Chapter 6 Unit Operations Problems

1. Milk Cooling
Tm in = 50oC, mm in = 2 kgs-1
Tw out = 27oC

Tm out = 10oC
Tw in = 5oC mw in = ? kgs-1
Milk
Water

Heat Balance
Rate of heat lost by milk
qm
cpm x Gm x Tm
cpm
Gm in
Tm

=
=
=

= 3.9 kJ kg-1 oC 1
= 2 kgs-1
= 40 oC

rate of heat gained by water

qw
cpw x Gw x Tw
cpw
Gw
Tw

Gw

=
=
=

= 4.2 kJ kg-1 oC 1
= ?
= 22oC

(cpm x Gm x Tm )/(cpw x Tw )
(3.9 x 2 x 40)/ (4.2x22)
3.4 kgs-1

log mean temperature difference across the heat exchanger is Tm

Tm =
((50-27) (10-5))/ln((50-27)/(10-5))
=
(23-5)/ ln (23/5)
=
18/ ln 4.6
=
11.8 oC
2. Milk heating from 15 oC to 65 oC
(a) Parallel
Tw in = 95oC

Tw out = ?oC
Water 16.7kgs-1
Milk 9.2kg s-1

Tm in = 15oC

Tm out = 65oC

qm

=
=
=
=

c pm x Gm x Tm
3.9 x 9.2 x (65 - 15)
3.9 x 9.2 x 50
1.794 x 103 kJs -1

qm

qw

1.794 x 103
Tw

Tw out
Tm

=
=
=
=
=
=

=
=
=
=
=

cpw x Gw x Tw
4.2 x 16.7 x Tw
(1.794 x 103 )/(4.2 x 16.7)
25.6oC
Tw in - Tw out

=
=

(95 25.6)
69.4oC

[(Tw in - Tm in ) (Tm out - Tw out )]/ ln [(Tm in - Tw in )/ (Tm out

[(95-15) (69.4-65)]/ ln [(95-15)/(69.4-65)]
[80 4.4 ]/ln[80/4.4]
75.6 / ln 18.18
75.6/2.9
26.1o C
qm

-Tm out )]

UATm

qm = 1.794 x 103 kJs 1, U = 1.3 kJm-2 s 1 oC 1

Aparallel

=
=
=

q/UTm
(1.794 x 103)/ (1.3 x 26.1)
53 m2

(b) Counter current

Tw out = 69.4oC

Tw in = 95oC
Water 16.7kgs-1
Milk 9.2kg s-1

Tm in = 15oC

Tm out = 65oC

All values are the same as in (a) except Tm and A.

Tm

=
=
=
=
=

[(Tw out Tm in ) (Tw in -Tm out )]/ ln [(Tw out Tm in )/ (Tw in - Tm out )]
[(69.4-15) (95 65)]/ ln[(69.4 - 15)/ (95 65)]
[54.4 -30] / ln [54.4/30)]
24.4/0.60
40.7oC
Acountercurent
=
q/UTm
=
(1.79 x 103)/ (1.3 x 40.7)
=
34 m2

3. Brine cooler in Example 6.2

T4 = ? oC

T3 = -8 oC
Brine cpb
Water cpw
1.05kgs-1

T1 = 32 oC
cpb
= 4.18 kJ kg-1 oC 1
A = 55 m2
U = 110 J m-2s-1oC 1
For water

T2 = 4 oC
cpw

=
=
=

= 3.38 kJ kg-1 oC 1

cp x G x T
4.18 x 103 x 1.05 x 28
122.9 x 103Js 1

As the heat lost from the water must equal the heat gained by the brine (assuming no losses)
So for brine q
=
122.9 x 103Js 1
And this is greater than in Example 6.2 by 122.9/108.9

= 1.12

Therefore this ratio 1.12:1 will relate the T values to the new circumstances. This problem
cannot be straightforwardly solved as both U and Tm depend on the flow rate so a trial and
error procedure will be used.
Trial 1. Assume brine rate is increased 1.5 times.
Then U1 = 110 x (1.5)0.8 = 110 x 1.4

= 154 J m-2s-1oC1

And for Tb, brine temperature rise = 18 x (1.12/1.5)

= 13.4oC

So (Tm)1 = (26.6 -12)/(ln 26.6 /12)

And so

q1

=
=
=

= 18.3oC

UATm1
154 x 55 x 18.3
155 kJs 1

which is too high.

Trial 2. Assume brine rate is increased 1.35 times.
Then U2 = 110 x (1.35)0.8 = 110 x 1.27

= 140 J m-2s-1oC1

And for Tb, brine temperature rise = 18 x (1.12/1.35)

= 14.9oC

So (Tm)2 = (25.1 12)/(ln 25.1/12)

And so

q1

= 17.7oC

UATm1

=
=

140 x 55 x 17.7
136.3 kJs 1

which is too high.

Trial 3. Assume brine rate is increased 1.25 times.
Then U3 = 110 x (1.25)0.8 = 110 x 1.2

= 131.5J m-2s-1oC1

And for Tb, brine temperature rise = 18 x (1.12/1.25)

= 16.1oC

So (Tm)3 = (23.9 12)/(ln 23.9/12)

And so

= 17.2oC

q3

=
UATm3
=
131.5 x 55 x 17.2
=
124.3 kJs 1
which is close to the required value.
So the brine flow rate should be increased by 25% to 2.25kgs-1

4. Heat exchanger for heating milk

T4 = ? oC

T3 = 72 oC
Hot milk
Cold milk

T1 = 10 oC
A = 23 m2

T2 = ? oC

U = 950 J m-2 s-1oC 1 G = 2kgs-1 in both streams

From Appendix 4 cp = 3.9 kJ kg-1 oC 1

But

cp x G x Tcold =

And cp and m are the same.

Therefore
Tcold
T2 10=
T2
q

cp x G x Thot

=
T hot
72 - T4
=
82 - T4
=

UATm

With a regenerative heat exchanger the temperature difference across the heat transfer surface
is constant. So use either end difference.
Therefore for the milk qheating = 2 x 3.9 x 10 3 x (T2 10)
qcooling = 2 x 3.9 x 10 3 x (79 T 4)

And for the exchanger:

T = [(72 - T2) + (T4 10)]/2 = [(72 82 + T4 + T4 10)/2] = T4 10
q

=
=
=

UAT
950 x 23 x (T4 10)
2.185 x 10 4 x (T4 10)

=
=
=

cp x G x T
3.9 x10 3x 2 x (10 - T2)
3.9 x10 3x 2 x (72 - T4)

2.185 x 10 4 x (T4 10)

3.9 x10 3x 2 x (72 - T4)

21850(T4 10)
29,650 T4

=
=

7800 (72 T4)

218500 + 561600

=
=
=
=

(218,500 + 561,600)/29,650
26.3oC
82 26.3
55.7o C

T4
T2

So the original cold milk leaves the heat exchanger heated to 55.7o C
5. Olive oil heated in a steam jacketed pan
T1
= 21oC
T2 = 115oC
U
= 550 J m-2 s1 0C-1
cp oil
= 2.0 kJ kg-1oC -1
d
= 0.85m
r = 0.425m
A
= x 4 r2
= 1.13m2
V
= x 4 r3/3
= 0.16 m3
G
= Vx
= 145.6 kg
Oil
Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of oil from 21 to 115oC
q
=
G x cp oil x T
=
145.6 x 2.0 x 115-21
[kg x kJ kg-1 oC -1x oC]
3
=
27x 10 kJ
Steam
Pressure of steam = 200 kPa + 101kPa
= 301kPa abs.
Latent heat of saturated steam at 301 kPa abs.,
= 2164 kJ kg-1 at 133.6oC
From equation (5.6)
- hsAt/cV = ln (T2 - T a)/(T1 Ta)
Therefore

=
=
=

- ln[(T2 - T a)/(T1 Ta)] x cV/hsA

- ln[(133.6 115)/(133.6-21)] x 2000 x145.6 / (550 x 1.13)
[(oC J kg-1 oC -1kg)/( J m-2 s 1 0C-1 m2)]
843.7s

14 min

6. Milk pasteurizing in Example 6.6

Using Fig. 6.7, pasteurization times t can be read off.
At 630C, t63 =
25 min
Therefore 2 min
=
2/25 =
0.08
At 640C, t64 =
15.7min
Therefore 3 min
=
3/15.7 =
0.19
0
At 65 C, t65 =
9.2min
Therefore 2 min
=
2/9.2 =
0.22
Total pasteurization effect
=
0.49
Pasteurization remaining to be accomplished
=

(1-0.49)

= 0.51

At 650C, this would be obtained from (0.51 x 9.2) min holding = 4.7 min.
So an additional 4.7 min (4min 42s) at 650C would be needed to meet the specifications
And total time at true 65oC = (4.7 + 2) = 6.7min = 6min 42s
7. Canned pumpkin being sterilised
t115
=
t121 x10-(121-115)/10
=
79.13 x 10-6/10
=
315.5s
=
5 min 15 s at 1150C
Temperature
Time
(121-T)/10
0
C
s
20
1000
101
30
200
91
40
250
81
50
250
71
60
300
61
70
300
51
80
350
41
90
300
31
95
400
26
100
500
21
105
400
16
110
350
11
112.5
200
8.5

10 -(121-T)/10
7.9 x 10-11
7.9 x 10-10
7.9 x 10-9
7.9 x 10-8
7.9 x 10-7
7.9 x 10-6
7.9 x 10-5
7.9 x 10-4
2.5 x 10-3
7.9 x 10-3
2.5 x 10-2
7.9 x 10-2
0.14
Total

t121 x10-(121-T)/10
s
7.9 x 10-8
1.58 x 10-7
1.98 x 10-6
1.98 x 10-5
2.37 x 10-4
2.77 x 10-3
2.77 x 10-2
0.237
1.000
3.95
10.00
27.65
28.00
70.87s

Time required = 150s

Time at 115oC must be equivalent to 150 70.87 = 79.13 = 79s

8. Cold store:

Concrete Block

Polystyrene

0.2m thick

0.15m thick

c= 0.87 J m-1oC 1

p = 0.036 J m-1oC 1

h0 = 10 J m-2s-1oC 1
Store = 40m x20m x 7m high
1/U
U
q
q/A

Awalls
qwalls
Aceil&flrs
qceil&flrs

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

hi = 6 J m-2 s-1oC 1

1/ho + xc/c + xp / p + 1/hi

1/10 + 0.2/0.87 + 0.15/0.036 + 1/6
4.66
0.21 J m-2s-1oC 1
UAT
UT
0.21 x (25-(-18))
0.21 x 43
9.03 J m-2s-1 for walls
9.03 x = 4.52 J m-2s-1 for ceilings and floor
20 x 7 + 20 x 7 + 40 x 7 + 40 x 7
= 840 m2
9.03 x 840
= 7585 Js-1
= 7.59Js-1
40 x 20 + 40 x 20
= 1600
-1
4.52 x 1600 = 7232 Js
= 7.23 kJs-1

Total refrigeration load due to building heat gains:

qtotal =
7.59 + 7.23
=
14.82 kJs-1
Total resistance of wall (1/U) =
4.66
Total temperature drop
=
43oC
If x is the fractional distance through the polystyrene to the 0oC plane then
18/43 =
[0.166 + (x x 0.15/0.036)]/ 4.66
i.e.
1.745 =
0.166 + 4.17 x
x
=
0.38cm
And so depth from outside to 0oC plane
=
0.38 x 0.15
=
0.057 m
=
5.7cm
So 0oC plane is 5.7cm from the inside face of the wall
9. Refrigeration System
Coefficient of Performance (COP)

= 2.8

Power of motor
= 8.3 horse power
Mechanical and electrical efficiency of the drive
= 74%
COP = (heat taken in at the evaporator) / (energy put in by the compressor)
= (Hb - Ha) /(Hc Hb)
= 2.8
1 Ton refrigeration =
3.52kW
1 horsepower
=
745.7W
(a)Motor produces 8.3 x 745.7
Energy put in by compressor
Heat taken in at the evaporator

=
6,189.31 W =
6.19kW
=
6.19 x 74/100 =
4.58kW (kJs-1)
=
2.8 x energy put in by compressor
=
2.8 x 4.58
=
12.82kW
Refrigeration capacity available at evaporator
=
12.82kW
(b)Tons of refrigeration
=
12.82/3.52
Tons of refrigeration extracted per kW of electricity =
=

=
3.64
3.64/6.19
0.59 tonskW-1

(c)
2.8
(Hc Hb)
(Hb - Ha)
Hb
Hc (12.82 +Ha)
(Hc Ha)

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

(Hb - Ha) /(Hc Hb)

4.58 kW
12.82 kW
12.82 + Ha
4.58
12.82 + 4.58
17.4 kW
17.4kJs-1

10. Refrigeration plant

Tevap =
-30 oC
120 kPa
o
Tcond =
38 C
1450kPa
Tons of refrigeration extracted at evaporator = 25
From the thermodynamic chart for ammonia (Appendix 11b), the various critical points for
the refrigeration cycle, identified in Figure 6.9, can be identified in particular for enthalpies:
He = Ha
= 0.675 MJ kg-1
Hb
= 1.720 MJ kg-1
Hc
= 2.095 MJ kg-1
For specific volume of ammonia gas at b, of 0.95 m3 kg-1
For heat removed per kg ammonia circulating,
= Hb - Ha
= 1.720 0.675 MJkg-1
= 1.045 MJ kg-1
(a) Rate of heat removal required

=
25 tons of refrigeration
=
25 x 3.52kW
=
88kW
=
88kJs-1
Rate of circulation of ammonia
= 88 kJ s-1 / 1.045 x 103 kJkg-1

= 0.0842 kg s-1
(b) Theoretical power required for compression
= (Hc Hb) x flow rate of ammonia
= (2.095 1.720) x 0.0842
= 0.375 x 0.0842MW
= 31.6 kW
(c) Rate of heat rejection to cooling water
= (Hc He) x flow rate of ammonia
= (2.095 0.675) x 0.0842
= 1.42 x 0.0842
= 0.12 MJ s-1
(d) COP

= (Hb - Ha)/(Hc - Hb)

= (1.720 0.675)/(2.095 1.720)
= 1.045/ 0.375
= 2.8

(e) At 30oC, saturated ammonia gas has specific volume of 0.95 m3 kg-1
Therefore volumetric flow rate of ammonia entering the compressor
= 0.95 m3 kg-1 x 0.0842 kg s-1
= 0.08 m3s-1
11.Chilling of apples
Mean film temperature
Properties of water:
at 4oC
cp
= 4.23 kJ kg-1oC -1
k
= 0.57 J m-1 s-1oC -1

= 1.53 x 10-3 Nsm-2

= 1000 kgm-3

= (25 +1)/2
= 13oC
cp
k

at 16oC
= 4.19 kJ kg-1oC -1
= 0.59 J m-1 s-1oC -1
= 1.16 x 10-3 Nsm-2
= 1000 kgm-3

Properties of water at 13oC

cp
= (4.23 4.19)x 9/(16 - 4) + 4.19
= 4.22 kJ kg-1oC -1
k
= 9 x (0.59 0.57)/(16-4) + 0.57
= 0.58 J m-1s-1oC -1
= (1.53 x 10-3 -1.16 x 10-3 )x 9/(16-4) + 1.16 x 10-3 = 1.44 x 10-3 Nsm-2

= (1000 1000)/12 + 1000

= 1000 kgm-3
Re
=
Dv/
=
(0.070 x 0.5 x 1000)/ 1.44 x 10-3
=
2.43 x 104
Re0.6 =
428
Pr
=
cp /k
=
4220 x 1.44 x 10-3 /0.58
=
10.48
Pr0.3 =
2.02
Nu
=
hc D/k = 0.26 Re0.6 Pr0.3
hc
=
k/D x 0.26x Re0.6 Pr0.3
=
0.58/0.07 x 0.26 x 428 x 2.02

1,860 J m-2s-1oC 1

Initial temperature = 25oC

Target centre temperature = 5oC
Water temperature = 1oC
Properties of apples D = 7cm
k = 0.5 J m-1s-1oC -1

= 930 kgm-3
-1 o
1
cp
= 3.6 kJ kg C
Bi
= hr/k
= (1860 x 0.035)/ 0.5
= 130.2
1/BI
= 7.7 x 10-3 0
(T T0)/ (T1 T0)
= (5 -1)) /(25-1)
= 0.16
From Figure 5.3
kt/cr2
= 0.23
so
t
= [ 0.23 x 930 x 3600 x(0.035)2 ] /0.5
= 1887 s
= 31.4 minutes
= 31 mins. 27s
12. Freezing meat sausage
Physical properties of air at 18oC:
v
= 3ms-1
cp
= 1.00 kJ kg-1oC -1
k
= 0.0230 J m-1 s-1oC -1

= 1.65 x 10-5 Nsm-2

= 1.38 kgm-3
Properties of sausage
T0
= 15oC
Tf
= -2oC
D
= 2cm = 0.02m
L
= 15cm = 0.15m
k
= 1.6 J m-1 s-1oC -1

= 2.56 x 105 Jkg-1

= 1090 kgm-3
cp
= 3550 J kg-1oC 1 above freezing
Re
=
Dv/
=
(0.02 x 3 x 1.38)/ 1.65 x 10-5
=
5018
0.6
Re
=
166
Pr
=
cp /k
=
1000 x 1.65 x 10-5 /0.0230
=
0.717
0.3
Pr
=
0.905
Nu
=
hc D/k = 0.26 Re0.6 Pr0.3
hc
=
k/D x 0.26 x Re0.6 Pr0.3
=
(0.0230/0.02) x 0.26 x 166 x 0.905
=
44.9 J m-2s-1oC 1
1/hs =
1/hr + xc/k + 1/hc
no packaging so x/k = 0, assume hr is neglible.

1/hs
hs

=
=
=

1/hc
hc
44.9 J m-2s-1 oC 1

Because of the large length/diameter ratio, assume the sausage approximates an infinitely
long cylinder.
Therefore P = 1/4 and
R = 1/16
Freezing time from equation (6.7)
tf

=
=
=
=
=
=

/(T -Ta) x (P a/ hs + R a2 /k)

[(2.56 x 105 x 1090)/(-2 (-18)] x [1/4 x 0.02 x 1/44.9) +(1/16 x 0.022 x1/1.6)]
[(2.79 x 108)/16] x [1.114 x 10-4 + 1.56 x 10-5 ]
174.375 x 105 [12.7 x 10-5]
2214.6s
37 min 5s

13. Air blast freezing

(a) Everything as for 12 except that the air velocity is doubled.
Since
hc v0.6
New hc
= 45 (6/3)0.6
= 68 J m-2s-1oC 1
and so freezing time is as in 12 but with the term Pa/ hs now changed from 1.114 x 10-4 to
7.35 x 10-5 m3s oCJ1
giving the new freezing time as:
=
[(2.56 x 105 x 1090)/ 16 ] x [ 7.35 x 10-5 + 1.56 x 10 -5]
=
1552s
=
25 min 52s
(b) With cardboard wrap:
If tf = 2215s then 1/hs = 1/44.9
With air velocity v = 6ms, hc = 68.2, k for cardboard = 0.06 J m-1 s-1 oC 1
If x is the thickness of the cardboard
1/hs =
x/k + 1/hc
1/44.9 =
x/ 0.06 + 1/68.2
x
=
0.06(1/44.9 - 1/68.2)
=
0.06 x 7.61 x 10 -3
=
4.57 x 10 m-4
=
0.46mm

0.5mm
Maximum thickness of cardboard is 0.5mm
14. Thin plastic bag with fresh fish fillets
tf
= 16h = 57,600s
D
= 30cm
Ta
= -30oC
Tf
= -2oC
cp
= 3.18 kJ kg-1oC 1 above freezing

= 1.67 kJ kg-1oC 1 below freezing

= 276 k Jkg-1 = 2.76 x 105 Jkg-1
= 2.4 /100 + 0.26 (100- )/100 from Appendix 7, p = percentage water in fish = 0.8
= 2.4 x 0.8 + 0.26(1.0 0.8)
= 1.97
is taken as the same as water = 1000kgm3
cp

Bag is taken as a sphere, P = 1/6 and R= 1/24

tf
= ( )/(Tf -Ta) x (Pa/ hs + Ra2 /k)
tf (Tf -Ta)/ =
Pa/ hs + R a2 /k
Pa/ hs
=
tf (T -Ta)/ - R a2 /k
Putting (T -Ta) = T
hs
and T
hs

=
=

Pa/[ (tf T / ) (Ra2 /k)]

-2- (-30)
= 28

=
=
=

(0.167x0.3)/[ (57600 x 28 / 2.76x105 x1000) (0.042 x 0.3 x0.3/1.97)]

(0.167x0.3)/[ 5.843 x 10 -3 - 1.919 x 10-3 ]
12.8 J m-2s-1oC 1