2S8
Shaykh Baitham tolu me that he intenus to establish a moie intensive
ielationship between his Lebanese anu Scanuinavian netwoiks. In his opinion,
Euiopean Nuslims shoulu have a bettei unueistanuing of the conceins anu
suffeiings of theii Niuule Eastein biotheis. Theiefoie he plans to biing some of
his moie enthusiastic stuuents fiom Sweuen to Tiipoli, to stay foi a while in
Nahi al-Baiiu camp. Be thinks that uiiectly expeiiencing the uifficulties of the
Palestinians anu Sunni Lebanese in the Noith, anu the injustices that Nuslims aie
facing (fiom the siue of Bizbullah anu the Lebanese goveinment), woulu
stiengthen theii feeling of belonging to the 0mmo as an iuentity that is supeiioi
to all othei iuentities. Besiues, these young Euiopean Nuslims woulu have the
chance to impiove theii Aiabic anu ieligious knowleuge by leaining in Bai al-
Aiqam, oi even paiticipating in one of the summei schools
6u
oiganizeu by the
institution. Shaykh Baitham plans to stait senuing his stuuents to Lebanon as
soon as the secuiity situation in the countiy impioves.
61

This ethnogiaphic case stuuy on Shaykh Baitham's activism uemonstiates
the natuie of Salafi tiansnational netwoiking, which I have uiscusseu above. Be
built his Jo'wo almost entiiely on infoimal, inteipeisonal netwoiking. Even his
coopeiation with SACA cannot be uesciibeu as foimal anu institutional. 0fficially,
he is not a SACA agent. Be ieceives money fiom the institution because he
belongs to a netwoik of fiienus anu fellow Salafis who maintain close peisonal
links with the leaueiship of SACA. Salafis like Shaykh Baitham choose this type of
netwoiking not only because they feel uneasy about foimal institutional
stiuctuies; infoimal links, even at the tiansnational level, pioviue fewei chances
foi the vaiious state authoiities to ciack uown on them, because they aie moie
uifficult to monitoi. A similai kinu of tiansnational netwoiking stiategy can be
obseiveu in my two othei Euiopean case stuuies. In the following, although in
less uetail, I examine a Butch anu a ueiman boroki netwoik, both of which aie
connecteu to Lebanon.

6u
Inteiview, 0iebio, 2S }une 2u12.
61
At the time of the inteiview the countiy was significantly uestabilizeu by the Syiian civil wai.
Clashes, kiunaps anu muiueis weie occuiiing iegulaily in Noith Lebanon, making it iathei
unsafe foi foieigneis.
2S9
lebonese networks in tbe NetberlonJs onJ 6ermony

The leaueis of the Butch anu ueiman netwoiks have followeu somewhat
uiffeient tiajectoiies than Shaykh Baitham, yet they shaie some similaiities as
well. Both shaykhs establisheu themselves as a iesult of having become pait of
the tiansnational Salafi movement. Theii tiansnational netwoiking also laigely
lacks institutional aspects, anu iathei ielies on infoimal anu inteipeisonal
exchanges. Like Shaykh Baitham, both 'olims, whom I uiscuss below, connect
Euiope to theii countiy of oiigin. The heau of the Butch netwoik spenus the
majoi pait of his time in the Netheilanus, although he also tiavels extensively
within Euiope anu to the uulf anu Lebanon. The founuei of the ueiman netwoik
cuiiently iesiues in Lebanon, wheie he has establisheu himself as one of the
most influential Salafi authoiities in the countiy (see Chaptei 4). Finally, both
shaykhs have a similai aim in Euiope: to uige Nuslims to focus on theii
membeiship of the 0mmo anu not to auopt a Euiopean iuentity, which might
uiive them away fiom theii ieligion.
The heau of the Butch netwoik, Abu Auham - who is now in his eaily
fifties - began his life as an Islamic activist in al-Ahbash ciicles when he was a
teenagei, as uiu many othei Lebanese Salafis.
62
Aftei a shoit peiiou, he left this
Sufi-oiienteu gioup anu became a Salafi, as the pupil of Shaykh Salim al-Shahhal.
As he iecounteu, he was almost the stepson of Shaykh Salim. Be spent seveial
yeais in his house anu was tieateu like the othei chiluien theie. When he
finisheu his seconuaiy euucation in Tiipoli, Shaykh Salim helpeu him to gain a
scholaiship to the Islamic 0niveisity of Neuina in Sauui Aiabia, wheie he
completeu a Nastei's uegiee. Aftei giauuation, he became the imam of a mosque
in the 0niteu Aiab Emiiates. Be hau to leave the countiy aftei seveial yeais
because, as he explaineu, he uiu not belong among the goveinment shaykhs
(mosboyikb ol-sulto); in othei woius, because he was boroki. Be is convinceu that
those ùlomo' who follow the piesciiptions of the faith anu iefuse to bow in fiont
of the iuleis aie not welcome in uulf countiies. Be even accuses the goveinment
of the Emiiates of suppoiting Sufis in oiuei to weaken Salafi influence. When

62
Abu Auham is not the ieal name of the shaykh. Be woulu piefei his name not to be mentioneu
in any publication.
26u
staying in the Emiiates, howevei, the shaykh come into contact with some Butch
Salafis, who inviteu him to theii countiy to leau theii gioup.
Cuiiently he is one of the most influential Salafi leaueis in the
Netheilanus, with hunuieus of committeu followeis anu thousanus of
sympathizeis. Consiueieu a skilleu oiatoi, his Fiiuay seimons, which aie
ueliveieu in his mosque in one of the majoi Butch cities, attiact a consiueiable
numbei of believeis. In the Netheilanus, the shaykh iegaius pieseiving the
iuentity of Nuslims as his main task. Be wants to pievent them fiom becoming
westeinizeu. Be uiges them not to see themselves as Euiopeans, but iathei
stiesses theii membeiship of the global Islamic community. At the same time, he
uiges Nuslims in the Netheilanus to vote in elections, piefeiably foi Nuslim
canuiuates oi those who uo not contiauict the inteiests of Nuslims.
The shaykh is still in contact with Lebanese Salafis fiom the boroki
netwoik. Be visits Tiipoli fiom time to time, occasionally taking some of his
stuuents theie to become acquainteu with local Salafis. Theie is, howevei, no
inuication of any oiganizeu ielationship between the Butch Salafi gioup anu the
Lebanese netwoik. The shaykh's visits may well ieflect his wish to maintain
contacts theie as a piecaution, just in case he has to leave Euiope one uay, as
happeneu to 0mai Bakii, Salim al-Rafi'i anu Ra'iu Bulayhil. When I askeu him
about his activities uuiing his Lebanese visits, he tolu me that he mostly meets
fellow Salafis anu upuates himself about the cuiient situation in the countiy. Be
stiesseu that it is impoitant foi a pieachei to have a compaiative peispective on
what is going on in uistant teiiitoiies of the 0mmo, so as to make his auuience
awaie of the neeus anu pioblems of Nuslims. Accoiuing to him, he neeus to tell
the Butch Salafis about the thieat that Ahl al-Sunna face in Lebanon fiom the
Shi'a anu Bizbullah. Being awaie of the natuie of the Shi'ite conspiiacy (see
Chaptei 8) enables Nuslims in the Netheilanus to unueistanu why they neeu to
be cautious with Iiaqi Shi'ites who have taken iefuge in the Netheilanus anu, in
the opinion of the shaykh, aie continuously attempting to haim the Sunnis.
6S

Ny inteiviews with the shaykh sheu light on how his Lebanese oiigins
influence his thinking anu style of activism. 0n one occasion, we talkeu

6S
At the time of my inteiview, a uisagieement hau occuiieu between the constituency of a Shi'a
mosque anu the followeis of the shaykh.
261
extensively about how he peiceives the impoitance of coming fiom the Sham
(uieatei Syiia) anu not, foi example, fiom the uulf. Be explaineu that Lebanon
gave him a kinu of "global outlook" (tofkir òlomi).
64
Bistoiically, the iegion has
always been a hub of tiaue ioutes anu a meeting point between East anu West.
Nigiation anu long voyages have foimeu pait of the inhabitants' lives foi
thousanus of yeais. Nowauays, laige migiant communities oiiginating fiom
Lebanon oi Syiia can be founu thioughout the woilu. Families even uige theii
membeis to seek theii foitune in Westein countiies, unlike in the uulf States.
In the uulf iegion, accoiuing to my own obseivations, oiuinaiy people
influenceu by Salafism usually iefuse oppoitunities to spenu a ceitain peiiou of
time in a Westein countiy. They often expiess feais that they might not finu an
appiopiiate enviionment theie in which to live life fully accoiuing to sboriò. As
the shaykh tolu me, "'osobiyyo |heie meaning kinship bonusj anu iacism pievent
Salafi Jo'is fiom the uulf fiom coming to Westein Euiope. They aie nothing
without theii tiibes, often they uo not have an inuepenuent peisonality.
Although uou cieateu us to inuiviuually woiship Bim, they aie nothing without
theii tiibe".
6S
This is why the shaykh thinks that Jo'is fiom the uulf issue
thousanus of fotwos foi Westein Nuslims without evei leaving theii home
towns. Be also iegaius this as the main ieason why most of the Salafi Joìs in the
West come fiom Syiia, Lebanon anu }oiuan, oi have Palestinian oiigins. As he
explaineu, uue to his Lebanese oiigins, he is able to biiuge cultuial uiffeiences
with his mostly Noioccan constituency. "Noioccans have theii own òsobiyyo,
which is uiffeient fiom that of the Niuule East. You have to finu a way to talk to
them - this is what somebouy fiom the uulf is unable to unueistanu".
66

Accoiuing to the shaykh, anothei uistinguishing featuie of Shami Salafis is
theii mostly uiffeient unueistanuing of ol-wolo wo-l-boro. Be aigueu that foi
many Salafis in the uulf, this uoctiine not only means an obligation to hate that

64
Inteiview with a Butch Salafi Shaykh with Syiio-Lebanese oiigins, The Bague, 6 }uly 2u11.
6S
Ibiu. It woulu be inteiesting to make a compaiison between the uynamics of kinship
connectivity in Lebanon anu the uulf. Suau }oseph aigues that Lebanese society is neithei
coipoiatist (like that of the uulf Countiies) noi inuiviuualistic, but iathei the mix of the two.
Since inuiviuual autonomy is as ueteimining in the life of an inuiviuual as patiiaichy oi kinship,
this might make it easiei to live a life in a uiffeient location fiom that of the extenueu family. Suau
}oseph, 'Connectivity anu Patiiaichy among 0iban Woiking-Class Aiab Families in Lebanon',
Ftbos, vol. 21, no. 4, 199S.
66
Inteiview with the Butch Salafi Shaykh, The Bague, 6 }uly 2u11.
262
which is un-Islamic in ieligion, but also to avoiu anu hate all non-Nuslims anu
heietics. Even one of the gieatest Salafi authoiities, Àbu al-Àziz bin Baz, waineu
in many of his lectuies against fiienuship with oi positive feelings towaius
unbelieveis.
67
The Butch-Lebanese shaykh, howevei, thinks that ol-wolo` wo-l-
boro` means only the hatieu of ceitain beliefs anu actions of those who aie not
Nuslims oi who uo not piactice Islam piopeily, anu this hatieu shoulu not be
extenueu to theii peisons. "Nuslim men aie alloweu to take Chiistian oi }ewish
wives. They maiiy them because they aie affecteu by theii beauty oi thinking. So
how coulu they hate them at the same time."
68
The shaykh also thinks that
Nuslims can befiienu non-Nuslims, because in this way, they may be a positive
influence on them.
I uiscoveieu similai ielationships in Beilin between the al-Nui mosque in
Kieuzbeig anu Lebanese boroki netwoiks. The founuei of the local boroki Salafi
gioup, Shaykh Salim al-Rafi'i, hau followeu a similai tiajectoiy to that of the
afoiementioneu scholai in the Netheilanus. Like him, Shaykh Salim also became
a Salafi in Salim al-Shahhal's gioup, anu then giauuateu fiom the Islamic
0niveisity of Neuina. As he hau been pait of the I0N in the eaily 198us, which
hau iuleu Tiipoli in 1984-198S anu was then uefeateu by the Syiian aimy, he
hau to leave Lebanon, Bue to his contacts in the uulf, he was able to migiate to
ueimany anu acquiie iefugee status theie. Builuing on moie than a uecaue of
pioselytization, he founueu one of the most impoitant Salafi communities in the
countiy. Shaykh Salim, howevei, subsequently hau to ietuin to Lebanon, as the
ueiman authoiities withuiew his iesiuence peimit.
69
0ne of his pupils, a
Lebanese Palestinian, became his successoi.
While the ueiman authoiities iegaiu the mosque as a souice of
iauicalism, uuiing my visit theie in Naich 2u1u, I founu it to be a ielatively open
enviionment. The mosque seives as a foium foi the local Lebanese, Palestinian
anu Syiian communities. While the management is Salafi, they also allow othei
gioups to piactice Jo`wo. I met pieacheis fiom the Tabligh movement theie, who
weie on kburuj (a pioselytizing toui) anu weie staying in the mosque foi a few
uays. Sometimes the Salafi management even inviteu a iabbi to paiticipate in a

67
See, foi example: http:www.ahlalhueeth.comvbshowthieau.php.t=88912
68
Inteiview with the Butch shaykh, 6 }uly 2u11.
69
Al-Safii newspapei, 17 Nay 2uuS.
26S
ieligious uebate. The pieacheis of the mosque also uige theii followeis to be
politically active. They usually suppoit canuiuates (not only Nuslims) baseu on
the moslobo (what is beneficial foi the community, the common goou). The
Palestinian shaykh tolu me that in the local elections, he hau given assistance to
the campaign of a canuiuate who hau piomiseu a sepaiate giaveyaiu foi
Nuslims.
Shaykh Salim al-Rafi'i's peison was iuolizeu aftei his uepaituie, anu his
books aie solu in the mosque's bookstoie. If local Salafis have a ieligious
pioblem, they still seek auvice fiom Shaykh Salim. 0iuinaiy believeis can call
him on his mobile phone if they aie seeking an answei to a question ielateu to
sboriò. Active followeis of the mosque have kept in iegulai contact with him.
Although the shaykh is foibiuuen to entei ueimany, many of the committeu
Salafis who aie affiliateu to al-Nui mosque fiequently visit Lebanon. They
usually spenu one oi two weeks in Tiipoli, uuiing which they visit Shaykh
Salim's Jurus anu socialize with his Lebanese followeis.

/-*2$C'&-*

In this chaptei I uiscusseu the natuie anu stiuctuie of the tiansnational
netwoiks of Lebanese Salafis. I aigueu that tiansnational connections have ueep
ioots in Islamic histoiy, anu that Salafi netwoiks aie integial paits of the uense
webs that connect the uiffeient paits of Bai al-Islam.
I explaineu how tiansnational netwoiks constitute channels foi the flow
of mateiial iesouices, symbols anu iueas. I analyzeu the types anu functions of
the links to the Aiabian Peninsula anu how they facilitate the acquisition of
ieligious anu social capital.
I sheu light on the iole of the institutional uimension of the Salafi
tiansnational netwoiks, which aie manifest in the chaiity oiganizations in the
uulf. I explaineu that uespite the fact that Ihya' al-Tuiath anu SACA aie foimal
oiganizations, infoimal channels play a ciucial iole in gaining funus fiom them.
264
In the last section I useu the example of the Lebanese netwoiks in Euiope
to explain how infoimal social netwoiks anu contacts with the uulf chaiities
facilitate the tiansnational expansion of the Jo'wo.

26S
/E#I0): ;
W)2:C&0()*0

In this chaptei I analyze the methous anu stiategies that aie useu by Salafis in
Noith Lebanon to attiact followeis. Fiist I shoulu claiify what "ieciuitment"
means iegaiuing the movement. In the pievious chapteis, I showeu that Salafism
uiffeis in many ways fiom the mainstieam movements that social movement
theoiists usually examine. Foi the foimei, ieciuitment uoes not mean attiacting
iegisteieu membeis, since the concept of membeiship uoes not exist in Salafism
(see Chaptei 6). It is moie about convincing people to auopt theii woiluview anu
lifestyle. Nany people who auopt Salafi piactices oi elements of Salafi uiscouise
uo not claim to be Salafi, but in most cases the ieseaichei shoulu iegaiu them as
belonging to the movement uue to theii woiluview anu activities.
1
In the
following I uiscuss how the minus of these people have been changeu by
encounteiing the Salafi Jowo.
Fiaming anu the Salafi iueology's appeal to young people aie the main
factois that enable successful ieciuitment foi the movement. The masses of
oiuinaiy believeis aie usually attiacteu by the Salafis' successful fiaming
activities. Salafis pioviue highly plausible explanations of the natuie of the
pioblems faceu by Lebanese Sunnis, anu offei appealing anu seemingly simple
solutions. The success of Salafi fiaming is boosteu by the aiticulatois' (i.e. the
Salafi shaykhs') high uegiee of ieligious authoiity anu ability to pioviue social
seivices anu access to pationage (explaineu in Chaptei S). The fiustiation anu
insecuiity expeiienceu by young people in Noith Lebanon have piepaieu feitile
giounu foi Salafis to convince these inuiviuuals to tiansfoim theii lives in
accoiuance with Salafi noims. In the seconu half of the chaptei I explain how,

1
I explaineu this in Chaptei S when I analyzeu collective iuentity in Salafism. Ny staiting point is
Biigit Neyei's concept of aesthetic foimations. I aigue that the moie inuiviuuals shaie sensoiy
expeiiences, the moie they uevelop a sense of belonging to each othei. See: Chaptei S anu Neyei,
'Fiom Imagineu Communities to Aesthetic Foimations', pp. 6-11.
266
uue to the successful netwoiking anu Jo'wo stiategies, the numbei of the active
auheients is also giowing iapiuly.

W)2:C&0()*0 0E:-C6E %:#(&*6

Accoiuing to my inteiviews conuucteu in the fielu with inuiviuuals who aie
involveu in Salafism at uiffeient levels, many people fiist became sympathizeis
with the movement because they accepteu the Salafi inteipietation of the woilu
aiounu them.
2
The uiscouise that they heai uuiing the Fiiuay seimon, anu that is
iepeateu uuiing boloqot oi infoimal conveisations, iesonates with theii own
expeiiences anu helps them to constiuct an unueistanuing of theii exteinal
enviionment. 0ne aspect of SNT, fiaming, is especially useful foi stuuying anu
explaining this piocess. The teim is ueiiveu fiom the "fiames" that uoffman calls
the "schemata of inteipietation", which "enable useis to locate, peiceive, iuentify
anu label a seemingly infinite numbei of conciete occuiiences uefineu in its
teims".
S
In othei woius, fiames aie piisms thiough which past anu piesent
events, anu the logic of "the woilu out theie", can be inteipieteu.
Social movement theoiists have pointeu out that fiames have moie than a
meie inteipietative function, as uiscusseu in uoffman's essay. 0ften they not
only pioviue answeis to the question "what is going on heie.", but they aie also
"ueciueuly moie agentic anu contentious in the sense of calling foi action that
pioblematizes anu challenges existing authoiitative views anu fiamings of
ieality".
4
These aie commonly calleu "collective action fiames" anu intenu to
"mobilize potential auheients anu constituents, gainei bystanuei suppoit, anu to
uemobilize antagonists".
S
Successful attempts by movement actois to make
otheis accept theii fiame aie iefeiieu to as "fiame iesonance", which is of
ciucial impoitance in the ieciuitment piocesses of social movements. In the

2
Inteiviews anu fielu obseivations between Septembei 2uu9 anu Nay 2u12.
S
Eiving uoffman, Irome Anolysis: An Fssoy on tbe 0rqonizotion of Fxperience (Boston:
Noitheastein 0niveisity Piess, 1974), p. 21.
4
Baviu A. Snow, 'Fiaming Piocesses, Iueology, anu Biscuisive Fielus', In Snow et al., Tbe
Blockwell Componion to Sociol Hovements, p. S8S.
S
Baviu A. Snow anu Robeit B. Benfoiu, 'Iueology, Fiame Resonance, anu Paiticipant
Nobilization', lnternotionol Sociol Hovement Reseorcb, vol. 1, no. 1, 1988, p. 198.
267
following, aftei analyzing the stiuctuie of the Salafi fiames, I explain why aie
they successful in the cuiient histoiical situation anu why they iesonate with
laige paits of the Sunni auuience in Noith Lebanon.
The ielations between iueology anu fiaming can be uiffeient in the case of
uiffeient social movements. While the fiaming stiategy of a given social
movement is not necessaiily ueiiveu fiom iueology,
6
in the case of Salafi
activists, iueology plays a cential iole in elaboiating theii fiames. The main
ieason is that the aim of Salafism as a movement is to make otheis accept theii
iueology as the only tiuth.
As I mentioneu in Chapteis 1 anu S, one of the main elements of Salafi
iueology is conceptualizing the woilu as a place of stiuggle between goou anu
evil, oi tiuth anu falsehoou (siro' boyn ol-boqq wo-l-botil). The goou siue is
manifesteu in Islam. Those who follow the iight 'oqiJo anu monboj belong to this
camp. Any ueviation fiom this foims pait of the iealm of botil (oi kufr oi toqbut).
Accoiuing to the Salafi concept, coiiect ueeus (sobbot ol-o'mol) can be ueiiveu
only fiom the iight 'oqiJo. Beviant belief can only iesult in ueviant acts.
7
The
Nuslims' task in this woilu is to coiiect theii own anu otheis' belief, so as to
eiase wiongful acts anu cieate an iueal life-woilu foi the whole of humankinu.
8

In this Nanichean stiuggle, theie is no miu-way. Salafis often iefei to the S2
nu

oyob in Surot Yunus: "That is uou, youi Loiu, the Tiuth. Apait fiom the Tiuth,
what is theie except eiioi."
9
0n the goou siue theie is Abl ol-Sunno wo-l-}omo'o
anu on the bau siue is Abl ol-Botil (the community of wiongfulness), which
consists of all those who ueviate fiom iight belief. In Salafi wiitings, both puiist
anu boroki, it is often iepeateu that these camps aie engageu in a continuous
stiuggle against each othei. As Salman al-'Awua puts it in one of his aiticles, in all
histoiical eias, "the enemies of the piophets, the enemies of Islam help each
othei |in eveiythingj that the enmity |towaius Islamj iequiies. Theie might be
uisagieements anu conflicts between them, but when they face Islam they

6
Snow, 'Fiaming piocesses', pp. S96-4uu.
7
http:www.saaiu.netBoatalmuwahiuuuS.htm (accesseu: 1u }anuaiy 2u1S).
8
Nost of the Salafis I inteivieweu gave this answei to the question, what is the aim of the Jo'wo.
Foi example: inteiview with Shaykh 'Abu al-Rahman 'Abu al-Khaliq, Kuwait, 11 Naich 2u12.
9
Abuel Baleem, Tbe uron, p. 1S1.
268
become uniteu."
1u
When Salafis tiy to give an explanation of what has been
happening in this woilu, past anu piesent, they use theii Nanichean concept to
fiame vaiious events.
The Fiiuay seimon is the most common way foi Lebanese Salafis to
tiansmit theii message to the masses. 0nquestionably, the most populai
pieacheis in the city of Tiipoli, but piobably in the whole Noith aie Salafis fiom
the boroki faction. Puiist pieacheis nowauays uo not attiact mass auuiences,
since they have iefuseu to suppoit the ievolutions, labeling them illegitimate
(qboyr sboro'i). Shaykh Salim al-Rafi'i in the Taqwa mosque on the boiuei
between the city centei anu the al-Tabbana uistiict, anu Shaykh Zakaiiyya al-
Nasii in the Bamza mosque of al-Qubba, attiact thousanus of people eveiy
Fiiuay. In auuition, often hunuieus gathei to listen to the kbutbo of othei, less
ienowneu Salafi shaykhs all ovei the city. The most common topics of uiscussion
in the past few yeais have been the iole of Bizbullah, the social anu economic
uepiivation of the Sunnis anu the Aiab ievolutions. The Salafi woiluview anu
univeise of uiscouise pioviue the toolkit to fiame these topics anu the ielateu
events.

Bioqnostic frominq

Social movement theoiists classify collective action fiames accoiuing to "coie
fiaming tasks". These aie "uiagnostic fiaming", "piognostic fiaming" anu
"motivational fiaming".
11
Biagnostic fiaming aims to iuentify the pioblem anu its
souices, anu the culpable agents.
12
In piognostic fiaming, the fiame aiticulatois
piopose a solution to the pioblem uetecteu in uiagnostic fiaming.
1S
Notivational
fiaming "pioviues a 'call to aims' oi iationale foi engaging in amelioiative
collective action".
14
As theoiists aigue, foi successful mobilization these thiee

1u
Salman al-'Awua, 'al-Siia' Bayn al-Baqq wa-l-Batil', http:www.saaiu.netalsafinh12.htm
(accesseu: }anuaiy S, 2u1S).
11
Benfoiu anu Snow, 'Fiaming Piocesses anu Social Novements', p. 61S.
12
Ibiu., pp. 61S-616.
1S
Ibiu., pp. 616-617.
14
Ibiu., p. 617.
269
coie tasks usually have to be containeu in a movement's fiaming.
1S
In the
following I will analyze the uiagnostic, piognostic anu motivational fiaming of
Lebanese Salafis, baseu on my fieluwoik obseivations anu iecoiueu seimons.
In the uiagnostic fiaming of Salafis, eveiy malaise that Lebanese Nuslims
aie facing has been causeu by the enemies of Islam, who aie tiying to weaken
anu ciush the ieligion. Inteiestingly, uuiing the foui yeais I have been actively
obseiving Lebanese Salafi uiscouise, the logic of theii fiaming has not changeu.
Events in 2uu8-2uu9 weie explaineu thiough a similai piism to that which was
useu to explain the events anu uevelopments in 2u12.

1. Anti-Sbi'o frominq: Theoiists of social movements have analyzeu the
ielationship between fiaming anu political oppoitunities.
16
Changes in the
exteinal context affect the fiame iesonance anu pioviue new giounus foi
movement actois to cieate collective action fiames. As I explaineu in Chaptei S,
the emeiging Sunni-Shi'i tensions in Lebanon, especially aftei the Baiiii muiuei
in 2uuS anu the subsequent political tiansfoimations, pioviueu Salafis with a
significant political oppoitunity. The activists of the movement weie able to use
this change in the exteinal context to theii own auvantage uue to successful
fiaming of the events.
Anti-Shi'ism is a coineistone of Salafi iueology anu appeais in the vast
majoiity of the kbutbos. As uiscusseu in Chaptei S, Salafis uepict the "iueal
Nuslim" who follows eveiy aspect of theii unueistanuing of Islam as the
manifestation of puiity. The Shi'a, who in the Salafi view coiiupt the peifect
belief system, iepiesent "pollution |nojosj in the bouy of the ummo".
17
The
hostility towaius the Shi'a has been piesent in the Atbori
18
school since its eaily
uays. Ibn Banbal was the fiist to call the membeis of the sect rofiJo (sing.
rofiJi).
19
The teim means "iejectionists" anu iefeis to the Shi'ite uenial of the

1S
Ibiu., p. 61S.
16
Snow, 'Fiaming piocesses', pp. 4u1-4u4.
17
This view was expiesseu to me uuiing numeious inteiviews anu conveisations with Salafis in
Lebanon anu elsewheie in the Niuule East between 2uu9 anu 2u12.
18
See my uiscussion of the Athaii school of thought in Chaptei 1.
19
uuiuo Steinbeig, '}ihaui Salafism anu the Shi'is: Remaiks About the Intellectual Roots of anti-
Shi'ism', in Neiei, 6lobol Solofism, p. 1SS.
27u
legitimacy of the fiist thiee Caliphs.
2u
Ibn Taymiyya anu his stuuents, such as Ibn
Qayyim al-}awziyya, also expiesseu enmity towaiu the sect's uoctiines. The
founuations of contempoiaiy Salafi anti-Shi'ism, though, weie elaboiateu by
Nuhammau bin Abu al-Wahhab anu the Najui 'ulomo.
21
Salafis touay ciiticize the
Shi'ite belief system in thiee main aspects. Bowevei, these aiguments aie biaseu,
anu ieflect an aibitiaiy inteipietation of the Shi'ite souices. Fiist, Salafis accuse
the Shi'a of believing that the Qui'an was alteieu (tobrif ol-uron) when it was
put togethei uuiing the iule of '0thman bin 'Affan. Buiing the piocess, some oyos
that pioveu Ali's iight of succession weie changeu oi eiaseu.
22
The seconu
accusation is that the Shi'a cuiseu anu excommunicateu many of the Sobobo,
incluuing the fiist thiee Caliphs anu those who suppoiteu Nu'awiya against
'Ali.
2S
Thiiu, Salafis believe that the excommunication of the Sunnis is an
essential pait of Shi'ite theology. Accoiuing to them, Shi'ites believe that they
have the iight to kill the Sunnis anu can take theii piopeity legally. Such acts aie
even ueai in uou's eyes.
24

Almost all Salafis agiee with these thiee points anu claim that those
Shi'ites who aie awaie of theii uoctiines anu uo not ieject them (i.e. the kbosso
oi elite) aie unbelieveis.
2S
Eorokis go a step fuithei anu claim that these
ueviations make the Shi'a masteiminus of conspiiacy against the Sunnis. This

2u
The Shi'ites claim that the fiist thiee Caliphs, namely Abu Baki, '0mai anu '0thman, unlawfully
ascenueu to the thione, uenying the iight of 'Ali to immeuiate succession aftei the ueath of the
Piophet. Ethan Kohlbeig, 'The Teim "Rfiua" in Imm Sh' 0sage', }ournol of tbe Americon
0rientol Society, vol. 99, no. 4, 1979, p. 677.
21
Nuhammau Bin 'Abu al-Wahhab, Al-RoJJ 'olo ol-RofiJo, n.u. http:www.tawheu.wsi.i=1S81
(accesseu: 1u }anuaiy 2u1S).
22
The notion of Tobrif ol-uron is inueeu expiesseu by some Shi'ite texts, but Twelvei Shi'ites in
geneial ieject it. See: Nuhammau Ismail Naicinkowski, 'Some Reflections 0n Allegeu Twelvei
Shi'ite Attituues Towaiu the Integiity of the Qui'an', Tbe Huslim WorlJ, vol. 91, nos. 1-2, 2uu1.
Bowevei, the belief in the foigeiy of the Qui'an is not entiiely extinct. When I was staying in
South Lebanon in the summei of 2uu6 I hau conveisations with Shi'ite shaykhs who still uphelu
such views, although they can be consiueieu a negligible minoiity.
2S
See, foi example the lectuie of the ienowneu Kuwaiti Shaykh '0thman al-Khamis:
http:www.youtube.comiesults.seaich_queiy=!"#$%&'#()"*%'+&oq=!"#$%&'#()"*%'+
&gs_l=youtube.S...22784.4u892.u.4127S.19.14.1.4.4.u.S9S.4u8u.1jSj6j2juj2.14.u...u.u...1ac.1.11.yo
utube.FmZzX2PNBS8 (accesseu: 4 }anuaiy 2u1S); Bin 'Abu al-Wahhab, Al-RoJJ 'olo ol-RofiJo.
24
Inteiviews anu conveisations with Salafis in Lebanon anu the uulf between 2uu9 anu 2u12.
This view is also expiesseu in Shaykh '0thman al-Khamis' lectuie anu can be uetecteu on vaiious
Salafi websites anu Inteinet foiums. See, foi example: Ramauan al-uhannam, 'Falsafat al-Qatl wa-
l-Ightiyal Fi al-Fiki al-Shi'i', Almoslim.net, 22 Naich 2u12.
http:www.almoslim.netnoue162S46 (accesseu: S }anuaiy 2u1S).
2S
Nost Salafis agiee that 'ommot ol-sbi'o oi oiuinaiy Shi'ites shoulu not be excommunicateu until
they inuiviuually piove that they ueseive it.
271
kinu of appioach oiiginates fiom the Syiian Nuslim Biotheis at the beginning of
the 198us, who saw the alliance between the Assau iegime anu Khomeini's Iian
as pait of the Shi'ites' continuous attempts thioughout the Islamic histoiy to
uominate the Niuule East anu oppiess Sunnis.
26
Eoroki Salafis woiluwiue
auopteu this fiame to explain the iole of the othei majoi Nuslim sect in the
contempoiaiy Islamic woilu. It is also a chief element in Shaykh Zakaiiyya al-
Nasii's anu Salim al-Rafi'is ihetoiic. In one of his kbutbos, the foimei aigues that
the Shi'ite sect is the uiiect iesult of the toqbut's eteinal attempt to uestioy the
boqq:

Aftei the Piophet extenueu his iule ovei the whole of the Aiabian
Peninsula by conqueiing Necca anu staiting the wais with the Byzantines
with the iaiu of Tabuk |6bozwot Tobukj,
27
anu aftei Abu Baki eliminateu
the RiJJo,
28
the Nuslims began with |the lattei'sj leaueiship to conquei
Peisia anu the Byzantine Empiie. This continueu unuei the iule of '0mai
bin al-Khattab anu '0thman bin al-'Affan until the Nuslim aimies aiiiveu
at the boiueis of China in the East anu the |westeinj coasts of Noith
Afiica in the West. These |eventsj shook the woilu anu woke the
iesentment of |those who hate Islamj. The leaueis of the Peisians anu the
uieeks gatheieu to finu a way to face this gieat Islamic expansion. They
foimeu a seciet oiganization to hit Islam fiom insiue . by pietenuing |by
a gioup of peoplej to conveit anu spieau the uivision anu inteinal stiife
among Nuslims. 'Abuullah bin Saba', a Yemeni }ew, was given this
uangeious uiplomatic |sicj task. Be pietenueu to accept Islam with a
gioup of fellow }ews to mobilize Nuslims against theii Caliph in the
capital city of the Islamic Empiie.
29

26
Steinbeig, '}ihaui Salafism anu the Shi'is', pp. 116-121.
27
Accoiuing to the Islamic tiauition, in 6Su Piophet Nuhammau leu a campaign against the
Byzantines stationeu in Tabuk, Noith Aiabia. Although the Nuslim aimy uiu not make contact
with the enemy, some local chiefs submitteu to them. See: 'Tabuk', in Bosswoith, FncyclopoeJio of
lslom.
28
Beie the RiJJo means a seiies of battles between the eaily Nuslims anu the tiibes that
teiminateu theii allegiance to the Islamic state in Neuina oi iefuseu to pay taxes uuiing the
Caliphate of Abu Baki (6S2-6S4). In Islamic histoiiogiaphy these tiibes left Islam, anu this is why
they hau to be fought. See: 'al-Riuua', in Bosswoith, FncyclopoeJio of lslom.
29
Khutba of Shaykh Zakaiiyya al-Nasii, Bamza Nosque, Qubba uistiict, Tiipoli, 11 Febiuaiy
2u11.
272

Accoiuing to Shaykh Zakaiiyya, 'Abuullah bin Saba''s activity leu to seveial
upiisings in uiffeient paits of the Caliphate, anu he was subsequently behinu the
muiuei of the Caliph '0thman. Latei, aftei the ueath of the Caliph 'Ali (who
followeu '0thman), bin Saba' anu his followeis staiteu to mix the uoctiines of
Islam with olu Zoioastiian beliefs anu inventeu Shi'ism by associating uivine
attiibutes with 'Ali anu his uescenuants, the twelve Imams. The mission of the
"Shi'ite ieligion" - as many of the Salafi pieacheis iefei to it, uenying that the
sect is pait of Islam - is to unueimine anu uestioy Islam. Zakaiiyya al-Nasii anu
othei pieacheis often piesent the example of the Fatimiu Caliphate
Su
anu the
Safaviu Empiie
S1
as the attempt of the "Hojus" (iefeience to Zoioastiains) to
uestioy Sunnism. Similaily, they accuse the Shi'ites of allying with the Ciusaueis
anu coopeiating with the Nongols to conquei Baghuau anu abolish the Abbasiu
Caliphate.
S2

The Salafi shaykhs wain that the seiies of Shi'ite conspiiacies has been
continuing in the 2u
th
anu 21
st
centuiies. In theii ieauing of the events, since the
Islamic Revolution, Iian has been tiying to uominate the Niuule East. Fiist the
Iianians tiieu to achieve this by spieauing theii iueology by uiiect militaiy
means, but they faileu to uo so, because "Iiaq with the leaueiship of Sauuam
Bussein maue theii aspiiations fail anu iesisteu them with the suppoit of the
uulf countiies".
SS
Aftei that, Iian began to mobilize the Shi'ite minoiities
thioughout the Islamic woilu to spieau the ievolution. They inciteu the Shi'ite
communities in Sauui Aiabia anu Iiaq to ievolt. Salafis believe that the Iianian
leaueiship has a seciet alliance with the 0S. Shaykh Zakaiiyya al-Nasii often
claims that the iegime in Tehian helpeu the Ameiicans to conquei Afghanistan
anu Iiaq by suppoiting local Shi'ite minoiities against the Taliban, "that helu the
iueology of unifying Nuslims unuei the bannei of the Caliphate", anu Sauuam

Su
Zakaiiyya al-Nasii, Bowr ol-lmboroturiyyo ol-Sbiiyyo ol-Sbuyuiyyo (Taiablus: Naikaz Bamza,
2uu7), pp. S7-S8.
S1
Ibiu., pp. 86-87.
S2
Ibiu., pp. 84-86.
SS
Salafis usually aigue that the 198u-1988 Iiaq-Iian wai was piovokeu by the lattei, anu uepict
Sauuam Bussein as a heio who stoppeu Iian with the help of the uulf monaichies, which financeu
his militaiy. See, foi example: Al-Nasii, Bowr ol-lmboroturiyyo, p. SS.
27S
Bussein, who "tuineu fiom nationalist to Islamist at the last peiiou of his iule".
S4

Accoiuing to Salafi pieacheis, the othei ally of Iian is ol-Àlmoniyyo ol-Sborqiyyo
(Eastein Seculaiism), namely China anu Russia, which also intenu to weaken
Islam in oiuei to subjugate theii own minoiities anu achieve contiol ovei the
Niuule East's iesouices. Salafis also think that the Shi'ites have been in a seciet
alliance with the }ews since the uawn of Islamic histoiy, anu that they nowauays
coopeiate with Isiael. With all of this, theii implication is that the Shi'ites aie
piepaieu to ally with non-Nuslim poweis, anu even atheists anu Communists,
simply to uestioy the Sunnis.
Salafi pieacheis commonly fiame contempoiaiy events in Lebanon as
pait of this global Shi'a conspiiacy against Islam. Nost of them have auopteu
Zakaiiyya al-Nasii's ieauing of the countiy's histoiy since the civil wai.
SS

Accoiuing to the shaykh, Iian intenus to conveit the whole countiy to Shi'ism. In
oiuei to iealize this, Tehian has allieu with the Nusoyriyyo
S6
(the Syiian iegime
uominateu by the Alawites).
S7
Accoiuing to Shaykh Zakaiiyya, the Iianians began
to execute theii plan uuiing the civil wai, fiom the beginning of the 198us
onwaius. They establisheu Bizbullah, which Shaykh Zakaiiyya iegaius as the
Lebanese bianch of the Revolutionaiy uuaiu anu which, since that time, has
constantly been tiying to iiu the countiy of its Sunni population. They initially
suppoiteu the Shi'ite ANAL militia in its militaiy campaign against the
Palestinians in the seconu half of the198us (the event known as Eorb ol-
Hukboyyomot oi "the wai of the camps").
S8
Theii plan was "to weaken Abl ol-

S4
Inteiview with Sheikh Zakaiiyya al-Nasii, Tiipoli, 1u Novembei 2uu9.
SS
Shaykh Zakaiiyya al-Nasii, piobably the most notoiious anti-Shi'a cleiic in Tiipoli, is iegaiueu
as "the authoiity |ol-morjo'iyyoj" in the "scientific inquiiy" about the "tiuth about the Shi'ites".
Nany local Salafi shaykhs have stuuieu at his Islamic centei anu boloqot oi ieau his books.
S6
Nusayiiyya is a iefeience to the Alawite sect. The teim is mostly useu by Sunnis anu has a
pejoiative meaning.
S7
The Alawites aie pait of Shi'ite Islam anu constitute the majoiity of the population on the
Syiian coast. They have uominateu Syiian political life since the Assau clan, an Alawite family,
came to powei in 197u. See: Patiick Seal, AsoJ: Tbe Struqqle for tbe HiJJle Fost (Beikeley anu Los
Angeles, Califoinia: 0niveisity of Califoinia Piess, 199S).
S8
The wai in the camp lasteu between 198S anu 1989. Aftei Isiael hau withuiawn fiom most
paits of Lebanon in 198S, the PL0 staiteu to gain a footholu again in South Lebanon. Bafiz al-
Asau, in oiuei to boost his own uominance in the countiy anu avoiu a possible seconu Isiaeli
invasion, helpeu the seculai Shi'ite ANAL militia to sweep the PL0 factions out of Beiiut, Siuon
anu the Southein iegions. Baiiis, Tbe New Ioce of lebonon, pp. 19S-197.
274
Sunno by iiuuing them of theii militaiy powei",
S9
iepiesenteu by the Palestinian
factions.
In the common Salafi ihetoiic, Tiipoli is the stiongholu of Abl ol-Sunno in
Lebanon, anu the Shi'ites iealizeu that it shoulu be bioken befoie they woulu be
able to take ovei the countiy. Iian theiefoie assisteu Syiia in wiesting the city in
198S fiom the I0N. As I mentioneu in Chaptei S, the I0N was foimeu by
uiffeient local Islamic movements that weie contiolling uiffeient quaiteis of
Tiipoli. Theii intention was to establish an Islamic emiiate in Noith Lebanon.
Accoiuing to the Salafis, Tehian pieventeu the I0N fiom intiouucing Islamic iule
by buying the leauei of the movement, Shaykh Sa'iu Sha'ban, by piomising him
the piesiuency of an Islamic state in Lebanon that was to follow the template of
Iian. Bowevei, when the Syiian aimy took ovei the city, none of the Ayatollahs'
piomises came tiue. Insteau Islamists anu Salafis hau to face long peisecution by
the agents of the Ba'th iegime anu Bizbullah. The "sinceie" membeis of Baiakat
al-Tawhiu weie eithei aiiesteu oi left the movement. The iest siueu with the
Syiians anu the Shi'ite militia. Since then, the Alawites of }obol Hubsin who,
accoiuing to the Salafis, helpeu Assau's aimy to slaughtei the Sunnis upon the
takeovei of the city, anu the I0N have been the main agents of Shi'a influence in
Tiipoli.
4u

When Salafi pieacheis uiscuss contempoiaiy events in Lebanon that
involve Bizbullah oi aie ielateu to the Shi'a in othei ways, they fiame them using
the conspiiacy theoiy explaineu above. Bizbullah is iegaiueu as the Tiojan hoise
anu main agent of the "Peisian conquest". In one of his seimons, Zakaiiyya al-
Nasii states that Isiaeli militaiy exeicises between S1 Nay anu 4 }une 2uu9
weie oiganizeu by the }ewish state to suppoit "theii ally" Bizbullah in the
pailiamentaiy elections of 9 }une. The aim was "to help the paity in an inuiiect
way to gain moie votes" by inciting feai in Lebanon of the Isiaeli thieat.
Bizbullah has an inteiest in maintaining the tensions with the }ewish state in
oiuei to poitiay itself as a pioneei of the iesistance, anu theieby gain the
legitimacy to keep its weapons anu inciease its political influence. The ultimate

S9
Inteiview with Sheikh Zakaiiyya al-Nasii, 1u Novembei 2uu9.
4u
Seiies of inteiviews with Shaykh Zakaiiyya al-Nasii anu othei pieacheis between 2uu9 anu
2u12.
27S
aim of this "Zoioastiian-Zionist coalition" is to uominate Lebanon anu eliminate
the Sunni population by uisplacing them oi conveiting them to Shi'ism.
41

In one of his kbutbos Shaykh 'Imau }asim, one of the leauing pieacheis in
the Waui Khaliu iegion in 'Akkai, uiscusseu some iemaiks maue by the Biuze
politician Wi'am Wahhab, one of the allies of Bizbullah. Wahhab, while ciiticizing
the social noims in Sauui Aiabia, calleu the women in the kinguom "black
gaibage bags" (iefeiiing to theii uiess).
42
Shaykh 'Imau aigues that the
politician's aim was to attack the honoi of the pious Nuslim women who weai
the bijob. Aftei that, he tuins his attention towaiu those who aie behinu him
with "theii uiity meuia empiie anu money". The pieachei's conclusion is that
Bizbullah suppoits Wahhab anu similai figuies in oiuei to cieate fitno in the
countiy. By using the stiategy of "uiviue anu iule", the paity can integiate
Lebanon into the futuie Shi'ite Empiie.
4S

2. Sunnis os victims: Bepicting Lebanese Sunnis as a uisenfianchiseu population
because of theii 'oqiJo is anothei topic that is fiequently uiscusseu by Salafi
pieacheis. It is also ielateu to the anti-Shi'a fiame. In the ihetoiic of the shaykhs,
the oppiession of Abl ol-Sunno fits into the fiamewoik of the cosmic fight
between goou anu evil. The foices of the lattei aie touay maue up of the Shi'a,
Zionism, the 0niteu States, China anu Russia.
44
Theii aim is to pievent the Sunnis
fiom ie-establishing the Islamic Empiie "fiom Inuonesia to Anualusia"
4S
anu to
cieate a Shi'ite state that extenus fiom Yemen thiough Iian to Lebanon. Togethei
with Isiael, this state woulu secuie the contiol of the thiee gieat poweis (the
0SA, China anu Russia) ovei the iesouices of the Niuule East. To iealize this
plan, Sunnis fiist have to be oppiesseu politically, economically anu mentally.
Salafi shaykhs fiame the cuiient miseiable socioeconomic situation in teims of
this conspiiacy theoiy.

41
Seimon of Shaykh Zakaiiyya al-Nasii, Bamza Nosque, Tiipoli, S }une 2uu9.
42
http:news.nawaiet.com.p=17S92u (accesseu: 7 }anuaiy 2u1S).
4S
Khutba of Shaykh 'Imau }asim, Waui Khaliu, 18 Naich 2u11.
44
See, foi example: Kbutbo of Shaykh Salim al-Rafi'i, Taqwa Nosque, Tiipoli, 1u Febiuaiy 2u12.
4S
See, foi example: Kbutbo of Shaykh Zakaiiyya al-Nasii, Bamza Nosque, Tiipoli, 21 0ctobei
2uuS.
276
In many of his kbutbos, Shaykh Salim al-Rafi'i emphasizes that "Ahl al-
Sunna in Lebanon aie banneu fiom uevelopment."
46
Accoiuing to him, the
conspiiatois against Islam "ueteimineu the Sunnis in Tiipoli woulu live in
poveity". Bespite the "vast iesouices" of the noithein iegion, masses of young
people aie unemployeu, the city lacks basic infiastiuctuie anu "uiug abuse is
omnipiesent". In his seimon, Shaykh Salim mentions the case of the aiipoit in
Tiipoli, which was closeu in the 199us. Be stateu that a foieign company wanteu
to ienovate anu ieopen the aiipoit at its own expense. This woulu pioviue 6,uuu
jobs foi the inhabitants of Tiipoli. The offei was iefuseu, howevei, because
"Bizbullah foibaue its acceptance".
47

The shaykh's conclusion as to why the city is uepiiveu, economically anu
socially, is that "it is inhabiteu by committeu young men |sbobob multoziminj.
Anu they |the enemies of Islamj want to uepict ieligious commitment |in the
case of Sunnisj as a phenomenon coming togethei with poveity anu chaos".
Accoiuing to him, the following case pioves this:

Recently I was infoimeu by someone about a secuiity meeting between
Lebanese state officials. They weie inquiiing about the alaiming situation
in the Noith. I thought they uiscusseu the poveity, the spieau of uiugs oi
the lack of oiuei. Bowevei |the peison who infoimeu him about the
eventj tolu me, No No But they weie inquiiing about the fact that - anu
now listen to me well - they weie inquiiing because the numbei of the
young men who visit the mosques has uiamatically incieaseu anu they
want to uevise a plan to stiike them

To piove theii aigument, Salafi shaykhs often highlight the fact that the situation
in othei countiies is similai. They point out that Sunnis aie oppiesseu anu often
muiueieu in Iiaq anu Iian; they lack even the basic iight to piactice theii
ieligion. Accoiuing to a common Salafi claim, Sunnis aie even foibiuuen to have a
mosque in Iian.

46
Kbutbo of Shaykh Salim al-Rafi'i, Taqwa Nosque, Tiipoli, 11 Nay 2u12 oi 21 Becembei 2u12.
47
Kbutbo of Shaykh Salim al-Rafi'i, Taqwa Nosque, Tiipoli, 11 Nay 2u12.
277
S. Tbe Arob Sprinq onJ tbe Syrion revolution: As I have alieauy explaineu, the
Aiab ievolutions pioviueu Salafis in Lebanon with anothei political oppoitunity
to inciease theii influence among the Sunni community of the Noith. Successful
fiaming, just as in the case of the anti-Shi'a topic, was ciucial in this piocess.
Lebanese boroki Salafis see the ievolutions in geneial thiough a similai
lens to that of theii counteipaits in the uulf anu elsewheie in the Niuule East. In
theii ihetoiic they emphasize the "Islamic natuie" of the upiisings anu aigue
that it is a new phase in the battle between iymon anu kufr. Accoiuing to them,
the Sunni masses want to get iiu of theii oppiessois, who aie the seivants of the
toqbut anu implement the oiueis of Westein poweis to spieau seculaiism
{'olmoniyyo), immoial behavioi (fobsb) anu auulteiy (zino) among the
populations of theii countiies. In theii ievolution, howevei, Abl ol-Sunno have to
face the opposition of the toqbut manifesteu by the seculai poweis, such as the
West, Russia anu China, anu the Shi'a anu its stiongholu, Iian. As a iesult, the
theoiies of Shi'ite conspiiacy anu the Sunnis as victims aie inheient paits of the
fiaming of the Aiab Spiing by Salafis.
In a seiies of kbutbos, Shaykh Salim al-Rafi'i fiames the ievolutions as
pait of one of the last battles between goou anu evil befoie the enu of the woilu.
Be believes that the contempoiaiy events in the Niuule East foietell the coming
of the age of justice anu iighteousness anu maik the imminent appeaiance of the
(Sunni) HobJi.
48
In his seimons he iefeis to the thiee tiauitions that piove this.
The fiist one conceins the types of leaueiship of the 0mmo:

The Piophetical peiiou among you will be as uou wants it to be, then Be
will enu it when he wishes to. Then a Caliphate goveining accoiuing to the
methou of the Piophethoou |kbilofo 'olo monboj ol-Nubuwwoj will follow,
anu it will be as uou wants it to be, then Be will enu it when he wishes to.
Then theie will be a heieuitaiy kinguom |milk 'oJJj, anu it will be as uou
wants it to be, then Be will enu it when he wishes to. Then theie will be a
tyiannical kinguom |milk jobrij, anu it will be as uou wants it to be, then

48
Accoiuing to wiuespieau Sunni belief, which is auopteu by Salafis, the HobJi will appeai at the
time when }esus will ietuin to the Eaith. The foimei will help the lattei to kill the Antichiist (al-
Bojjol) anu then they will iule the woilu togethei anu ie-establish justice. 'al-Nahui'. Bosswoith,
in FncyclopoeJio of lslom.
278
Be will enu it when he wishes to. Then theie will be a Caliphate goveining
accoiuing to the methou of the Piophethoou.

Accoiuing to the inteipietation of Shaykh Salim, the "heieuitaiy kinguom" means
the histoiical Caliphate that iuleu fiom the 0mayyau uynasty until the abolition
of the 0ttoman state. The "tyiannical kinguom" signifies the contempoiaiy Aiab
iegimes, which aie falling one by one uue to the upiisings.
49
This boJitb,
accoiuing to him, is suppoiteu by anothei one, which foietells the "siege of Iiaq"
anu the "siege of Syiia |ol-Sbomj" befoie the emeigence of a caliph. Accoiuing to
the pieachei, the fiist iefeis to the Iian-Iiaq wai (198u-1988), because the
boJitb tells us that the siege will be caiiieu out by the Peisians ('ojom). The
seconu is the ongoing Syiian conflict (at the time of wiiting in }anuaiy 2u1S).
The thiiu boJitb conceins the appeaiance of the HobJi. Accoiuing to this
boJitb, theie will be injustice (zulm) on Eaith to an extent that has not been
expeiienceu befoie. Aftei that, uou will senu someone fiom the family of the
Piophet who will spieau justice on Eaith.
Su
Shaykh Salim believes that these
thiee oboJitb inuicate that aftei the Aiab Spiing, the Caliphate will ie-emeige
anu the Caliph will be the HobJi himself.
S1

In the shaykh's ihetoiic, the foices of toqbut aie tiying to pievent the ie-
establishment of the "Righteous Caliphate |kbilofo rosbiJoj."
S2
Bis fiame is
similai to that useu by Shaykh Zakaiiyya al-Nasii. Accoiuing to him, theie aie
two siues in the battle. The fiist is the "Camp of Belief |mu'oskor ol-iymonj"
wheie Nuslims fight to ietuin to theii might (istirjo' ol-'izzo). 0n the othei siue
aie all the foices of kufr allieu to ciush the believeis anu pievent them fiom
establishing an Islamic empiie. This camp consists of the West, China, Russia anu
the botiniyyun (a polemical iefeience to the Shi'ites).
SS
The fiist two poweis
foibiu militaiy inteivention in Syiia anu tiy to piolong Assau's iule. Regaiuing
Russia, Shaykh Salim asks why it is suppoiting the oppiessois when Noscow
always useu to pose as a suppoitei of the Aiabs against the oppiessois. Bis

49
Kbutbo of Shaykh Salim al-Rafi'i, 1S Apiil 2u12.
Su
Ibiu.
S1
Ibiu. anu Kbutbo of Shaykh Salim al-Rafi'i, 2u Apiil 2u12.
S2
See kbutbos.
SS
Khutba of Shaykh Salim al-Rafi'i, 1u Febiuaiy 2u12.
279
answei is that if Islam weie to become stiong in the Niuule East, it woulu spieau
again in Cential Asia anu enuangei Russia as a Chiistian empiie. This is why all
of these poweis suppoit the Shi'ite plan to uominate the iegion, anu not the
Caliphate.
S4
In anothei kbutbo he mentions that the Syiian ievolution is
especially impoitant foi Lebanese Sunnis, because the Syiian Sunni community,
which constitutes the majoiity of the countiy, is theii "natuial extension". If the
Assau iegime weie to fall, Lebanese Sunnis woulu cease to be only one of the
communities in the countiy, but woulu ieunite with the 0mmo.
SS

Proqnostic onJ motivotionol frominq

Piognostic fiaming offeis possible solutions foi the pioblems iuentifieu in
uiagnostic fiaming, while motivational fiaming calls foi action to iealize what is
suggesteu in piognostic fiaming.
S6
Lebanese boroki Salafis geneially uige theii
constituency to implement the iulings of Islam (accoiuing to theii
unueistanuing) anu emphasize the impoitance of soliuaiity with fellow Sunnis.
This seives as the basis of theii solution to the "Shi'a pioblem", the peiceiveu
uisenfianchisement of theii community, oi what to uo to suppoit the
ievolutions. As I show in the next section, in which I ueal with fiame iesonance,
this appioach is attiactive to Salafi constituency, since it uoes not iequiie a high
level of investment but uoes offei significant iewaius.
In one of his seimons, Shaykh Salim al-Rafi'i iefeis to a boJitb: "When a
seivant of uou |'obJj commits a sin, a black spot appeais on his heait. If he
iepents his heait will be cleanseu." The pieachei explains that the moie
uisobeuient (mo'siyo) the Nuslim inuiviuual, the blackei his heait becomes. The
uaikei someone's heait is, the moie uifficult it is foi him to uistinguish between
goou anu bau, anu eventually he falls into the tiap of evil. Accoiuing to his
aigument, the uecauent moiality of contempoiaiy Nuslims enableu the foices of
toqbut to oveiwhelm Abl ol-Sunno, because they weie unable to make the iight

S4
Ibiu.
SS
Khutba of Shaykh Salim al-Rafi'i, 24 Febiuaiy 2u12.
S6
See: Benfoiu anu Snow, 'Fiaming Piocesses', pp. 616-617.
28u
uecision. Bowevei, if they obey the sbori'o, theii heaits will be cleanseu anu uou
will show them the uiffeience between iight anu wiong. Beie he iefeis to the
following oyob: "Believeis, if you iemain minuful of uou, Be will give you a
ciiteiion |furqon, to tell iight fiom wiongj anu wipe out youi bau ueeus, anu
foigive you: uou's favoui is gieat inueeu."
S7
This aigument might be similai to
that of the puiists. Bowevei, accoiuing to the pieachei, Sunnis with uaik heait
enable "Iian anu its allies in Syiia anu Lebanon to commit massacies in Syiia". If
those Nuslims knew the tiuth they woulu not help the Shi'a to oppiess the
ievolution.
S8

In a uiffeient kbutbo, Shaykh Salim aigues that success follows if people
obey the iules of Islam "beyonu piayei anu fasting". Be gives the example of the
sburo oi consultative council. Fiist, he iefeis to the oyo, which uesciibes the
believeis as those who "iesponu to theii Loiu; keep up the piayei; conuuct theii
affaiis by mutual consultation |sburoj".
S9
Accoiuing to him, this, along with a
iange of othei citations fiom the Qui'an anu the Bauith, pioves that sburo is
obligatoiy when Nuslims take majoi uecisions. Be gave the example of the
consultative council that he oiganizes eveiy week in the Taqwa mosque (see
Chaptei 6), which, accoiuing to him, has been pioven to be effective. In }anuaiy
2u12 the Lebanese authoiities aiiesteu one of the famous Salafi shaykhs in
Tiipoli, 'Abuullah Busayn, because of his fotwo that foibius Nuslims to entei the
Lebanese aimy.
6u
The paiticipants of the sburo ueciueu to call foi
uemonstiations until the shaykh was fieeu. Since 'Abuullah Busayn is veiy
populai even among the borokis, uespite his puiist views, thousanus of people
iesponueu anu paialyzeu the city by blocking the majoi ioaus. Aftei a few uays
the shaykh was ieleaseu. Accoiuing to Shaykh Salim's ieasoning, they weie
successful because they hau followeu the instiuctions of the sbori'o.
Shaykh Nahii, a young but populai 'olim fiom the Qubba uistiict, pointeu
out that "the oppiession of Abl ol-Sunno by the Shi'a will enu if they follow the

S7
Suiat al-Anfal 29, Abuel Baleem, Tbe uron, p. 112.
S8
Khutba of Shaykh Salim al-Rafi'i, 1S Apiil 2u12.
S9
Suiat al-Shuia S8, Abuel Baleem, Tbe uron, p. S14.
6u
Shaykh 'Abuullah Busayn is an inteiesting puiist. Be foibaue enteiing the aimy because
accoiuing to him, theie is no woli omr in Lebanon who can leau a Nuslim aimy, since the
piesiuent is Chiistian. Fuitheimoie, the majoiity of the officeis aie Naionites anu Shi'ites.
Accoiuing to the shaii'a, Nuslim soluieis cannot obey the commanus of non-Nuslims.
281
iight 'oqiJo." Buiing his mou'izo (lectuie)
61
aftei the afteinoon piayei in one of
the city quaitei's mosques, he aigueu that Bizbullah was able to giow stiong in
Lebanon uue to the suppoit anu assistance of Sunni Nuslims:

These peisons |the Sunnisj acteu out of ignoiance |joblj. If they weie fiim
in theii 'oqiJo they woulu know that |the membeis of Bizbullahj aie
heietics anu musbriks anu woulu not agiee to coopeiate with them unuei
the bannei of "Islamic unity" . Islamic movements, the Nuslim Biotheis
among them, when Khomeini abolisheu the iule of the shah they offeieu
boy'o
62
to him. If they knew theii own 'oqiJo they woulu nevei uo this,
helping the rofiJo to implement theii conspiiacy.
6S

It is woith noting that Salafi fiaming shaiply uiffeis fiom that of othei Islamic
movements, such as the Nuslim Biotheihoou. The lattei is fai fiom being a
puiely messianistic oi utopian movement. Although its iueology contains such
elements, oveiall the Ikhwan tenus to be iathei piagmatic. In its fiaming it also
uses conspiiacy theoiies, yet these aie much moie uown-to-eaith than those of
the Salafis. Foi example, the membeis of ol-}omo'o ol-lslomiyyo, the Lebanese
Nuslim Biotheihoou, also iefei to conspiiacies linkeu to Bizbullah anu Iian, but
they aigue that they uo not intenu to uestioy Islam, but simply want to achieve
uomination in the iegion.
64
Biffeient pioposeu solutions also iesult fiom this
logic. Accoiuing to the Ikhwan, simply stuuying the Text anu auheiing to the
iituals aie not enough to elevate the Sunnis fiom theii miseiable state. Rathei,
they put emphasis on the impoitance of euucation, political consciousness anu
builuing civil society institutions (in the Westein sense). In the Nuslim
Biotheihoou's fiaming, paiticipation in theii activities is also ciucial. They
iequiie theii followeis to saciifice some of theii time, eneigy anu, if they can
affoiu it, money foi the sake of the movement.

61
These lectuies aie usually helu aftei the 'osr oi the moqbrib piayeis. Buiing the mou'izo the
shaykh talks about a Qui'anic veise, a boJitb oi a socially anu politically impoitant topic. These
lectuies usually last about half an houi.
62
The Aiabic teim uenotes "the act by which a ceitain numbei of peisons, acting inuiviuually oi
collectively, iecognise the authoiity of anothei peison". 'Bay'a' in Bosswoith, in FncyclopoeJio of
lslom.
6S
Paiticipation in Shaykh Nahii's lectuie, Tiipoli, 19 Apiil 2u12.
64
Inteiview with Faui Shamiya, a piominent Nuslim Biothei in Siuon, Siuon, 1S Apiil 2u12.
282

Irome resononce

In the social movement liteiatuie, "fiame iesonance" means the extent to which
the taiget auuience accepts the fiames anu acts in line with them.
6S
Accoiuing to
my obseivations, Salafi fiames have stiong iesonance, especially among the
pious miuule class anu the uiban pooi (see also Chaptei 6). Below I investigate
the ieasons foi this. Accoiuing to Benfoiu anu Snow, the cieuibility anu salience
of the fiame accounts foi the extent to which it iesonates among the taiget
population. In the case of Tiipoli's boroki Salafi pieacheis, the success of theii
fiaming has been mostly ueteimineu by theii own cieuibility as fiame
aiticulatois anu the empiiical cieuibility of the fiames.
66

The cieuibility of Salafi shaykhs as fiame aiticulatois is inteiconnecteu
with theii ieligious authoiity, which I uiscusseu in Chaptei S. As I have shown,
consiueiable numbeis of the population iegaiu these shaykhs as the most
authoiitative souice of ieligious inteipietation. At the same time, many see them
as the gioup that is most qualifieu to leau the Sunni community in Lebanon (at
least at the level of city quaiteis anu villages) uue to the loss of legitimacy of
political leaueis such as the Baiiii clan oi Najib Niqati, anu the chionic weakness
of Bai al-Fatwa. 0nlike these leaueis, the actions of Salafis seem to be consistent
with theii ihetoiic. Foi example, in his piognostic fiaming, Shaykh Tawfiq, a well
known pieachei fiom the Nina uistiict, emphasizes the impoitance of ietuining
to the iulings of the Sbori'o to solve the pioblem of poveity in the Noith.
In one of his boloqot he aigues that the Islamic system of zokot anu
soJoqot (alms) is in fact a poweiful methou to establish social justice anu can be
consiueieu supeiioi to Westein social welfaie systems. Be thinks that poveity is
the iesult of abanuoning the iulings of Islam, anu the only way to eiauicate it is
to ietuin to the commanuments of the Sbori'o. The shaykh aigues that if the
zokot anu soJoqot ieceiveu fiom the iichei membeis of the society weie hanuleu
by faithful 'ulomo, theie woulu be no pooi among the Lebanese Sunni

6S
Benfoiu anu Snow, 'Fiaming Piocesses', p. 619.
66
Ibiu., pp. 619-621.
28S
community.
67
At the same time he spaies no effoit in making the "Islamic welfaie
system" woik in ieality, at least on the micio-level. Be collects zokot anu alms
anu uistiibutes them among the neeuy in his neighboihoou. Be also has
uevelopeu a system in which he anu othei shaykhs can issue voucheis that can
be exchangeu foi meuicine anu othei goous in ceitain shops. These goous aie
paiu foi latei fiom the zokot anu financial aiu fiom uulf chaiities.
68
These
piactices make the shaykh cieuible as a fiame aiticulatoi anu, because of that,
people tenu to accept his aiguments about othei issues moie ieauily.
In the case of the expeiimental cieuibility of the fiames, the most
impoitant aspect is not the actual valiuity of its content, but whethei the taiget
gioup peiceives it to be cieuible.
69
Regaiuing the anti-Shi'a fiame, the Sunni
stieet has become incieasingly sectaiian uue to the political uevelopments since
the Baiiii muiuei. Nany believe that the Shi'ites aspiie to uominate Lebanon anu
siueline the Sunnis, anu that theii main tool to achieve this is Bizbullah. Bostile
ihetoiic towaius the Shi'a is common, even in seculai ciicles. Sectaiianism is
piesent in the uiscouise of the mainstieam Sunni meuia that is ielateu to the al-
Nustaqbal movement anu the Baiiii clan.
7u
The 2uu6 sit-ins in Riau Al-Sulh
Squaie anu the Nay 2uu8 occupation of Beiiut by Bizbullah anu its allies weie
peiceiveu as acts launcheu by the Shi'a, taigeting the Sunnis. In Tiipoli, fiequent
clashes between the Sunni militias of al-Tabbana anu the Alawite gioups in }abal
Nuhsin have gieatly contiibuteu to the inciease in sectaiian sentiments. In the
eyes of many, these expeiiences give cieuibility to the claims of Salafis about the
existence of a global Shi'ite conspiiacy.
The success of Salafi fiaming is also a iesult of the fact that cuiiently
(}anuaiy 2u1S) theie is no viable countei-fiaming activity.
71
0thei Islamic
movements oi Bai al-Fatwa shaykhs have not come up with a viable appioach
iegaiuing the Shi'a. The Lebanese Nuslim Biotheihoou iefiains fiom sectaiian

67
Bais of Shaykh Tawfiq, '0thman bin 'Affan mosque, Tiipoli, 2S Apiil 2u12.
68
Inteiview with Shaykh Tawfiq, Tiipoli, 2S Apiil 2u12.
69
Benfoiu anu Snow 2uuu, p. 62u.
7u
It is easy to uiscovei implicit oi explicit sectaiian iefeiences to the Shi'a in al-Nustaqbal's
meuia, such as the al-Nustaqbal newspapei anu Tv channel.
71
The liteiatuie shows that the absence of successful countei-fiaming gieatly boosts the
iesonance of a given fiame. See, foi example, Ioana Emy Natesan, 'What Nakes Negative Fiames
Resonant. Bamas anu the Appeal of 0pposition to the Peace Piocess', Terrorism onJ Politicol
violence, vol. 24, no. S, 2u12, p. 678.
284
ihetoiic, anu allow only political ciiticism of Bizbullah. Theie aie two ieasons foi
this. The fiist is that most iueologists of the Ikhwan
72
ieject Salafi-style anti-
Shi'ism, which iegaius the Shi'ite belief system un-Islamic.
7S
The seconu is that
al-}ama'a al-Islamiyya has a long histoiy of coopeiation with Bizbullah. The
gioup's aimeu wing, uwwot ol-Iojr (Bawn Foice) has iegulaily paiticipateu in
militaiy actions against Isiael in cooiuination with the Shi'ite militia.
74
Ceitainly,
al-}ama'a al-Islamiyya's intellectual anu political appioach uoes not fit with the
expectations of the many who iesent the Shi'a as a community. The othei majoi
Islamic movement in Tiipoli, Eorokot ol-TowbiJ, is an open ally of Bizbullah. Its
cieuibility has also been unueimineu because of its implicit alliance with the
Assau iegime, which ciusheu the movement in the 198us.
The socioeconomic ieality of the Noith as expeiienceu by its oiuinaiy
inhabitants also boosts the cieuibility of the Salafis' "Sunnis as victims" fiame,
especially if theie is no viable alteinative. Inequality anu a lack of balance aie the
main chaiacteiistics of Lebanon's uevelopment. Nost economic activity is
centeieu in Beiiut anu the suiiounuing aiea, while the othei iegions aie seveiely
lagging behinu both in living stanuaius anu in human uevelopment.
7S
The
populai uiscouise in the Noith is that the iegion is neglecteu because it is
inhabiteu by Sunnis. 0iuinaiy people often compaie the Noith with South
Lebanon. Accoiuing to them, the lattei is swiftly impioving because the Lebanese
state is piesseu by the Shi'a to inject capital into the iegion. As a miuule-class city
uwellei explaineu to me: "Theie aie technical schools eveiywheie in the South to
give a piofession to the |Shi'ites'j young geneiation, while heie in the Noith oui
uaughteis aie being sent to the uulf to woik as piostitutes anu concubines."
76
In
saying this, he was iefeiiing to some of the newly openeu couises foi women to
tiain as beauticians, many of whom go on to apply foi jobs in the uulf countiies.

72
Isiael Altman, 'The Biotheihoou anu the Shiite Question', Current TrenJs in lslomist lJeoloqy,
no. 9, 19 Novembei 2uu9, http:www.cuiienttienus.oigieseaichuetailthe-biotheihoou-anu-
the-shiite-question (accesseu: 12 }anuaiy 2u1S).
7S
As I also inuicateu above, it uoes not mean that all membeis of the Shi'ite community aie
iegaiueu as non-Nuslims. Salafis, howevei, consiuei the totality of the cieeu anu beliefs of the
Shi'a as a uiffeient ieligion. Those Shi'ites who uo not possess the necessaiy knowleuge to be
awaie of this still iemain within Islam.
74
'Al-Faji al-Sunniya Tuqatil fi-l-}anub Wa Taifuu Fatawa al-Fiiqa', llslomonline.net, 6 }une 2uu6.
http:islamonline.netainews2uu6-u728u6.shtml (accesseu: S Apiil 2u1u).
7S
http:www.unup.oig.lbcommunicationpublicationslinkingSession4.puf (accesseu: 1u
}anuaiy 2u1S).
76
Inteiview, Tiipoli, 17 Apiil, 2u12.
28S
Accoiuing to some iumois spieauing in the city, these women aie in fact
supposeu to woik as piostitutes in the Emiiates anu Kuwait. Salafi fiames about
the uelibeiate economic oppiession of the "Nuslims by the heietics anu
unbelieveis" meet with wiuespieau iesonance.
The expeiiential cieuibility of the Salafis' fiame of the Aiab ievolutions is
boosteu by the Sunni community's tiauitional sense of weakness anu oppiession.
Consiueiable segments of the society in the Noith suppoit the Salafi appioach
because belonging to a stiong 0mmo which ievolts against anu biings uown the
toqbut in a cosmic battle elevates them fiom belonging to what is peiceiveu as
the weakest sect in Lebanon. As I mentioneu in Chaptei 6, Lebanese Sunnis in the
2u
th
centuiy inclineu towaius the concept of Aiab 0nity iathei than accepting
multi-sectaiian Lebanon as a final home (woton niboi). Although in the peiiou
aftei the Baiiii-muiuei, many obseiveu the "Lebanonization of the Sunnis",
77

this uevelopment seems to have ieveiseu aftei the bieakout of the Syiian
ievolution. Aftei Febiuaiy 2uuS, Sunnis staiteu to iuentify themselves with
Lebanon uue to theii hostile feelings towaius Syiia, causeu by the killing of the
foimei piime ministei. Bowevei, aftei the upiisings many membeis of the
community felt that they ielateu once again to theii "fellow believeis". The
ieason foi this was that by ievolting against the Assau iegime, the masses of
Syiians uetacheu themselves fiom the killeis of Baiiii anu the oppiessois of the
Sunnis uuiing the Syiian occupation of 1976-2uuS. This uevelopment iemoveu
the last baiiiei that hau been pieventing the Lebanese Sunnis feeling pait of the
global 0mmo. The Salafis' fiame about equating the ievolutions with events
pieuicteu in Sciiptuie fits well with this tiansfoimation of iuentity.
Conspiiacy theoiies in geneial also tenu to finu a ieceptive auuience in
the Aiab woilu. This is mainly because in the mouein anu contempoiaiy histoiy
of the Niuule East, conspiiacies have been obseivable foi the oiuinaiy
inuiviuual. 0ne such example is that of the Iian-Contia affaii of 1986, which
iesonateu ueeply in Lebanon anu thioughout the Niuule East. In the miu-198us,
assisteu by Isiael, the Reagan Auministiation solu weapons to Iian in exchange
foi the fieeing of Ameiican hostages helu by Bizbullah in Lebanon. Pait of the

77
Rayyan al-Shawaf, 'The Tiansfoimation of Lebanon's Sunnis', Tbe Boily Stor, 21 Septembei
2uu7, http:www.uailystai.com.lb0pinionCommentaiySep21The-tiansfoimation-of-
Lebanons-Sunnis.ashx#axzz2SmtFSoS7 (accesseu: S Apiil 2u1u).
286
ievenue that came fiom the weapons ueal was useu to aim the anti-goveinment
Contia gueiillas in Nicaiagua.
78
When it became public, the case laigely
uiscieuiteu the 0niteu States in Lebanese anu Aiab eyes. This anu othei similai
affaiis convinceu people that conspiiacies exist anu leu to the wiue acceptance of
conspiiacy theoiies.
The natuie of the piognostic anu motivational fiaming of Salafis boosts
the iesonance of theii fiames. Salafis offei easy anu iewaiuing solutions foi
oiuinaiy believeis. They uo not ask them to make big saciifices; Lebanese Salafis
iaiely tell theii constituents to go to mass uemonstiations to biing uown the
existing political system anu iisk theii lives by facing the weapons of Bizbullah
anu theii allies. They also uo not iequiie oiuinaiy people to invest a lot of time
anu effoit in facilitating the activities of the movement. The most they ask is to
attenu piayei iegulaily, listen to the Fiiuay piayei, join ieligious lessons anu
geneially peifoim ieligious iituals in the iight way. In exchange they offei the
stiong piobability that the inuiviuual's life will impiove significantly in the neai
futuie, since uou often iewaius those who follow Bis iegulations with munuane
success. Fuitheimoie, if moie Nuslims inciease theii attachment to theii
ieligion anu coiiect the way they peifoim its iulings, this will necessaiily leau to
the 0mmos political anu economic success. In shoit, following the Salafi iemeuy
foi the pioblems iuentifieu in the uiagnostic fiaming iequiies little investment,
anu at the same time it makes the inuiviuual feel moially supeiioi anu piomises
high psychological anu mateiial ietuins.

/-*<):'&-* 0- "#$#%&'(

Fiaming plays the most impoitant iole in attiacting passive followeis to
Salafism. Bowevei, to gain committeu inuiviuuals who tiansfoim theii entiie
lives in accoiuance with the movement's piinciples, these incentives on theii
own aie insufficient. Accoiuing to my uata, collecteu by conuucting uozens of
fielu inteiviews, the oveiwhelming majoiity of active followeis joineu the

78
Ann Wioe, lives, lies onJ tbe lron-Contro Affoir (Lonuon, New Yoik: I. B. Tauiis, 1992).
287
movement foi auuitional ieasons. In the following I will uiscuss why Salafism
appeals to them anu which kinus of methous of ieciuitment meet with a positive
iesponse.
Those whom I consiuei committeu Salafis (see Chaptei 6), unlike passive
followeis, have in most cases gone thiough a iauical tiansfoimation in theii
woiluview anu iuentity, which can be iuentifieu as conveision. Beie I have to
note that a conveit is not necessaiily someone who left a ceitain ieligious
tiauition foi anothei.
79
Rathei, conveision involves "iauical uiscontinuity in a
peison's life"
8u
anu the "ieoiientation of the soul".
81
That which was pieviously
peiipheial in his oi hei consciousness now becomes cential. In othei woius, as I
implieu in Chaptei 6, the sensoiy expeiiences associateu to Salafism move to the
centei of these inuiviuuals' consciousness to the extent that this ieshapes almost
all aspects of theii lives.
Fiustiation, feelings of insecuiity anu iuentity ciisis aie often uesciibeu
as the main factois that make someone a potential conveit.
82
Analyses of
affiliation to Salafism in uiffeient national contexts suggest the same. Be Koning's
stuuy shows that young seconu-geneiation immigiants in the Netheilanus who
cannot fully iuentify with theii paients' iuentity, but who aie also unable to
auopt that of the host countiy, aie ieceptive to the message of Salafism.
8S

Anothei account points out that Salafism offeis a stable alteinative way to
Nuslim youth in Fiance who fail to iuentify themselves with the Fiench concept
of citizenship baseu on the notion of Lacit, anu feel excluueu anu maiginalizeu
fiom the majoiity of Fiench society.
84
In Inuonesia Salafism is auopteu by young
people fiom iuial backgiounus who have been foiceu by economic
ciicumstances to migiate to the cities. 0pwaiu mobility is usually uenieu to
them, while uetachment fiom theii tiauitional socio-cultuial context causes
feelings of insecuiity. Salafism pioviues them with a space wheie they can builu

79
Baviu Snow anu Richaiu Nachalek, 'The Sociology of Conveision', Annuol Review of Socioloqy,
vol. 1u, 1984, p. 17u.
8u
Ibiu., p. 169.
81
Ibiu.
82
Anton van Baiskamp, 'Existential Insecuiity anu New Religiosity: An Essay on Some Religion-
Naking Chaiacteiistics of Noueinity', Sociol Composs, vol. SS, no. 1; }ohn Loflanu anu Rouney
Staik, 'Becoming a Woilu-savei: A Theoiy of Conveision to a Beviant Peispective', Americon
Socioloqicol Review, vol. Su, no. 6, 196S.
8S
Be Koning, 'Changing Woiluviews anu Fiienuship'.
84
Auiaoui, 'Salafism in Fiance'.
288
up new bonus of soliuaiity anu an alteinative means of social auvancement, by
ieaching a highei level of commitment anu piety.
8S

The abovementioneu aspects can be uiscoveieu when we examine how
someone becomes a committeu Salafi in Noith Lebanon. The majoiity who go
thiough the piocess of "conveision" aie typically young, in theii twenties oi
eaily thiities, have miuule-class oi lowei-miuule-class backgiounus anu possess
a ceitain level of euucation. They typically expeiience the usual fiustiations anu
insecuiities of the young geneiations in the Noith uue to the lack of
oppoitunities foi upwaiu mobility anu self-impiovement. The unemployment
iate in the Sunni teiiitoiies of the Noith is the highest in the countiy.
86
}ob
oppoitunities aie meagei, even foi univeisity giauuates. Young people often
complain about the pievalence of nepotism anu pationage. It is consiueieu
impossible to get a high-level piofessional position without having links to one of
the political bosses. 0ne often heais comments such as, "if you uon't have
contacts (piefeiably to a zoìm) you won't get a job, whatevei uiploma you have.
If you aie well-connecteu, five classes aie enough to be uiiectoi of a company."
87

0niveisity stuuents in the final yeais of theii stuuy uo not see a secuie
futuie in fiont of them. Those who have alieauy giauuateu aie often unemployeu
anu aie ieliant on suppoit fiom theii families, oi have to uo infeiioi jobs. At the
same time the suiiounuing society expects them achieve mateiial stability,
establish a family anu puisue a caieei that is fitting to theii level of euucation, in
oiuei to giant the iespect anu social status to which these young people aspiie.
In ieality, howevei, they can only uieam of becoming a robb boyt (loiu of the
house); that is, a financially inuepenuent maiiieu man. The uispaiity between
expectations, ambitions anu ieal oppoitunities geneiates a sense of insecuiity
anu fiustiation. Young men often expiess that they feel like "nobouies" anu "bolo
qiymo |woithlessj" in fiont of eluei family membeis anu moie successful
inuiviuuals. They also uesciibe life as boiing, as theie aie no piospects of woik,
to make an effoit anu achieve something. Young men tiy to fill theii aimless uays

8S
Basan Nooihaiui, 'The Biama of }ihau: The Emeigence of Salafi Youth in Inuonesia', in Asef
Bayat anu Linua Beiieia (eu), Beinq Younq onJ Huslim: New Culturol Politics in tbe 6lobol Soutb
onJ Nortb (0xfoiu, New Yoik: 0xfoiu 0niveisity Piess, 2u1u).
86
Rasha Abouuzaki, 'Tiipoli, Noith Lebanon: The Foigotten City', ol-Akbbor, 1S Nay 2u12,
English euition. http:english.al-akhbai.comnoue7S67 (accesseu: 1S Nay 2u12).
87
Conveisation with a gioup of youths, Tiipoli, 4 August 2u11.
289
by gatheiing in gioups anu spenuing time in cafs, sometimes consuming alcohol
anu soft uiugs. 0ccasionally, when they acquiie some money, they hiie
piostitutes oi visit uivoiceu women who pioviue sexual seivices in exchange foi
mateiial compensation. Some young men mentioneu feelings of guilt, uistiaction
anu emptiness aftei such ueeus.
'Aunan, one of my committeu Salafi infoimants hau similai piospects anu
a similai lifestyle befoie his "iltizom". When tiying to expel his feelings of
boieuom, he often staiteu to think: "Wheie I am going, what is the puipose of my
life. Why uo I exist in the woilu if my life is not going anywheie."
88
Nany of
these young men, like 'Aunan, finu Salafism anu become active followeis of the
movement. The movement is paiticulaily attiactive to them because it pioviues
answeis to these questions. As 'Aunan continueu: "Now I know, I am in this
woilu to woiship uou as Be wants me to uo it. All my acts have to be
accomplisheu in the way uou piesciibeu. If I follow this, eveiything I uo is
woiship ('iboJo), i.e. I woiship uou 24 houis a uay." It is often saiu that Salafism,
unlike othei appioaches, is a complete system of life with cleai instiuctions to
caiiy out all actions in line with the cieatoi's will (see also Chaptei S). As Nabil,
one of my infoimants, tolu me:
89
"Theie is a text foi eveiything, you just neeu the
iight Jolil |pioofj. |It is cleaily stateuj how to inteiact with otheis, how to talk
with youi paients, youi fellow Nuslims anu also with non-Nuslims. |Theie aie
instiuctions foij how to consummate youi maiiiage, exactly how to uiess anu
even how to entei the iestioom." As many of the committeu Salafis iecounteu
theii expeiiences befoie theii "iltizom", they weie piaying eithei occasionally,
sometimes only on Fiiuay, oi they weie fulfilling ieligious obligations only
because eveiyone was uoing the same in theii family. "I was piaying anu fasting
because my fathei anu eluei biotheis taught me to uo so. I uiu not unueistanu
why I hau to follow |these piacticesj, but I uiu not even caie too much about it.
Ny minu was usually occupieu with othei things, meaningless things", saiu Rabi',
a univeisity stuuent in Tiipoli in his miu-twenties. "Touay I unueistanu.

88
89
Inteiview, Tiipoli, 29 }uly 2u11.
29u
Eveiything, fasting, piayei, any paiticulai piactice is pait of a system, which is
uesigneu |by uouj to make me an iueal Nuslim."
9u

In many cases, the ciisis of Sunni iuentity in Lebanon (see also Chapteis 1
anu S) also contiibutes to the conveision of young people to Salafism. At a time
of sectaiian polaiization, many young men aie asking themselves what it means
to belong to the Sunni community. Bow shoulu they inteipiet it. Why aie Sunnis
weak in the face of the Shi'ites anu Bizbullah. Nany of them peiceive that al-
Nustaqbal's seculai anu pio-Westein appioach will not impiove the situation,
just as the Aiab Nationalist anu Leftist movements, to which theii fatheis useu to
belong, faileu. Abu Baki, a Su-yeai-olu Salafi, tolu me his stoiy:

Aftei the 2uu6 |politicalj ciisis anu the 2uu8 occupation of Beiiut by the
Shi'a I staiteu to think, what uoes it mean that I am Sunni. Befoie,
"Sunniness" uiu not mean too much to me, but when the political climate
changeu anu eveiybouy staiteu to speak about Sunna anu Shi'a, it maue
me also inquiie . Salafis maue me iealize that being Sunni means
belonging to uou's ieligion anu being pait of the 0mmo. If we follow uou's
iulings in full, not as oui paients uiu, Sunnis will change theii cuiient
miseiable situation. 0ui fatheis maybe went to the mosque anu piayeu,
but just as an inheiiteu habit. 0theiwise they uiu not look foi uou's will.
This is why we aie weak now.

Accoiuing to him, countless paits of the Text piove this tiuth. Be quoteu the
following Qui'an ayah: ln iJtum iJno (If you ietuin |to Nej I ietuin |to youj).
91

Though this pait of the sciiptuie has been inteipieteu in iauically uiffeient ways,
in the common Salafi inteipietation, if Nuslims ietuin to the tiue path, uou will
ietuin his favoi to the 0mmo.
92

The wiuespieau piesence of Salafism in new meuia anu its netwoiking
stiategy aie the two main ieasons why these young inuiviuuals come acioss the
movement anu latei auopt its iueas.
9S
In the past uecaue, Salafism has achieveu

9u
Inteiview, 1S Apiil 2u12.
91
al-Qui'an, Suiat al-Isia' 8.
92
Inteiview with Shaykh Salim al-Rafi'i, Tiipoli, 22 }uly 2u11.
9S
Be Koning 2uu9, p. 421.
291
uominance ovei the Islamic content of the Inteinet.
94
In Noith Lebanon,
incieasing numbeis of people aie iegulaily online anu visit ieligious websites.
They aie most likely encountei Salafi pages anu foiums, often even without
knowing that those tiansmit the message of a specific movement. The Egyptian
Salafi anu Sauui Wisal anu Safa' satellite channels, which aie populai acioss the
Niuule East, also play a veiy impoitant iole. Both the Inteinet anu television
piesent an appealing uiscouise foi the youth. Nany of my infoimants
encounteieu Salafism fiist thiough new meuia, which then leu them to look foi
local Salafis to leain moie about the movement's iueas. Those who weie
appioacheu by Jo'is often iesponueu positively to the call uue to theii pievious
expeiiences with websites anu Tv channels. In othei woius, the flow of Salafi
iueas thiough the meuia facilitates the alieauy ciucial iole of social netwoiks in
the ieciuitment of new active membeis.
Numeious stuuies have concluueu that in the ieciuitment of most social
movement activists, infoimal inteipeisonal contacts play a substantial iole.
9S
A
movement which habitually employs these in its ieciuitment piocess is moie
likely to attiact paiticipants than if it ielies on the mass meuia oi foimal
methous such as senuing emails, making phone calls, anu so foith.
96
The
liteiatuie on new ieligious movements also pinpoints the ciucial impoitance of
social netwoiks anu inteipeisonal inteiactions in uiawing membeis to theii
lines. People usually become followeis when pieliminaiy bonus have been
establisheu with membeis, while it is unlikely foi an inuiviuual to fully auopt the
iueas of a ieligious gioup without pieviously being in contact with theii
netwoiks.
97
Conveision usually happens aftei spenuing a ielatively long peiiou
of time in uay-to-uay inteiaction with activists in the given movement.
98

Analyses of Salafism also fiequently emphasize the iole of social netwoiks in
ieciuiting new followeis to the movement. Wiktoiowicz points to the

94
Ibiu.
9S
Rouney Staik anu William Sims Bainbiiuge, 'Netwoiks of Faith: Inteipeisonal Bonus anu
Reciuitment to Cults anu Sects', Tbe Americon }ournol of Socioloqy, vol. 8S, no. 6, 198u; }ames N.
}aspei anu }ane B. Poulsen, 'Reciuiting Stiangeis anu Fiienus: Noial Shocks anu Social Netwoiks
in Animal Rights anu Anti-Nucleai Piotests', vol. 42, no. 4, 199S; Beit Klanueimans anu Biik
0egema, 'Potentials, Netwoiks, Notivations, anu Baiiieis: Steps Towaius Paiticipation in Social
Novements', Americon Socioloqicol Review, vol. S2, no. 4, 1987.
96
Staik anu Bainbiiuge, 'Netwoiks of Faith'.
97
Ibiu., especially pp. 1S79-1S81.
98
Ibiu., p. 1S78.
292
significance of pie-existing fiienuship ties that uiag someone to the movement,
anu the wiue availability of Salafi activities, such as boloqot, which potential
conveits can join.
99

Ny finuings in the fielu confiim the ciucial iole of infoimal ties. Accoiuing
to my uata, in the case of committeu Lebanese Salafi inuiviuuals, social netwoiks
play a significant iole in theii ieciuitment. Without exception, the active
followeis whom I inteivieweu between 2uu9 anu 2u12 hau chosen to iauically
change theii lifestyles anu auopt Salafism aftei having ielatively long
inteipeisonal ielationships with Salafi activists. At the same time, piobably the
majoiity of the potential conveits encounteieu Salafism piioi to contacting the
netwoiks of committeu inuiviuuals, eithei thiough the Inteinet oi satellite
channels, oi thiough the Fiiuay seimon (if the kbotib of the mosque wheie they
piayeu was Salafi). Aftei becoming somewhat familiai with the movement's
iueas, the young people usually became moie iesponsive if Salafis appioacheu
them, oi even took the initiative to leain moie foi themselves. In the lattei case
they usually staiteu to visit Jurus, oi occasionally paiticipateu in infoimal
gatheiings as the fiist step of theii socialization in Salafism.
Active followeis also look to contact those who can be convinceu to
iefashion theii lives in accoiuance with the movement's stanuaius. Being
available to answei questions anu assist oiuinaiy believeis {'ommot ol-muslimin)
is pait of the bisbo anu is theiefoie consiueieu one of the most impoitant paits
of theii activism. Active paiticipants fiequently appioach otheis in the mosque
anu theii neighboihoou to talk about theii ieligious belief. 0ften these activists
pioviue assistance to young people, such as counseling them if they face mental
stiess, oi aie socially isolateu anu alienateu. In some cases, Salafi youth tiy to
stop otheis who "have mixeu with bau company" fiom hanging out with those
who iegulaily consume alcohol anu uiugs. Such activities eain them a high
ieputation anu many young people aie happy to spenu time with them.
Accoiuing to my obseivations, one of the most impoitant anu inteiesting
methous useu by Salafi activists to appioach young people is theii Jo'wo in
populai places wheie Salafis woulu otheiwise haiuly appeai, such as cafs anu
beaches. While othei Islamic movements fiequently employ these spaces foi

99
Wiktoiowicz, 'The Salafi Novement in }oiuan', pp. 2SS-2S6.
29S
pioselytization, Salafis mostly iefuse to appeai in cafs anu beaches because
people listen to music, smoke wateipipe (orqilo in Lebanese uialect) oi play
caius theie. Accoiuing to theii views, these activities anu the occasional
piesence of women can awaken temptations in them anu tuin them away fiom
ieligion. Some Salafis, howevei, have abanuoneu this philosophy. They think that
people can be appioacheu wheie they like to be anu wheie they aie ielaxeu.
Beie they iefei also to the piactices of the Piophet, who uiu not avoiu public
places in Necca oi Neuina wheie un-Islamic piactices often occuiieu. The
initiative of these Salafis has been pioven to be veiy successful anu has become
one of the most significant methous of Jo'wo in Tiipoli.
Cafs anu beaches aie impoitant meeting points foi the petty bouigeois
youth in Tiipoli anu the Noith. uatheiing with fiienus, uiinking coffee anu
smoking orqilo cieates a kinu of "fiee space" foi these young people, since these
places aie not unuei the suiveillance of the family anu nobouy else can heai
what they aie talking about - unlike when fiienus gathei at one of theii homes.
The cafs in the Nina uistiict aie especially populai, because heie the
enviionment is less tiauitional than, let us say, in the Tell uistiict oi the Qubba,
so a gioup of young people can gain moie piivacy. As Fiias, a young man in his
twenties explaineu, "when we meet |with othei youthj in one of the cafs in
these aieas |Tell oi Qubbaj, you feel that you aie unuei continuous obseivation.
0ften I heai fiom my family that some otheis have seen me in a ceitain caf. The
Nina is uiffeient. People uo not know us theie anu piivacy is iespecteu." Inueeu,
the iesiuents of Tiipoli fiequently escape fiom the uiban ciowus to sit in one of
the beach-siue cafs oi iestauiants in the Nina uistiict. uatheiings on the
beaches close to Tiipoli aie also populai. In summeitime, meetings on the beach
consist of swimming, then gatheiing on the shoie anu eating uinnei. Buiing
these occasions young people often expiess theii conceins about theii futuie
anu theii fiustiation uue to the uifficulties of life in the noithein pait of Lebanon.
Salafi Joìs aie able to penetiate these "fiee spaces" of the Tiipolitan youth, anu
many of these young men aie ieceptive to theii iueas.
uhassan is one of the young Salafi pieacheis (he is in his miu-twenties)
who piactice Jo`wo among young Tiipolitan miuule-class oi petty bouigeois
men. I met him uuiing my fieluwoik in Tiipoli in 2u11 anu 2u12. Be is one of the
294
close aiues of Shaykh Salim al-Rafiì, the imam of the Taqwa mosque in the
Tabbaneh uistiict. uhassan was boin in a typical Tiipolitan miuule-income
family in one of the wealthiei paits of the Tabbana (which is otheiwise known
foi its ueep poveity). Be uesciibeu his family as "non-ieligious". As he explaineu,
they fast in Ramauan anu sometimes ieau the Quiàn, but they nevei piay any of
the five obligatoiy piayeis anu nevei taught theii chiluien anything about Islam.
Be tolu me that his ieligious tuin came aftei his giauuation fiom high school.
uhassan staiteu woiking foi an electionics company that sells iefiigeiatois. As
he iecounteu, "although I was quite successful in my woik, I felt ueep emptiness
in my heait anu felt my life to be woithless. Thanks to uou it uiu not last long. I
staiteu to piay in the Taqwa mosque anu my life quickly changeu." Bue to the
enviionment in the Taqwa mosque, uhassan became one of the piominent young
Salafis in the Tabbana. Cuiiently he woiks as the secietaiy of the mosque anu at
the same time piactices Jo`wo among fellow youth.
uhassan stiongly opposes those (mostly puiist) Salafis who, accoiuing to
him, live between theii mosque, woik anu family, basically secluueu fiom the
society. As he explaineu:

These guys limit theii contact with people to avoiu temptation anu fully
focus on ieligious piactice, but they foiget that isolation is not the only
way of avoiuing sin, self contiol is also impoitant . Implementing Islam
fully is self-iealization, but following only ieligious piactice anu iitual is
only half of this self-iealization. The othei half is enlightening otheis anu
contiibuting to the cieation of a moie Islamic society.
1uu

This is why uhassan thinks that "a wiue social netwoik composeu of all kinu of
people is ciucial foi the Jo`wo. Peisonal isolation |i.e. meeting only Salafisj leaus
to the isolation of the Jo`wo as well."
Bespite his pious lifestyle, uhassan appeais quite fiequently in the cafs
that aie populai meeting points foi young people fiom his geneiation. Be piefeis
those places wheie theie is no louu music anu theie aie fewei women. 0sually
he meets theie with young people whom he met befoie at woik oi othei places

1uu
Inteiview with uhassan Bauhuii, Tiipoli, 27 }uly 2u11.
29S
in the city, iathei than joining theii gatheiings. Accoiuing to uassan, he uoes not
stait by pieaching anu convincing these young men to live a moie pious life:
"This woulu leau nowheie; they woulu only escape fiom me. Rathei, I listen to
theii uaily pioblems anu paiticipate in oiuinaiy, woiluly conveisations.
Although in the time of solot I peifoim piayei. Nost of them follow me at this
time even if they woulu nevei piay otheiwise." Nost of the Tiipolitans aie piouu
of theii Sunni iuentity, even if they uo not piay anu uo not fast in Ramauan.
When somebouy pioposes that they peifoim the piayei togethei, they cannot
iefuse.
1u1
Accoiuing to uhassan, occasionally piaying togethei cieates a
sufficiently ieligious climate to be able to intiouuce his iueas fiom a moie
Islamic viewpoint, oi piopose an Islamic solution foi the socio-economic
pioblems suffeieu by these young men. "If I weie to tiy to peisuaue them to live
a moie ieligious life while uiinking coffee, that woulu backfiie. They might listen
to my aiguments politely, but they woulu not take them seiiously." Aftei they
have piayeu togethei a few times, uhassan usually talks about what kinu of
solutions Islam offeis foi the social pioblems of the youth. Be tiies to convince
them that iegulai piayei, iefiaining fiom uiinking alcohol anu using theii time
foi something moie piouuctive than sitting in cafs all night woulu impiove theii
life. This might be ieauing the Qui'an, visiting the mosque, oi paiticipating in
ieligious stuuy gioups (boloqot ol-Jurus). Accoiuing to uhassan's account,
although most of the youth aie paitially ieceptive to his call, some eventually
become full "yoltozim |becomes multozimj".
The 22-yeai-olu Yahya is one of these lattei Lebanese. uhassan
intiouuceu him to me in the Taqwa mosque aftei the moqbrib piayei. Be is an
unueigiauuate stuuent at the Tiipoli bianch of the Lebanese 0niveisity, living in
a miuule-class family in the Tabbana. Be explaineu his life anu woiluview befoie
he was conveiteu to Salafism:

Ny paients uiu not teach me too much about oui ieligion. I knew how to
piay, but I uiu not piactice it. Although I useu to fast in Ramauan
(sometimes not the whole month), I liveu Islam only as a tiauition anu it

1u1
This is especially case if somebouy cannot claim that they hau peifoimeu the obligatoiy
piayei befoie.
296
uiu not play an impoitant iole in my life. Ny fathei piays, but my mothei
anu my siblings nevei . I loveu music, playing boaiu games oi caius.
0ccasionally I uiank beei anu almost eveiy night I sat in a caf oi on the
beach with my fiienus anu colleagues at the univeisity, smoking orqilo .
uhassan sometimes joineu us in these meetings. 0nce I complaineu to him
that I coulu not ieally focus on my stuuies, since we live in a small
apaitment anu theiefoie theie is a lot of uistiaction. Be saiu that I coulu
go anu stuuy in the mosque, since the enviionment is iathei quiet theie .
Spenuing a long time in the mosque, the climate somehow catches you. At
the time of the piayei I peifoimeu the solot with the otheis. Afteiwaius, I
felt that my soul was becoming cleanei. In the mosque I also got in contact
with otheis who hau moie knowleuge about the ieligion, I joineu the
stuuy ciicles as well. uiauually I founu that I hateu my foimei lifestyle
anu behavioi. I thiew away my CBs, stoppeu hanging out at night, anu
gave up smoking orqilo.

Touay, Yahya is one of the most enthusiastic activists at the Taqwa mosque.
Anothei inteiesting anu successful Jo'wo methou I encounteieu in Noith
Lebanon is using the annual Islamic pilgiimage to Necca (Eojj) foi
pioselytization puiposes. I uiscoveieu that some of my committeu Salafi
infoimants got involveu in the movement's netwoiks uuiing anu aftei they
paiticipateu in the Eojj. Salafis play quite a laige pait in oiganizing tiips by
Lebanese pilgiims. They opeiate "Eojj tiavel offices" in Tiipoli anu Beiiut, wheie
people can aiiange theii uocuments anu tiavel to Sauui Aiabia. When the
pilgiims aiiive in Necca they aie uiviueu into gioups consisting of 1S-2u
membeis. The office appoints a mursbiJ (heie: spiiitual guiue) to each gioup,
who is usually a Lebanese Salafi shaykh. The mursbiJ's task is to auvise the
pilgiims on how to behave anu peifoim the uiffeient iituals that aie obligatoiy
uuiing the Eojj. They also pioviue a kinu of ieligious tiaining, mostly in the foim
of boloqot anu peisonal consultations, while the people aie staying in Necca.
Shaykh Baitham al-Sa'iu fiom Nahi al-Baiiu camp often seives as a mursbiJ foi
Lebanese anu Palestinian pilgiims. When I inteivieweu him, he emphasizeu how
the spiiitual guiue can play an impoitant iole in leauing people to "monboj of Abl
297
ol-Sunno wo-l-}omo'o anu cleansing them fiom the sbirkiyyot |piactices anu
beliefs that contiauict towbiJj".
1u2
Accoiuing to him, uuiing the Eojj people finu
it "easiei to accept the tiuth". In Necca "theie is boroko |blessingj" anu the "heait
of the Nuslims opens up to uou's message".
Tuinei anu Tuinei pioviue a useful analysis to unueistanu the geneial
significance of pilgiimage in a believeis' life.
1uS
In theii analysis of Catholic
pilgiimage, they aigue that pilgiims uetach themselves fiom theii social context,
with its uiffeient social positions, iights anu uistinctions, anu entei into a
"liminal" state wheie these uistinctions uisappeai. Buiing pilgiimage the
inuiviuual enteis a community of equals wheie oiuinaiy social stiuctuies aie
tempoiaiily abolisheu.
1u4
The authois call this state "communitas", a teim which
uesciibes "the inuiviuual pilgiim's tempoiaiy tiansition away fiom the munuane
stiuctuies anu social inteiuepenuence into a loosei commonality of feeling with
fellow visitois."
1uS
Buiing communitas the inuiviuual is subject to seiious
inteinal changes oi even uistoitions befoie ie-enteiing his oi hei oiuinaiy social
stiuctuie. In case of the Eojj, communitas is symbolizeu with the ibrom, the
white iobe that eveiy pilgiim has to put on befoie beginning the pilgiimage. The
ibrom stiongly iesembles the kofon (ueath shiouu) anu implies that in ueath,
social positions aie meaningless.
1u6
Consequently, uuiing the Eojj, the ibrom is
supposeu to hiue the social backgiounu of the believei, uetach them fiom it, anu
theieby integiate them into the community of equals wheie only faith has any
impoitance.
In the case of the Islamic pilgiimage, a peison's uetachment fiom theii
local socioeconomic enviionment is often accompanieu by a "ie-oiientation of
the soul" fiom munuane matteis towaius uou. The Eojj is supposeu to be a
tuining point in the inuiviuual's life, when he oi she gets iiu of the sins anu
mistakes of the past anu becomes a bettei peison. Some peisonal accounts
suggest that being in Necca anu the activities anu iituals that aie peifoimeu

1u2
Inteiview, 0iebio, Sweuen, 2S }une 2u12.
1uS
victoi Tuinei anu Euith Tuinei, Hoqe onJ Pilqrimoqe in Cbristion Culture (New Yoik:
Columbia 0niveisity Piess, 1978).
1u4
Ibiu., pp. 1-4u.
1uS
Simon Coleman, 'Bo You Believe in Pilgiimage. Communitas, Contestation anu Beyonu',
Antbropoloqicol Tbeory, vol. 2, no. S, 2uu2, p. SS6.
1u6
F. E. Peteis, Tbe Eojj: Tbe Huslim Pilqrimoqe to Hecco onJ tbe Eoly Ploces (Piinceton:
Piinceton 0niveisity Piess, 1994), p. 11S.
298
when theie leaus to a feeling of continuous closeness to uou.
1u7
In othei woius,
just like eveiyuay ieligious iituals in Bumphiey anu Laiulaw's analysis, the Eojj
cieates a space foi ieligious expeiience, albeit a ueepei anu moie peisistent
one.
1u8
Salafi murbsiJs finu this "opening-up of the heait" a suitable moment to
influence theii gioup membeis. Besiues giving lessons anu pioviuing peisonal
consultations uuiing the Eojj, Shaykh Baitham uiaws on his pie-establisheu
tiansnational contacts. Be tolu me that he fiequently tiavels to Sauui Aiabia,
wheie he stuuieu unuei some ienowneu 'ulomo anu maintains coiuial ielations
with otheis. When these scholais aie piesent uuiing the Eojj, he biings his gioup
membeis to paiticipate in theii boloqot oi just to inteiact with them on a
peisonal level. Shaykh Baitham uesciibeu these 'ulomo as exceptionally
chaiismatic people who can have a long-lasting impact on someone who spenus
time with them. As he tolu me, aftei the Eojj, most people ietuin to theii
oiuinaiy lives, but some, especially young people, get involveu in Salafi netwoiks
anu in many cases become active followeis.
The lattei was tiue foi Shaykh 'Imau, now a young but veiy populai
pieachei in Waui Khaliu. As he tolu me, in his eaily auulthoou he was a Syiian
Ba'th paity sympathizei (the iueological backbone of the iegime in Bamascus).
}ust like many of the iesiuents in his home iegion, he was enthusiastic about
Bizbullah anu the "Axis of Resistance |Hibwor ol-Humoni'oj" which consists of
the "anti-Impeiialist anu anti-Zionist" foices such as Iian, Syiia, Bizbullah anu
Bamas. Be was "not ieally piacticing" Islam anu leu a iathei seculai lifestyle. As
he tolu me, he was busy with woithless things such as listening to music,
smoking anu loiteiing with othei young men. Be enjoyeu wiiting obscene poems
about giils he knew. Be staiteu stuuying IT in a college in Tiipoli, but uiu not
become a successful stuuent in that peiiou. Accoiuing to his account, what
changeu his life was peifoiming the Eojj in 2uuS. Bis fathei sent him to Necca,
hoping that it woulu piecipitate some positive changes in his son's chaiactei. Be
maue the jouiney with a Salafi Eojj office anu uuiing the pilgiimage he was
ueeply influenceu by his murbsiJ. As he explaineu, the whole expeiience in
Necca maue him iealize how meaningless his life was anu maue him think about

1u7
Conveisations with Lebanese inuiviuuals who peifoimeu the Eojj between 2uu9 anu 2u12.
1u8
Caioline Bumphiey anu }ames Laiulaw, Tbe Arcbetypol Actions of Rituol: A Tbeory of Rituol
lllustroteJ by tbe }oin Rite of Worsbip (New Yoik: 0xfoiu 0niveisity Piess, 1994), pp. 78-79.
299
finuing an aim. Aftei ietuining to Lebanon he establisheu contacts with Salafi
netwoiks anu paiticipateu in some couises at Ba'i al-Islam al-Shahhal's al-
Biuaya college. Aftei a couple of months he concluueu that his main task in this
life woulu be to spieau the Jo'wo. A yeai aftei the pilgiimage, he auopteu the
Salafi monboj anu began his stuuies at Tiipoli 0niveisity in the Sbori'o faculty.
The political uevelopments anu the emeiging sectaiian tensions also playeu a
iole in his tuin towaiu Salafism. When he staiteu to teach anu uelivei Fiiuay
seimons in his home village, he became one of the flag-beaieis of anti-Shi'ism in
Waui Khaliu.

/-*2$C'&-*

In this chaptei I uiscusseu the impoitance of fiaming anu conveision in
ieciuiting passive anu active auheients of Salafism. Successful fiaming activity
appeals to the laigei masses, who aie seeking an plausible answei to what is
going on aiounu them in the sociopolitical iealm. Salafi iueology also attiacts
those young people who feel alienateu in contempoiaiy Noith Lebanon uue to
the socioeconomic malaise anu ongoing iuentity ciisis. They become committeu
followeis of Salafism who seek to auopt its iulings in full by going thiough
conveision. Conveision is also facilitateu by the netwoiking stiategies of Salafis,
as I showeu in the seconu pait of the chaptei.
Touay, Salafi ieciuitment stiategies in Lebanon appeai to be effective.
Laige numbeis of oiuinaiy believeis consiuei the woius of Salafi pieacheis to be
cieuible, auopt theii opinions on cuiient events anu conceive of Islam in
accoiuance with the Salafi concept. In the past two yeais, mostly uue to the
climate geneiateu by the Aiab Spiing, theie has been a shaip inciease in the
numbei of young people becoming active paiticipants. These uevelopments aie
paitly uue to the fact that Salafis aie successfully exploiting the favoiable
political oppoitunities that aie opening up (see Chaptei 2). The inteiplay of the
Sunni-Shi'i sectaiian tensions with the Aiab Spiing gives wiue giounu foi the
shaykhs' fiaming activity.
Suu
At the point of wiiting it is still uncleai whethei the success of Salafis in
ieciuiting new paiticipants will be tempoiaiy oi long-lasting. The ongoing
Syiian civil wai, the uecieasing oppoitunities foi the Sunni youth anu the lack of
cieuible alteinatives aie among the main factois that explain why Salafis aie
successfully attiacting people. Bowevei, things might change if stability ietuins
to the neighboiing countiies anu if the economic situation impioves in the Noith.
Such uevelopments coulu favoi moueiate Islamic movements such as the Nuslim
Biotheihoou oi wings of Lebanese Salafism that aie cuiiently maiginalizeu, such
as the netwoik of Nuhammau Khouoi. In the case of socioeconomic
uevelopments, uoois might open foi euucation, anu Sunni youth might then see a
non-apocalyptic futuie that leaus to becoming pait of the miuule class (also
economically), iathei that to the "Siege of Sham" anu the aiiival of the HobJi. In
this case, the successful movements will be those that can iesponu to these
changes.

Su1
/-*2$C'&-*

Since the enu of the 2uuus, Salafism has emeigeu as a key component of the
Sunni sociopolitical lanuscape of Lebanon. The movement has become especially
stiong in the countiy's noithein iegion, in the city of Tiipoli anu its suiiounuing
aieas, wheie I conuucteu my fieluwoik. In this stuuy I explaineu how Salafism
has evolveu anu uevelopeu uue to both local anu tiansnational factois. I took a
closei look at its emeigence, fiagmentation anu inteinal uynamics, such as the
constiuction of its ieligious authoiity, its netwoik stiuctuie anu ieciuitment of
paiticipants.
0ne of the novel aspects of this uisseitation, I believe, lies in its uiscussion
of Salafism as a single social movement, insteau of limiting its focus to a specific
gioup, such as the }ihauis in the Palestinian camps of Lebanon.
1u9
I analyzeu the
uynamics of the powei stiuctuie of the movement, which was influenceu by
theological uebates anu the tiansfoimation of the exteinal, sociopolitical context,
both at the local anu the global levels. To explain these uynamics I iefineu the
eailiei veisions of the classification of factions of the Salafi movement, which
appeaieu in the acauemic liteiatuie. At the beginning of this stuuy I aigueu that
the most fiequently useu classification, fiist pioposeu by Quintan Wiktoiowicz,
is incomplete. Wiktoiowicz uistinguishes thiee main Salafi factions, Puiists,
Politicos anu }ihauis, baseu on theii methous of activism. I founu this appioach to
have seiious shoitcomings. I aigueu that it is too iigiu, sets too shaip
bounuaiies, anu neglects the coie theological uebates that in fact uiviue Salafis.
I pioposeu an alteinative classification of Salafi gioups, which is baseu on
my fielu obseivations anu inteiviews. I uistinguish two majoi factions in the
movement. The main uiffeience between them lies in theii theological
uisagieement ovei the ielationship between a Nuslim anu the iulei (bokim). The
membeis of the fiist faction, whom I call puiists, believe that the subject must
unconuitionally obey the iulei if he is Nuslim anu uoes not oiuei them to
contiauict the funuamentals of Islam. Accoiuing to puiists, the bokim cannot be
publicly ciiticizeu, anu any foim of public uemonstiation is stiictly foibiuuen.

1u9
See Rougiei, FveryJoy }iboJ.
Su2
The pioponents of the seconu faction, whom I call borokis (activists), aigue that
the puiists' stance is unfounueu. Eorokis iefei to iulings in the sbori'o which
piove that the iulei has to be openly ciiticizeu anu coiiecteu if his acts aie
contiaiy to Islam. Fuitheimoie, his iule is legitimate only if the iuleu have
peifoimeu an oath of allegiance (boyo') to him.
This classification also uistinguishes two sub-factions among the puiists
anu borokis iespectively. I explain that theie aie puiists who iegaiu political
paiticipation as acceptable if it uoes not leau to uisobeuience to the iulei, anu if
it benefits the Jo'wo. I iuentify this gioup as "politico-puiists". I call those who
ieject political activism altogethei "puiist-iejectionists". Those borokis whom I
class as "politicos" believe in electoial paiticipation anu achieving positive
change thiough political woik. The othei sub-faction of borokis, the "jihauis",
believe that ieality can be changeu only by foice.
The fiist half of this stuuy pioviueu insight into the evolution anu
uevelopment of the abovementioneu Salafi factions in Lebanon. I outlineu both
the local ciicumstances anu the tiansnational context which leu to the
fiagmentation of Salafism in Lebanon. In Chaptei 2 I uiscusseu the fiagmentation
of Salafism in uulf, which is necessaiy to unueistanu the tiajectoiy of the
movement in Tiipoli anu its suiiounuing aieas. I uiscusseu the histoiical oiigins
of the split between puiists anu borokis in Sauui Aiabia, then analyzeu the
evolution anu uynamics of the two most impoitant Salafi chaiity oiganizations,
the Kuwaiti }ama'iyat Ihya' al-Tuiath al-Islami anu the Qataii Shaykh 'Aiu Chaiity
Association (SACA).
A uetaileu uiscussion was pioviueu on how the fiagmentation of Sauui
Salafism affecteu the powei stiuctuie of the movement in Kuwait. I showeu that
in the fiist half of the 199us, a stiong puiist faction emeigeu within the
pieviously pieuominantly boroki Kuwaiti Salafi community. The puiists
manageu to siueline the activist-minueu Shaykh 'Abuul Rahman 'Abu al-Khaliq,
the main ieligious authoiity of Kuwaiti Salafis, anu took ovei the leaueiship of
Ihya' al-Tuiath. Nost borokis left the oiganization, which became one of the main
bankiolleis of puiist Salafis woiluwiue.
At the same time, Qatai became a main hub of boroki Salafism. The chief
objectives of the emiiate's foieign policy in the seconu half of the 199us weie to
SuS
maintain theii inuepenuence fiom Sauui uominance anu inciease the countiy's
inteinational influence. Pationizing boroki Salafis, who geneially questioneu the
legitimacy of the Sauui monaichy, fitteu into this fiamewoik. The Qataii iulei
also hopeu that sponsoiing boroki Salafis abioau thiough SACA woulu inciease
the numbei of allies foi his countiy.
This oveiview of Salafism in the uulf pioviueu an unueistanuing of the
tiansnational context of the uevelopment of Noith Lebanese Salafism, which was
then uiscusseu in Chapteis S anu 4. In Chaptei S I explaineu the emeigence of
Salafism in Tiipoli anu its aujacent aieas. By using the "political oppoitunity
stiuctuie" appioach, I aigueu that both local anu tiansnational changes pioviueu
Salafism with oppoitunities to become one of the most piominent Sunni
movements. The eiosion of tiauitional ieligious authoiity, the uelegitimation of
the movement's competitois, the giowing sectaiian tensions anu the emeigence
of tiansnational sponsois weie the main factois that openeu the way foi the
spieau of the Salafi message.
The fiagmentation of the movement that coulu be obseiveu in the uulf
appeaieu in Lebanon as well fiom the beginning of the 2uuus. In the 199us,
borokis uominateu Lebanese Salafism. Bowevei, aftei the tuin of the millennium
they faceu iepiession by the Lebanese authoiities anu Syiian intelligence. Nost
of theii institutions weie closeu uown anu theii main leauei, Ba'i al-Islam al-
Shahhal, hau to leave the countiy in 2uuu. These uevelopments openeu the way
foi the puiists, whose main financial benefactoi was Ihya' al-Tuiath. 0ntil the
enu of 2uuus a stiong politico-puiist stieam emeigeu in Noith Lebanon, which
possesseu a vast chaiity netwoik anu mobilizeu voteis uuiing elections. Puiist-
iejectionist netwoiks aie also piesent anu active in Tiipoli, though they aie
much less influential.
Although theii netwoik was seveiely uisiupteu by the authoiities, boroki
Salafis iemaineu stiong in Noith Lebanon. The collapse of the Syiian-Lebanese
Secuiity iegime anu the withuiawal of the Syiian foices enableu them to stait
spieauing theii message again. The appeaiance of the SACA on the Lebanese
Salafi scene anu its massive financial suppoit gieatly facilitateu boroki activism.
Eorokis also benefiteu fiom the ueepening Sunni-Shi'ite sectaiian tensions that
weie fuelleu by the Sunni community's feai of Bizbullah's giowing influence. The
Su4
2u11 Aiab Spiing shaiply incieaseu populai suppoit foi the boroki Salafis, who
weie staunch auvocates of the ievolutions. The uecline of the zu'omo anu the
leaueiship ciisis of the Lebanese Sunnis especially facilitateu this tienu.
Religious leaueis such as Shaykh Salim al-Rafi'i anu Zakaiiyya al-Nasii became
leauing figuies in the Sunni community - although not yet at the level of
institutional politics.
Fiom this expansion of Salafism both at the local anu the tiansnational
levels, a complex netwoik stiuctuie has emeigeu that consists mostly of infoimal
ties. In the seconu half of the thesis I pioviueu a uetaileu analysis of the shape
anu function of the stiuctuie of the movement. Ny uiscussion in Chaptei S
pioviueu an unueistanuing of the ieligious authoiity of the Salafi shaykhs, who
piactice theii Jo'wo thiough eveiyuay inteiactions with the oiuinaiy Sunni
population. Salafis aigue that only theii uefinition of iight belief is coiiect;
theiefoie they naiiow the limits of oithouoxy anu uiaw iigiu bounuaiies aiounu
it. Theii claim to possess uncoiiupteu ieligious knowleuge is boosteu by
uiffeient "techniques of authoiity", such as piacticing moueiate asceticism,
which cieates the image of puiity. 0thei techniques aie implementing bisbo anu
fulfilling the socioeconomic neeus of the Nuslim community. I aigueu that
activities such as meuiation in social conflicts anu inteicession with the zu'omo
also seive to inciease the social capital of the shaykhs, which can then be
conveiteu into authoiity.
Asseiting authoiity in these ways shows how "men of ieligion" play a
cential iole in Lebanese Salafism. This cieates a netwoik stiuctuie that is
constituteu by veitically shapeu sub-netwoiks with the shaykhs on the top,
suiiounueu by active anu passive paiticipants. At the local level, I placeu Salafi
netwoiks within the fiamewoik of civil society. I uefineu this lattei concept -
following Bann - as a web of tiust anu coopeiation, which also consists of
inuigenous institutions, anu is not exclusively baseu on foimal voluntaiy
associations.
11u
I aigue that the cohesion of Salafi netwoiks is pioviueu by a
sense of collective iuentity, which is baseu on what Biigit Neyei calls the "shaieu
sensoiy expeiiences" of the paiticipants. Then I showeu that netwoik ties evolve
aiounu activities that stiengthen collective iuentity, such as ieligious lessons,

11u
Bann, 'Intiouuction: political society anu civil anthiopology'.
SuS
evening gatheiings, oi uiscussions aftei piayei. Foimal oiganizations play a less
significant iole than infoimal netwoiks. Bowevei, institutions such as the sburo,
set up by Salafis in Tiipoli, constitute an impoitant pait of the local stiuctuie of
the movement.
Local netwoiks, which aie uiscusseu in Chaptei 6, extenu beyonu the
boiuei anu constitute paits of tiansnational netwoiks. Anothei novel aspect of
this stuuy is that it exposes how Lebanese Salafism is uensely inteiconnecteu
with the Aiabian uulf anu Euiope, anu I pioviueu an in-uepth analysis of the
stiuctuie anu function of these tiansnational ties. In Chaptei 7 I showeu that
social capital is mobilizeu via the links to Kuwait, Qatai anu Sauui Aiabia, which
can then be conveiteu into economic anu ieligious capital. In the last section of
the chaptei I uiscusseu the expansion of the Salafi netwoiks to Sweuen, Bollanu
anu ueimany, tiansnational netwoiks between Lebanon anu Euiope that have
not been pieviously examineu by ieseaicheis. I uiscusseu theii stiuctuie anu
function in uetail, using the ethnogiaphic uata I collecteu in the abovementioneu
countiies.
The last chaptei, Chaptei 8, exploieu the ieciuitment stiategy of Salafism.
Fiist I aigueu that the successful fiaming activity of the Salafi shaykhs attiacts
laige numbei of passive followeis. Pieacheis explain the actual conceins of the
Lebanese Sunni community, such as the incieasing influence of the Shi'a, the
peiceiveu socioeconomic uepiivation of the Sunnis, anu the Aiab ievolutions, by
placing them in a fiamewoik of conspiiacy theoiies, inspiieu by theii Nanichean
woiluview. Then they auvise theii auuience to auopt the tenets of the tiue
veision of Islam, which is iuentical to Salafism, to solve these issues. This fiaming
has positive iesonance uue to the sociopolitical ciicumstances of Noith Lebanon
anu the lack of viable countei-fiaming. The last section of the chaptei explaineu
how active paiticipants aie ieciuiteu thiough infoimal netwoiks. These mostly
young people usually go thiough a piocess of conveision, which is facilitateu by
theii seaich foi an alteinative iuentity anu the lack of alteinative futuie
piospects.
In this uisseitation I have attempteu to explain the cuiient piominent
position of Salafis in Noith Lebanon anu cieate a basis foi fuithei ieseaich into
the movement in the Levant. In the futuie, my finuings coulu also be extenueu to
Su6
examine the emeiging Salafi movement in Syiia anu its inteiconnecteuness with
the Lebanese Salafi fielu. Besiues, the methouology that I have useu to analyze
the evolution of uiffeient Salafi factions, anu my appioach to ieseaiching the
shape anu opeiation of theii tiansnational netwoiks, pioviues a basis foi
unueistanuing the logic of Salafism in othei iegions. Ny ieseaich coulu be
extenueu to fuithei examine the movement's expansion fiom the Niuule East to
Euiope, oi even to Asia.

Su7

Su8
6)4$&0)##,&7
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In ueze stuuie onueizoek ik ue uynamiek en anatomie van ue salafi-Jowo
beweging in Nooiu Libanon. Ik beantwooiu ue viaag hoe en waaiom ue
beweging opgekomen is als een ciuciale spelei in ue Libanese soennitische
sociale en politieke sfeei. In mijn analyse schenk ik specifiek aanuacht aan ue
ontwikkeling en stiuctuui van het salafisme van Nooiu Libanon. 0m auequate
antwooiuen op mijn viagen te kiijgen, is het onvoluoenue om alleen ue lokale
context te onueizoeken. Baaiom onueizoek ik ook ue tiansfoimatie van ue
tiansnationale omgeving en ue uynamiek van het salafisme op een
tiansnationaal niveau. Ik schenk speciale aanuacht aan hoe ue beweging in
Nooiu Libanon geielateeiu is aan ue Aiabische uolf en ue Euiopese
moslimgemeenschappen. Social movement theoiy veischaft een biuikbaai
instiument vooi mijn analyse. Bet helpt goeu om te begiijpen hoe het samenspel
tussen ue exteine context met ue specifieke kenmeiken van salafisme heeft
geleiu tot ue bekenuheiu van ue beweging. Bit theoietische iaamweik woiut
samengevat in hoofustuk 1. Be veischillenue funuamenten van social movement
theoiy woiuen veiuei uiteengezet in ue volgenue hoofustukken.
Een nieuwigheiu van ueze uisseitatie is naai mijn mening ue bespieking
van het salafisme als n sociale beweging, in plaats van het te bepeiken tot n
specifieke gioep, zoals ue jiahui's in ue Palestijnse kampen van Libanon.
111
Ik
heb ue uynamiek van ue machtsstiuctuui van ue beweging geanalyseeiu, uie
benvloeu is uooi theologische uebatten en ue tiansfoimatie van ue exteine
sociale en politieke context, zowel op lokaal als op globaal niveau. 0m ueze
uynamiek te veiklaien, heb ik eeiueie veisies van ue classificatie van facties van
ue salafi-beweging in acauemische liteiatuui veifijnu. In het begin van ueze
stuuie heb ik gestelu uat ue meest gebiuikte classificatie, geintiouuceeiu uooi
Quintan Wiktoiowicz, onvolleuig is. Wiktoiowicz onueischeiut uiie salafi-facties:
puiisten, politico's en jihaui's, gebaseeiu op hun methouologie van activisme.
Beze benaueiing schiet tekoit op belangiijke punten. Ik heb gestelu uat het te

111
Zie Rougiei, FveryJoy }iboJ.
Su9
iigiue is, te scheipe gienzen tiekt, en ue funuamentele theologische uebatten
ovei het hoofu ziet uie ue salafi's weikelijk veiuelen.
In hoofustuk 1 heb ik, na ue gionubeginselen van het salafistische
geloofssysteem uitgelegu te hebben, een alteinatieve classificatie vooigestelu,
gebaseeiu op mijn veluweikobseivaties en inteiviews. Ik onueischeiu twee
giote facties in ue beweging. Bet vooinaamste veischil ligt in hun theologische
meningsveischil ovei ue veihouuing van moslims tot ue machthebbei (bokim).
The leuen van ue eeiste factie, uie ik puiiteinen noem, geloven uat ue
onueiuanen onvooiwaaiuelijk ue machthebbei uienen te gehooizamen, zolang
ueze moslim is en hun niet beveelt tegen ue funuamenten van ue islam in te gaan.
volgens ue puiiteinen kan ue bokim niet publiekelijk bekiitiseeiu woiuen, en
zijn ieueie voim van publieke uemonstiaties stiikt veibouen. Be vooistanueis
van ue tweeue factie, uie ik boroki's (activisten) noem, stellen uat ue houuing van
ue puiiteinen ongefunueeiu is. Eoroki's iefeieien naai iegelgevingen in ue
sborio uie bewijzen uat ue machthebbei openlijk bekiitiseeiu uient te woiuen
en gecoiiigeeiu uient te woiuen wanneei zijn uauen tegen ue islam ingaan.
Bovenuien is zijn iegime alleen legitiem wanneei ue onueiuanen een eeu van
loyaliteit (boyo) aan hem geuaan hebben.
Beze classificatie onueischeiut ook twee sub-facties onuei zowel
puiiteinen als boroki's. Ik leg uit uat ei puiiteinen zijn uie politieke paiticipatie
acceptabel achten als het niet leiut tot ongehooizaamheiu aan ue machthebbei,
en ten goeue komt van ue Jowo. Ik noem ueze gioep "politico-puiists". Begenen
uie politiek activisme geheel afwijzen, noem ik "puiist-iejectionists". Be boroki's
uie geclassificeeiu zijn als politico's geloven in paiticipatie in veikiezingen en het
biengen van positieve veianueiing uooi politieke activiteiten. Be anueie sub-
factie van boroki's, ue jiboJi's, geloven uat ue iealiteit alleen uooi miuuel van
gewelu veianueiu kan woiuen.
Be eeiste helft van ueze stuuie veischaft inzicht in ue evolutie en
ontwikkeling van bovengenoemue salafi-facties in Libanon. Ik heb zowel ue
lokale omstanuigheuen als ue tiansnationale context uitgelegu, uie geleiu hebben
tot ue fiagmentatie van salafisme in Libanon. In hoofustuk 2 heb ik ue
fiagmentatie van salafisme in ue uolf bespioken, wat noouzakelijk is vooi het
begiijpen van ue ontwikkeling van ue beweging in Tiipoli en omgeving. Ik heb ue
S1u
histoiische oiigine van ue splitsing tussen puiiteinen en haiaki's in Sauui-Aiabi
bespioken, en veivolgens ue evolutie en uynamiek geanalyseeiu van ue twee
belangiijkste salafistische liefuauigheiusoiganisaties: ue }ama'iyat Ihya' al-
Tuiath al-Islami uit Koeweit, en ue Shaykh 'Aiu Chaiity Association (SACA) uit
Qatai.
Ei woiut een geuetailleeiue bespieking gegeven van hoe ue fiagmentatie
van het Saoeuische salafisme ue machtsstiuctuui van ue beweging in Koeweit
benvloeu heeft. Ik heb aangetoonu uat in ue eeiste helft van ue jaien '9u een
steike puiiteinse factie opkwam in ue salafi-gemeenschap van Koeweit, uie
uaaivooi uooi boroki's geuomineeiu weiu. Be puiiteinen wisten ue activistisch
geoiinteeiue Shaykh 'Abuul Rahman 'Abu al-Khaliq, ue belangiijkste ieligieuze
autoiiteit van ue salafi's van Koeweit, naai ue maige te uiukken, en het
leiueischap van Ihya' al-Tuiath ovei te nemen. Be meeste haiaki's veilieten
uaaiop ue oiganisatie, uie veivolgens n van ue belangiijkste financieis weiu
van ue puiiteinse salafi's weieluwiju.
Tegelijkeitiju weiu Qatai een belangiijk centium van boroki-salafisme.
Be vooinaamste uoelen van het buitenlanuse beleiu van het emiiaat in ue
tweeue helft van ue jaien '9u waien het behouuen van hun onafhankelijkheiu
van Saoeuische uominantie en het veigioten van uei nteinationalei nvloeu van
het lanu.
Bet steunen van boroki-salafi's, uie in het algemeen ue legitimiteit van ue
Saoeuische monaichie in twijfel tiokken, paste goeu in uit iaamweik. Be
machthebbei van Qatai hoopte ook uat het sponsoien van boroki-salafi's in het
buitenlanu via SACA het aantal meuestanueis vooi zijn lanu zou uoen toenemen.
Bit oveizicht van het salafisme in ue uolf veischaft inzicht in het begiip
van ue tiansnationale context van ue ontwikkeling van het salafisme in Nooiu
Libanon, wat bespioken woiut in hoofustuk S en 4. In hoofustuk S heb ik ue
opkomst van het salafisme in Tiipoli en omgeving uiteengezet. Booi 'political
oppoitunity stiuctuie appioach' toe te passen, heb ik beaigumenteeiu uat zowel
ue lokale als tiansnationale veianueiingen het salafisme gelegenheuen veischaft
heeft om op te komen als n van ue meest piominente soennitische
bewegingen. Be eiosie van ue tiauitionele ieligieuze autoiiteit, ue uelegitimatie
van ue concuiienten van ue beweging, ue gioeienue sektaiische spanningen en
S11
ue opkomst van tiansnationale sponsois waien ue vooinaamste factoien uie ue
weg geopenu hebben vooi ue veispieiuing van ue salafi-boouschap.
Be fiagmentatie van ue beweging uie waaigenomen kon woiuen in ue
uolf kwam ook op in Libanon vanaf het begin van ue jaien 'uu. In ue jaien '9u
uomineeiuen boroki's het Libanese salafisme. Echtei, na ue eeuwwisseling
kiegen ze te maken met iepiessie uooi ue Libanese oveiheiu en ue Syiische
inlichtingenuienst. Bet meienueel van hun instituties weiu gesloten en hun
vooinaamste leiuei, Ba'i al-Islam al-Shahha, moest het lanu in 2uuu veilaten.
Beze ontwikkelingen openuen ue weg vooi ue puiiteinen wiens belangiijkste
geluschietei Ihya' al-Tuiath was. Tot het einu van ue jaien 'uu kwam een steike
"politico-puiist" stioming op in Nooiu Libanon, uie ue beschikking hau ovei een
gioot liefuauigheiusnetweik en kiezeis mobiliseeiue tijuens ue veikiezingen.
Netweiken van "puiist-iejectionists" zijn ook aanwezig en actief in Tiipoli, zij het
met veel minuei invloeu.
Boewel hun netweik steik veistooiu was uooi ue autoiiteiten, bleven
boroki-salafi's steik in Nooiu Libanon. Be ineenstoiting van het Syiisch-Libanese
veiligheiusiegime en ue teiugtiekking van Syiische tioepen openuen ue weg
weei vooi het veispieiuen van hun boouschap. Be opkomst van ue SACA met
haai giote financile onueisteuning op ue Libanese salafi-scene kwam het
boroki-activisme steik ten goeue. Eoroki's hebben ook gepiofiteeiu van ue
veiuiepte spanning tussen soennieten en sji'ieten, aangewakkeiu uooi ue angst
van ue soennitische gemeenschap vooi ue gioeienue invloeu van Bizbullah. Be
Aiabische Lente van 2u11 heeft ue populaiiteit van ue boroki-salafi's, feime
pleitbezoigeis vooi ue ievoluties, onuei ue bevolking steik uoen toenemen. Be
neeigang van ue zuomo, en ue leiueischapsciisis van ue Libanese soennieten
hebben ueze tienu vooinamelijk gefaciliteeiu. Religieuze leiueis als Shaykh
Salim al-Rafi'i of Zakaiiyya al-Nasii weiuen leiuenue figuien in ue soennitische
gemeenschap - hoewel nog niet op het niveau van institutionele politiek.
0it ueze expansie van het salafisme op zowel lokaal als tiansnational
niveau ontspioot een complexe netweikstiuctuui, welke vooinamelijk bestaat
uit infoimele banuen. In ue tweeue helft van ue uisseitatie heb ik een
geuetailleeiue analyse veischaft van ue voim en functie van ue stiuctuui van ue
beweging. Nijn uiscussie in hoofustuk S veischaft inzicht in ue ieligieuze
S12
autoiiteit van ue salafi-shaykh's, uie hun ua'wa uitvoeien miuuels uagelijkse
inteiactie met ue gewone soennitische bevolking. Salafi's zijn van mening uat
alleen hun uefinitie van het juiste geloof coiiect is; uaaiom veismallen ze ue
gienzen van oithouoxie en tiekken ei iigiue gienzen vooi. Bun claim uat zij
alleen niet-gecoiiumpeeiue ieligieuze kennis bezitten woiut onueisteunu uooi
veischillenue 'techniques of authoiity', zoals het piaktiseien van gematigu
ascetisme, waaimee een imago van puuiheiu gecieeiu woiut. Anueie
technieken zijn het implementeien van bisbo en het vooizien in ue socio-
economische behoeften van ue moslimgemeenschap. Ik heb gestelu uat
activiteiten als tussenkomst in sociale conflicten en bemiuueling met ue zuomo
ook tot uoel hebben het sociaal kapitaal van ue shaykh's te veigioten, wat
veivolgens omgezet kan woiuen in autoiiteit.
Bet op uie wijze veizekeien van autoiiteit suggeieeit een centiale iole
vooi ue 'men of ieligion' in het Libanese salafisme. Bit cieeit een
netweikstiuctuui, welke bestaat uit veiticaal gevoimue sub-netweiken met ue
shaykh's bovenaan, uie omiingu woiuen uooi actieve en passieve ueelnemeis.
0p lokaal niveau heb ik ue salafi-netweiken binnen het iaamweik van civil
society geplaatst. Ik heb uit laatste -uaaiin Bann volgenu- beschieven als een
'web of tiust anu coopeiation', uie ook bestaat uit inheemse instituties, en niet
exclusief gebaseeiu is op foimele viijwillige associaties.
112
Ik stel uat ue cohesie
van salafi-netweiken veischaft woiut uooi een collectieve iuentiteit, uie
gebaseeiu is op wat Biigit Neyei 'shaieu sensoiy expeiiences' van ue
paiticipanten noemt. veivolgens heb ik aangetoonu uat netweikveibanuen
uiaaien ionu activiteiten uie ue collectieve iuentiteit veisteiken, zoals ieligieuze
lessen, avonubijeenkomsten, of uiscussies na het gebeu. Foimele oiganisaties
spelen een minuei significante iol uan infoimele netweiken. Echtei, instituties
zoals ue sburo, opgezet uooi salafi's in Tiipoli, maken een belangiijk ueel uit van
ue lokale stiuctuui van ue beweging.
Lokale netweiken, uie bespioken woiuen in hoofustuk 6, stiekken zich
uit tot ovei ue gienzen en maken ueel uit van tiansnationale netweiken. Een
anuei nieuw aspect van ueze stuuie is uat het aantoont hoe het Libanese
salafisme steik in veibinuing staat met ue Aiabische uolf en Euiopa.

112
Bann, 'Intiouuction: political society anu civil anthiopology'
S1S
Tegelijkeitiju veischaf ik een uiepgaanue analyse van ue stiuctuui en functie van
ueze inteinationale banuen. In hoofustuk 7 heb ik aangetoonu uat sociaal
kapitaal gemobiliseeiu woiut via ue links naai Koeweit, Qatai en Saoeui-Aiabi,
wat veivolgens omgezet kan woiuen in economisch en ieligieus kapitaal. In het
laatste ueel van het hoofustuk heb ik ue expansie van ue salafi-netweiken naai
Zweuen, Neueilanu en Buitslanu bespioken. Beze tiansnationale netweiken
tussen Libanon en Euiopa zijn vooiheen aan ue aanuacht van onueizoekeis
ontsnapt. Ik heb hun stiuctuui en functie in uetail bespioken, gebiuikmakenu
van etnogiafische uata uie ik veizamelu heb in vooigenoemue lanuen.
Bet laatste hoofustuk, hoofustuk 8, veikent ue 'ieciuitment stiategy' van
het salafisme. Eeist heb ik gestelu uat ue succesvolle 'fiaming activity' van ue
salafi-shaykh's een gioot aantal passieve volgeis aantiekt. Pieuikeis veiklaien
ue piaktische pioblemen van ue Libanese soennitische gemeenschap, zoals ue
opkomst van ue invloeu van ue Shi'a, ue waaigenomen socio-economische
achteistelling van ue soennieten, en ue Aiabische ievoluties, uooi ze in een
iaamweik van complottheoiien te plaatsen, genspiieeiu uooi hun
manichesche weielubeelu. veivolgens auviseien ze hun publiek om ue
gionubeginselen van ue waie veisie van ue islam aan te nemen, welke
oveieenkomt met het salafisme, om ueze pioblemen op te lossen. Beze 'fiaming'
vinut positieve weeiklank vanwege ue sociale en politieke omstanuigheuen van
Nooiu Libanon en het gebiek aan levensvatbaie countei-fiaming. Bet laatste
ueel van het hoofustuk legt uit hoe actieve ueelnemeis geieciuteeiu woiuen via
infoimele netweiken. Beze meestal jonge mensen gaan meestal uooi een pioces
van bekeiing, uat gefaciliteeiu woiut uooi hun zoektocht naai een alteinatieve
iuentiteit en het gebiek aan alteinatieve toekomstpeispectieven.

S14
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SSS
Quaestiones Infinitae
P0BLICATI0NS 0F TBE BEPARTNENT 0F PBIL0S0PBY ANB
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