Experimental Study on Conduction Properties of Semiconductors

Rajath S, Vipul Vaidya, Malay Singh March 18, 2014

Contents
1 Introduction 2 Experiment
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Aim . . . . . . . . . Experimental Setup Procedure . . . . . . Observations . . . . 2.4.1 p-Ge . . . . . 2.4.2 n-Ge . . . . . 2.4.3 Intrinsic Ge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 2
2 2 3 4 4 6 8

3 Theory

3.1 Hall Eect: Brief Discussion . . . 3.2 Conduction Theories . . . . . . . 3.2.1 Free Electron Gas Model 3.2.2 Band Gap Theory . . . . 3.2.3 Fermi-Dirac Statistics . . 3.3 Magneto-resistance Eect . . . .

8 10 10 12 14 16

4 Analysis and Results 5 Bibliography

16 17

1 Introduction
Materials are classied as Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors based on electrical conductivity. Conductors have virtually unlimited number of charge carriers and provide little resistance to the ow of current. Insulators have no free charge carriers and do not conduct electricity. Semiconductors, on the other hand, are slightly more interesting. They come in two varieties: Intrinsic and Extrinsic. Semiconductors usually occupy Group 14 of the periodic table, 1

which means that they have 4 valence electrons. One distinguishing property of semiconductors is the presence of two types of charge carriers: Holes and Electrons. Conduction properties of semiconductors strongly depend on the temperature and the nature of impurities present. This report presents a series of experiments for studying the conduction properties of semiconductors. The results are analyzed using the relevant theory to determine the parameters of conduction. Several Conduction theories will be explored in order to better understand the experiment. Hall eect plays a crucial role in determining the conduction parameters. The connection between Hall eect and the conduction properties will be discussed in detail.

2 Experiment
The experiment is divided into three parts. The rst part involves performing a set of experiments described below, on a rectangular p-Ge sample1 . All the above experiments are repeated on a rectangular n-Ge sample in the second part. In the third part, band gap of intrinsic sample of Ge is determined.

2.1 Aim
Observe Hall Eect in n-Ge and p-Ge. Determine the constant of proportionality in the relation between Hall

Voltage and Current. Observe the transition from extrinsic semiconductor to intrinsic semiconductor by plotting Hall Voltage against Temperature. carriers in the given n-Ge and p-Ge samples by studying the variation of Hall eect with change in Magnetic Field.

Determine Specic Conductance, Type of charge carrier, Mobility of charge

Observe Magneto-resistance eect in n-Ge and p-Ge. Determine the Band Spacing of the p-Ge, n-Ge and intrinsic Ge sam-

ple provided by analyzing the variation of Sample Voltage with changing Temperature.

2.2 Experimental Setup

The list of apparatus:
p-Ge, n-Ge, intrinsic Ge rectangular sample Hall Eect Board(Heating equipment, Ammeter, Current Source, Ther-

mometer)2

Electromagnet(Copper Coil)
1 Ge is the symbol for the element Germanium. 2 This board is provided by PhyWE. The exact

Atomic Number: 32. Group: 4. circuitry/design is not available.

 Hall Probe Power Supply Teslameter Multimeter

The use of each of the above component is self-explanatory. DC current is passed through the copper coils to produce a magnetic eld. The DC Current is supplied using the power supply, which can be adjusted to obtain the required magnetic eld. The Power supply also provides AC Voltage of ~12V to the Hall Eect Board. The Hall Probe is connected to the Teslameter. Hall Probe is placed very close to the sample through the groove provided in the Hall Eect board. The Hall Eect board is provided with two sockets: one for Sample Voltage and the other for Hall Voltage. The multimeter is connected to either of the sockets depending on the quantity being measured. The display on the Hall Eect board can be switched between Current Mode and Temperature Mode. The Button at the back of the board turns the heating apparatus of the on/o.

2.3 Procedure
p-Ge and n-Ge: 1. At constant temperature and external magnetic eld, the Hall Voltage UH is measured as a function of Control Current I . 2. At room temperature and constant control current, specimen Voltage U is measured as a function of Magnetic Field B . 3. At constant control current and zero external magnetic eld, measure specimen Voltage U is measured as a function of Temperature T . 3

4. At room temperature and constant control current, Hall Voltage UH is measured as a function of Magnetic Field B . 5. At constant control current and constant external magnetic eld, Hall Voltage UH is measured as a function of Temperature T . intrinsic Ge: 1. At constant control current and zero external magnetic eld, measure specimen Voltage U is measured as a function of Temperature T .

2.4 Observations
2.4.1 p-Ge Task 1:
Hall Voltage UH vs. Control Current I at constant Temperature and Magnetic Field. T = Room Temperature. B = 25mT . refer table (1)

Task 2:
Sample Voltage V vs. Magnetic Field B at constant Temperature and Control Current. T = Room Temperature and I = 30mA refer table (2)

Task 3:
Sample Voltage V vs. Temperature T at zero Magnetic Field and constant Control Current. I = 30mA and B 0T refer table (3)

Task 4:
Hall Voltage UH vs. Magnetic Induction B at constant Control Current and Temperature. I = 30mA and T = Room Temperature refer table (4)

Task 5:
Hall Voltage UH vs. Temperature T at constant Control Current and Magnetic Field. B = 250mT and I = 30mA refer table (5)

Table 1: Hall Voltage UH vs. Control Current I

I (mA)

-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5

UH (V )

0.073 0.063 0.051 0.039 0.028 0.016

I (mA)

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

UH (V )

0.001 -0.010 -0.022 -0.031 -0.045 -0.056 -0.065

Table 2: Sample Voltage V vs. Magnetic Field B

B (mT )

50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250

-1.604 -1.607 -1.611 -1.616 -1.620 -1.625 -1.631 -1.637 -1.644 Table 3: Sample Voltage V vs. Temperature T
V (V )

V (V )

T ( C )

30 40 50 60 70 80

-1.74 -1.86 -1.96 -2.03 -2.02 -1.88

T ( C )

90 100 110 120 130 140

V (V )

-1.62 -1.29 -0.97 -0.74 -0.56 -0.43

Table 4: Hall Voltage UH vs. Magnetic Induction B

B (mT )

-300 -270 -240 -210 -180 -150

UH (V )

0.061 0.057 0.052 0.046 0.040 0.033

B (mT )

-120 -90 -60 -30 0 30

UH (V )

0.024 0.016 0.006 -0.006 -0.013 -0.020

B (mT )

60 90 120 150 180 210 240

UH (V )

-0.027 -0.033 -0.041 -0.047 -0.053 -0.060 -0.066

T ( C )

Table 5: Hall Voltage UH vs. Temperature T

UH (mV ) T ( C ) UH (mV )

140 130 120 110 100 90

6.5 7.2 7.5 5.5 -0.09 -13.2

80 70 60 50 40 30

-32.9 -49.6 -61.5 -66.5 -68.6 -68.9

2.4.2 n-Ge Task 1:

Hall Voltage UH vs. Control Current I at constant Temperature and Magnetic Field. T = Room Temperature. B = 250mT . refer table (7)

Task 2:
Sample Voltage V vs. Magnetic Field B at constant Temperature and Control Current. T = Room Temperature and I = 30mA refer table (8)

Task 3:
Sample Voltage V vs. Temperature T at zero Magnetic Field and constant Control Current. I = 30mA and B 0T refer table (9)

Task 4:
Hall Voltage UH vs. Magnetic Induction B at constant Control Current and Temperature. I = 30mA and T = Room Temperature refer table (10)

Task 5:
Hall Voltage UH vs. Temperature T at constant Control Current and Magnetic Field. B = 250mT and I = 30mA refer table (6)

T ( C )

Table 6: Hall Voltage UH vs. Temperature T

UH (mV )

140 130 120 110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40

7.4 10.2 13.8 18.4 24.3 30.9 37.1 41.4 43.8 45.1 45.7

Table 7: Hall Voltage UH vs. Control Current I

I (mA)

-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5

UH (mV )

-54.5 -43.4 -38.9 -27.4 -20.0 -12.1

I (mA)

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

UH (mV )

0.0 6.6 13.2 23.7 29.7 41.5 45.4

Table 8: Sample Voltage V vs. Magnetic Field B

B (mT )

0 30 60 90

-0.954 -0.955 -0.955 -0.956

V (V )

B (mT )

120 150 180 210 240

-0.958 -0.959 -0.961 -0.964 -0.966

V (V )

T ( C )

Table 9: Sample Voltage V vs. Temperature T -1.014 -1.053 -1.089 -1.100 -1.071
V (V ) T ( C )

40 50 60 70 80

90 100 110 120 130 140

-0.984 -0.860 -0.729 -0.573 -0.450 -0.364 7

V (V )

Table 10: Hall Voltage UH vs. Magnetic Induction B

B (mT )

-300 -280 -260 -240 -220 -200 -180 -160 -140

UH (mV )

-39.7 -37.6 -35.3 -32.7 -30.0 -27.1 -24.0 -20.8 -17.1

B (mT )

-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40

UH (mV )

-13.5 -9.6 -5.9 -1.7 1.3 4.6 8.1 11.1 14.2

B (mT )

60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240

UH (mV )

17.3 20.3 23.4 26.5 29.6 32.8 36.0 39.3 42.6 45.7

T ( C )

Table 11: Sample Voltage V vs. Temperature T

V (mV )

140 130 120 110 100

-0.68 -0.86 -0.115 -0.213 -0.208

T ( C )

90 80 70 60 50 40

V (mV )

-0.295 -0.408 -0.596 -0.856 -1.291 -1.950

2.4.3 Intrinsic Ge Task 1:

Sample Voltage V vs. Temperature T at zero Magnetic Field and constant Control Current.
I = 5mA

refer table (11)

3 Theory
The connection of Hall Eect with the conduction properties of the material gives it a special status in the study of semiconductors. It has led to rise and fall of several conduction theories, having tried to explain the experimental results of Hall Eect.

3.1 Hall Eect: Brief Discussion

Hall Eect was discovered by E.H. Hall in 1879. If an electric current ows through a conductor in a magnetic eld, the magnetic eld exerts a transverse force on the moving charge carriers which tends to push them to one side of the 8

conductor. Consider a rectangular block of conducting material with a single charge carrier.

J is the current density in the direction of ow of current. E is the Hall Electric eld. FB = e (V B )

Consider the Lorentz force on electron owing inside the conductor,

This force causes the electron concentration to increase in one side of the conductor setting up an electric eld EH which counter-balances the Magnetic force on the electron.
e EH = FB = e (V B )

From electrodynamics,
J = n e V

where variables take their usual meanings. Hall Co-ecient is dened as the ratio of the induced electric eld to the product of current density and the applied magnetic eld. From this denition,
RH = |EH | |J B | = 1 ne

Now, from Ohm's Law,

J =E n e |V | |E |

Mobility is dened as,

= |V | |E |

We obtain the most important relation,

RH =

Thus, all conduction properties can be obtained by Hall Eect experiment. For semiconductors, contributions from both holes and electrons must be included in the calculations. If we let each charge carrier have a Hall Coecient: Re (for electrons) and Rh (for holes) as derived before, and we assume the conductivity = h + h , the expression for total Hall Coecient can be derived as: 2 2
RH = h Rh + e Re (h + h )2

3.2 Conduction Theories

3.2.1 Free Electron Gas Model
This is the earliest of conduction theories. It was proposed by Paul Drude and Hendrik Lorentz. This model proposed that, valence electrons of constituent atoms move about freely through the volume of the solid. This model could mostly explain all the conduction properties that depend on the kinetic properties of electrons, especially for metals. The solution for Schrdinger equation in this case is as follows: Free Particle Schrdinger equation in three dimensions3 :
2 ( 2m
2

k ) =

k k

If the solid is a cube of length L4 , the solution to above equation is:

n (r) = A sin( nx x ny y nz z ) sin( ) sin( ) L L L

nx , ny , nz are positive integers. k = kx x + ky y + kz z = 2nX 2ny 2nz pi x + y + z L L L

Linear momentum p = k, therefore particle velocity in orbital k is given by,

v=
3 Time Independent Schrdinger 4 Electrons are conned to move

k m

dimensional potential well.

Equation inside the volume of the solid. So, it is more like a three

10

v is called Fermi velocity. When the solution is substituted back in the Schrdinger equation, we obtain Fermi Energy k as,
2

2m

k2

For dierent choice of nx , ny , nz triplet, we obtain dierent energies corresponding to dierent orbital. There is one distinct choice for a triplet, for the volume 3 3 element ( 2L ) . Thus, total number of orbitals N in a volume 43 kf is,
2
4 3 3 kf 3 (2 L )

V 3 k =N 3 2 f

the factor 2 comes from Pauli exclusion principle5 . Therefore,

f

3 2 N ( 2 ) ) 3 2m V (

(1)

This relates Fermi energy to Electron concentration. Density of states, dened as number of orbitals per unit energy range is given by,
D( ) dN V 2m 3 = ( 2 )2 d 2
1 2

(2)

We can derive all the familiar conduction properties such as, Ohm's law from these results:
F =m dv dk =h = e (E + v B ) dt dt

Collisions of electrons counter-balance the force on electrons resulting in steady state. Continuing the derivation yields,
J = neV = ne2 E m

, where is the average collision time of electrons. Similarly, Hall Eect results can be derived using this theory. Although this theory was reasonably successful, it led to some perplexing results. The failures of this theory are:
Valance electrons are present in all the solids. But, only a few solids con-

duct electricity. This theory failed to explain the existence of insulators.

Some solids have more than one valance electrons. But, experimentally

it is shown that not all valance electrons participate in conduction. This question remained unanswered by this theory.

5A

maximum of two electrons of dierent spins, can occupy a single orbital.

11

Figure 1: Hall Eect Discrepancies

Results of Hall Eect showed the possibility of a positive charge carrier in

some elements. This theory assumes outright that electrons are the only charge carriers. This had no explanation in this theory.

In some elements in Silicon, dierent samples yielded dierent results.

Observe the Figure(1) below to see the discrepancies in Hall Eect result.

3.2.2 Band Gap Theory

In the previous model, we assumed that the electron is not under the inuence of any potential when moving inside the volume of a solid. But, generally it is not true. In fact, it is subject to a potential arising from the periodic lattice of the solid. The Schrdinger equation is rewritten by perturbing the potential. There are several models for the potential arising from the lattice. The common feature of all these models is that the potential is periodic. We shall look at it in a more qualitative way. The atoms in a solid are tightly bound to each other in a regular geometric lattice6 . The atoms are so close to each other in a solid that their valance electron wave functions overlap. When two wave functions combine, it splits into a symmetric and an antisymmetric part of lower
6 Amorphous solids lack denite lattice structure and the atoms are arranged irregularly. But, important fact is that the atoms lie very close to each other.

12

Figure 2: Energy Bands in Sodium Atom

and higher energies respectively. The greater the number of interacting atoms, the greater the number of energy levels produced by mixing of their valance wave functions. In a solid, because there are as many energy levels as there are interacting atoms, the levels are so close together that they form an energy band that consists of virtually continuous spread of permitted energies. An electron in a solid can only have energies that fall within its energy bands. The various outer energy bands in a solid may overlap, in which case its valence electrons have available a continuous distribution of permitted energies. In other solids the bands may not overlap, and the intervals between them represent energies their electrons cannot have. Such intervals are called forbidden bands or band gaps. The energy bands, the gaps between them and the extent to which they have been lled governs the electrical behavior of the solid. As shown in the above picture, the valance band and the conduction band overlap in Sodium. The 3s energy band of sodium is partly lled. Therefore, when a potential dierence is applied, the valance electrons can pick up additional energy while remaining in their original band. The additional energy is in the form of Kinetic energy, and the drift of the electrons constitute the electric current. In carbon, the valance band is fully lled and at least 6eV of additional energy is required for an electron to attain conduction band where it can move about freely. In silicon, the situation is similar, but the band gap is only about 13

Figure 3: Energy Bands in Carbon and Silicon

1eV . Both thermal energy and electric potential are insucient to promote the

electrons to the conduction band. Therefore, carbon is an insulator. In silicon, a small number of electrons have enough thermal energy to attain conduction band. These electrons, though few are still enough to allow a small current to ow when an electric eld is applied. Therefore, silicon is an semiconductor. Whenever an electron is promoted from valance band to the conduction band, a hole is created. Holes are positively charged and participate in the conduction process. In an intrinsic semiconductor, number of holes is equal to the number of electrons. The intrinsic conductivity and charge carrier concentration are largely controlled by Eg /kT , the ratio of the band gap to the temperature. When this ratio is large, the intrinsic charge carrier concentration will be low and the conductivity will be low. Impurities can be added to the semiconductors to boost the conductivity. This process is called doping. Doping introduces extra holes or electrons which participate in conduction. When the majority charge carriers are holes, it is a p-type semiconductor. When the majority charge carriers are electrons, it is an n-type semiconductors.

3.2.3 Fermi-Dirac Statistics

Fermi-Dirac Statistics describes the distribution of identical particles satisfying Pauli Exclusion principle in a system in thermodynamic equilibrium.
f( ) = e 1
kT

+1

where, = energy of the particle and = chemical potential of the particle. 14

In an electric eld, at zero temperature, is the Fermi energy plus the potential energy per electron. The quantity is interpreted as the average free energy per particle. f ( ) is the probability that the orbital with energy is occupied. At temperatures of interest, we suppose that the kT . Therefore, the function reduces to:
f( ) = e
kT

The energy of an electron in the conduction band is given by:

k

= Ec +

k 2me
3 2

2 2

where, Ec is the energy at the conduction band edge. From equation 2,

De ( ) = 1 2 2 2me
2

( Ec ) 2

The concentration of electrons in conduction band is,

n=
Ec

De ( ) f ( ) d = 2

me kT 2 2

3 2

Ec kT

For holes, fh = 1 fe and Ec is replaced by Ev . We obtain,

Ev

p=

Dh ( ) fh ( ) d = 2

mh kT 2 2

3 2

Ev kT

where p is the concentration of holes in the valance band.

np = 4 Ec Ev . kT 2 2
3

(me mh ) 2 e

Eg kT

we obtain the equilibrium relation independent of , with Energy gap Eg =

Because the product of of electron and hole concentrations is constant independent of impurity concentration at a given temperature, the introduction of a small proportion of a suitable impurity to increase n must decrease p and vice versa. Therefore, we have established how carrier concentration is aected by the change in temperature. The electrical conductivity is the sum of electron and hole contributions:
= nee + peh

where, e = and h = . There are dierent models for relaxation time / mean collision time. The most common and the easiest one is taken as follows:
ee me eh mh

= T p

where p is usually small. Therefore, the temperature dependence of conductivity will be dominated by the exponential term in carrier concentration. 15

3.3 Magneto-resistance Eect

We have explored all the theory behind all the experiments except magnetoresistance eect. We will have a brief introduction in this section. Magnetoresistance is a property of the material to change the value of its electrical resistance when an external magnetic eld is applied. In a simple model, supposing the response to the Lorentz force is the same as the electric eld, the carrier velocity v is given by,
v = (E + v B )

where is the carrier mobility. Solving for v , we obtain:

v= (E + E B ) 1 + (B )2

where the reduction in mobility due to B is apparent. Electric current will decrease with increasing magnetic eld and hence the resistance of the device will increase. In a semiconductor with a single charge carrier type, the magneto-resistance is proportional to 1 + (B )2 . We have covered all the relevant theory. Now, we shall analyze the experimental data based on it.

4 Analysis and Results

Analysis of observations is done by plotting various quantities on a graph and a correlation between the two variables is then established using the statistical tools. According to the theory established in the previous section, Hall Voltage UH is directly proportional to the Control Current I . This fact directly comes from the Lorentz force law. Figure 4 shows the plot between UH and I for a rectangular block of p-Ge crystal. The graphs conrms the linear relationship. On using linear regression to nd the best t line, we obtain the equation: UH = 2.3549 I + 3.2307. The same analysis for n-Ge crystal yields, the equation: UH = 1.6887 I 2.7846. See Figure 10 for the plot for n-Ge. Figure 5 and Figure 11 demonstrates the Magneto-resistance eect, for p-Ge and n-Ge respectively. There is a clear change in resistance when the external magnetic eld is changed. The graph can be approximated to a quadratic function which satises the theory of magneto-resistance for a semiconductor with a single charge carrier type. In the previous section, the relationship between conductivity and T 1 is shown to an exponential one. This is conrmed by the linear nature of the graphs plotted between ln( ) and T 1 (Figure 7 and Figure 13). The slope of these graphs have the value Eg /2k. Therefore, the band gap of p-Ge and n-Ge semiconductors are determined from the graph. Figure 6 and Figure 12, shows both regions of intrinsic and extrinsic conduction. The linear t is drawn 16

only for intrinsic conduction case by reducing the data points in Figure 7 and Figure 13. The same technique is used to determine the band gap of intrinsic Ge semiconductor. Refer to Figure 16 and Figure 17 for the graphs. The slopes are as follows: p-Ge: 2809.7 , n-Ge: 2691.8, intrinsic Ge: 4344.5 . The error is calculated from the standard deviation of the slopes. The band gap values are: p-Ge: 0.4849eV 0.0539eV ,n-Ge: 0.4646eV 0.0416eV , intrinsic Ge: 0.7499eV 0.0050eV . Graphs in Figure 8 and Figure 14 explore the relationship between Hall Eect and the Magnetic Field. As expected, the plot is linear in nature. The slope of this graph is useful in calculating properties such as Hall Coecient, Carrier Mobility, Charge Carrier Type and the Charge Carrier Concentration. The slope of p-Ge is: 0.25058 and n-Ge is 0.16326. Hall Voltage UH = |EH |d is related to Hall Coecient RH , by the relation:
RH = UH d B I

This is directly obtained by substituting the value of Hall Voltage UH in the Hall Coecient RH equation. For the given sample, d = 103 m. Therefore, the value of RH for p-Ge and n-Ge samples are (0.008352 0.000143)m3 A1 s1 and (0.005442 0.000037)m3 A1 s1 respectively. From part 2 of the experiment, the resistance of p-Ge and n-Ge samples are determined. The Conductivities of the samples are as follows: p-Ge : 37.031 m1 and n-Ge: 62.601 m1 . Mobilities: p-Ge : 0.308m2 V 1 s1 and n-Ge: 0.34m2 V 1 s1 . Charge Carrier concentration: p-Ge: 7.5 1020 m3 and n-Ge: 11.57 1020 m3 . The sign of RH conrms the type of charge carriers in both n-Ge and p-Ge samples. The last part of the experiment, i.e, Figure 9 and Figure 15, show the relationship between Hall Voltage UH and the temperature T . Since, both current I and magnetic eld B are kept constant in the experiment, the only factor that changes the Hall Voltage is the charge carrier concentration. The general trend of the graph is that the Hall Voltage falls as the temperature rises which is explained by the inverse relationship between charge carrier concentration and Hall Voltage. As temperature rises, charge carrier concentration increases due to thermal excitation of more and more valance electrons. This results in decrease of Hall Voltage.

5 Bibliography
1. Concepts of Modern Physics, Arthur Baiser 2. Introduction to Solid State Physics, Kittel 3. Hall Eect and Semiconductor Physics, E H Putley

17

Figure 4: Linear t of Hall Voltage vs. Current : p-Ge

50

U (mV)

-50

-30

-20

-10

0 I (mA)

10

20

30

-53.4

Figure 5: Resistance vs. Magnetic Field: p-Ge

-53.6

-53.8

R (Ohm)

-54

-54.2

-54.4

-54.6

50

100

150 B (mT)

200

250

300

18

Figure 6: Natural Log of Conductivity vs. Inverse of Temperature: p-Ge

0.5

1/V (1/V)

-0.5

0.0024

0.0026

0.0028 1/T (1/K)

0.003

0.0032

Figure 7: Linear t of Natural Log of Conductivity vs. Inverse of Temperature, Intrinsic Conduction: p-Ge

0.5

1/V (1/V)

-0.5

0.0024

0.0026

0.0028 1/T (1/K)

0.003

0.0032

19

Figure 8: Linear t of Hall Voltage vs. Magnetic Field: p-Ge

60

40

20 U (mV)

-20

-40

-60 -300 -200 -100 0 B (mT) 100 200 300

Figure 9: Hall Voltage vs. Temperature: p-Ge

0

-20 U (mV) -40 -60 0

50

100 T (degree C)

150

200

20

Figure 10: Linear t of Hall Voltage vs. Current : n-Ge

40

20

U (mV)

-20

-40

-60 -30

-20

-10

0 I (mA)

10

20

30

32.3

Figure 11: Resistance vs. Magnetic Field: n-Ge

32.2

32.1 R (Ohm) 32 31.9 31.8 0

50

100

150 B (mT)

200

250

300

21

Figure 12: Natural Log of Conductivity vs. Inverse of Temperature: n-Ge

2

1.5

1/V (1/V)

0.5

0 0.0024 0.0026 0.0028 1/T (1/K) 0.003 0.0032

Figure 13: Linear t of Natural Log of Conductivity vs. Inverse of Temperature, Intrinsic Conduction: n-Ge
2

1.5

1/V (1/V)

0.5

0 0.0024 0.0026 0.0028 1/T (1/K) 0.003 0.0032

22

Figure 14: Linear t of Hall Voltage vs. Magnetic Field: n-Ge

40

20 U (mV)

-20

-40 -300

-200

-100

0 B (mT)

100

200

300

50

Figure 15: Hall Voltage vs. Temperature: n-Ge

40

30 U (mV) 20 10 0

50

100 Temperature (degree C)

150

200

23

Figure 16: Natural Log of Conductivity vs. Inverse of Temperature: intrinsic Ge

3

ln(sigma)

0.0024

0.0026

0.0028 1/T (1/K)

0.003

0.0032

Figure 17: Linear t of Natural Log of Conductivity vs. Inverse of Temperature, Intrinsic Conduction: intrinsic Ge
3

ln(sigma)

0.0024

0.0026

0.0028 1/T (1/K)

0.003

0.0032

24