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Braced frames
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Bracin in the form of dia onal structural sections is pro#ided to frames to pre#ent$ or at least to restrict$ sway in sin le and multi%storey &uildin s ' For a frame to &e classified as &raced$ it must possess a &racin system which is ade(uately stiff' )hen it is *ustified to classify the frame as &raced$ it is possi&le to analyse the frame and the &racin system separately$ where+ The frame without the &racin system can &e treated as fully supported laterally and as ha#in to resist the action of the #ertical loads only' The &racin system resists all the hori,ontal loads applied to the frames it &races$ any #ertical loads applied to the &racin system and the effects of the initial sway imperfections from the frames it &races and from the &racin system itself' This article presents the procedures to &e considered in the desi n of &uildin s with &raced frames'

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Contents
1 Bracing systems 1.1 Location of planes of ertical !racing " #ertical !racing $ %ori&ontal !racing $.1 %ori&ontal diaphragms $." 'iscrete triangulated !racing ( The effects of imperfections (.1 )mperfections for glo!al analysis of !raced frames (.1.1 *qui alent hori&ontal forces + Additional design cases for !racing systems +.1 )mperfection for analysis of !racing systems Braced steel frame Trinity Square, Gateshead , Second order effects (Image courtesy of William Hare Ltd.) ,.1 'etermination of second order effects ,." Second-order analysis . Summary design process for !racing systems / 0eferences 1 2urther reading 13 0esources 11 See also

Bracing systems
)n a multi-storey !uilding , the !eams and columns are generally arranged in an orthogonal pattern in !oth ele ation and on plan. )n a !raced frame !uilding, the resistance to hori&ontal forces is pro ided !y t4o orthogonal !racing systems5 #ertical !racing. Bracing in ertical planes 6!et4een lines of columns7 pro ides load paths to transfer Braced steel frame under construction hori&ontal forces to All Saints Academy, Cheltenham ground le el and pro ide (Image courtesy of William Haley Engineering a stiff resistance against Ltd.) o erall s4ay. %ori&ontal !racing. At each floor le el, !racing in a hori&ontal plane, generally pro ided !y floor plate action, pro ides a load path to transfer the hori&ontal forces 6mainly

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from the perimeter columns, due to wind pressure on the cladding) to the planes of vertical bracing.

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Bracing and load transfer path As a minimum, three vertical planes of bracing are needed, to provide resistance in both directions in plan and to provide resistance to torsion about a vertical axis. In practice, more than three are usually provided, for example in the locations shown diagrammatically in the figure below. Assuming that the floors act as diaphragms to provide horizontal bracing, the forces carried by each plane of vertical bracing depend on its relative stiffness and location, and on the location of the centre of pressure of the horizontal forces see further discussion on location of vertical bracing planes, below). !ertical bracing, in the form of diagonal steel members, providing stability in a multi"storey building is shown in the figure below.

Typical arrangement of vertical bracing

#tability to a building can also be provided partially or entirely by one or more reinforced concrete cores.

Location of planes of vertical bracing

It is preferable to locate bracing at or near the extremities of the structure, in order to resist any torsional effects. #ee figure on the right. $here the sets of bracing are identical or similar, it is sufficient to assume that the horizontal forces wind loads and e%uivalent horizontal

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forces, each magnified for second order effects if necessary, see discussion below) are shared equally between the bracing systems in the orthogonal direction under consideration. Where the stiffnesses of the vertical bracing systems differ or the bracing systems are located asymmetrically on plan, as shown in the figure below, equal sharing of forces should not be assumed. The forces carried by each bracing system can be calculated by assuming the floor is a stiff beam and the bracing systems are spring supports, as shown in the figure below.
Vertical bracing in a multi-storey building

Determination of bracing forces for asymmetric arrangement of bracing

The stiffness of each bracing system should be calculated by applying hori ontal forces to each bracing system and calculating the deflection. The spring stiffness !typically in mm"#$) can then be used to calculate the distribution of force to each bracing system.

Vertical bracing
%n a braced multi-storey building , the planes of vertical bracing are usually provided by diagonal bracing between two lines of columns, as shown in the figure

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below. Either single diagonals are provided, as shown, in which case they must be designed for either tension or compression, or crossed diagonals are provided, in which case slender bracing members carrying only tension may be provided. Note that when crossed diagonals are used and it is assumed that only the tensile diagonals provide resistance, the floor beams participate as part of the bracing system (in effect a vertical Pratt truss is created, with diagonals in tension and posts in compression). The vertical bracing must be designed to resist the forces due to the following !ind loads E"uivalent hori#ontal forces, representing the effect of initial imperfections $econd order effects due to sway (if the frame is fle%ible).

Cantilever truss

&uidance on the determination of e"uivalent hori#ontal forces and on the consideration of second order effects in discussed in the sections below. 'orces in the individual members of the bracing system must be determined for the appropriate combinations of actions. 'or bracing members, design forces at ()$ due to the combination where wind load is the leading action are li*ely to be the most onerous. !here possible, bracing members inclined at appro%imately +,- are recommended. This provides an efficient system with relatively modest member forces compared to other arrangements, and means that the connection details where the bracing meets the beam.column /unctions are compact. Narrow bracing systems with steeply inclined internal members will increase the sway sensitivity of the structure. !ide bracing systems will result in more stable structures. The table below gives an indication of how ma%imum deflection varies with bracing layout, for a constant si#e of bracing cross section. Bracing efficiency Storey height h h h Bracing width 0h 4.,h h Ratio of maximum Angle from deflection (compared to horizontal bracing at 34) 012.3 5+4.2 +,4.,

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h h

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53 63

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Horizontal bracing
horizontal bracing syste! is needed at each floor le"el# to transfer horizontal forces (chiefly the forces transferred fro! the $eri!eter colu!ns) to the $lanes of "ertical bracing that $ro"ide resistance to horizontal forces. %here are t&o ty$es of horizontal bracing syste! that are used in !ulti' storey braced fra!es( )ia$hrag!s )iscrete triangulated bracing.
Horizontal bracing (in the roof) in a single storey building

*sually# the floor syste! &ill be sufficient to act as a dia$hrag! &ithout the need for additional steel bracing. t roof le"el# bracing# often +no&n as a &ind girder# !ay be re,uired to carry the horizontal forces at the to$ of the colu!ns# if there is no dia$hrag!. -ee figure on the right.

Horizontal diaphragms
ll floor solutions in"ol"ing $er!anent for!&or+ such as !etal dec+ing fi.ed by through'dec+ stud &elding to the bea!s# &ith in'situ concrete infill# $ro"ide an e.cellent rigid dia$hrag! to carry horizontal forces to the bracing syste!. /loor syste!s in"ol"ing $recast concrete $lan+s re,uire $ro$er consideration to ensure ade,uate transfer of forces if they are to act as a dia$hrag!. %he coefficient of friction bet&een $lan+s and steel&or+ !ay be as lo& as 0.0# and e"en lo&er if the steel is $ainted. %his &ill allo& the slabs to !o"e relati"e to each other# and to slide o"er the steel&or+. 1routing bet&een the slabs &ill only $artially o"erco!e this $roble!# and for large shears# a !ore $ositi"e tying syste! &ill be re,uired bet&een the slabs and fro! the slabs to the steel&or+. 2onnection bet&een slabs !ay be achie"ed by reinforce!ent in the to$$ing. %his !ay be !esh# or ties !ay be $laced along both ends of a set of $lan+s to ensure the &hole $anel acts as one. %y$ically# a 00 !! bar at half de$th of the to$$ing &ill be satisfactory.

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Connection to the steelwork may be achieved by one of two methods: Enclose the slabs by a steel frame (on shelf angles, or specially provided constraint) and fill the gap with concrete. Provide ties between the topping and an in sit! topping to the steelwork (known as an "edge strip"). Provide the steel beam with some form of shear connectors to transfer forces between the in sit! edge strip and the steelwork. #f plan diaphragm forces are transferred to the steelwork via direct bearing (typically the slab may bear on the face of a col!mn), the capacity of the connection sho!ld be checked. The capacity is generally limited by local cr!shing of the plank. #n every case, the gap between the plank and the steel sho!ld be made good with in sit! concrete. Timber floors and floors constr!cted from precast concreted inverted tee beams and infill blocks (often known as "beam and pot" floors) are not considered to provide an ade$!ate diaphragm witho!t special meas!res.

Discrete triangulated bracing

%here diaphragm action from the floor cannot be relied !pon, a hori&ontal system of triang!lated steel bracing is recommended. ' hori&ontal bracing system may need to be provided in each orthogonal direction. Typically, hori&ontal bracing systems span between the "s!pports", which are the locations of the vertical bracing. This arrangement often leads to a tr!ss spanning the f!ll width of the b!ilding, with a depth e$!al to the bay centres, as shown in the fig!re on the left.
Typical floor bracing arrangement

The floor bracing is fre$!ently arranged as a %arren tr!ss, or as a Pratt tr!ss, or with crossed members.

The effects of imperfections

'ppropriate allowances need to be incorporated in the str!ct!ral analysis to cover the effects of imperfections, incl!ding resid!al stresses and geometrical imperfections s!ch as lack of verticality, lack of straightness, lack of flatness, lack of fit and any minor eccentricities present in (oints of the !nloaded str!ct!re. The following imperfections sho!ld be taken into acco!nt: )lobal imperfections for frames and bracing systems *ocal imperfections for individ!al members.

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#lo$al imperfections may $e ta%en into account $y mo&elling t'e frame out of plum$( or $y a series of equivalent 'ori)ontal forces applie& to a frame mo&elle& vertically *'e latter approac' is recommen&e& +n a $race& frame wit' simple connections( no allowance is nee&e& in t'e glo$al analysis for local imperfections in mem$ers $ecause t'ey &o not influence t'e glo$al $e'aviour an& are ta%en into account in w'en verifying mem$er resistances in accor&ance wit' t'e &esign Stan&ar& S'oul& moment-resisting connections $e assume& in t'e frame &esign( local imperfections may nee& to $e allowe& for (BS EN 1993-1-1,1-( 5 3 !(.""

Imperfections for global analysis of braced frames

*'e assume& s'ape of glo$al imperfections an& local imperfections may $e &erive& from t'e elastic $uc%ling mo&e of a structure in t'e plane of $uc%ling consi&ere&

For frames sensitive to $uc%ling in a sway mo&e t'e effect of imperfections s'oul& $e allowe& for in frame analysis $y means of an equivalent imperfection in t'e form of an initial sway imperfection See figure on t'e rig't

Equivalent sway imperfections (from BS EN 1993-1-1 Figure 5 !"

*'e $asic imperfection t'at is allowe& for is an out-of-verticality / of 10!// *'is allowance is greater t'an normally specifie& tolerances $ecause it allows $ot' for actual values e1cee&ing specifie& limits an& for resi&ual effects suc' as lac% of fit *'e &esign allowance in BS EN 1993-1-1,1-( 5 3 ! is given $y2 3 / ' m 3 10!// ' m w'ere ' is a re&uction factor for t'e overall 'eig't an& m is a re&uction factor w'ic' accor&ing to t'e Euroco&e &epen&s on t'e num$er of columns in a row (For a &etaile& &efinition( see 5 3 !(3" " *'is presumes t'at every row 'as $racing 4ore generally m s'oul& $e calculate& accor&ing to t'e num$er of columns sta$ili)e& $y t'e $racing system - generally from several rows For simplicity( t'e value of may conservatively $e ta%en as 10!//( irrespective of t'e 'eig't an& num$er of columns

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Where, for each storey, the externally applied horizontal force exceeds 15% of the total vertical force, sway imperfections may be neglected (because they have little influence on sway deformation)
Equivalent horizontal forces

!" #$ 1%%&'1'1(1), 5 & *(+) states that vertical sway imperfections may be replaced by systems of e,uivalent horizontal forces, introduced for each column -t is much easier to use e,uivalent horizontal forces than to introduce the geometric imperfection into the model .his is because/ .he imperfection must be tried in each direction to find the greater effect and it is easier to apply loads than modify geometry 0pplying forces gives no problems of changes in length that would occur when inclining the columns of buildings in which the column bases are at different levels 0ccording to 5 & *(+) the e,uivalent horizontal forces have the design value of N#d at the top and bottom of each column, where N#d is the force in each column1 the forces at each end are in opposite directions 2or design of the frame, it is much easier to consider the net e,uivalent force at each floor level .hus an e,uivalent horizontal force e,ual to times the total vertical design force applied at that floor level should be applied at each floor and roof level

Additional design cases for bracing systems

.he bracing system must carry the externally applied loads, together with the e,uivalent horizontal forces -n addition, the bracing must be chec3ed for two further design situations which are local to the floor level/ 4orizontal forces to floor diaphragms 2orces due to imperfections at splices -n both these design situations, the bracing system is chec3ed locally (the storeys above and below) for the combination of the force due to external loads together with the forces due to either of the above imperfections .he e,uivalent horizontal forces modelled to account for frame sway are not included in either of these combinations 5nly one imperfection needs to be considered at a time .he horizontal forces to be considered are the accumulation of all the forces at the level being considered, divided amongst the bracing systems -t is normal practice in the 67 to chec3 these forces without co'existent beam shears .he 8ustification is that the probability of maximum beam shear plus maximum imperfections together with minimum connection resistance is beyond the design probability of the design code

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Imperfection for analysis of bracing systems

-n the analysis of bracing systems which are re,uired to provide lateral stability within the length of beams or compression members, the effects of imperfections should be included by means of an e,uivalent geometric imperfection of the members to be restrained, in the form of an initial bow imperfection/ e9 = m L;599 where/ L is the span of the bracing system
#,uivalent stabilizing force

in which m is the number of members to be restrained 2or convenience, the effects of the initial bow imperfections of the members to be restrained by a bracing system may be replaced by the e,uivalent stabilizing force as shown in the figure right

where , is the in'plane deflection of the bracing system due to q plus any external loads calculated from first order analysis .he use of e,uivalent stabilizing forces is recommended

Second order effects

.he effects of the deformed geometry of the structure (second order effects) need to be considered if the deformations significantly increase the forces in the structure or if the deformations significantly modify structural behaviour 2or elastic global analysis, second order effects are significant if the factor by which the loading would have to be increased to cause elastic instability in a global mode cr is less than 19

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The criterion should be applied separately for each storey, for the condition where the full frame is loaded, as shown in the figure below. In most cases, the lowest storey will give the lowest value of cr.

Horizontal forces applied to the bracing system

Determination of second order effects

Where second order effects need to be evaluated, the most common method used is by amplification of an elastic first order analysis using the initial geometry of the structure. The use of this method is subject to the limitation that cr > . If cr is less than , second order analysis must be used. In a braced frame, where the beam to column connections are pinned and thus do not contribute to lateral stiffness, the only effects to be amplified are the a!ial forces in the bracing members and the forces in columns that are due to their function as part of the bracing system The amplification factor is given in "# $% &'' (&(&)&*, +.,.,-+." as/

0nly the effects due to the horizontal forces -including the e1uivalent horizontal forces. need to be amplified.

Second-order analysis
2 range of second order analysis software is available. 3se of any software will give results that are to some e!tent appro!imate, depending on the solution method employed, the types of second(order effects considered and the modelling assumptions. 4enerally, second(order software will automatically allow for frame imperfections, so the designer will not need to calculate and apply the e1uivalent horizontal forces. The effects of deformed geometry -second(order effects. will be allowed for in the analysis.

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Summary design process for bracing systems

The following simple design process is recommended for a typical medium rise building utilizing braced frames. 1. Choose appropriate section sizes for the beams. 2. Choose appropriate section sizes for the columns (which may be designed initially for axial force alone, leaving some nominal provision for bending moments, to be determined at a later stage . !. Calculate the e"uivalent horizontal forces (#$% , floor by floor, and the wind loads. &. Calculate the total shear at the base of the bracing, by adding the total wind load to the total #$%, and sharing this appropriately amongst the bracing systems. '. (ize the bracing members. The lowest bracing member (with the greatest design force can be sized, based on the shear determined in (tep &. ) smaller section size may be used higher up the structure (where the bracing is sub*ect to lesser forces or the same size may be used for all members. +. #valuate the frame stability, in terms of the parameter cr, using the combination of the #$% and wind loads as the horizontal forces on the frame, in con*unction with the vertical loads. ,. -etermine an amplifier, if re"uired (i.e. if .cr / 10 . 1f the frame is sensitive to second order effects, all the lateral forces must be amplified. 1f this is the case, the bracing members may need to be re2chec3ed for increased forces (step ' . 4. )t each floor level, chec3 that the connection to the diaphragm can carry 15 of the axial force in the column at that point (clearly, the most onerous design force is at the lowest suspended floor . 6. 7erify that the floor diaphragms are effective in distributing all forces to the bracing systems. 10. )t splice levels, determine the total force to be resisted by the bracing locally (which will usually be the summation from several columns . 7erify that the bracing local to the splice can carry these forces in addition to the forces due to external loads (#$% are not included when ma3ing this chec3 . 11. 7erify that the bracing local to each floor can carry the restraint forces from that floor, in addition to the forces due to external loads (#$% are not included when ma3ing this chec3 . 1f designing manually, the design data in (C1 8!+! , may be used to choose appropriate section sizes.

References
1. 9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.! :( #; 166!2121<200'. #urocode !< -esign of steel structures =eneral rules and rules for buildings, :(1

Further reading

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Steel Designers' Manual 7th Edition. (http://shop.steelsci.com/products/231-steel-designers-manual-7th-edition.asp ! Editors " Da#ison $ % & '(ens. )he Steel *onstruction +nstitute 2,12- *hapter . /rchitectural Design in Steel- 0a(son M $ )re1ilcoc2 3- S*+ and Spon. *hapter 3.

Resources
S*+ 334. Steel "uilding Design: Medium 5ise "raced 6rames- 2,,7 S*+ 3343 Steel "uilding Design: Design Data- 2,13. /n interacti#e online #ersion- or e"lue "oo2 (http://ts1lue1oo2.steelsci.org/! - is also a#aila1le. Steel "uildings- 2,,3- (3u1lication 8o 3./,3!- "*S/- *hapter 9

See also
Multi-store: o;;ice 1uildings )russes 6loor s:stems Modelling and anal:sis /llo(ing ;or the e;;ects o; de;ormed ;rame geometr: Simple connections

5etrie#ed ;rom <http://(((.steelconstruction.in;o/"raced=;rames< *ategor:: Design Sitemap *ontact *oo2ies

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