Choke Sizing & Propiedaes de Los Fluidos

Pressure Loss Correlations
Introduction
n the flow of fluids inside pipes, there are three pressure loss components:
Friction
Hydrostatic
Kinetic energy
Of these three, kinetic energy losses are frequently much smaller than the others, and are usually ignored
in all practical situations.
All the pressure loss procedures calculate the Hydrostatic Pressure Difference and Friction Pressure Loss
components individually, and then add (or subtract) them to obtain the total pressure loss. There are many
published correlations for calculating pressure losses. These fall into the two broad categories of "single
phase flow" and "multi-phase flow".
Single Phase
There exist many single-phase correlations that were derived for different operating conditions or from
laboratory experiments. Generally speaking, they only account for the friction component, i.e. they are
applicable to horizontal flow. Typical examples are :
For Gas : Panhandle, Modified Panhandle, Weymouth and Fanning
For Liquid : Fanning (Moody)
However, these correlations can also be used for vertical or inclined flow, provided the hydrostatic
pressure drop is accounted for, in addition to the friction component. As a result, even though a particular
correlation may have been developed for flow in a horizontal pipe, incorporation of the hydrostatic
pressure drop allows that correlation to be used for flow in a vertical pipe. This adaptation is rigorous, and
has been implemented into all the correlations used in VirtuWell. Nevertheless, for identification purposes,
the correlation's name has been kept unchanged. Thus, as an example Panhandle was originally
developed for horizontal flow, but its implementation in this program allows it to be used for all directions of
flow.
Single Phase Friction Component
There are two distinct types of correlations for calculating friction pressure loss (Pf). The first type, adopted
by the AGA (American Gas Association), includes Panhandle, Modified Panhandle and Weymouth. These
correlations are for single-phase gas only. They incorporate a simplified friction factor and a flow efficiency.
They all have a similar format as follows:
where:
P1,2=upstream and downstream pressures respectively (psia)
Q=gas flow rate ( @ T,P)
E=pipeline efficiency factor
1
P=reference pressure (psia) (14.65 psia)
T=reference temperature, (R) (520 R)
G=gas gravity
D=inside diameter of pipe (inch)
Ta=average flowing temperature (R)
Za=average gas compressibility factor
L=pipe length (miles)
? constants
The other type of correlation is based on the definition of the friction factor (Moody or Fanning) and is
given by the Fanning equation:
where:
Pf=pressure loss due to friction effects
f=Fanning friction factor (function of Reynolds number)
=density
v=average velocity
L=length of pipe section
g=acceleration of gravity
D=inside diameter of pipe
This correlation can be used either for single-phase gas (Fanning Gas) or for single-phase liquid (Fanning
- Liquid).
Single-Phase friction factor ( ):
The single-phase friction factor can be obtained from the Chen (1979) equation, which is representative of
the Fanning friction factor chart.
where:
f = friction factor
2
k = absolute roughness (in)
k/D = relative roughness (unitless)
Re = Reynold's number
The single-phase friction factor clearly depends on the Reynold's number, which is a function of the fluid
density, viscosity, velocity and pipe diameter. The friction factor is valid for single-phase gas or liquid flow,
as their very different properties are taken into account in the definition of Reynold's number.
where: = density, lbm/ft3
v = velocity, ft/s
D = diameter, ft
= viscosity, lb/ft*s
Since viscosity is usually measured in "centipoise", and 1 cp = 1488 lb/ft*s, the Reynolds number can be
rewritten for viscosity in centipoise.
References:Chen, N. H., "An Explicit Equation for Friction Factor in Pipe," nd. Eng. Chem. Fund. (1979).
Single Phase Hydrostatic Component
Hydrostatic pressure difference PHH can be applied to all correlations by simply adding it to the friction
component. The hydrostatic pressure drop ( PHH) is defined, for all situations, as follows:
PHH = gh
where:
=density of the fluid
g=acceleration of gravity
h=vertical elevation (can be positive or negative)
For a liquid, the density ( ) is constant, and the above equation is easily evaluated.
For a gas, the density varies with pressure. Therefore, to evaluate the hydrostatic pressure loss/gain, the
pipe (or wellbore) is subdivided into a sufficient number of segments, such that the density in each
segment can be assumed to be constant. Note that this is equivalent to a multi-step Cullender and Smith
calculation.
3
Single Phase Correlations

Single Phase

Gas Liquid
Correlations Vertical Horizontal Vertical Horizontal
Fanning-Gas * *

Fanning-Liquid

* *
Panhandle * *

Modified Panhandle * *

Weymouth * *

Mechanistic * * * *
Multiphase
Multiphase pressure loss calculations parallel single phase pressure loss calculations. Essentially, each
multiphase correlation makes its own particular modifications to the hydrostatic pressure difference and
the friction pressure loss calculations, in order to make them applicable to multiphase situations.
The friction pressure loss is modified in several ways, by adjusting the friction factor (f), the density ( )
and velocity (v) to account for multiphase mixture properties. n the AGA type equations (Panhandle,
Modified Panhandle and Weymouth), it is the flow efficiency that is modified.
The hydrostatic pressure difference calculation is modified by defining a mixture density. This is
determined by a calculation of in-situ liquid holdup. Some correlations determine holdup based on defined
flow patterns. Some correlations (Flanigan) ignore the pressure recovery in downhill flow, in which case,
the vertical elevation is defined as the sum of the uphill segments, and not the "net elevation change".
The multiphase pressure loss correlations used in this software are of two types.
The first type (Flanigan, Modified Flaniganand Weymouth (Multiphase)) is based on a
combination of the AGA equations for gas flow in pipelines and the Flanigan multiphase
corrections. These equations can be used for gas-liquid multiphase flow or for single-phase gas
flow. They CANNOT be used for single-phase liquid flow.
mportant Note: These three correlations can give erroneous results if the pipe described deviates
substantially (more than 10 degrees) from the horizontal. For this reason, these correlations are only
available on the Pipe and Comparison pages.
The second type (Beggs and Brill, Hagedorn and Brown, Gray) is the set of correlations based on
the Fanning friction pressure loss equation. These can be used for either gas-liquid multiphase
flow, single-phase gas or single-phase liquid, because in single-phase mode, they revert to the
Fanning equation, which is equally applicable to either gas or liquid. Beggs and Brill is a
multipurpose correlation derived from laboratory data for vertical, horizontal, inclined uphill and
downhill flow of gas-water mixtures. Gray is based on field data for vertical gas wells producing
condensate and water. Hagedorn and Brown was derived from field data for flowing vertical oil
wells.
4
mportant Note: The Gray and Hagedorn and Brown correlations were derived for vertical wells and
may not apply to horizontal pipes.
Below is a summary of the correlations available in this program and the connection between the single-
phase and multiphase forms. Note that each correlation has been adapted to calculate both a hydrostatic
and a friction component.
Procedure
(The phrases "pressure loss," "pressure drop," and "pressure difference" are used by different people but
mean the same thing).
n F.A.S.T. VirtuWell, the pressure loss calculations for vertical, inclined or horizontal pipes follow the
same procedure:
1. Total Pressure Loss = Hydrostatic Pressure Difference + Friction Pressure Loss. The total pressure
loss, as well as each individual component can be either positive or negative, depending on the direction
of calculation, the direction of flow and the direction of elevation change.
2. Subdivide the pipe length into segments so that the total pressure loss per segment is less than twenty
(20) psi. Maximum number of segments is twenty (20).
3. For each segment assume constant fluid properties appropriate to the pressure and temperature of that
segment.
4. Calculate the Total Pressure Loss in that segment as in step #1.
5. Knowing the pressure at the inlet of that segment, add to (or subtract from) it the Total Pressure Loss
determined in step #4 to obtain the pressure at the outlet.
6. The outlet pressure from step #5 becomes the inlet pressure for the adjacent segment.
7. Repeat steps #3 to #6 until the full length of the pipe has been traversed.
Note: As discussed under Hydrostatic Pressure Difference and Friction Pressure Loss, the hydrostatic
pressure difference is positive in the direction of the earth's gravitational pull, whereas the friction pressure
loss is always positive in the direction of flow.
Single Phase Flow
The most generally applicable single phase equation for calculating Friction Pressure Loss is the Fanning
equation. t utilizes friction factor charts (Knudsen and Katz, 1958), which are functions of Reynold's
number and relative pipe roughness. These charts are also often referred to as the Moody charts. F.A.S.T.
VirtuWell uses the equation form of the Fanning friction factor as published by Chen, 1979.
The calculation of Hydrostatic Pressure Difference is different for a gas than for a liquid, because gas is
compressible and its density varies with pressure and temperature, whereas for a liquid a constant density
can be safely assumed.
Generally it is easier to calculate pressure drops for single-phase flow than it is for multiphase flow. There
are several single-phase correlations that are available:
Fanning the Fanning correlation is divided into two sub categories Fanning Liquid and Fanning
Gas. The Fanning Gas correlation is also known as the Multi-step Cullender and Smith when
applied for vertical wellbores.
Panhandle the Panhandle correlation was developed originally for single-phase flow of gas
through horizontal pipes. n other words, the hydrostatic pressure difference is not taken into
account. We have applied the standard hydrostatic head equation to the vertical elevation of the
5
pipe to account for the vertical component of pressure drop. Thus our implementation of the
Panhandle equation includes BOTH horizontal and vertical flow components, and this equation
can be used for horizontal, uphill and downhill flow.
Modified Panhandle the Modified Panhandle correlation is a variation of the Panhandle
correlation that was found to be better suited to some transportation systems. Thus, it also
originally did not account for vertical flow. We have applied the standard hydrostatic head
equation to account for the vertical component of pressure drop. Hence our implementation of the
Modified Panhandle equation includes BOTH horizontal and vertical flow components, and this
equation can be used for horizontal, uphill and downhill flow.
Weymouth the Weymouth correlation is of the same form as the Panhandle and the Modified
Panhandle equations. t was originally developed for short pipelines and gathering systems. As a
result, it only accounts for horizontal flow and not for hydrostatic pressure drop. We have applied
the standard hydrostatic head equation to account for the vertical component of pressure drop.
Thus, our implementation of the Weymouth equation includes BOTH horizontal and vertical flow
components, and this equation can be used for horizontal, uphill and downhill flow.
n our software, for cases that involve a single phase, the Gray, the Hagedorn and Brown and the Beggs
and Brill correlations revert to the Fanning single-phase correlations. For example, if the Gray correlation
was selected but there was only gas in the system, the Fanning Gas correlation would be used. For cases
where there is a single phase, the Flanigan and Modified Flanigan correlations devolve to the single-phase
Panhandle and Modified Panhandle correlations respectively. The Weymouth (Multiphase) correlation
devloves to the single-phase Weymouth correlation.
References
Knudsen, J. G. and D. L. Katz (1958). Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill Book Co., nc.,
New York.
Chen, N. H., "An Explicit Equation for Friction Factor in Pipe," nd. Eng. Chem. Fund. (1979).
Panhandle Correlation
The original Panhandle correlation (Gas Processors Suppliers Association, 1980) was developed for
single-phase gas flow in horizontal pipes. As such, only the pressure drop due to friction was taken into
account by the Panhandle equation. However, we have applied the standard equation for calculating
hydrostatic head to the vertical component of the pipe, and thus our Panhandle correlation accounts for
horizontal, inclined and vertical pipes. The Panhandle correlation can only be used for single-phase gas
flow. The Fanning Liquid correlation should be used for single-phase liquid flow.
Panhandle - Friction Pressure Loss
The Panhandle correlation can be written as follows:
where:
The Panhandle equation incorporates a simplified representation of the friction factor, which is built into the
equation. To account for real life situations, the flow efficiency factor, E, was included in the equation. This
flow efficiency generally ranges from 0.8 to 0.95. Although we recognize that a common default for the flow
efficiency is 0.92, our software defaults to E = 0.85, as our experience has shown this to be more
appropriate (Mattar and Zaoral, 1984).
6
Panhandle - Hydrostatic Pressure Difference
The original Panhandle equation only accounted for Pf. However, by applying the hydrostatic head
calculations the Panhandle correlation has been adapted for vertical and inclined pipes. The hydrostatic
head is calculated by:
Nomenclature
D = pipe inside diameter (inch)
E = Panhandle/Weymouth efficiency factor
G = gas gravity
g = gravitational acceleration (32.2 ft/s2)
gc = conversion factor (32.2 (lbmft)/(lbfs2))
L = length (mile)
P = reference pressure for standard conditions (psia)
P1 =upstream pressure (psia)
P2 = downstream pressure (psia)
PHH = pressure change due to hydrostatic head (psi)
QG = gas flow rate at standard conditions, , , ft3/d
T = reference temperature for standard conditions (Rankin)
Ta = average temperature (Rankin)
Za = average compressibility factor
z = elevation change (ft)
G = gas density (lb/ft3)
References
Gas Processors Suppliers Association, Field Engineering Data Book, Vol. 2, 10th ed., Tulsa (1994)
Mattar, L. and Zaoral, K., "Gas Pipeline Efficiencies and Pressure Gradient Curves," JCPT 84-35-93
(1984)
7
Fanning Correlation
The Fanning friction factor pressure loss ( Pf) can be combined with the hydrostatic pressure difference (
PHH) to give the total pressure loss. The Fanning Gas Correlation (Multi-step Cullender and Smith) is the
name used in this document to refer to the calculation of the hydrostatic pressure difference ( PHH) and
the friction pressure loss ( Pf) for single-phase gas flow, using the following standard equations.
This formulation for pressure drop is applicable to pipes of all inclinations. When applied to a vertical
wellbore it is equivalent to the Cullender and Smith method. However, it is implemented as a multi-
segment procedure instead of a 2 segment calculation.
Fanning Gas - Friction Pressure Loss
The Fanning equation is widely thought to be the most generally applicable single phase equation for
calculating friction pressure loss. t utilizes friction factor charts (Knudsen and Katz, 1958), which are
functions of Reynold's number and relative pipe roughness. These charts are also often referred to as the
Moody charts. We use the equation form of the Fanning friction factor as published by Chen, 1979.
The method for calculating the Fanning Friction factor is the same for single-phase gas or single-phase
liquid.
Roughness
Flow Efficiency
Fanning Gas - Hydrostatic Pressure Difference
The calculation of hydrostatic head is different for a gas than for a liquid, because gas is compressible and
its density varies with pressure and temperature, whereas for a liquid a constant density can be safely
assumed. Either way the hydrostatic pressure difference is given by:
Since G varies with pressure, the calculation must be done sequentially in small steps to allow the
density to vary with pressure.
Fanning Liquid Correlation
The Fanning friction factor pressure loss ( Pf) can be combined with the hydrostatic pressure difference (
PHH) to give the total pressure loss. The Fanning Liquid Correlation is the name used in this program to
refer to the calculation of the hydrostatic pressure difference ( PHH) and the friction pressure loss ( Pf)
for single-phase liquid flow, using the following standard equations.
Fanning Liquid - Friction Pressure Loss
The Fanning equation is widely thought to be the most generally applicable single-phase equation for
calculating friction pressure loss. t utilizes friction factor charts (Knudsen and Katz, 1958), which are
functions of Reynold's number and relative pipe roughness. These charts are also often referred to as the
Moody charts. We use the equation form of the Fanning friction factor as published by Chen (1979).
8
The method for calculating the Fanning friction factor is the same for single-phase gas or single-phase
liquid.
Fanning Liquid - Hydrostatic Pressure Difference
The calculation of hydrostatic head is different for a gas than for a liquid, because gas is compressible and
its density varies with pressure and temperature, whereas for a liquid a constant density can be safely
assumed. For liquid, the hydrostatic pressure difference is given by:
Since does not vary with pressure, a constant value can be used for the entire length of the pipe.
Nomenclature
f = Fanning friction factor
gc = conversion factor (32.2 (lbm*ft)/(lbf*s2))
k/D = relative roughness (unitless)
L = length (ft)
Pf = pressure change due to friciton (psi)
Re = Reynold's number
V = velocity (ft/s)
z = elevation change
References
Chen, N. H., "An Explicit Equation for Friction Factor in Pipe," nd. Eng. Chem. Fund. (1979).
Cullender, M. H. and R. V. Smith (1956). Practical Solution of Gas-Flow Equations for Wells and Pipelines
with Large Temperature Gradients, Trans., AME, 207, 281-287.
Gas Processors and Suppliers Association, Engineering Data Book. Vol. 2, Sect. 17, 10th ed., 1994.
9
Knudsen, J. G. and D. L. Katz (1958). Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill Book Co., nc.,
New York.
Weymouth Correlation
This correlation is similar in its form to the Panhandle and the Modified Panhandle correlations. t was
designed for single-phase gas flow in pipelines. As such, it calculates only the pressure drop due to
friction. However, we have applied the standard equation for calculating hydrostatic head to the vertical
component of the pipe, and thus our Weymouth correlation accounts for HORZONTAL, NCLNED and
VERTCAL pipes. The Weymouth equation can only be used for single-phase gas flow. The Fanning
Liquid correlation should be used for single-phase liquid flow.
eymouth ! Friction Pressure Loss
The pressure drop due to friction is given by:
where:
The Weymouth equation incorporates a simplified representation of the friction factor, which is built into the
equation. To account for real life situations, the flow efficiency factor, E, was included in the equation. The
flow efficiency generally used is 1. Our software defaults to this value as well (Mattar and Zaoral, 1984).
eymouth ! Hydrostatic Pressure Difference
The original Weymouth equation only accounted for Pf . However, by applying the hydrostatic head
calculations, the Weymouth equation has been adapted for vertical and inclined pipes. The hydrostatic
head is calculated by:
Nomenclature
E = Panhandle/Weymouth efficiency factor
G = gas gravity
L = length (mile)
P = reference pressure for standard conditions (psia)
10
P1 =upstream pressure (psia)
P2 = downstream pressure (psia)
QG = gas flow rate at standard conditions, T,P, ft3/d
T = reference temperature for standard conditions (Rankin)
Ta = average temperature (Rankin)
Za = average compressibility factor
References
Gas Processors Suppliers Association, Field Engineering Data Book, Vol. 2, 10th ed., Tulsa (1994).
Mattar, L. and Zaoral, K., "Gas Pipeline Efficiencies and Pressure gradient Curves." JCPT 84-35-93
(1984).
Multiphase Flow
La presencia de fases mltiples complica grandemente los clculos de la cada de
presin. Esto es debido al hecho de que las propiedades presentes de cada uno
elocuente deben ser tomadas en consideracin. Tambin, las interacciones entre
cada fase tienen que ser consideradas. Las propiedades de las mezclas deben
ser usadas, y por eso las fracciones del gas y las lquidas del volumen in-situ a
todo lo largo de la tubera necesitan ser determinados. En general, todas las
correlaciones multifsicas son esencialmente de dos fase y no tres fase.
Consecuentemente, el petroleo y la fase de agua estn combinados, y son
tratados como una sola fase seudoliquida, mientras que el gas es considerado
como una una fase separada. Lo siguiente es una lista de conceptos generales
inherentes para el flujo multifsico
The presence of multiple phases greatly complicates pressure drop calculations. This is due to the fact
that the properties of each fluid present must be taken into account. Also, the interactions between each
phase have to be considered. Mixture properties must be used, and therefore the gas and liquid in-situ
volume fractions throughout the pipe need to be determined. n general, all multiphase correlations are
essentially two phase and not three phase. Accordingly, the oil and water phases are combined, and
treated as a pseudo single liquid phase, while gas is considered a separate phase. The following is a list of
general concepts inherent to multiphase flow. Click on each of them for a brief overview.
Superficial Velocities, Vsl, Vsg
Mixture Velocity, Vm
Liquid Holdup Effect
nput Volume Fraction, CL
n-situ Volume Fraction, EL
Mixture Viscosity,
No Slip Viscosity,
Mixture Density,
No Slip Density,
Surface Tension,
11
Multiphase Flow Correlations
Muchas de las correlaciones multifsicas publicadas de flujo multifsicas son aplicables
para el flujo !ertical s"lo# mientras los otros aplica sola para flujo hori$ontal %
&parte de la correlaci"n del 'eggs y 'rill# no hay muchas correlaciones (ue
fueron desarrolladas para el espectro total de situaciones de flujo (ue pueden
ser encontradas en operaciones de petroleo y degas) & saber cuesta arriba#
cuesta abajo# el flujo hori$ontal# inclinado y !ertical% Sin embargo# hemos
adaptado todas las correlaciones *seg+n el caso, a fin de (ue se apli(uen a todas
las situaciones del flujo% Lo siguiente es una lista de las correlaciones
multifsicas de flujo (ue estn disponibles%
Many of the published multiphase flow correlations are applicable for "vertical flow" only, while others
apply for "horizontal flow" only. Other than the Beggs and Brill correlation, there are not many correlations
that were developed for the whole spectrum of flow situations that can be encountered in oil and gas
operations; namely uphill, downhill, horizontal, inclined and vertical flow. However, we have adapted all of
the correlations (as appropriate) so that they apply to all flow situations. The following is a list of the
multiphase flow correlations that are available.
-%. /ray0 La Correlaci"n /ray *-123, fue desarrollada para el flujo !ertical en fluyo gas
humedo% Lo hemos modificado a fin de (ue se aplice al flujo en todas las direcciones
calculando la diferencia hidrosttica de presi"n usando unicamente la ele!aci"n !ertical
del segmento de la tuber4a y la perdida de presi"n debido a la fricci"n esta basada en la
longitud total de la tuber4a%
1. Gray: The Gray Correlation (1978) was developed for vertical flow in wet gas wells. We have
modified it so that it applies to flow in all directions by calculating the hydrostatic pressure
difference using only the vertical elevation of the pipe segment and the friction pressure loss
based on the total pipe length.
5%.6agedorn y 'rown0 La correlacion 6agedorn y 'rown *-178, fue desarrollada para el flujo
!ertical en po$os de petr"leo% 9ambi:n lo hemos modificado a fin de (ue se aplice al flujo en todas
las direcciones para el calculalo de la diferencia hidrosttica de presi"n usando unicamente la
ele!aci"n !ertical del segmento de la tuber4a y la presi"n de fricci"n (ue esta basada en la
longitud total de la tuber4a%
2. Hagedorn and Brown: The Hagedorn and Brown Correlation (1964) was developed for vertical
flow in oil wells. We have also modified it so that it applies to flow in all directions by calculating
the hydrostatic pressure difference using only the vertical elevation of the pipe segment and the
friction pressure loss based on the total pipe length.
;%. 'eggs y 'rill0 La 'eggs y Correlaci"n 'eggs *-12;, es uno de los menos publicados
correlaciones capaces de manejar en todos los direcciones de flujo% Fue desarrollado
usando secciones de tuber4a (ue estan inclin" en cual(uier ngulo%
3. Beggs and Brill: The Beggs and Brill Correlation (1973) is one of the few published correlations
capable of handling all of the flow directions. t was developed using sections of pipe that could
be inclined at any angle.
4. Flanigan: The Flanigan Correlation (1958) is an extention of the Panhandle single-phase
correlation to multiphase flow. t incorporates a correction for multiphase Flow Efficiency, and a
calculation of hydrostatic pressure difference to account for uphill flow. There is no hydrostatic
pressure recovery for downhill flow. n this software, the Flanigan multiphase correlation is also
applied to the Modified Panhandle and Weymouth correlations. t is recommended that this
correlation not be used beyond +/- 10 degrees from the horizontal.
5. Modified-Flanigan: The Modified Flanigan Correlation is an extention of the Modified Panhandle
single-phase equation to multiphase flow. t incorporates the Flanigan correction of the Flow
Efficiency for multiphase flow and a calculation of hydrostatic pressure difference to account for
uphill flow. There is no hydrostatic pressure recovery for downhill flow. n this software, the
12
Flanigan multiphase correlation is also applied to the Panhandle and Weymouth correlations. t is
recommended that this correlation not be used beyond +/- 10 degrees from the horizontal.
6. Weymouth (Multiphase): The Weymouth (Multiphase) is an extension of the Weymouth single-
phase equation to multiphase flow. t incorporates the Flanigan correction of the Flow Efficiency
for multiphase flow and a calculation of hydrostatic pressure difference to account for uphill flow.
There is no hydrostatic pressure recovery for downhill flow. n this software, the Flanigan
correlation is also applied to the Panhandle and Modified Panhandle correlations. t is
recommended that this correlation not be used beyond +/- 10 degrees from the horizontal.
Each of these correlations was developed for it's own unique set of experimental conditions, and
accordingly, results will vary between them.
Single Phase Gas
n the case of single-phase gas, the available correlations are the Panhandle, Modified Panhandle,
Weymouth and Fanning Gas. These correlations were developed for horizontal pipes, but have been
adapted to vertical and inclined flow by including the hydrostatic pressure component. n vertical flow
situations, the Fanning Gas is equivalent to a multi-step Cullender and Smith calculation.
Single Phase Liquid
n the case of single-phase liquid, the available correlation is the Fanning Liquid. t has been implemented
to apply to horizontal, inclined and vertical wells.
For multiphase flow in essentially horizontal pipes, the available correlations are Beggs and Brill, Gray,
Hagedorn and Brown, Flanigan, Modified-Flanigan and Weymouth (Multiphase). All of these correlations
are accessible on the Pipe page and the Comparison page.
"ultiphase Flo#
For multiphase flow in essentially vertical wells, the available correlations are Beggs and Brill, Gray, and
Hagedorn and Brown. f used for single-phase flow, these three correlations devolve to the Fanning Gas or
Fanning Liquid correlation.
When switching from multiphase flow to single-phase flow, the correlation will default to the Fanning.
When switching from single-phase flow to multiphase flow, the correlation will default to the Beggs and
Brill.
mportant Notes
The Flanigan, Modified-Flanigan and Weymouth (Multiphase) correlations can give erroneous
results if the pipe described deviates substantially (more than 10 degrees) from the horizontal.
The Gray and Hagedorn and Brown correlations were derived for vertical wells and may not apply
to horizontal pipes.
n our software, the Gray, the Hagedorn and Brown and the Beggs and Brill correlations revert to
the appropriate single-phase Fanning correlation (Fanning Liquid or Fanning Gas. The Flanigan,
Modified-Flanigan and Weymouth (Multiphase) revert to the Panhandle, Modified Panhandle and
Weymouth respectively. However, they may not be used for single-phase liquid flow.
Single Phase & Multiphase Correlations

Multiphase

/as Li(uid
13
Correlations Vertical Horizontal Vertical Horizontal
Fanning-Gas

Fanning-Liquid
*
Panhandle

Modified Panhandle

Weymouth

Beggs & Brill
* * * *
Gray
*
Hagedorn & Brown
*
Flanigan
*
Modified-Flanigan
*
Weymouth
(Multiphase)
*
Mechanistic Model
* * * *
Mechanistic Model
Determine Flo# Pattern
To determine a flow pattern, we do the following:
Begin with one flow pattern and test for stability.
Check the next pattern.
Build Flow Pattern Map.
$%ample Flo# Pattern "ap
14
Dispersed &u''le Flo#
Exists if
where
and if
Stratified Flo#
Exists if flow is downward or horizontal ( 0)
Calculate (dimensionless liquid height)
Momentum Balance Equations
15
where
and
fG from standard methods where
fL from
where
fsL from standard methods where
16
fi from
where
Use Lochhart-Martinelli Parameters
where
where
Geometric Variables:
17
Solve for hL/D iteratively.
b. Stratified flow exists if
(Note: when cos 0.02 then cos = 0.02)
where
18
and
(Note: when cos 0.02 then cos = 0.02)
Stratified smooth versus Stratified Wavy
if
where
and
then have Stratified Smooth, else have Stratified Wavy.
(nnular "ist Flo#
Calculate (dimensionless liquid height)
Momentum Balance Equations
where
19
and
(1)
from standard methods where
from standard methods where
20
fi from
(2)
Use Lochhart-Martinelli Parameters
where
where
Geometric Variables:
21
Solve for iteratively.
Annular Mist Flow exists if
where from
Solve iteratively for
22
&u''le Flo#
Bubble flow exists if
(3)
where:C1 = 0.5
= 1.3
db = 7mm
(4)
n addition, transition to bubble flow from intermittent flow occurs when
where:
(see ntermittent flow for additional definitions).
)ntermittent Flo#
ntermittent flow exists if
23
where:
f EL > 1, EL = CL
and:
where is from standard methods where:
for fm < 1, fm = 1
where is from standard methods where:
24
if
b. f and then Slug Flow
c. f and then Elongated Bubble Flow
6. Froth Flow
f none of the transition criteria for intermittent flow are met, then the flow pattern is designated as Froth,
implying a transitional state between the other flow regimes.
Footnotes
,
1. where:p G (lb/ft3), p L (lb/ft3), VSG (ft/s),
(cP), o(dyn/cm)
25
2. ,
where: p C (lb/ft3), VC (ft/s), DC (ft), (dyn/cm)
3. , where: p L (lb/ft3), p G (lb/ft3),
(dyn/cm)
4. , where: p L (lb/ft3), p
G (lb/ft3), (dyn/cm)
5. ,
where: D (ft), p L (lb/ft3), p G (lb/ft3), (dyn/cm)
6. ,
where: p L (lb/ft3), p G (lb/ft3), (dyn/cm)
Nomenclature
A = cross sectional area
C0 = velocity distribution coefficient
D = pipe internal diameter
E = in situ volume fraction
FE = liquid fraction entrained
g = acceleration due to gravity
hL = height of liquid (stratified flow)
L = length
P = pressure
Re = Reynolds number
26
S = contact perimeter
VSG = superficial gas velocity
VSL = superficial liquid velocity
= liquid film thickness
= pipe roughness
pressure gradient weighting factor (intermittent flow)
= Angle of inclination
= viscosity
= density
= interfacial (surface) tension
= shear stress
= dimensionless quantity
Su'scripts
b = relating to the gas bubble
c = relating to the gas core
F = relating to the liquid film
db = relating to dispersed bubbles
G = relating to gas phase
i = relating to interface
L = relating to liquid phase
m = relating to mixture
SG = based on superficial gas velocity
s = relating to liquid slug
SL = based on superficial liquid velocity
wL = relating to wall-liquid interface
wG = relating to wall-gas interface
C0 = velocity distribution coefficient
27
References
Petalas, N., Aziz, K.: "A Mechanistic Model for Multiphase Flow in Pipes," J. Pet. Tech. (June 2000), 43-
55.
Petalas, N., Aziz, K.: "Development and Testing of a New Mechanistic Model for Multiphase Flow in
Pipes," ASME 1996 Fluids Engineering Division Conference (1996), FED-Vol 236, 153-159.
Gomez, L.E. et al.: "Unified Mechanistic Model for Steady-State Two-Phase Flow," Petalas, N., Aziz, K.: "A
Mechanistic Model for Multiphase Flow in Pipes," SPE Journal (September 2000), 339-350.
'eggs &nd 'rill Correlation
For multiphase flow, many of the published correlations are applicable for "vertical flow" only, while others
apply for "horizontal flow" only. Not many correlations apply to the whole spectrum of flow situations that
may be encountered in oil and gas operations, namely uphill, downhill, horizontal, inclined and vertical
flow. The Beggs and Brill (1973) correlation, is one of the few published correlations capable of handling
all these flow directions. t was developed using 1" and 1-1/2" sections of pipe that could be inclined at any
angle from the horizontal.
The Beggs and Brill multiphase correlation deals with both the friction pressure loss and the hydrostatic
pressure difference. First the appropriate flow regime for the particular combination of gas and liquid rates
(Segregated, ntermittent or Distributed) is determined. The liquid holdup, and hence, the in-situ density of
the gas-liquid mixture is then calculated according to the appropriate flow regime, to obtain the hydrostatic
pressure difference. A two-phase friction factor is calculated based on the "input" gas-liquid ratio and the
Fanning friction factor. From this the friction pressure loss is calculated using "input" gas-liquid mixture
properties.
f only a single-phase fluid is flowing, the Beggs and Brill multi-phase correlation devolves to the Fanning
Gas or Fanning Liquid correlation.
See Also: Pressure Drop Correlations, Multiphase Flow Correlations
Flo# Pattern "ap
Unlike the Gray or the Hagedorn and Brown correlations, the Beggs and Brill correlation requires that a
flow pattern be determined. Since the original flow pattern map was created, it has been modified. We
have used this modified flow pattern map for our calculations. The transition lines for the modified
correlation are defined as follows:
The flow type can then be readily determined either from a representative flow pattern map or according to
the following conditions, where
.
SEGREGATED flow
28
if
and
Or
and
NTERMTTENT flow
if and
or and
DSTRBUTED flow
if and
or and
TRANSTON flow
if and
Hydrostatic Pressure Difference
Once the flow type has been determined then the liquid holdup can be calculated. Beggs and Brill divided
the liquid holdup calculation into two parts. First the liquid holdup for horizontal flow, EL(0), is determined,
and then this holdup is modified for inclined flow. EL(0) must be CL and therefore when EL(0) is smaller
than CL, EL(0) is assigned a value of CL. There is a separate EL(0) for each flow type.
SEGREGATED
NTERMTTENT
DSTRBUTED
29
V.TRANSTON
Where
Once the horizontal in situ liquid volume fraction is determined, the actual liquid volume fraction is obtained
by multiplying EL(0) by an inclination factor, B( ). i.e.
where
is a function of flow type, the direction of inclination of the pipe (uphill flow or downhill flow), the liquid
velocity number (Nvl), and the mixture Froude Number (Frm). Nvl is defined as:
For UPHLL flow:
SEGREGATED
NTERMTTENT
30
DSTRBUTED
For DOWNHLL flow:
, , . ALL flow types
Note: must always be 0. Therefore, if a negative value is calculated for , = 0.
Once the liquid holdup (EL( )) is calculated, it is used to calculate the mixture density ( m). The mixture
density is, in turn, used to calculate the pressure change due to the hydrostatic head of the vertical
component of the pipe or well.
&eggs and &rill - Friction Pressure Loss
The first step to calculating the pressure drop due to friction is to calculate the empirical parameter S. The
value of S is governed by the following conditions:
if 1 < y < 1.2, then
otherwise,
where:
Note: Severe instabilities have been observed when these equations are used as published. Our
implementation has modified them so that the instabilities have been eliminated.
A ratio of friction factors is then defined as follows:
31
is the no-slip friction factor. We use the Fanning friction factor, calculated using the Chen equation.
The no-slip Reynolds Number is also used, and it is defined as follows:
Finally, the expression for the pressure loss due to friction is:
Nomenclature
CL = liquid input volume fraction
D = inside pipe diameter (ft)
EL(0) = horizontal liquid holdup
EL( ) = inclined liquid holdup
ftp = two phase friction factor
fNS = no-slip friction factor
Frm = Froude Mixture Number
L = length of pipe (ft)
Nvl = liquid velocity number
Vm = mixture velocity (ft/s)
Vsl = superficial liquid velocity (ft/s)
NS = no-slip viscosity (cp)
= angle of inclination from the horizontal (degrees)
32
L = liquid density (lb/ft3)
NS = no-slip density (lb/ft3)
m = mixture density (lb/ft3)
= gas/liquid surface tension (dynes/cm)
Reference
Beggs, H. D., and Brill, J.P., "A Study of Two-Phase Flow in nclined Pipes," JPT, 607-617, May 1973.
Source: JPT.
Flanigan Correlation
The Flanigan correlation is an extension of the Panhandle single-phase correlation to multiphase flow. t
was developed to account for the additional pressure loss caused by the presence of liquids. The
correlation is empirical and is based on studies of small amounts of condensate in gas lines. To account
for liquids, Flanigan developed a relationship for the Flow Efficiency term of the Panhandle equation as a
function of liquid to gas ratio. Since the Panhandle equation applied to essentially horizontal flow, Flanigan
also developed a liquid holdup factor to account for the hydrostatic pressure difference in upward inclined
flow. For downhill, there is no hydrostatic pressure recovery.
As noted previously, the Flanigan correlation was developed for essentially horizontal flow. Consequently,
it is not applicable in vertical flow situations such as vertical wellbores. Therefore, the Flanigan correlation
is only available on the Pipe and Comparison pages. Care should be taken when applying the Flanigan
correlation to situations other than essentially horizontal flow. The effects of using the Flanigan correlation
can be investigated using the Comparison module.
n this program , the Flanigan correlation has been applied to the Panhandle, Modified Panhandle and
Weymouth correlations in the same way, by adjusting the hydrostatic pressure difference using the
Flanigan holdup factor and by using the appropriate efficiency (E) for multiphase flow.
Flanigan - Hydrostatic Pressure Difference
When calculating the pressure losses due to hydrostatic effects the Flanigan correlation ignores downhill
flow. The hydrostatic head caused by the liquid content is calculated as follows:
where:
hi = the vertical "rises" of the individual sections of the pipeline (ft)
EL = Flanigan holdup factor (in-situ liquid volume fraction)
The Flanigan holdup factor is calculated using the following equation.
33
Flanigan ! Friction Pressure Loss
n the Flanigan correlation, the friction pressure drop calculation accounts for liquids by adjusting the
Panhandle/Weymouth efficiency ( ) according to the following plot.
Notice that when there is mostly gas (the liquid to gas ratio is very small), the Panhandle efficiency is
around 0.85 (close to the single-phase default for gas) and as the quantity of liquids increases, the
efficiency decreases.
"odified-Flanigan Correlation
The Modified-Flanigan is equivalent to the Flanigan correlation applied to the Modified Panhandle single-
phase correlation. The Flanigan correlation was developed as a method to account for the additional
pressure loss caused by the presence of liquids. The correlation is empirical and is based on studies of
small amounts of condensate in gas lines. To account for liquids, Flanigan developed a relationship for the
Flow Efficiency term of the Panhandle equation as a function of liquid to gas ratio. n addition, Flanigan
developed a liquid holdup factor to account for the hydrostatic pressure difference in upward inclined flow.
For downhill, there is no hydrostatic pressure recovery.
As noted previously, the Flanigan correlation was developed for essentially horizontal flow. Consequently,
it is not applicable in vertical flow situations such as vertical wellbores. Therefore, the Flanigan correlation,
and hence the Modified-Flanigan correlation, is only available on the Pipe and Comparison pages. Care
should be taken when applying the Modified-Flanigan correlation to situations other than essentially
horizontal flow. The effects of using the Modified-Flanigan correlation can be investigated using the
Comparison module.
n this program , the Flanigan correlation has been applied to the Panhandle, Modified Panhandle and
Weymouth correlations in the same way, by adjusting the hydrostatic pressure difference using the
Flanigan holdup factor and by using the appropriate efficiency ( ) for multiphase flow.
"odified-Flanigan - Hydrostatic Pressure Difference
When calculating the pressure losses due to hydrostatic effects the Flanigan correlation ignores downhill
flow. The hydrostatic head caused by the liquid content is calculated as follows:
34
where:
The Flanigan holdup factor is calculated using the following equation.
"odified-Flanigan ! Friction Pressure Loss
n the Flanigan correlation, the friction pressure drop calculation accounts for liquids by adjusting the
Panhandle/Weymouth efficiency ( ) according to the following plot. The plot has been normalized for
the Modified-Flanigan correlation, so that when there is mostly gas, the efficiency is around 0.80 (close to
the single-phase default for gas)
Notice that as the quantity of liquids increases, the efficiency decreases.
Nomenclature
E = Panhandle/Weymouth efficiency
35
PHH = pressure loss due to hydrostatic head (psi)
Pf = pressure change due to friction (psi)
Vsg = superficial gas velocity (ft/s)
Reference
Flanigan, O., "Effect of Uphill Flow on Pressure Drop in Design of Two-Phase Gathering Systems", O&GJ,
Vol. 56, No. 10, p. 132, March (1958).
/ray Correlation
The Gray correlation was developed by H.E. Gray (Gray, 1978), specifically for wet gas wells. Although
this correlation was developed for vertical flow, we have implemented it in both vertical, and inclined pipe
pressure drop calculations. To correct the pressure drop for situations with a horizontal component, the
hydrostatic head has only been applied to the vertical component of the pipe while friction is applied to the
entire length of pipe.
First, the in-situ liquid volume fraction is calculated. The in-situ liquid volume fraction is then used to
calculate the mixture density, which is in turn used to calculate the hydrostatic pressure difference. The
input gas liquid mixture properties are used to calculate an "effective" roughness of the pipe. This effective
roughness is then used in conjunction with a constant Reynolds Number of to calculate the Fanning
friction factor. The pressure difference due to friction is calculated using the Fanning friction pressure loss
equation. For a more detailed look at each step, make a selection from the following list:
Gray - Hydrostatic Pressure Difference
The Gray correlation uses three dimensionless numbers, in combination, to predict the in situ liquid volume
fraction. These three dimensionless numbers are:
where:
They are then combined as follows:
36
where:
Once the liquid holdup (EL) is calculated it is used to calculate the mixture density ( m). The mixture
density is, in turn, used to calculate the pressure change due to the hydrostatic head of the vertical
component of the pipe or well.
Note: For the equations found in the Gray correlation, is given in lbf/s2. We have implemented them
using with units of dynes/cm and have converted the equations by multiplying by 0.00220462.
(0.00220462dynes/cm = 1lbf/s2)
Gray - Friction Pressure Loss
The Gray Correlation assumes that the effective roughness of the pipe (ke) is dependent on the value of
Rv. The conditions are as follows:
if then
if then
where:
The effective roughness (ke) must be larger than or equal to 2.77 10-5.
37
The relative roughness of the pipe is then calculated by dividing the effective roughness by the diameter of
the pipe. The Fanning friction factor is obtained using the Chen equation and assuming a Reynolds
Number (Re) of 107. Finally, the expression for the friction pressure loss is:
Note: The original publication contained a misprint (0.0007 instead of 0.007). Also, the surface tension ( )
is given in units of lbf/s2. We used a conversion factor of 0.00220462 dynes/cm = 1 lbf/s2.
Nomenclature
CL = liquid input volume fraction
EL = in-situ liquid volume fraction (liquid holdup)
ftp = two-phase friction factor
k = absolute roughness of the pipe (in)
ke = effective roughness (in)
L = length of pipe (ft)
= gas / liquid surface tension (lbf/s2)
38
Reference
American Petroleum nstitute,AP Manual 14B, "Subsurface Controlled Subsurface Safety Valve Sizing
Computer Program ", Appendix B, Second Ed., Jan. (1978)
6agedorn and 'rown Correlation
Experimental data obtained from a 1500ft deep, instrumented vertical well was used in the development of
the Hagedorn and Brown correlation. Pressures were measured for flow in tubing sizes that ranged from 1
" to 1 " OD. A wide range of liquid rates and gas/liquid ratios were used. As with the Gray correlation, our
software will calculate pressure drops for horizontal and inclined flow using the Hagedorn and Brown
correlation, although the correlation was developed strictly for vertical wells. The software uses only the
vertical depth to calculate the pressure loss due to hydrostatic head, and the entire pipe length to calculate
friction.
The Hagedorn and Brown method has been modified for the Bubble Flow regime (Economides et al,
1994). f bubble flow exists the Griffith correlation is used to calculate the in-situ volume fraction. n this
case the Griffith correlation is also used to calculate the pressure drop due to friction. f bubble flow does
not exist then the original Hagedorn and Brown correlation is used to calculate the in-situ liquid volume
fraction. Once the in-situ volume fraction is determined, it is compared with the input volume fraction. f the
in-situ volume fraction is smaller than the input volume fraction, the in-situ fraction is set to equal the input
fraction (EL = CL). Next, the mixture density is calculated using the in-situ volume fraction and used to
calculate the hydrostatic pressure difference. The pressure difference due to friction is calculated using a
combination of "in-situ" and "input" gas-liquid mixture properties. For further details on any of these steps
select a topic from the following list:
Hagedorn and &ro#n - Hydrostatic Pressure Difference
The Hagedorn and Brown correlation uses four dimensionless parameters to correlate liquid holdup.
These four parameters are:
Various combinations of these parameters are then plotted against each other to determine the liquid
holdup.
For the purposes of program ming, these curves were converted into equations. The first curve provides a
value for CNL. This CNL value is then used to calculate a dimensionless group, . can then be
39
obtained from a plot of vs. . Finally, the third curve is a plot of vs. another dimensionless
group of numbers, . Therefore, the in-situ liquid volume fraction, which is denoted by EL, is
calculated by:
The hydrostatic head is once again calculated by the standard equation:
where:
Hagedorn and &ro#n - Friction Pressure Loss
The friction factor is calculated using the Chen equation and a Reynolds number equal to:
Note: n the Hagedorn and Brown correlation the mixture viscosity is given by:
The pressure loss due to friction is then given by:
where:
Modifications
We have implemented two modifications to the original Hagedorn and Brown Correlation. The first
modification is simply the replacement of the liquid holdup value with the "no-slip" (input) liquid volume
fraction if the calculated liquid holdup is less than the "no-slip" liquid volume fraction.
40
if
then
The second modification involves the use of the Griffith correlation (1961) for the bubble flow regime.
Bubble flow exists if where:
f the calculated value of is less than 0.13 then is set to 0.13. f the flow regime is found to be
bubble flow then the Griffith correlation is applied, otherwise the original Hagedorn and Brown correlation
is used.
*he Griffith Correlation +"odification to the Hagedorn and &ro#n
Correlation,
n the Griffith correlation the liquid holdup is given by:
where:Vs = 0.8 ft/s
The in-situ liquid velocity is given by:
The hydrostatic head is then calculated the standard way.
The pressure drop due to friction is also affected by the use of the Griffith correlation because enters
into the calculation of the Reynolds Number via the in-situ liquid velocity. The Reynolds Number is
calculated using the following format:
The single phase liquid density, in-situ liquid velocity and liquid viscosity are used to calculate the
Reynolds Number. This is unlike the majority of multiphase correlations, which usually define the Reynolds
Number in terms of mixture properties not single phase liquid properties. The Reynolds number is then
used to calculate the friction factor using the Chen equation. Finally, the friction pressure loss is calculated
as follows:
41
The liquid density and the in-situ liquid velocity are used to calculate the pressure drop due to friction.
Nomenclature
CL = input liquid volume fraction
CG = input gas volume fraction
L = length of calculation segment (ft)
VL = in-situ liquid velocity (ft/s)
= liquid viscosity (cp)
= mixture viscosity (cp)
= gas viscosity (cp)
42
= (lb/ft3)
= gas / liquid surface tension (dynes/cm)
References
Economides, M.J. et al, Petroleum Production Systems. New Jersey: Prentice Hall nc., 1994.
Hagedorn, A.R., Brown, K.E., "Experimental Study of Pressure Gradients Occurring During Continuous
Two-Phase Flow in Small Diameter Vertical Conduits", JPT, p.475, April. (1965)
9urner Correlation
R. G. Turner, M. G. Hubbard and A. E Dukler first presented the Turner correlation at the SPE Gas
Technology Symposium held in Omaha, Nebraska, September 12 and 13, 1968. The correlation (SPE
paper 2198) calculates the minimum gas flow rate required to lift liquids out of a wellbore and is often
referred to as The Liquid Lift Equation or Critical Flow Rate Calculation for Lifting Liquids. n F.A.S.T.
Virtuwell, this correlation is used to test for stable wellbore flow.
*heoretical &ac-ground
The Turner correlation assumes free flowing liquid in the wellbore forms droplets suspended in the gas
stream. Two forces act on these droplets. The first is the force of gravity pulling the droplets down and the
second is drag force due to flowing gas pushing the droplets upward. f the velocity of the gas is sufficient,
the drops are carried to surface. f not, they fall and accumulate in the wellbore.
The correlation was developed from droplet theory. The theoretical calculations were then compared to
field data and a 20% fudge factor was built-in. The correlation is generally very accurate and was
formulated using easily obtained oilfield data. Consequently, it has been widely accepted in the petroleum
industry. The model was verified to about 130 bbl/MMscf.
The Turner correlation was formulated for free water production and free condensate production in the
wellbore. The calculation of minimum gas velocity for each follows:
From the minimum gas velocity, the minimum gas flow rate required to lift free liquids can then be
calculated using:
43
where:
A = cross-sectional area of flow (ft2)
G = gas gravity
k = calculation variable
P = pressure (psia)
qg = gas flow rate (MMscfd)
T = temperature (R)
vg = minimum gas velocity required to lift liquids (ft/s)
Z = compressibility factor (supercompressibility)
(pplication of the *urner Correlation
There are two ways to calculate the liquid lift rate in F.A.S.T. Virtuwell. First of all, the Liquid Lift page
may be used. This requires the entry of pressure, temperature and tubing Ds to calculate the
corresponding gas rates to lift water and condensate. As well, a liquid lift rate is calculated in conjunction
with each Tubing Performance Curve on the Gas AOF/TPC page. t is represented on the tubing
performance curve by a circle listing the number identifying the tubing performance curve. To the right of
the liquid lift rate, the tubing performance curve is a solid green line. To the left, it is a dotted red line. The
solid green line represents stable flow, i.e. the wellbore will lift liquids continuously. The dotted red line
represents unstable flow. f the Tubing Performance Curve is a dotted red line over the entire range of flow
rates represented, the circled number is placed in the middle of the curve solely for identification. The
calculated liquid lift rates for each tubing performance curve are tabulated in the Liquid Lift module.
The Turner correlation incorporates separate equations for water and condensate. The liquid lift rate
calculated on the Gas AOF/TPC pages will be the rate associated with the heaviest liquid in the wellbore.
For example, if the flow through the wellbore includes gas, condensate and water, the liquid lift rate will be
calculated for water. f there is no liquid flow in the wellbore, the liquid lift rate is also calculated for water.
mportant Notes
f both condensate and water are present, use the Turner correlation for water to judge behaviour
of a system.
t is very important to note that the Turner correlation utilizes the cross-sectional area of the flow
path when calculating liquid lift rates. For example, if the flow path is through the tubing, the
minimum gas rate to lift water and condensate will be calculated using the tubing inside diameter.
When the tubing depth is higher in the wellbore than the mid-point of perforations (MPP) in a
vertical well, the Turner correlation does not consider the rate required to lift liquids between the
MPP and the end of the tubing. Ultimately, the liquid lift rate calculations are based on the inside
diameter (D) of the tubing or the area of the annulus and not on the casing D unless flow is up
the "casing only".
"inimum Gas Rate to Lift Condensate
This is the minimum gas rate at which condensate will be lifted continuously. This rate is calculated based
on the Turner correlation. First the required gas velocity is found:
44
where:
G = gas gravity
P = pressure (psia)
T = temperature (R)
z = compressibility factor (supercompressibility)
This leads to an expression for the Turner calculated gas rate:
where:
qg = gas flow rate Mcfd (103m3/d)
As pressure increases, so does the minimum gas rate to lift water or condensate. Therefore, to determine
the minimum gas rate to lift water or condensate in a wellbore, it is recommended that the highest
pressure in the wellbore be used. This is typically the flowing sandface pressure. n his original work,
Turner (1969) recommends that the wellhead pressure be used. n our research also supported by Lea Jr.
(1983), we have found that generally, if the sandface pressure is known, it and not the wellhead pressure
should be used to calculate the minimum gas rate to lift liquids.
"inimum Gas Rate to Lift ater
This is the minimum gas rate at which water will be lifted continuously. This rate is calculated based on the
Turner correlation. First the required gas velocity is found:
where:
G = gas gravity
45
P = pressure (psia)
T = temperature (R)
z = compressibility factor (supercompressibility)
This leads to an expression for the Turner calculated gas rate:
where:
qg = gas flow rate (MMscfd)
As pressure increases, so does the minimum gas rate to lift water or condensate. Therefore, to determine
the minimum gas rate to lift water or condensate in a wellbore, it is recommended that the highest
pressure in the wellbore be used. This is typically the flowing sandface pressure. n his original work,
Turner (1969) recommends that the wellhead pressure be used. n our research also supported by Lea Jr.
(1983), we have found that generally, if the sandface pressure is known, it and not the wellhead pressure
should be used to calculate the minimum gas rate to lift liquids.
UNTS: MMcfd (10 3 m 3 /d) DEFAULT: none
References
Lea Jr., J.F.and Tighe, R.E., "Gas Well Operation With Liquid Production," SPE Paper No. 11583,
presented at the 1983 Production Operation Symposium, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, February 27 March
1, 1983.
Turner, R.G., Hubbard, M.G., and Dukler, A.E.: "Analysis and
46
Cho<e Si$ing
Single.Phase Flow
/as Mass Flow
The relationship which describes the mass flow of a single-phase gas through a choke can be generically
written as:
where
With the gas density at standard conditions, the gas mass flowrate is readily converted into a daily
standard volumetric flowrate.
47
This equation applies only at the critical pressure ratio, . The critical pressure ratio can be calculated
from
Li(uid Mass Flow
Single-phase liquids flowing through a restriction almost never reach the critical velocity, which is many
times that for single-phase gas. The flowrate can be related to the pressure drop across the restriction with
the following relationship:
where
The choke flow coefficient is a function of the Reynolds number in the choke throat and so the solution is
necessarily iterative, but convergence is quite rapid.
=awlins.Schellhardt
Rawlins and Schellhardt give us a form of the equation for gas flow through chokes under critical flow
conditions which is dependent only on the upstream pressure. Rawlins and Schellhardt based their
equation on ideal gas at a standard pressure of 14.4 psia. Correction for non-ideality and for a standard
pressure other than 14.4 psia is included in the following equation:
where
S$ilas
Szilas gives us an alternate form of the gas mass flow equation and with constants and conversion factors
for field units, as:
48
where
This equation applies both at and above the critical pressure ratio, .
Multiphase Flow
&shford.Pierce
Ashford and Pierce developed a correlation specifically describing multiphase flow through safety valves
and tested it against field data. Their correlation has the form:
with
and where
49
This relationship applies both at and above the critical pressure ratio, .
Ashford and Pierce further define the critical pressure ratio, , as
where
As this is implicit in , it must be solved iteratively.
The Ashford-Pierce relationship cannot directly be applied here because oil may or may not be one of the
flowing phases. However, their relationship for the fluid velocity downstream of the choke gives rise to an
alternative approach which is amenable to solution with gas plus one or more liquid phases present:
where
50
Assuming critical flow in the choke throat, the downstream pressure and fluid velocity can be calculated,
and with the latter plus the produced fluid ratios, the mass flowrate of each phase is obtainable.
&chong
Achong updated Gilbert's relationship on the basis of data from oil wells in the Lake Maracaibo field of
Venezuela. The rate of multiphase flow through a choke and the upstream pressure are, according to
Achong, correlated by the following relationship:
where
'a>endell
Baxendell's correlation linking the rate of multiphase flow through a choke and the upstream pressure
and fundamentally an update of the Gilbert correlation is:
where
/ilbert
51
Gilbert developed a generalized correlation based on data from flowing oil wells in the Ten Section field of
California. The rate of multiphase flow through a choke and the upstream pressure can be correlated,
according to Gilbert, by the following relationship:
where
?mana et al%
Omana et al. carried out field experiments in the Tiger Lagoon field of Louisiana with natural gas and water
flowing through restrictions. Carrying out a dimensional analysis, Omana derived the following correlation:
with
and where
Reliable use of Omana's correlation is limited to an upstream pressure range of 400 1000 psig, 800 bbl/d
maximum liquid flowrate, and choke sizes from 4/64" to 14/64". t should be applicable for both bottomhole
and surface chokes.
=os
52
The rate of multiphase flow through a choke and the upstream pressure are, according to Ros on the basis
of Gilbert's and other prior work, correlated by the following relationship:
where
=eferences
Achong, ., "Revised Bean Performance Formula for Lake Maracaibo Wells", internal co. report,
Shell Oil Co., Houston, TX, Oct 1961
Ashford, F.E. and Pierce, P.E., "Determining Multiphase Pressure Drops and Flow Capacities in
Down-Hole Safety Valves", SPE Paper No. 5161, J. Pet. Tech., Sep 1975, 1145
Baxendell, P.B., "Bean Performance Lake Maracaibo Wells", internal co. report, Shell Oil Co.,
Houston, TX, Oct 1967
Gilbert, W.E., "Flowing and Gas-Lift Well Performance", Drill. & Prod. Practice, 1954, 126
Omana, R., Houssiere, C. Jr., Brown, K.E., Brill, J.P., and Thompson, R.E., "Multiphase Flow
Through Chokes", SPE Paper No. 2682, paper presented at Annual Fall Meeting of the SPE of
AME, Denver, CO, Sep 28 Oct 1, 1969
Ros, N.C.J., "An Analysis of Critical Simultaneous Gas-Liquid Flow Through a Restriction and ts
/lossary
&bsolute ?pen Flow *&?F,
The Absolute Open Flow potential of a well is the rate at which the well would produce against zero
sandface backpressure. Flow into a well depends on both the reservoir characteristics and the wellbore
flowing pressure. The relationship of inflow rate to bottomhole flowing pressure is called the PR (nflow
Performance Relationship). For gas wells, this may also be called the AOF curve. F.A.S.T. VirtuWell
presents this relationship in the form of a pressure versus flow rate graph. From this graph, the well's flow
potential can be determined at various flowing sandface pressures. As well, the operating point (flow rate
and pressure) of a particular wellbore configuration can be determined from the intersection of the AOF
curve and the Tubing Performance Curve (TPC).
F.A.S.T. VirtuWell uses the simplified analysis approach to determine AOF's. This approach is based on
the following equation:
53
where
q = flow rate at standard conditions (MMcfd, 103m3/d)
P = shut-in pressure (in the case of a Sandface AOF, this is the static reservoir pressure (psia, kPaA)
Pf = flowing pressure (psia, kPaA)
C = a coefficient which describes the position of the stabilized deliverability line (MMcfd/(psi2)n, 103m3/d/
(kPa2)n)
N = an exponent to describe the inverse of the slope of the stabilized deliverability line (n varies between
1.0 for completely laminar flow and 0.5 for fully turbulent flow.)
This equation applies to both sandface and wellhead AOF's. f a sandface AOF is being calculated, all
components of the equation refer to the sandface and vice-versa with wellhead AOF calculations. The Gas
AOF/TPC page requires sandface AOF's for its calculations. f only a wellhead AOF is known, a sandface
AOF may be calculated using the SF/WH AOF page. Care must be taken here when dealing with multi-
phase flow as instabilities can occur.
Note: n order to represent a reservoir which is depleting due to pressure loss, several AOF curves may be
drawn on the Gas AOF/TPC page. Each successive AOF curve will have a consistent n and c with a
declining reservoir pressure. n order to model rate decline caused by wellbore liquid problems, the
reservoir pressure and n may be kept constant, and the AOF or C varied to account for the effects of
liquids.
For oil wells, there is no AOF, so instead a similar concept is used. AOFP (absolute open flow potential)
represents the maximum value of oil flow as the pressure approaches zero. This is analogous to AOF
(absolute open flow) with a gas well.
&ngle
A calculated angle of the wellbore that is based on entered values of MD and TVD.
&?F @(uation @>ponent# n
This is the exponent found in the Absolute Open Flow (AOF) equation.
t describes the inverse of the slope of the stabilized deliverability line. "n" varies between 1.0 for
completely laminar flow and 0.5 for fully turbulent flow.
t is generally accepted that "n" at wellhead is less than or equal to "n" at sandface. This condition is
enforced when the SF/WH AOF module is converting an equation from sandface to wellhead or vice versa
in single phase flow. However, in multiphase flow situations, the interaction of friction and hydrostatic
pressure effects is much more complicated, and this relationship of wellhead to sandface "n" is not
enforced. However, to conform to standard practice, the limits of 1.0 and 0.5 are honoured. Thus in a
multiphase flow test, it is possible for the wellhead "n" to be larger than the sandface "n"
The procedure for calculating the wellhead AOF curve, and the wellhead AOF equation, is described
below for a multiphase situation:
1. Draw the sandface AOF curve from the given data
54
2. Divide into 100 equally spaced rate points
3. For each of these, convert the sandface pressure to a wellhead pressure using the specified tubular
configuration and fluid properties.
4. Draw the calculated wellhead AOF curve by joining these calculated points. For single phase flow, the
curve will look very similar to the sandface curve, but for multiphase flow, the calculated wellhead points
could form a curve with a region that represents UNSTABLE rates. This unstable region is characterized
by a maximum or discontinuities or the limiting liquid lifting rate determined from the Turner Correlation.
Any calculated points to the left of this are considered to be in unstable flow (and the well will eventually kill
itself), and the curve is generally drawn as a dashed line to indicate this.
5. From the calculated shut-in wellhead pressure (assuming a static column of gas in the wellbore) and the
calculated wellhead pressures in the STABLE portion of the wellhead curve, the wellhead AOF equation
(AOF and "n") is determined. These values are copied onto the Option line and plotted as a continuous
simplified AOF equation. The user can modify this generic option curve at will.
6. The conversion of a wellhead AOF curve to a sandface AOF curve follows the same procedure, but it is
much more prone to irregularities. For example, sometimes the calculated flowing pressure can be higher
than the specified reservoir pressure when the combination of specified rates and tubulars is unrealistic. t
is very hard to guard against situations like this in a computer program with a wide range of applications.
The user is warned to ensure that the calculated AOF curve is meaningful, and if not, to over-ride with a
specified curve using the "option" entry.
UNTS: None DEFAULT: none LMTS: 0.5 < n < 1.0
'ubble Point Pressure
The Bubble Point Pressure is defined as the pressure at which the oil is saturated with gas. Above this
pressure the oil is undersaturated, and the oil acts as a single phase liquid. At and below this pressure the
oil is saturated, and any lowering of the pressure causes gas to be liberated resulting in two phase flow.
The Bubble Point affects the nflow Performance Relationship Curve (PR) curve. Above this pressure, the
PR is a straight line, of slope equal to the inverse of productivity index. Below the bubble point pressure,
the PR is a curve based on "Vogel's" equation. The straight line and the curve are tangential at the bubble
point pressure, where they meet.
UNTS: psia (kPaA) DEFAULT: none
C# Sandface Coefficient
This is the coefficient found in the Absolute Open Flow (AOF) equation.
t describes the position of the stabilized deliverability line. Wellhead and sandface C values for a given
system are usually different.
Note: Care must be taken when converting 'C' from field to metric units or vice-versa. This is because the
units of 'C' are dependent on 'n'. n order to avoid these problems, both 'n' and 'C' should be entered
before changing units.
UNTS: MMcfd/(psia 2 ) n (10 3 m 3 /d/(kPaA 2 )
n)
DEFAULT: none
55
Casing
Casing )D
The Casing D is the nside Diameter of the wellbore casing. This value is used to calculate the area of
flow when production is through the casing or along with the Tubing OD to calculate the area of flow when
production is directed through the annulus. This value will also be required when flow is through the tubing
if the Mid-Point of Perforations(MPP) or the Datum is below the End of Tubing Depth (EOT).
For horizontal wellbores, three casing D's, one for each of the Vertical, Deviated and Horizontal sections
of the wellbore are requested.
The casing D is also used to represent the inside diameter of the wellbore in the event of an openhole
completion. There is no differentiation made between flow through openhole and flow through casing.
Note: n the petroleum industry the nominal casing size refers to the outside diameter of the casing. The D
depends on the OD and the weight (linear density) of the casing.
UNTS: nches (mm) DEFAULT: none
Casing .D
Casing OD is the outside diameter of the casing. This value is not used in any calculations but will appear
on printed reports.
Compressibility# ?il *Co,
The compressibility of any substance is the change in volume per unit volume per unit change in pressure.
The oil compressibility is a source of energy for fluid flow in a reservoir. n an undersaturated reservoir it is
a dominant drive mechanism, but for a saturated reservoir it is over-shadowed by the much larger gas
compressibility effects. The oil compressibility is a component in the calculation of total compressibility,
which is the value used in the determination of skin effect, dimensionless time and all material balance
considerations in the fluid flow calculations.
There is a significant discontinuity at the bubble point pressure. Above this pressure, the oil is a single
phase liquid (consisting of oil and dissolved gas). The compressibility of this liquid can be measured in the
laboratory, and it is a weak function of pressure. At and below the bubble point pressure, if the pressure is
decreased, gas comes out of solution and contributes to the compressibility of the system. This apparent
oil compressibility is calculated by including a "dRs / dp" component, to account for the change in solution
gas-oil ratio with pressure.
56
The correlations that can be used to calculate the Oil Compressibility are:
Vazquez and Beggs Generally applicable
Hanafy et al Egyptian oil
Petrosky and Farshad Gulf of Mexico oil
De Ghetto et al Heavy oil (10 22.3 AP) and Extra
Heavy oil (AP < 10)
UNTS: 1 / psi or 1 / kPa (absolute)
DEFAULT: User selectable correlation
Condensate /as =atio *C/=,
This is the condensate to gas ratio produced at surface. t is typically known from direct measurements. f
the daily condensate rate is known, it must be divided by the daily gas rate to obtain the Condensate-Gas
Ratio. The CGR is used to calculate the Recombined Gas Gravity and the Recombined Gas Rate which
are used in the wellbore pressure drop calculations.
UNTS: Bbl/MMcf (m3/103m3) DEFAULT: 0
See Also: Condensate Properties
Aatum *MA,
The datum is a reference point for calculations. Calculations are either done from the sandface to the
datum or from the datum to the wellhead.
This is the user-defined Measured Depth (MD) in a well. n the wellbore, the pressure drop is calculated
from the specified Datum to the wellhead. The user may define the Datum to be located at any point in the
horizontal section that allows the flexibility to calculate the pressure drop from any desired location.
UNTS: Feet (m) DEFAULT: none
@l datum es un punto de referencia para los clculos% Los clculos son
efectuados a cuales(uier profundidad del sandface para el dato o desde
el datum de la cabe$a del po$o%
Bsta es la Profundidad Medida creada por el usuario *MA, en un po$o% @n
el wellbore# la ca4da de presi"n se calcula especificando el Aatum
desde el W@llhead% @l usuario puede definir al Aatum para estar
locali$ado en cual(uier punto en la secci"n hori$ontal (ue
consiente (ue la fle>ibilidad calcule la ca4da de la presi"n a
cual(uier posici"n deseada%
57
Aensity
Density ( ) as applied to hydrostatic pressure difference calculations:
The method for calculating depends on whether flow is compressible or incompressible (multiphase or
single-phase). t follows that:
For a single-phase liquid, calculating the density is easy, and 1 is simply the liquid density.
For a single-phase gas, 1 varies with pressure (since gas is compressible), and the calculation
must be done sequentially, in small steps, to allow the density to vary with pressure.
For multiphase flow, the calculations become even more complicated because 1 is calculated
from the in-situ mixture density, which in turn is calculated from the "liquid holdup". The liquid
holdup, or in-situ liquid volume fraction, is obtained from one of the multiphase flow correlations,
and it depends on several parameters including the gas and liquid rates, and the pipe diameter.
Note that this is in contrast to the way density is calculated for the friction pressure loss.
Aensity# Condensate
Condensate Density is the specific gravity in AP of condensate at stock tank conditions. t ranges from 60
AP to 40 AP. The AP Gravity is readily obtained from any laboratory oil analysis. t is a fixed property of
the condensate.
n F.A.S.T. VirtuWell, this variable is used to calculate the Recombined Gas Gravity and the
Recombined Gas Rate which are then used in single-phase pressure drop calculations.
The conversion from AP Gravity (field units) to Stock Tank Oil Density (metric units) is:
Stock Tank Density (kg/m3) = 1000 * (141.5 / (AP + 131.5))
UNTS: AP (kg/m3) DEFAULT: None
Aensity# /as
The density of a gas varies with the in-situ conditions of pressure and temperature along a pipe. The gas
density is calculated from the "real gas" law :
58
where:
G = Gas Gravity
P = Pressure (psia)
Z = supercompressibility factor
T = temperature (R)
The gas density is used in calculating the pressure drops caused by friction and by hydrostatic head.
UNTS: lb/ft 3 (kg/m 3 ) DEFAULT: Defining Equation
Aensity# Mi>ture
The mixture density is a measure of the in-situ density of the mixture, and is defined as follows:
where: EL = in-situ liquid volume fraction (liquid holdup)
EG = in-situ gas volume fraction
m = mixture density
L = liquid density
G = gas density
Note: The mixture density is defined in terms of in-situ volume fractions (EL), whereas the no-slip density is
defined in terms of input volume fractions (CL).
Aensity# Co.Slip
The "no-slip" density is the density that is calculated with the assumption that both phases are moving at
the same in-situ velocity. The no-slip density is therefore defined as follows:
where: CL = input liquid volume fraction
G = gas density
L = liquid density
NS = no-slip density
59
Note: The no-slip density is defined in terms of input volume fractions (CL), whereas the mixture density is
defined in terms of in-situ volume fractions (EL).
Aepth# 9otal Dertical *9DA,
This is the total vertical depth from the wellhead to a given point. n other words, a depth that is
independent of the orientation of tubing in the wellbore. The following picture demonstrates the difference
between TVD and MD.
@le!ation
This is the elevation of the pipe over which the pressure drop is calculated. A positive elevation represents
flow uphill. A negative elevation represents downhill flow. An elevation of zero (0) represents a horizontal
pipe.
@rosional Delocity
When fluid flows through a pipe at high velocities, erosion of the pipe can occur. Erosion can occur when
the fluid velocity through a pipe is greater than the calculated erosional velocity.
&dd Cew @(uation 6ere
where:
Ve- erosion velocity, ft/s
Ce erosion velocity constant (normal range: 100 300)
NS - no-slip mixture density
60
where:
CL- input liquid volume fraction
CG - input gas volume fraction
NS - no-slip mixture density
L - liquid density
G - gas density
where:
QL- liquid rate at prevailing pressure and temperature
QGBG- gas rate at prevailing pressure and temperature
VSL - superficial liquid velocity
VSG - superficial gas velocity
Vm - mixture velocity
Flow# E
This is the amount of the total flow that enters a particular set of perforations.
Flow @fficiency
Flow efficiency is a tuning parameter used to match calculated pressures to measured pressures. These
two often differ as most calculations involve unknowns, approximations, assumptions, or measurement
errors. When measured pressures are available for comparison with calculated values, the Flow Efficiency
can be used to obtain a match between the two.
f measured pressures are not available for comparison, then the default value (100%) should be used.
Flow Efficiency adjusts the correlation such that decreasing the flow efficiency increases the pressure loss.
Efficiencies greater than 100% are possible. Low efficiencies could be a result of roughness caused by
61
factors such as corrosion, scale, sulfur or calcium deposition and restrictions. Restrictions in a wellbore
may be caused by downhole equipment, profiles, etc. Low efficiencies could also be the result of liquid
loading. Flow efficiencies less than 50% or greater than 150% should be treated with caution.
The flow efficiency is applied to both the hydrostatic and friction components of the pressure loss equation.
Under static (no-flow) conditions the flow efficiency is not applied to the correlations. n this case, a match
between measured and calculated pressures may be obtained by adjusting the fluid gravity or
temperatures, as appropriate.
F.A.S.T. VirtuWell divides the whole length of pipe into many segments (see Pressure Loss Calculation
Procedure). The flow efficiency is applied to each segment and affects the inlet/outlet pressure of that
segment, and hence the in situ fluid densities. Therefore, a simple one step application of the flow
efficiency to the pressure loss over the whole length of pipe will not produce the same results as those of
F.A.S.T. VirtuWell.
UNTS: % DEFAULT: 100%
Formation Dolume Factor# ?il *'o,
This is defined as the ratio of the volume of oil at operating conditions to that at stock tank conditions. This
factor is used to convert the flow rate and the density of oil (both normally reported at stock tank
conditions) to in-situ conditions. Thus,
Oil Flow Rate (in-situ Barrels) = Oil Flow Rate (Stock Tank Barrels) * Oil Formation Volume Factor
And Oil density (in-situ) = Oil Density (Stock Tank Conditions) * Oil Formation Volume Factor
n the equations used in F.A.S.T. VirtuWell the oil rate and the oil density should be expressed at in-situ
conditions, because the equations apply to the pressure and temperature conditions inside the pipe.
However, the oil flow rate is generally measured at the surface, in stock tank barrels. Therefore, this rate is
multiplied by the oil formation volume factor to convert it to in-situ conditions. Similarly, it is the in-situ
density that counts, and that is obtained from the AP Gravity (Stock Tank Oil Density) and the Formation
Volume Factor
Below the bubble point pressure, the oil formation volume factor increases with pressure. This is because
more gas goes into solution as the pressure is increased and this causes the oil to swell. Above the bubble
point pressure, the oil formation volume factor decreases as the pressure is increased, because there is
no more gas available to go into solution, and the oil is being compressed.
The value of the oil formation volume factor is generally between 1 and 2 RB/STB (m3/m3). t is readily
obtained from laboratory PVT measurements, or it may be calculated from correlations such as "Vasquez
and Beggs".
n the correlations that are being used to calculate the oil formation volume factor, the Solution Gas-Oil
Ratio is the most significant variable.
UNTS: Bbl/Bbl (m 3 /m 3 ) DEFAULTS: "Vasquez and Beggs" correlations
Friction Factor *multi.phase,
This is obtained from multi-phase flow correlations (see Beggs and Brill under multi-phase flow). This
correlation depends, in part, on the gas and liquid flow rates, but also on the standard Fanning (single
phase) friction factor charts. When evaluating the Fanning friction factor, there are many ways of
calculating the Reynold's number depending on how the density, viscosity and velocity of the two-phase
mixture are defined. For the Beggs and Brill calculation of Reynold's number, these mixture properties are
calculated by prorating the property of each individual phase in the ratio of the "input" volume fraction and
not of the "in-situ" volume fraction.
&dd Cew @(uation 6ere
62
For a single phase liquid, equals the liquid density.
For a single phase gas, varies with pressure, and the calculation must be done sequentially in small
steps to allow the density to vary with pressure.
For multi-phase flow, is the mixture density, which is calculated by prorating the density of each
individual phase in the ratio of the "input" volume fraction and NOT of the "in-situ" volume fraction. Note
that this is in contrast to the way the mixture density was defined for the hydrostatic pressure difference.
Friction Factor *single phase,
This is obtained from the Chen (1979) equation which represents the Fanning friction factor chart. t
depends on the Reynold's number which is a function of the fluid density, viscosity, velocity and pipe
diameter. t is valid for single phase gas or liquid flow, as their very different properties are taken into
account in the definition of Reynold's number.
Friction Pressure Loss
n pipe flow, the friction pressure loss is the component of pressure loss caused by viscous shear effects.
The friction pressure loss is ALWAYS positive N THE DRECTON OF FLOW. t is combined with the
hydrostatic pressure difference (which may be positive or negative depending on the whether the flow is
uphill or downhill) to give the total pressure loss.
The friction pressure loss is calculated from the Fanning friction factor equation as follows:
where:
= pressure loss due to friction
63
= in-situ density
V2 = the square of the in-situ velocity
L = length of pipe segment
g = acceleration of gravity
D = pipe internal diameter
n the above equation, the variables f, Rho and V2 require special discussion, as follows
/as.?il =atio */?=,
This is the gas to oil ratio produced at surface. t is typically known from direct measurements. f the daily
gas rate is known, it must be divided by the daily oil rate to obtain the Gas-Oil Ratio.
UNTS: Scf/Bbl (m 3 /m 3 ) DEFAULT: 0
/as Compressibility Factor# F
The compressibility factor (Z), of a natural gas is a measure of its deviation from ideal gas behavior. ts
value is usually between 0.8 and 1.2, but it can be as low as 0.3 and as high as 2.0. t is used in the
calculation of gas density, and in converting gas volumes and rates from standard conditions to reservoir
conditions (and vice-versa).
UNTS: None DEFAULTS: B.W.R. equation of state
References:
Dranchuck, P.M., R. A. Purvis and D. B. Robinson (1974). Computer Calculation of Natural Gas
Compressibility Factors Using the Standing and Katz Correlations, nst. Of Pet. Tech., P-74-008.
/as =ate
This is the daily gas rate. t is typically known from direct measurements. f the gas-oil ratio (GOR) is
known, it must be multiplied by the daily oil rate in order to calculate the daily gas rate. The rate must be at
standard conditions (14.65 psia, 60 F / 101.325 Pa, 15 C).
F.A.S.T. VirtuWell treats all flow within the vertical wellbore as originating from the MPP (Mid Point
Perforations). n a horizontal well, the flow is divided so that it enters at ten (10) equally spaced points in
the horizontal portion of the wellbore.
Even though the gas flow rate is quoted at Standard Conditions, all calculations in F.A.S.T. VirtuWell
use the volumetric flow rate at the "in-situ" conditions of pressure and temperature at which the pipe
segment is operating. Also, when both gas and oil are flowing in a pipe or wellbore, the gas flow rate is
continuously adjusted to account for "gas coming out of solution from the oil".
UNTS: MMcfd (10 3 m 3 /d) DEFAULT: 0
/as# C?5
Molar Concentration of Carbon Dioxide in the gas stream. t has an effect on the calculation of
compressibility (z-factor) and viscosity. The concentration of CO2 must be between 0% and 80% to be
within the limits of the correlations for the z-factor, and between the limits of 0 and 15% for the viscosity
64
correlations. For values outside of this range F.A.S.T. VirtuWell will still complete the calculations,
however results should be used with caution.
When the parameter name is displayed in yellow this a warning that the entered value is outside the range.
UNTS: Percent (%) DEFAULT: 0
Molecular weight: 44.01 kg/kmol
Appearance: colorless gas
Melting point: -56.6C
Boiling point: -78C
/as# 65S
Molar Concentration of Hydrogen Sulfide in the gas stream. t has an effect on the calculation of
compressibility (z-factor) and viscosity. The concentration of H2S must be between 0% and 80% to be
within the limits of the correlations for the z-factor and between the limits of 0 and 15% for the viscosity
Boiling point: -60.3C
Liquid Density: 993 kg/m3
/as# C5
Molar Concentration of Nitrogen in the gas stream. t has an effect on the calculation of compressibility (z-
factor) and viscosity. The concentration of Nitrogen must be between 0% and 15% to be within the limits of
the correlations. For values outside of this range F.A.S.T. VirtuWell will still complete the calculations,
Boiling point: -195.8 C
65
Liquid Density: 805 kg/m
/ra!ity# &PI *Stoc< 9an< ?il Aensity,
AP Gravity is the specific gravity (density) of oil at stock tank conditions. t ranges from 60 AP
(condensate) to 45 AP (light oil) to 20 AP (medium density) to 10 AP (heavy oil). The AP Gravity is
readily obtained from any laboratory oil analysis. t is a fixed property of the oil, and is independent of the
operating pressure or temperature, unlike the in-situ oil density that is very dependent on operating
pressure and temperature conditions.
n F.A.S.T. VirtuWell, this variable is the primary variable used for calculating the oil properties at the
required pressures and temperatures. AP Gravity affects four variables namely oil viscosity, solution gas-
oil ratio, oil formation volume factor and in-situ oil density.
The primary effect of AP Gravity is on the in-situ oil density. The density affects the friction pressure drop
to some extent, but it affects the hydrostatic pressure drop DRECTLY.
The AP Gravity must be between 16 AP and 58 AP to be within the range of the correlations. When the
parameter name is displayed in yellow this a warning that the entered value is outside the range.
UNTS: AP (kg/m 3 ) DEFAULT: None LMTS: 16 AP < G < 58 AP
/ra!ity# Condensate
AP Gravity is the specific gravity (density) of condensate at stock tank conditions. t ranges from 60 AP
to 40 AP. The AP Gravity is readily obtained from any laboratory oil analysis. t is a fixed property of the
condensate.
UNTS: AP (kg/m3) DEFAULT: None
/ra!ity# /as
Gas Gravity is the molar mass (molecular weight) of the natural gas divided by the molar mass of air
(28.94).
Gas Gravity = (Molar Mass of Gas) / (Molar Mass of Air)
t ranges from 0.55 for dry sweet gas (mostly methane) to approximately 1.5 for wet, sour gas (includes
CO2 and H2S concentration). The Gas Gravity is readily obtained from any laboratory gas analysis.
n F.A.S.T. VirtuWell, Gas Gravity affects three variables namely compressibility (z-factor), Gas viscosity
and gas density.
The effects on supercompressibility and viscosity are not very significant. However, the effect on density is
significant in two ways. t affects the friction pressure drop to some extent, but it affects the hydrostatic
pressure drop directly i.e. doubling the Gas Gravity doubles the density and therefore doubles the
hydrostatic pressure drop.
66
The following table shows some gas gravities of some common gasses.
Gas type
Molar Mass
(g/mol)
Gas Gravity of
Pure Gas
Air 28.97 1.00
Methane 16.04 0.55
Nitrogen (N2) 28.01 0.97
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 44.01 1.52
Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) 34.08 1.18
UNTS: None DEFAULT: none LMTS: 0.5 < G < 1.5
/ra!ity# =ecombined /as
This is the Gas Gravity used for pressure drop calculations in gas-condensate systems. t is a function of
Condensate-Gas Ratio, Condensate Gravity, Gas Gravity, Separator Temperature and Separator
Pressure.
The calculated Recombined Gas Gravity can be found on the printout when a gas-condensate system is
being modeled.
/ra!ity# Water
Specific Gravity is defined as the density of the liquid divided by the density of water at standard conditions
(62.3 lb/ft3, 1000 kg/m3). The gravity of pure water is therefore 1.0. Often oilfield waters are saline and
have a specific gravity slightly greater than 1.0.
The primary effect of water gravity is on the density of water, which in turn affects the hydrostatic pressure
difference.
UNTS: None DEFAULT: None
6eel *MA or 9DA,
This is the MD or TVD depth from the wellhead to the heel of the horizontal well (i.e.: where the horizontal
portion of the well begins). The measured and total vertical depth of the heel are used to determine the
angle of the deviated portion of the well from vertical.
UNTS: Feet (m) DEFAULT: 0
6ydrostatic Pressure Aifference
The hydrostatic pressure difference is the component of pressure loss (or gain) attributed to the earth's
gravitational effect. t is of importance only when there are differences in elevation from the inlet end to the
outlet end of a pipe segment. This pressure difference can be positive or negative depending on the
67
reference point (inlet higher vertically than outlet, or outlet higher than inlet). UNDER ALL
CRCUMSTANCES, irrespective of what sign convention is used, the contribution of the hydrostatic
pressure calculation must be such that it will tend to make the pressure at the vertically-lower end higher
than that at the upper end.
The hydrostatic pressure difference is calculated as follows:
where:
= the hydrostatic pressure difference
= the vertical elevation change
= the in-situ density of the fluid or mixture
g = acceleration of gravity
gc = conversion factor
n the equation above, the problem is really determining an appropriate value for Rho, as discussed below:
For a single phase liquid, this is easy, and equals the liquid density.
For a single phase gas, varies with pressure, and the calculation must be done sequentially in small
steps to allow the density to vary with pressure.
For multi-phase flow, is calculated from the in-situ mixture density, which in turn is calculated from the
"liquid holdup". The liquid holdup is obtained from multi-phase flow correlations, such as Beggs and Brill,
and depends on the gas and liquid rates, pipe diameter, etc...
For a horizontal pipe segment, = 0, and there is NO hydrostatic pressure loss.
See Also: Pressure Loss Correlations
Inflow Performance =elationship *IP=,
Flow into a well depends on both the reservoir characteristics and the sandface flowing pressure. The
relationship of inflow rate to bottomhole flowing pressure is called the PR (nflow Performance
Relationship). F.A.S.T. Virtuwell presents this relationship in the form of a pressure versus flow rate
graph. From this graph, the well's flow potential can be determined at various flowing sandface pressures.
As well, the operating point (flow rate and pressure) of a particular wellbore configuration can be
determined from the intersection of the PR curve and the Tubing Performance Curve (TPC).
Straight Line PR
n calculating oil well production it was assumed that producing rates were proportional to drawdown.
Using this assumption a well's behaviour can be described by its productivity index as follows:
Insert @(uation 6ere
where:
P = Productivity index
68
q = flow rate
Pe = Reservoir pressure at external boundary
Pwf = flowing bottomhole pressure
This relationship was developed from Darcy's law for the steady state radial flow of a single,
incompressible liquid.
Vogel PR
Vogel showed that as depletion proceeds in a solution-gas drive reservoir the productivity of a typical well
decreases, primarily because the reservoir pressure is reduced and because the increasing gas saturation
causes greater resistance to oil flow.
The result is a progressive deterioration of the inflow performance relationship. n the following picture, a
straight line PR and one with reduced performance due to resistance.
The PR for water is a straight line, whose slope is the inverse of the Productivity ndex. The PR for oil is a
straight line above the Bubble Point Pressure, and a curve below that. The curve is generated using
Vogel's (1968) equation. Vogel's PR equation can be written as follows:
Reservoir Pressure Below the Bubble Point Pressure
for pwf/pb <= 1
Reservoir Pressure Above the Bubble Point Pressure
Straight line PR using productivity index:
Nomenclature
qo = oil flow rate (STB/d, m3/d)
69
qo(max) = maximum oil flow rate (STB/d, m3/d)
q* = calculation variable
pb = bubble point pressure (psia, kPaA)
pR = static reservoir pressure (psia, kPaA)
pwf = sandface flowing pressure (psia, kPaA)
The inflow into a well often consists of both oil and water. f values for both are entered into the PR Data
section, the PR generated is for the total fluids (oil and water). f all of the TPC curves are removed, the
PR curve will break down into its oil and water components.
Reference
Vogel, J. V.: "nflow Performance Relationship for Solution-Gas Drive Wells," JPT, (Jan. 1968).
Input Dolume Fraction
The input volume fractions are defined as:
We can also write this as:
where: Bg = gas formation volume factor
QG = gas flow rate (at standard conditions)
QL = liquid flow rate (at prevailing pressure and temperature)
Vsg = superficial gas velocity
Vsl = superficial liquid velocity
Vm = mixture velocity (Vsl + Vsg)
Note: QL is the liquid rate at the prevailing pressure and temperature. Similarly, QGBg is the gas rate at the
prevailing pressure and temperature.
70
The input volume fractions, CL and CG, are known quantities, and are often used as correlating variables in
empirical multiphase correlations.
In.Situ Dolume Fraction *Li(uid 6oldup,
The in-situ volume fraction, EL (or HL), is often the value that is estimated by multiphase correlations.
Because of "slip" between phases, the "holdup" (EL) can be significantly different from the input liquid
fraction (CL). For example, a single-phase gas can percolate through a wellbore containing water. n this
situation CL = 0 (single-phase gas is being produced), but EL > 0 (the wellbore contains water). The in-situ
volume fraction is defined as follows:
where:
AL = cross-sectional area occupied by the liquid phase
A = total cross-sectional area of the pipe
Interfacial 9ension# Aead ?il
The dead oil interfacial tension at temperatures of 68 F and 100 F is given by:
where = interfacial tension at 68 F (dynes/cm)
= interfacial tension at 100 F (dynes/cm)
AP = gravity of stock tank oil (AP)
f the temperature is greater than 100 F, the value at 100 F is used. f the temperature is less than 68 F,
the value at 68 F is used. For intermediate temperatures, linear interpolation is used.
As pressure is increased and gas goes into solution, the gas/oil interfacial tension is reduced. The dead oil
interfacial tension is corrected for this by multiplying by a correction factor.
where: = pressure (psia)
The interfacial tension becomes zero at miscibility pressure, and for most systems this will be at any
pressure greater than about 5000 psia. Once the correction factor becomes zero (at about 3977 psia), 1
dyne/cm is used for calculations.
Interfacial 9ension# /asGWater
The gas/water interfacial tension at temperatures of 74 F and 280 F is given by:
71
where = interfacial tension at 74 F (dynes/cm)
= interfacial tension at 280 F (dynes/cm)
p = pressure (psia)
f the temperature is greater than 280 F, the value at 280 F is used. f the temperature is less than 74 F,
the value at 74 F is used. For intermediate temperatures, linear interpolation is used.
Hic< ?ff Point *H?P,
This is the depth from the wellhead to the Kick Off Point of the horizontal well (i.e.: where the well begins
to deviate away from vertical).
Li(uid 6oldup @ffect
When two or more phases are present in a pipe, they tend to flow at different in-situ velocities. These in-
situ velocities depend on the density and viscosity of the phase. Usually the phase that is less dense will
flow faster than the other. This causes a "slip" or holdup effect, which means that the in-situ volume
fractions of each phase (under flowing conditions) will differ from the input volume fractions of the pipe.
Measured Aepth *MA,
This is the user-defined measured depth (MD) in a well. The MD is a scalar quantity that represents the
sum of all horizontal, vertical and deviated lengths. To demonstrate the difference between measured
depth and Total Vertical Depth (TVD) see the picture below.
.
72
?il Aensity *in situ,
The in-situ oil density should not be confused with the AP Gravity (Stock Tank Oil Density). The in-situ oil
density varies with pressure and temperature, but more so with the amount of dissolved gas contained in
the oil (Solution Gas-Oil Ratio), whereas the AP gravity is a fixed property of the particular oil,
independent of operating conditions. The in-situ oil density is obtained by multiplying the density at stock
tank conditions by the Formation Volume Factor at the in-situ pressure and temperature conditions. Thus:
Oil density (in-situ) = Oil Density (Stock Tank Conditions) * Oil Formation Volume Factor
The oil density affects the Hydrostatic Pressure Loss and the Friction Pressure Loss.
UNTS: lb/ft 3 (kg/m 3 ) DEFAULT: Vasquez and Beggs correlation
Pipe
D
Pipe D is the nside Diameter of the pipe. This value is used to calculate the area of flow through the pipe.
n the petroleum industry the nominal pipe size refers to the average diameter of the pipe. The inside
diameter (D) and the outside diameter (OD) depend on the weight (linear density) of the pipe.
Length
This is the length of the pipe over which the pressure drop is calculated. A length equal to the elevation
represents a vertical pipe.
Plugged 'ac< 9otal Aepth *P'9A,
Plugged Back Total Depth (PBTD) defines the total vertical well depth, relative to the wellhead. This depth
is not used for any calculations but may be entered for completeness of presentation.
Perforations# 'ottom
This is the bottom of a perforated zone. This is measured from the wellhead to the perforation by
measured depth.
Perforations# Mid Point *MPP,
A perforation is a method of making holes through the casing opposite a producing formation to allow the
oil or gas to flow into a well.
MPP is the depth from the wellhead to the Mid-Point of the Perforated interval. F.A.S.T. VirtuWell treats
all flow within the vertical wellbore as originating from this depth. When a "wellhead pressure" is converted
to a "sandface pressure" calculations are in fact done from the wellhead to MPP. The reverse is also true,
when a "sandface pressure" is converted to a "wellhead pressure" calculations are done from MPP to the
wellhead.
n a horizontal well, the total flow is divided so that it enters at ten (10) equally spaced points in the
horizontal portion of the wellbore. The pressure drop is calculated from the specified datum to the
Wellhead.
73
Perforations# 9op
Top - This is the top of a perforated zone. This is measured from the wellhead to the perforation by
measured depth.
Pressure# Inlet
This is the pressure at the inlet to the pipe. t can be measured directly and used to calculate an outlet
pressure, or it can be calculated from a known outlet pressure. All pressures are in absolute (not gauge).
Note: f all necessary information has been entered and no inlet pressure has been calculated, parts of the
information may be invalid. For example, the outlet pressure may be too low to compensate for the
pressure drop in the pipe and may cause the inlet pressure to be less than 0 which is physically
impossible. For such a situation the inlet pressure will be left blank.
Pressure# Li(uid Lift
This is the pressure at which the minimum gas rate to lift water or condensate calculated. All pressures are
in absolute (not gauge).
Hint: As pressure increases, so does the minimum gas rate to lift water or condensate. Therefore, to
determine the minimum gas rate to lift water or condensate in a wellbore, it is recommended that the
highest pressure in the wellbore be used. This is typically the flowing sandface pressure. n his original
work, Turner (1969) recommends that the wellhead pressure be used. n our research also supported by
Lea Jr. (1983) we have found that generally, the sandface pressure and not the wellhead pressure should
be used to calculate the minimum gas rate to lift liquids.
Pressure# ?utlet
This is the pressure at the outlet of the pipe. t can be measured directly and used to calculate the
pressure at the inlet to the pipe, or it can be calculated from a known inlet pressure. All pressures are in
absolute (not gauge).
Note: f all necessary information has been entered and no outlet pressure has been calculated, parts of
the information may be invalid. For example, the inlet pressure may be too low to support the pressure
drop in the pipe and may cause the outlet pressure to be less than 0 which is physically impossible. For
such a situation the outlet pressure will be left blank.
Pressure# =eser!oir
The stabilized shut-in pressure in the reservoir. This pressure is used to construct the nflow Performance
Relationship (PR) in the case of an oil well and the Absolute Open Flow (AOF) in the case of a gas well.
On both curves, the reservoir pressure corresponds to a flow rate of zero. For a well that is recently on
production, the current reservoir pressure may be taken to equal the initial pressure of the reservoir. For a
well that has been on production for a long time, the current reservoir pressure is less than the initial
reservoir pressure. t may be determined from a buildup test by extrapolating the shut-in pressures and
taking into account the reservoir shape.
UNTS: psia (kPaA) DEFAULT: 0
Pressure# Sandface
This is the pressure at the sandface (MPP) for a vertical well or at the Datum for a horizontal well. t is a
flowing pressure if the well is flowing and a shut-in pressure if the well is not flowing. t can be measured
directly and used to calculate a wellhead pressure, or it can be calculated from a known wellhead
pressure. All pressures are in absolute (not gauge).
74
Pressure# Separator
The separator pressure is the pressure in the separator or at wellhead. t is used in the recombination
calculations to calculate the vapour equivalent of the condensate, the recombined gas rate and the
recombined gas gravity.
UNTS: psia (kPaA) DEFAULT: 100 psia
Pressure# Shut In
This is the shut-in pressure at the wellhead or the sandface. This corresponds to the pressure when there
is no flow through the wellhead.
Pressure# 9est
Often, an AOF is not available for a well. However, test flow rates and the corresponding flowing pressures
are easily obtainable. The SF/WH AOF page in F.A.S.T. Virtuwell will calculate an AOF given a test rate
and pressure (either at sandface or at the wellhead). Also necessary is the shut-in pressure of the well
(from a Static Gradient) and a value for n. The flowing test pressure must be in absolute (not gauge).
Pressure# Wellhead
This is the pressure at the wellhead. t is flowing pressure if the well is flowing and a shut-in pressure if the
well is not flowing. t is typically known from direct measurements or can be calculated from sandface. f
known, it is used to calculate the sandface pressure as well as to construct tubing performance curves. All
pressures are in absolute (not gauge).
Note: f all necessary information has been entered and no wellhead pressure has been calculated, parts
of the information may be invalid. For example, the sandface pressure may be too low to support the
pressure drop in the well and may cause the wellhead pressure to be less than 0 which is physically
impossible. For such a situation the wellhead pressure will be left blank.
Producti!ity Inde> *PI,
The Productivity ndex is the flow rate per unit pressure drop. For example, if a well flows at 1000 STBD
with a flowing Sandface Pressure of 1500 psi, and the average reservoir pressure is 2000 psi, then the
productivity index is given by:
P.. = 1000 / (2000 - 1500) = 2 STBD/psi
The productivity index serves as an indication of the production potential of a well. For a well in an under-
saturated reservoir, the flow rate of the well can be estimated very simply from the productivity index as
follows:
Flow Rate (STBD) = P.. * Drawdown
where
Drawdown = Reservoir Pressure Flowing Sandface Pressure
For wells in saturated reservoirs or for gas wells, the relationship is not as straight forward, and the simple
relationship described above does not apply. nstead, for oil wells, we have to use the nflow Performance
Relationship (PR) formulation and for gas wells the Absolute Open Flow (AOF) deliverability equation.
75
=ate# ?il
This is the daily oil or condensate rate. t is typically known from direct measurements. f the Gas-Oil Ratio
or condensate-gas ratio is available, it must be multiplied by the known daily gas rate to calculate the daily
oil or condensate rate. The oil rate is at stock tank conditions.
F.A.S.T. VirtuWell treats all flow within the vertical wellbore as originating from the MPP (Mid Point
Perforations). n a horizontal well, the total flow is divided so that it enters at ten (10) equally spaced points
in the horizontal portion of the wellbore.
UNTS: Bbl/d (m 3 /d) DEFAULT: 0
=ate# =ecombined /as
This is the Gas Rate used for pressure drop calculations in gas-condensate systems. t is a function of
Condensate-Gas Ratio, Condensate Gravity, Gas Gravity, Separator Temperature and Separator
Pressure.
=ate# 9est
Often, an AOF is not available for a well. However, test flow rates and the corresponding flowing pressures
are easily obtainable. The SF/WH AOF page in F.A.S.T. Virtuwell will calculate an AOF given a test rate
and pressure (either at sandface or at the wellhead). Also necessary is the shut-in pressure of the well
(from a Static Gradient) and a value for n. The gas rate must be at standard conditions (14.65 psia, 60 F /
101.325 Pa, 15 C).
n order to enter a test rate and pressure on the SF/WH AOF page, the Test Rate/Pressure radio button
must be selected.
=ecombination
Most gas-condensate wells are in reality single-phase in the reservoir and in the majority of the wellbore.
The condensation of condensate from the gas takes place either at the separator or very near the
wellhead. The recombination is a calculation procedure which takes the volume of condensate, vapourizes
it, adds it to the gas volume to obtain the raw gas as it existed in the reservoir and the wellbore. For
calculation purposes, this program treats the wellbore calculations as single-phase calculations using the
recombined gas gravity and the recombined gas rate.
where
GRec = specific gravity of reservoir gas (recombined gas gravity)
G = specific gravity of separator gas (measured)
CGR = stock-tank-condensate/separator gas ratio, STB/MMscf
= oil specific gravity (not AP gravity)
Qpa = additional gas production (vapour evolved at stock tank), scf/STB
76
Veq = vapor equivalent of stock tank liquid, scf/STB
where
p = separator pressure (wellhead pressure), psia
T = separator temperature (wellhead temperature), F
= oil AP gravity, AP
The total wellstream gas flow rate, representing all gas and liquid produced at the surface can be
calculated as follows:
where:
qRec = total wellstream gas flow rate (recombined gas rate), MMscfd
qMeas = measured gas flow rate from separator, MMscfd
Reference:
Lee, John and Wattenbarger, Robert A.: Gas Reservoir Engineering, Society of Petroleum Engineers nc.,
Richardson, TX, 1996, 11-15.
=ecombined =ate Factor
This is the Recombined Gas Rate divided by the original gas rate. t can be found on the printouts when a
gas-condensate system is being modeled.
=oughness
This is defined as the distance from the peaks to the valleys in pipe wall irregularities. Roughness is used
in the calculation of pressure drop due to friction. For clean, new pipe the roughness is determined by the
method of manufacture and is usually between 0.00055 to 0.0019 inches (0.01397mm to 0.04826mm)
(Cullender and Binckley, 1950, Smith et al. 1954, Smith et al. 1956). For new pipe or tubing used in gas
wells the roughness has been found to be in the order of 0.00060 or 0.00065 inches (0.01524 mm to
0.01651 mm).
Roughness must be between 0 and 0.01 inches (0.254 mm).
Roughness can be used to tune the correlations to measured conditions in a similar way to the Flow
Efficiency. Changes in roughness only affect the friction component of the calculations while the Flow
Efficiency is applied to the friction and hydrostatic components of pressure loss. Roughness does not
affect the calculations for static conditions. n this case, a match between measured and calculated
pressures may be obtained by adjusting the fluid gravity or temperatures, as appropriate.
UNTS: nches (mm)
77
DEFAULT: 0.0006 inches (0.01524 mm)
Solution /as.?il =atio
This is the amount of gas dissolved in the oil at any pressure. t increases approximately linearly with
pressure. t is a function of the oil and gas composition. A heavy oil contains less dissolved gas than a light
oil. n general, the solution gas-oil ratio varies from 0 (dead oil) to approximately 2000 SCF/Bbl (very light
oil). The solution gas-oil ratio increases with pressure until the bubble point pressure is reached, after
which it is a constant, and the oil is said to be under-saturated.
The solution gas-oil ratio has a significant influence on the oil formation volume factor and the oil viscosity.
When a mixture of gas and oil is flowing in a pipe or wellbore, the actual quantity of "free gas" that is
flowing increases as the pressure of the gas-oil system decreases. This is due to gas "coming out of
solution from the oil" and becoming free gas, thus increasing the gas flow rate, and decreasing the oil flow
rate. n the F.A.S.T. VirtuWell program, the solution gas-oil ratio is used for accounting for the changes
in the in-situ gas rate along the pipe or wellbore.
The solution gas-oil ratio is readily obtained from laboratory PVT measurements, or as is done in the
F.A.S.T. VirtuWell program, it may be calculated from correlations such as "Vasquez and Beggs".
UNTS: SCF/Bbl (m 3 /m 3 ) DEFAULT: "Vasquez and Beggs" correlations
Static Conditions
Under single-phase conditions, pressures calculated for static (no flow) cases will be dependent only on
the fluid's gravity and temperature. Multi-phase systems at static conditions make the assumption that only
one fluid is present. f the system contains gas, at static conditions it is assumed that the only fluid present
is gas. Thus a multi-phase static system containing gas will give the same results as a single-phase gas
system. n an oil/water system at static conditions (zero flow rates), the program will not calculate a
pressure drop. n order to simulate static conditions in this case, one fluid must be chosen preferentially
over the other and modeled in a single-phase system.
The Flow Efficiency and Roughness are not applied to static conditions. n this case, a match between
measured and calculated pressures may be obtained by adjusting the dominant fluid gravity or
temperatures for the case being considered.
Surface 9ension
The surface tension (interfacial tension) between the gas and liquid phases has very little effect on two-
phase pressure drop calculations. However a value is required for use in calculating certain dimensionless
numbers used in some of the pressure drop correlations. Empirical relationships for estimating the gas/oil
interfacial tension and the gas/water interfacial tension were presented by Baker and Swerdloff1, Hough2
and by Beggs3.
9emperature /radient
A straight line temperature gradient is assumed for all calculations. This is considered to be a very
reasonable assumption in most circumstances.
9emperature# Inlet
This is the temperature at the inlet to the pipe. t is used in conjunction with the outlet temperature to
calculate the average temperature within the pipe. This has an effect on fluid density and viscosity,
however the calculated pressure drops are not very sensitive to small changes of this parameter. No
distinction is made between flowing and shut in temperatures.
9emperature# Li(uid Lift
78
This is the fluid temperature used when the minimum gas rate to lift water or condensate is being
calculated.
UNTS: F ( C) DEFAULT: none
9emperature# ?utlet
This is the temperature at the outlet of the pipe. t is used in conjunction with the nlet Temperature to
calculate the average temperature within the pipe. This has an effect on fluid density and viscosity,
however the calculated pressure drops are not very sensitive to small changes of this parameter. No
distinction is made between flowing and shut in temperatures.
9emperature# =eser!oir
The reservoir temperature (sometimes referred to as the formation temperature) increases with reservoir
depth. Locations around the world have different geothermal gradients.
Along with oil gravity, the reservoir temperature is probably the most significant variable in characterizing
the PVT and fluid properties of oil (surprisingly, the Hanafy et al correlation is independent of reservoir
temperature).
UNTS: deg F or deg C
DEFAULT: None
9emperature# Sandface
This is the temperature at the sandface, and is used to calculate the temperature gradient within the
wellbore. This has an effect on fluid density and viscosity, however the calculated pressure drops are not
very sensitive to small changes in temperature. A reasonable estimate of reservoir temperature is
sufficient in most cases. No distinction is made between flowing and shut in temperatures.
9emperature# Separator
The separator temperature is the temperature in the separator or at wellhead. t is used in the
recombination calculations to calculate the vapour equivalent of the condensate, the recombined gas rate
and the recombined gas gravity.
UNTS: F (C) DEFAULT: 100 F
9emperature# Wellhead
This is the temperature at the wellhead, and is used to calculate the temperature gradient within the
wellbore. This has an effect on fluid density and viscosity, however the calculated pressure drops are not
very sensitive to small changes of this parameter.
Note: The wellhead temperature can be very different during flow or shut in. Usually the wellhead
temperature will be higher during flow than during shut in, due to the flow of warmer fluids from the
reservoir. A reasonable estimate of flowing wellhead temperature is sufficient in most cases, however care
must be taken when specifying the wellhead temperature during shut in. Measured wellhead temperatures
can vary significantly depending on the time of day (or night) or time of year (summer or winter). These
potentially large swings in temperature (150F is not unusual) only affect the wellhead and approximately
10 feet (3 m) into the ground. Below this depth, the ground and wellbore fluids are virtually unaffected.
Rather than using a wellhead temperature, it is better to use the mean ground temperature for static
calculations.
79
9oe *MA,
This is the measured depth from the wellhead to the toe (end) of the horizontal well. The length of the
horizontal portion of the wellbore is the difference between the measured depth of the toe and the
measured depth of the heel.
9ubing Aepth *@?9,
Tubing Depth defines the End of Tubing (EOT), e!"ti#e to the $e!!he"d% Tubing depth
is e&uied fo f!o$ though the tubing, "nnu!us o 'both( options% )t is ignoed $hen
f!o$ is defined though the *"sing% +s the ,%+%-%T% .itu/e!!0 /e!!boe 1odu!e
"ssu1es $e!!boe f!o$ oigin"tes "t the 2id34oint of 4efo"tions (244), f!o$ fo1
244 to EOT $i!! be though the *"sing if Tubing Depth is 5 244, "nd though the
"nnu!us if Tubing Depth 6 244% )n " hoi7ont"! $e!!, the tot"! f!o$ is di#ided so th"t it
entes "t ten (10) e&u"!!8 sp"*ed points in the hoi7ont"! potion of the $e!!boe% +s "
esu!t, $hee the tubing depth "nd the d"tu1 "e positioned $i!! "ffe*t the f!o$ p"th of
the f!uid to the $e!!he"d%
UNTS: Feet (m)
DEFAULT: none
9ubing IA
This is the inside diameter of the tubing used in the wellbore. This value is used to calculate the area of
flow when production is directed through the tubing. Complex tubing can be entered in the common
wellbore problem tab.
Note: n the petroleum industry the nominal tubing size refers to the outside diameter NOT the inside
diameter. The D depends on the Tubing OD (outside diameter) and the weight (linear density) of the
tubing.
For Example,
2-3/8" tubing, (grade J-55, weight 4.70 lb/ft) has 1.995" D and 2.375" OD.
9ubing Length
Length of individual pieces of tubing in the wellbore.
9ubing ?A
The Tubing OD is the Outer Diameter of the tubing used in the wellbore. This value is used along with the
Casing D to calculate the area of flow when production is directed through the annulus. Complex tubing
can be entered in the common wellbore problem tab.
80
Note: n the petroleum industry the nominal tubing size refers to the outside diameter of the tubing.
The Tubing D (inside diameter) depends on the OD and the weight (linear density) of the tubing.
9ubing Performance Cur!e
For a given set of conditions (tubing size and flowing wellhead pressure), a Tubing Performance Curve
(TPC) is a plot of the flowing sandface pressure, required to sustain flow up the tubing, as a function of
flow rate. This curve will not change through the life of the well. t is not at all dependent upon well
performance; it depends only upon the gas-liquid ratio, tubular configuration (depth, diameter), wellhead
pressures, etc. Tubing Performance Curves are applicable for both oil and gas wells, for both vertical and
horizontal wellbores.
F.A.S.T. Virtuwell allows the plotting of Tubing Performance Curves in conjunction with both Absolute
Open Flow (AOF) curves and Oil nflow Performance Relationship (PR) curves. The intersection of the
AOF or PR curve with a TPC signifies the operating point of the particular wellbore/reservoir combination.
Since both the Gas AOF/TPC and the Oil PR/TPC pages allow up to four (4) TPCs to be plotted at any
one time, it is quite simple to investigate the effect of various tubing diameters, gas-liquid ratios and
flowing wellhead pressures on the operating point of a particular wellbore/reservoir combination.
On the Gas AOF/TPC page, the minimum gas rate required to lift liquids is calculated in conjunction with
each Tubing Performance Curve. t is represented on the tubing performance curve by a circle listing the
number identifying the tubing performance curve. To the right of the liquid lift rate, the tubing performance
curve is a solid green line. To the left, it is a dotted red line. The solid green line represents stable flow, i.e.
the wellbore will lift liquids continuously. The dotted red line represents unstable flow. f the Tubing
Performance Curve is a dotted red line over the entire range of flow rates represented, the circled number
is placed in the middle of the curve solely for identification. The calculated liquid lift rates for each tubing
performance curve are tabulated under Liquid Lift.
D5
This is the square of the velocity (V). The velocity is obtained by dividing the volumetric flow rate by the
pipe cross-sectional area. n multi-phase flow this is termed the "superficial velocity".
For a single phase liquid, V equals the liquid velocity.
For a single phase gas, V varies with pressure, and the calculation must be done sequentially in small
steps to allow the velocity to vary with pressure.
For multi-phase flow, V is the superficial mixture velocity, which is calculated by prorating the superficial
velocity of each individual phase in the ratio of the "input" volume fraction and NOT of the "in-situ" volume
fraction.
Delocity# Mi>ture
Mixture Velocity is another parameter often used in multiphase flow correlations. The mixture velocity is
given by:
where:
Vm = mixture velocity
Vsl = superficial liquid velocity
81
Delocity# Superficial
The superficial velocity of each phase is defined as the volumetric flow rate of the phase divided by the
cross-sectional area of the pipe (as though that phase alone was flowing through the pipe). Therefore:
and
where:
Bg = gas formation volume factor
D = inside diameter of pipe
QG = measured gas flow rate (at standard conditions)
QL = liquid flow rate (at prevailing pressure and temperature)
VSL = superficial liquid velocity
Since the liquid phase accounts for both oil and water:
and the gas phase accounts for the solution gas going in and out of the oil as a function of pressure:
( )
the superficial velocities can be rewritten as:
where: Qo = oil flow rate (at stock tank conditions)
Qw= water flow rate in (at stock tank conditions)
QG = gas flow rate (at standard conditions of 14.65psia and 60F)
QL = liquid flow rate (oil and water at prevailing pressure and temperature)
Bo= oil formation volume factor
Bw = water formation volume factor
Bg = gas formation volume factor
Rs = solution gas/oil ratio
WC = water of condensation (water content of natural gas, Bbl/MMscf)
82
The oil, water and gas formation volume factors (Bo, Bw and Bg) are used to convert the flow rates from
standard (or stock tank) conditions to the prevailing pressure and temperature conditions in the pipe.
Since the actual cross-sectional area occupied by each phase is less than the cross-sectional area of the
entire pipe the superficial velocity is always less than the true in-situ velocity of each phase.
Discosity# /as
The viscosity of a fluid refers to the resistance to flow. t causes the pressure to drop in the direction of
flow. t is used in the calculation of the "friction pressure drop". For gas, the viscosity varies with gas
gravity, temperature and pressure. Usually it is not measured, but is obtained from the Carr, Kobayashi
and Burrows correlations, which include corrections for H2S, CO2 and N2. For sour gases, this correlation is
preferred to the Lee, Gonzalez and Eakin formulation (which does NOT account for H2S, CO2 and N2).
Viscosity enters into the definition of Reynold's Number, which is used to obtain the friction factor from the
Fanning friction factor charts.
Typically, gas viscosity is in the range of 0.015 to 0.03 centipoise (cp).
UNTS: cp (mPa.s) DEFAULT: Carr, Kobayashi and Burrows Correlations
Discosity# Mi>ture
The mixture viscosity is a measure of the in-situ viscosity of the mixture and can be defined in several
different ways. n general, unless otherwise specified, is defined as follows.
where:
EG = in-situ gas volume fraction
m = mixture viscosity
L = liquid viscosity
G = gas viscosity
Note: The mixture viscosity is defined in terms of in-situ volume fractions (EL), whereas the no-slip
viscosity is defined in terms of input volume fractions (CL).
Discosity# Co.Slip
The "no-slip" viscosity is the viscosity that is calculated with the assumption that both phases are moving
at the same in-situ velocity. There are several definitions of "no-slip" viscosity. n general, unless otherwise
specified, NS is defined as follows.
where:
83
NS =no-slip viscosity
L = liquid viscosity
G = gas viscosity
Discosity# ?il
This is the value of the oil viscosity at in-situ conditions. t is a very strong function of temperature, AP
Gravity (Stock Tank Oil Density) and Solution Gas-Oil Ratio.
Below the bubble point pressure, the amount of gas dissolved in the oil increases as the pressure is
increased. This causes the in-situ oil viscosity to decrease significantly. Above the bubble point pressure,
oil viscosity increases minimally with increasing pressure.
The oil viscosity can be measured as a function of pressure in most PVT laboratory measurements. n the
F.A.S.T. VirtuWell program it is calculated from the correlation of "Beggs and Robinson" at the
appropriate pressure and temperature. These correlations are very sensitive to solution gas-oil ratio and to
oil gravity. The oil viscosity can vary from 10 000 cp for a heavy oil to less than 1 cp for a light oil.
The oil viscosity has a very strong effect on the friction pressure loss, but no effect on the hydrostatic
pressure loss.
UNTS: cp (mPa.s) DEFAULT: "Beggs and Robinson" correlation
Water Cut
This is the water produced at surface as a percentage of the total liquids produced at surface. t is typically
known from direct measurements. f the daily water rate is known, it must be divided by the daily total
liquid rate (oil + water) to obtain the water cut.
f PR information has been given, the water cut is calculated from the instantaneous (and varying)
oil/water rates obtained from their respective PR's to construct the Tubing Performance Curves.
UNTS: % DEFAULT: 0
Water =ate
This is the daily water rate. t is typically known from direct measurements. f the water cut or Water-gas
ratio is known, it must be multiplied with the daily total liquid or gas rate to calculate the daily water rate.
The water rate is at stock tank conditions.
F.A.S.T. VirtuWelltm treats all flow within the vertical wellbore as originating from the MPP (Mid Point
Perforations). n a horizontal well, the total flow is divided so that it enters at ten (10) equally spaced points
in the horizontal portion of the wellbore.
UNTS: Bbl/d (m 3 /d) DEFAULT: 0
References:
Carr, N. L., R. Kobayashi and D. B. Burrows (1954). Viscosity of Hydrocarbon Gases under
Fluid Properties
84
F.A.S.T. VirtuWell is designed to calculate multiphase flow effects, and thus allows the user to input the
relevant fluid properties of Gas, Oil (Condensate) and Water.
/as
The Gas Properties that can be entered into F.A.S.T. VirtuWell include gas gravity, mol% N2, mol%
CO2 and mol% H2S. The use of correct gas properties is most important in single phase gas wells and
Gas/Liquid systems with high Gas to Liquid Ratios. These gas properties are used in calculating the gas
density, the compressibility factor (Z) and the gas viscosity at various pressures and temperatures.
?il
The Oil Properties that can be entered into F.A.S.T. VirtuWell include the AP Gravity and, in certain
instances, the flowing Gas-Oil Ratio (GOR). The AP Gravity is used to determine the Oil Density, the
Solution Gas-Oil Ratio, the Oil Viscosity and the Formation Volume Factor at various pressures and
temperatures. The oil properties can be measured in the laboratory or obtained from several published
correlations. F.A.S.T. VirtuWell has a choice of oil properties to choose from. The flowing Gas-Oil Ratio
affects the pressure drop calculations in multiphase flow.
Condensate
The Condensate Properties that can be entered into F.A.S.T. VirtuWell include the condensate density,
separator pressure and separator temperature.
Water
The Water Properties that can be entered into F.A.S.T. VirtuWell include the Water Gravity and, in
certain instances, the flowing Water-Gas Ratio (WGR). The Water Gravity is used to determine the density
and the viscosity of water at various pressures and temperatures from published correlations. The flowing
water-gas ratio affects the pressure drop calculations in multiphase flow.
The gas, oil and water properties have a significant effect on both the hydrostatic and the friction pressure
losses.
/as Properties
The Gas Properties that can be entered into F.A.S.T. VirtuWell include:
gas gravity
mol% N2
mol% CO2
mol% H2S
The use of correct gas properties is most important in single phase gas wells and Gas/Liquid systems with
high Gas to Liquid Ratios. These gas properties are used in calculating:
gas density
compressibility factor (Z)
gas viscosity
These, in turn, affect DRECTLY the calculation of the pressure drops caused by friction and by hydrostatic
head.
The Pressure-Volume-Temperature relationship of natural gases is covered in most standard texts. A
convenient reference is the ERCB manual :
Gas Well Testing, Theory and Practice. Fourth Edition, 1979 (Metric), 1975 (Field). Energy Resources
Conservation Board, Alberta, Canada.
85
/as /ra!ity
Gas Gravity is the molar mass (molecular weight) of the natural gas divided by the molar mass of air
(28.94). t ranges from 0.55 for dry sweet gas (mostly methane) to approximately 1.5 for wet, sour gas
(includes CO2 and H2S concentration). The Gas Gravity is readily obtained from any laboratory gas
analysis.
n F.A.S.T. VirtuWell, Gas Gravity affects three variables namely compressibility factor (Z-factor), gas
viscosity, and gas density.
The effects on compressibility (Z) and viscosity are not very significant. However, the effect on density is
significant in two ways. t affects the friction pressure drop to some extent, but it affects the hydrostatic
pressure drop directly i.e. doubling the Gas Gravity doubles the density and therefore doubles the
hydrostatic pressure drop.
UNTS: None
LMTS: 0.5 < G < 1.5
C
5
Molar Concentration of Nitrogen in the gas stream. t has an effect on the calculation of compressibility
factor (z-factor) and viscosity. The concentration of Nitrogen must be between 0% and 15% to be within
the limits of the correlations. For values outside of this range F.A.S.T. VirtuWell will still complete the
calculations, however results should be used with caution.
UNTS: Percent (%)
DEFAULT: 0
C?
5
Molar Concentration of Carbon Dioxide in the gas stream. t has an effect on the calculation of
compressibility factor (z-factor) and viscosity. The concentration of CO2 must be between 0% and 80% to
be within the limits of the correlations for the z-factor, and between the limits of 0 and 15% for the viscosity
UNTS: Percent (%)
DEFAULT: 0
6
5
S
Molar Concentration of Hydrogen Sulfide in the gas stream. t has an effect on the calculation of
compressibility factor (z-factor) and viscosity. The concentration of H2S must be between 0% and 80% to
be within the limits of the correlations for the z-factor and between the limits of 0 and 15% for the viscosity
UNTS: Percent (%)
86
DEFAULT: 0
/as Aensity
The density of a gas varies with the in-situ conditions of pressure and temperature along a pipe. The gas
density is calculated from the "real gas" law :
where:
G = Gas Gravity
P = Pressure (psia)
z = compressibility factor
T = temperature (R)
The gas density is used in calculating the pressure drops caused by friction and by hydrostatic head.
UNTS: lb/ft3 (kg/m3)
/as Compressibility factor *F,
The supercompressibility factor (also often called compressibility factor), z, of a natural gas is a measure
of its deviation from ideal gas behavior. ts value is usually between 0.8 and 1.2, but it can be as low as 0.3
and as high as 2.0. t is used in the calculation of gas densities, and in converting gas volumes and rates
from standard conditions to reservoir conditions (and vice-versa).
Gas Viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid refers to the resistance to flow. t causes the pressure to drop in the direction of
flow. t is used in the calculation of the "friction pressure drop". For gas, the viscosity varies with gas
gravity, temperature and pressure. Usually it is not measured, but is obtained from the Carr, Kobayashi
and Burrows correlations, which include corrections for H2S, CO2 and N2. For sour gases, this correlation is
preferred to the Lee, Gonzalez and Eakin formulation (which does NOT account for H2S, CO2 and N2).
Viscosity enters into the definition of Reynold's Number, which is used to obtain the friction factor from the
Fanning friction factor charts.
Typically, gas viscosity is in the range of 0.015 to 0.03 centipoise (cp).
UNTS: cp (mPa.s)
?il Properties
n this document, the word "oil" is used interchangeably with the word "condensate".
The Oil (Condensate) Properties that can be entered into F.A.S.T. VirtuWell include the AP Gravity (Oil
Density) and, in certain instances, the flowing Gas-Oil Ratio (GOR).
Although every oil has its unique PVT and flowing characteristics, the properties that affect the pressure
loss in pipe flow can usually be characterized by the single variable, AP Gravity. t can be correlated to the
Oil Density, the Solution Gas-Oil Ratio, the Oil Viscosity and the Oil Formation Volume Factor at various
pressures and temperatures.
87
These oil properties can be measured in the laboratory or can be obtained from several published
correlations. F.A.S.T. VirtuWell uses the "Beggs and Robinson" (1975) correlation for viscosity, and the
"Vasquez and Beggs" (1980) correlation for the other oil properties.
The oil properties that can be entered into F.A.S.T. VirtuWell include:
Bubble Point Pressure
AP Gravity
The AP Gravity is used to determine the following at various temperatures and pressures:
Oil Density
Solution Gas-Oil Ratio
Oil Viscosity
Oil Formation Volume Factor
The oil properties can be measured in the laboratory or obtained from several published correlations.
F.A.S.T. VirtuWell uses the "Beggs and Robinson" correlation for viscosity, and the "Vasquez and
Beggs" correlation for the other oil properties. The flowing Gas-Oil Ratio affects the pressure drop
calculations in multiphase flow.
'ubble Point Pressure
The Bubble Point Pressure is defined as the pressure at which the oil is saturated with gas. Above this
pressure the oil is undersaturated, and the oil acts as a single phase liquid. At and below this pressure the
oil is saturated, and any lowering of the pressure causes gas to be liberated resulting in two phase flow.
The Bubble Point affects the nflow Performance Relationship Curve (PR) curve. Above this pressure, the
PR is a straight line, of slope equal to the inverse of productivity index. Below the bubble point pressure,
the PR is a curve based on "Vogel's" equation. The straight line and the curve are tangential at the bubble
point pressure, where they meet.
The bubble point pressure has a SGNFCANT effect on PVT correlations. t marks a drastic change, and
a discontinuity, in the correlations. For example:
At pressures below the bubble point, the oil viscosity decreases with
increasing pressure where as above the bubble point the viscosity
increases.
Thesolution gas-oil ratio increases with increasing pressure up to the
bubble point and is constant thereafter.
Theoil formation volume factor increases with increasing pressure and
decreases slightly thereafter.
UNTS: psia or kPa (absolute)
DEFAULT: None
&PI /ra!ity
AP Gravity is the specific gravity (density) of oil at stock tank conditions. t ranges from 60 AP
(condensate) to 45 AP (light oil) to 20 AP (medium density) to 10 AP (heavy oil). The AP Gravity is
readily obtained from any laboratory oil analysis. t is a fixed property of the oil, and is independent of the
operating pressure or temperature, unlike the in-situ oil density that is very dependent on operating
pressure and temperature conditions.
n F.A.S.T. VirtuWell, this variable is the primary variable used for calculating the oil properties at the
required pressures and temperatures. AP Gravity affects four variables namely:
88
Oil viscosity
Solution gas-oil ratio
Oil formation volume factor
Oil density (in situ)
The primary effect of AP Gravity is on the in-situ oil density. The density affects the friction pressure drop
to some extent, but it affects the hydrostatic pressure drop DRECTLY.
Stoc- *an- Density +-g/m0, 1 2333 4 +25267 / +(P) 8 20267,,
The AP Gravity must be between 16 AP and 58 AP to be within the range of the correlations. When the
parameter name is displayed in yellow this a warning that the entered value is outside the range.
UNTS: AP (kg/m3)
DEFAULT: None
LMTS: 16 AP < G < 58 AP
Oil Density (in-situ)
The in-situ oil density should not be confused with the AP Gravity (Stock Tank Oil Density). The in-situ oil
density varies with pressure and temperature, but more so with the amount of dissolved gas contained in
the oil (Solution Gas-Oil Ratio), whereas the AP gravity is a fixed property of the particular oil,
independent of operating conditions. The in-situ oil density is obtained by multiplying the density at stock
tank conditions by the Formation Volume Factor at the in-situ pressure and temperature conditions. Thus:
.il density +in-situ, 1 .il Density +Stoc- *an- Conditions, 4 .il
Formation 9olume Factor
The oil density affects the Hydrostatic Pressure Loss and the Friction Pressure Loss.
UNTS: lb/ft3 (kg/m3)
DEFAULT: Vasquez and Beggs correlation
Solution Gas-.il Ratio
This is the amount of gas dissolved in the oil at any pressure. t increases approximately linearly with
pressure. t is a function of the oil and gas composition. A heavy oil contains less dissolved gas than a light
oil. n general, the solution gas-oil ratio varies from 0 (dead oil) to approximately 2000 SCF/Bbl (very light
oil). The solution gas-oil ratio increases with pressure until the bubble point pressure is reached, after
which it is a constant, and the oil is said to be under-saturated.
The solution gas-oil ratio has a significant influence on the oil formation volume factor and the oil viscosity.
When a mixture of gas and oil is flowing in a pipe or wellbore, the actual quantity of "free gas" that is
flowing increases as the pressure of the gas-oil system decreases. This is due to gas "coming out of
solution from the oil" and becoming free gas, thus increasing the gas flow rate, and decreasing the oil flow
rate. n the F.A.S.T. VirtuWell program, the solution gas-oil ratio is used for accounting for the changes
in the in-situ gas rate along the pipe or wellbore.
The solution gas-oil ratio is readily obtained from laboratory PVT measurements, or as is done in the
F.A.S.T. VirtuWell program, it may be calculated from correlations such as "Vasquez and Beggs".
UNTS: SCF/Bbl (m3/m3)
89
DEFAULT: Vasquez and Beggs correlation
.il 9iscosity
This is the value of the oil viscosity at in-situ conditions. t is a very strong function of temperature, AP
Gravity (Stock Tank Oil Density) and Solution Gas-Oil Ratio.
Below the bubble point pressure, the amount of gas dissolved in the oil increases as the pressure is
increased. This causes the in-situ oil viscosity to decrease significantly. Above the bubble point pressure,
oil viscosity increases minimally with increasing pressure.
The oil viscosity can be measured as a function of pressure in most PVT laboratory measurements. n the
F.A.S.T. VirtuWell program it is calculated from the correlation of "Beggs and Robinson" at the
appropriate pressure and temperature. These correlations are very sensitive to solution gas-oil ratio and to
oil gravity. The oil viscosity can vary from 10 000 cp for a heavy oil to less than 1 cp for a light oil.
The oil viscosity has a very strong effect on the friction pressure loss, but no effect on the hydrostatic
pressure difference.
UNTS: cp (mPa.s)
DEFAULT: Beggs and Robinson correlation
.il Formation 9olume Factor
This is defined as the ratio of the volume of oil at operating conditions to that at stock tank conditions. This
factor is used to convert the flow rate and the density of oil (both normally reported at stock tank
conditions) to in-situ conditions. Thus,
Oil Flow Rate (in-situ Barrels) = Oil Flow Rate (Stock Tank Barrels) * Oil Formation Volume Factor
and
Oil density (in-situ) = Oil Density (Stock Tank Conditions) * Oil Formation Volume Factor
n the equations used in F.A.S.T. VirtuWell the oil rate and the oil density should be expressed at in-situ
conditions, because the equations apply to the pressure and temperature conditions inside the pipe.
However, the oil flow rate is generally measured at the surface, in stock tank barrels. Therefore, this rate is
multiplied by the oil formation volume factor to convert it to in-situ conditions. Similarly, it is the in-situ
density that counts, and that is obtained from the AP Gravity (Stock Tank Oil Density) and the Formation
Volume Factor
Below the bubble point pressure, the oil formation volume factor increases with pressure. This is because
more gas goes into solution as the pressure is increased and this causes the oil to swell. Above the bubble
point pressure, the oil formation volume factor decreases as the pressure is increased, because there is
no more gas available to go into solution, and the oil is being compressed.
The value of the oil formation volume factor is generally between 1 and 2 RB/STB (m3/m3). t is readily
obtained from laboratory PVT measurements, or it may be calculated from correlations such as "Vasquez
and Beggs".
n the correlations that are being used to calculate the oil formation volume factor, the Solution Gas-Oil
Ratio is the most significant variable.
UNTS: Bbl/Bbl (m3/m3)
DEFAULTS: Vasquez and Beggs correlation
Condensate Properties
90
The Condensate Properties that can be entered into F.A.S.T. VirtuWell include:
Condensate Density
Separator Pressure
Separator Temperature
Condensate-Gas Ratio (CGR)
The Condensate Properties that are entered into F.A.S.T. VirtuWell are used to calculate a Recombined
Gas Gravity and a Recombined Gas Rate. These are then used in single-phase pressure drop
calculations. A gas-condensate system is treated as a single-phase system with a recombined gas gravity
and a recombined gas rate.
See Also: Recombination
Condensate Aensity
Condensate Density is the specific gravity in AP of condensate at stock tank conditions. t ranges from 60
AP to 40 AP. The AP Gravity is readily obtained from any laboratory oil analysis. t is a fixed property of
the condensate.
UNTS: AP (kg/m3)
DEFAULT: None
Separator Pressure
The separator pressure is the pressure in the separator or at wellhead. t is used in the recombination
calculations to calculate the vapour equivalent of the condensate, the recombined gas rate and the
recombined gas gravity.
UNTS: psia (kPaA)
DEFAULT: 100 psia
Separator 9emperature
The separator temperature is the temperature in the separator or at wellhead. t is used in the
recombination calculations to calculate the vapour equivalent of the condensate, the recombined gas rate
and the recombined gas gravity.
UNTS: F (C)
DEFAULT: 100 F
Condensate /as =atio
This is the condensate to gas ratio produced at surface. t is typically known from direct measurements. f
the daily condensate rate is known, it must be divided by the daily gas rate to obtain the Condensate-Gas
Ratio. The CGR is used to calculate the Recombined Gas Gravity and the Recombined Gas Rate which
are used in the wellbore pressure drop calculations.
UNTS: Bbl/MMcf (m3/103m3)
91
DEFAULT: 0
Water Properties
Currently, water gravity is the only property that can be entered, but water can potentially have a large
effect on a system.
Water /ra!ity
Specific Gravity is defined as the density of the liquid divided by the density of water at standard conditions
(62.3 lb/ft3, 1000 kg/m3). The gravity of pure water is therefore 1.0. Often oilfield waters are saline and
have a specific gravity slightly greater than 1.0.
The primary effect of water gravity is on the density of water, which in turn affects the hydrostatic pressure
difference.
UNTS: None
DEFAULT: 1
Fluid Property Correlations
Hhan et al *Saudi &rabian ?ils,
The Khan et al correlation contains equations for estimating oil viscosity at, above and below the bubble
point for Saudi Arabian oils. The study used data from 75 bottom hole samples, which were taken from 65
Saudi Arabian reservoirs. The authors claim that this correlation gives the most accurate predictions for
Saudi Arabian crude oils, as compared to the Beggs and Robinson, Beal, and Chew and Connally
correlations.
n order to calculate the viscosity, the solution gas-oil ratio (Rs) at the bubble point is required. There are
two methods to calculate the viscosity with the Khan et al correlation. The first way is to input the value of
Rs at the bubble point. This can be entered as shown in the following image.
92
n the case where there is no user selected value, the Rs value will be calculated using the correlation
selected for Bo and Rs in the fluid properties tab.
n the correlation for oil viscosity at the bubble point, the oil specific gravity must be less than one in order
to prevent division by zero in the equation. n order to handle this, we have added a limit that the oil
gravity, in , must be greater than 10 (specific gravity would then equal 1).
93
.il 9iscosity at the &u''le Point
.il 9iscosity a'o:e the &u''le Point
.il 9iscosity 'elo# the &u''le Point
Nomenclature
The limits used in the development of the correlation are listed after the symbol.
P = reservoir pressure, psia (14.7 5015)
Pbbubble point pressure, psia (107 4315)
Rssolution gas-oil ratio, scf/STB (24 1901)
T = reservoir temperature, F (75 240)
= gas specific gravity (air = 1) (0.752 1.367)
= oil specific gravity (14.3 44.6 degrees AP)
= relative temperature, (T+ 459.67)/459.67). (T is in F)
= oil viscosity above the bubble point, cp (0.13 71.0)
= oil viscosity below the bubble point, cp (0.13 77.4)
= bubble point oil viscosity, cp (0.13 17.9)
Reference
S.A. Khan, M.A. Al-Marhoun, S.O. Duffuaa, and S.A. Abu-Khamsin. "Viscosity Correlations for Saudi
Arabian Crude Oils," SPE Paper No. 15720, 1987.
Ae /hetto et al *6ea!y and @>tra.6ea!y ?ils,
The De Ghetto et al correlation contains modified PVT correlations for estimating bubble point pressure,
solution gas-oil ratio, oil formation volume factor, oil compressibility, and oil viscosity for heavy and extra-
heavy oils. Each correlation is modified specifically for heavy oils (10 < oAP < 22.3), and extra heavy oils
(oAP < 10). The oils used for developing the correlation came from the Mediterranean Basin, Africa and
the Persian Gulf, taken from AGP's reservoir fluid samples. When comparing published correlations, De
Ghetto et al decided that the Vazquez and Beggs correlation estimated the oil formation volume factor with
minimal error, and therefore no further modification was needed. The Vazquez and Beggs correlation for
oil formation volume factor is included in the De Ghetto et al correlation.
mportant Note: n contrast with other correlations, the De Ghetto et al correlation requires the
pressure and temperature at the separator. These values may be by selecting Pressure loss correlation
parameters in the Options menu as shown in the following picture.
94
&u''le Point Pressure
Heavy oils: Modified Vazquez and Beggs solution gas-oil ratio correlation reversed to solve for the bubble
point pressure.
Where
Extra-Heavy oils: Modified Standing's solution gas-oil ratio correlation, reversed to solve for the bubble
point pressure.
95
Solution Gas-.il-Ratio
Heavy oils: Modified Vasquez-Begg's correlation
is calculated the same as above.
Extra-heavy oils: Modified Standing's correlation
Gas saturated: Vazquez and Beggs correlation
Where
Undersaturated:
.il Compressi'ility
Undersaturated:
Heavy oils: Modified Vasquez-Begg's correlation
96
is calculated the same as above.
Extra-heavy oils: Modified Vasquez-Begg's correlation
Gas saturated:
The derivatives dBo/dRs and dRs/dP where taken from the Vazquez and Beggs correlation.
.il 9iscosity
Dead Oil:
Heavy-oils: Modified Egbogah-Jack's correlation
Extra-heavy oils: Modified Egbogah-Jack's correlation
Gas saturated:
Heavy Oils: Modified Kartoatmodjo's Correlation
Where
Extra-heavy oils: Modified Kartoatmodjo's correlation
Where
97
Y is calculated the same as for heavy oils, which is shown above.
Undersaturated:
Heavy Oils: Modified Kartoatmodjo's correlation
Extra-heavy oils: Modified Labedi's correlation
Nomenclature
f available, the limits used in the development of the correlation are listed after the symbol.
AP = oil gravity, (6 22.3)
Bg = gas formation volume factor, bbl/scf
Bo = oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB (1.057 1.362)
Bob = oil formation volume factor at the bubble point, bbl/STB
Co = oil compressibility, (3.02 x 10-5 4.29 x 10-5)
P = reservoir pressure, psia (1038.49 7411.54)
Pb = bubble point pressure, psia (208.86 4021.96)
Psp = separator pressure, psia (14.5 752.2)
Rs = solution gas-oil ratio, scf/STB (17.21 640.25)
T = reservoir temperature, (131.4 250.7)
Tsp = separator pressure, psia (59 177.8)
X = intermediate variable
Y = intermediate variable
= gas specific gravity (air = 1) (0.623 1.517)
= gas specific gravity at separator pressure of 114.7 psia
= undersaturated oil viscosity, cp (2.4 354.6)
= dead-oil or gas-free oil viscosity, cp (7.7 1386.9)
= gas-saturated oil viscosity, cp (2.1 295.9)
Reference
Giambattista De Ghetto, Francesco Paone and Marco Villa. "Pressure-Volume-Temperature Correlations
for Heavy and Extra Heavy Oils," SPE 30316, 1995.
Delarde et al *=educed Dariable &pproach,
The Velarde et al correlation contains equations for estimating bubble point pressure, solution gas-oil ratio
and oil formation volume factor. The correlation for the solution gas-oil ratio uses a reduced variable
approach, and so the final equation is solved for the reduced solution gas-oil ratio. The reduced solution
gas-oil ratio is defined as the solution gas-oil ratio divided by the solution gas-oil ratio at the bubble point.
Similarly, the reduced pressure is defined as the pressure divided by the bubble point pressure.
98
Note that the reservoir pressure and the bubble point pressure used in the reduced pressure equation are
in units of psig.
The bubble point pressure in this equation is in units of psia.
Where
Solution Gas-Oil Ratio at the Bubble Point Pressure
The bubble point pressure equation is reversed to solve for the solution gas-oil ratio. The bubble point
pressure in this equation is in units of psia.
Where X is calculated the same as above
Once the reduced solution gas-oil ratio has been calculated, the solution gas-oil ratio at the bubble point
calculated above is used to solve for the solution gas-oil ration at any pressure below the bubble point.
The pressures used in this correlation are in units of psig. We use a pressure of 14.7 psi as our
atmospheric pressure.
n order to prevent the calculation of a negative solution gas-oil ratio, we have implemented a limit on the
variable . f the value of is greater than one, it is given a value of one.
99
Where
Gas saturated:
oR can be calculated using the following correlations:
Where
po is calculated through iteration using the following equations. The calculations are done ten times. The
values from the ninth and tenth calculations are averaged to give you a final value for .
Undersaturated:
100
The oil compressibility used in this equation is obtained from the Vazquez and Beggs correlation.
Nomenclature
The limits used in the development of the correlation are in two tables after the list of symbols. One set of
limits was used to develop the solution gas-oil ratio correlation, the other used to develop the bubble point
pressure correlation.
AP = oil gravity, degrees AP
Bo = oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB
P = reservoir pressure, psia
Pb = bubble point pressure, psia
Pr = reduced pressure, psig/psig
Rs = solution gas-oil ratio, scf/STB
Rsb = solution gas-oil ratio at the bubble point, scf/STB
Rsr = reduced solution gas-oil ratio,
T = reservoir temperature, degrees F
= gas specific gravity (air = 1))
bs = pseudo liquid density at reservoir pressure and standard temperature, 60 degrees F, lbm/cu ft
po = pseudo liquid density at standard conditions, lbm/cu ft
STO = stock tank oil density, lbm/cu ft
Reference
J. Velarde, T.A. Blasingame and W.D. McCain, Jr. "Correlation of Black Oil Properties at Pressures Below
Bubble Point Pressure A New Approach," The Petroleum Society 97-93, 1997.
101
'eggs and =obinson
Beggs and Robinson is a generally applicable correlation containing equations for dead, gas-saturated and
undersaturated oil viscosity. The correlation was developed using a wide range of PVT data.
n order to calculate the viscosity, the Beggs and Robinson correlation requires a solution gas-oil ratio
(Rs).
Dead .il 9iscosity
Where
Gas Saturated .il 9iscosity
Where
;ndersaturated .il 9iscosity
Where
C1 = 2.6
C2= 1.187
C3 = -11.513
C4 = -8.98x10-5
Nomenclature
A = intermediate variable
AP = oil gravity, degrees AP (16 58)
102
B = intermediate variable
P = reservoir pressure, psia (0 5250)
Rs = solution gas-oil ratio, scf/STB (20 2070)
Z = intermediate variable
= oil viscosity, cp
ob = oil viscosity at the bubble point, cp
oD = dead oil viscosity, cp
Reference
H.D. Beggs and J.R. Robinson. "Estimating the Viscosity of Crude Oil Systems," JPT 1140-41, September
1975.
Da$(ue$ and 'eggs */enerally &pplicable,
Vazquez and Beggs is a generally applicable correlation containing equations for solution gas-oil ratio, oil
formation volume factor, and oil compressibility. The correlation was developed from 600 laboratory PVT
analyses from fields all over the world. The data used in the development of the correlation included wide
ranges of pressure, temperature and oil properties. The correlation divides the data into two groups bases
on oil gravity. The division is made at an oil gravity of 30 degrees AP.
Where
The coefficients C1, C2 and C3 are the same as for the bubble point pressure equation.
.il Formation 9olume Factors
Gas saturated:
Where
103
Undersaturated:
.il Compressi'ility
Undersaturated:
Where
A1 = -1433.0
A2 = 5.0
A3 = 17.2
A4 = -1180.0
A5 = 12.61
A6 = 105
Gas saturated:
The derivatives dBo / dRs and dRs/dP where taken from the Vazquez and Beggs correlation.
Nomenclature
AP = oil gravity, degrees AP (15.3 59.5)
Bo = oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB
P = reservoir pressure, psia (140.7 9514.7)
104
T = reservoir temperature, degrees F
g = gas specific gravity (air = 1) (0.511 1.351)
Reference
M.E. Vazquez and H.D. Beggs. "Correlations for Fluid Physical Property Prediction," JPT 968-70, June
1980.
Petros<y and Farshad */ulf of Me>ico ?ils,
The Petrosky and Farshad correlation contains equations for estimating bubble point pressure, solution
gas-oil ratio and oil formation volume factor and oil compressibility for Gulf of Mexico oils. The correlation
was developed with fluid samples taken from offshore Texas and Louisiana. The producing areas
represented are from Galveston sland Eastward through Main Pass.
The authors claim that these correlations provide improved results over other correlations for the Gulf of
Mexico, including those published by Standing, Vazquez and Beggs, Glaso and Al-Marhoun.
Where
Where
Gas saturated:
Undersaturated:
105
.il Compressi'ility
Gas saturated:
Undersaturated:
The derivatives dBo/dRs and dRs/dP were taken from the Vazquez and Beggs correlation.
Nomenclature
co = oil compressibility, psia-1 (3.507 x 10-5 2.464 x 10-5)
Pb = bubble point pressure, psia (1574 6523)
o = oil specific gravity (water = 1)
Reference
G.E. Petrosky Jr. and F.F. Farshad. "Pressure-Volume-Temperature Correlations for Gulf of Mexico Crude
Oils," SPE 26644, 1993.
Cg and @gbogah
The Ng and Egbogah correlation contains two methods for calculating dead oil viscosity, a modified Beggs
and Robinson correlation and a correlation that uses the pour point temperature. When the Ng and
Egbogah correlation has been selected or is being displayed on the comparison page, an input cell for the
pour point temperature will appear on the left side of the screen. f a pour point temperature is input, the
program uses the pour point correlation to calculate the viscosity of dead oil.
Pour point temperature is the lowest temperature at which the oil is observed to flow when cooled and
examined under conditions prescribed in ASTM D97. The purpose of introducing the pour point
temperature into the correlation is to reflect the chemical composition of crude oil into the viscosity
correlation.
106
The pour point temperature parameter entry is located in the options menu under pressure loss correlation
parameters.
f a pour point temperature is not entered, the program uses the modified Beggs and Robinson correlation
to calculate the viscosity of dead oil. To obtain the viscosity for live oil, the dead oil correlations are used
with the Beggs and Robinson viscosity correlation. The data used to derive the correlations was taken
from the Reservoir Fluids Analysis Laboratory of AGAT Engineering Ltd., using a total of 394 oil systems.
n order to calculate the viscosity, the Ng and Egbogah correlation requires a solution gas-oil ratio (Rs).
"odified &eggs and Ro'inson 9iscosity Correlation
Pour Point 9iscosity Correlation
107
Gas-Saturated 9iscosity
Where
;ndersaturated 9iscosity
Where:
C1 = 2.6
C2 = 1.187
C3 = -11.513
C4 = -8.9810-5
Nomenclature
AP = oil gravity, (5 - 58)
T = reservoir temperature, (15 80)
TF = reservoir temperature, (70 295)
Tp = pour point temperature, , (-50 15)
Z = intermediate variable
= oil specific gravity, (water = 1)
= oil viscosity, cp
ob = oil viscosity at the bubble point, cp
oD = dead oil viscosity, cp
=eferences
Achong, ., "Revised Bean Performance Formula for Lake Maracaibo Wells", internal co. report, Shell Oil Co., Houston, TX, Oct 1961
Ashford, F.E. and Pierce, P.E., "Determining Multiphase Pressure Drops and Flow Capacities in Down-Hole Safety Valves", SPE Paper No. 5161,
J. Pet. Tech., Sep 1975, 1145
Baxendell, P.B., "Bean Performance Lake Maracaibo Wells", internal co. report, Shell Oil Co., Houston, TX, Oct 1967
Gilbert, W.E., "Flowing and Gas-Lift Well Performance", Drill. & Prod. Practice, 1954, 126
108
Omana, R., Houssiere, C. Jr., Brown, K.E., Brill, J.P., and Thompson, R.E., "Multiphase Flow Through Chokes", SPE Paper No. 2682, paper
presented at Annual Fall Meeting of the SPE of AME, Denver, CO, Sep 28 Oct 1, 1969
Ros, N.C.J., "An Analysis of Critical Simultaneous Gas-Liquid Flow Through a Restriction and ts Application to Flowmetering", Appl. Sci. Res. (9),
1960, 374
Standing *California ?ils,
The Standing correlation contains equations for estimating bubble point pressure, solution gas-oil ratio and
oil formation volume factor for California oils. 105 experimentally determined data points on 22 different oil-
gas mixtures from California were used in the development of the correlations.
Gas saturated:
Undersaturated:
Nomenclature
AP = oil gravity, (16.5 63.8)
= oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB (1.024 2.15)
109
= oil formation volume factor at the bubble point, bbl/STB
= bubble point pressure, psia (200 6000)
= solution gas-oil ratio, scf/STB (20 1425)
= reservoir temperature, (60 260 for bubble point correlation,
100 260 for oil formation volume factor correlation)
co = oil compressibility, psia-1 (3.507 x 10-5 2.464 x 10-5)
Reference
M.B. Standing. "A Pressure-Volume-Temperature Correlation for Mixtures of California Oil and Gases,"
Drill. & Prod. Prac., AP, 1947.
&l.Marhoun -13I *Saudi &rabian ?ils,
The Al-Marhoun correlation contains equations for estimating bubble point pressure, solution gas-oil ratio
and oil formation volume factor for Saudi Arabian oils. 75 bottom hole fluid samples from 62 reservoirs in
Saudi Arabia were used in the development of these correlations. The author claims that the correlations
should be valid for all types of gas-oil mixtures that share similar properties as those used in the derivation.
According to the author, the average errors and standard deviations were lower with the Al-Marhoun
correlation than with the Standing and Glaso correlations for Saudi Arabian crude oils.
Where
The bubble point pressure equation is reversed to solve for the solution gas-oil ratio. X must be solved for
using the quadratic equation.
110
Where
Gas saturated:
Where
Undersaturated:
Nomenclature
T = reservoir temperature, (534.668 699.668)
o = oil specific gravity (water = 1) (14.3 44.6 degrees AP)
Reference
M.A. AL-Marhoun. "Pressure-Volume-Temperature Correlations for Saudi Crude Oils," SPE 13718, 1985
/L&S? *Corth Sea ?ils,
111
The Glaso correlation contains equations for estimating bubble point pressure, solution gas-oil ratio and oil
formation volume factor for North Sea oils. The author claims that the correlation should be valid for all
types of oil and gas mixtures after correcting for non-hydrocarbons in the surface gases and the
paraffinicity of the oil. According to the author, the correlation more accurately predicts the oil properties of
North Sea oils than the Standing correlation.
&u''le Point Correlation
Where
The bubble point pressure equation is reversed to solve for the solution gas-oil ratio. X must be solved for
using the quadratic equation.
Where
Gas saturated:
Where
112
Undersaturated:
Nomenclature
T = reservoir temperature, (80 280)
o = oil specific gravity (water = 1) (0.788 0.920)
Reference
Oistein Glaso. "Generalized Pressure-Volume-Temperature Correlations," Journal of Petroleum
Technology, 1980.
6anafy et al *@gyptian ?ils,
The Hanafy et al correlation contains equations for estimating bubble point pressure, solution gas-oil ratio
and oil formation volume factor and oil compressibility, oil density and oil viscosity for Egyptian oils. The
compressibility correlation assumes constant compressibility after the bubble point. This correlation is
independent of oil gravity and reservoir temperature.
The PVT data used in the derivation of the correlations was distributed along three different regions of
Egypt: The Gulf of Suez, Western Desert and Sinai regions. The authors claim that the correlations can be
used to estimate oil properties for a wide range of crude oils ranging from heavy to volatile oils. However
our observations are that it appears to be closer to the properties of light oils.
To prevent the calculation of a negative solution gas-oil ratio, 0 is returned for pressures less than 157.28
psia.
Gas saturated:
113
Undersaturated:
.il Density
NOTE: the density is calculated in metric units, gm/cc.
Gas saturated:
Undersaturated:
.il Compressi'ility
Undersaturated:
This correlation uses only the oil density at the bubble point. Therefore the oil compressibility is constant
for pressures greater than the bubble point.
Gas saturated:
The derivatives and were taken from the Vazquez and Beggs correlation.
.il 9iscosity
This correlation calculates the oil viscosity at any pressure using the corresponding oil density.
Nomenclature
114
co = oil compressibility, ( - ?)
HL = solution gas-oil ratio, scf/STB (7 4272)
ob = gas-saturated oil density, gm/cc (0.428 0.939)
ou = undersaturated oil density, gm/cc (0.648 1.071)
= oil viscosity, cp (0.119 106.6)
Reference
H.H. Hanafy, S.M. Macary, Y.M. ElNady, A.A. Bayomi and M.H. El Batanony. "A New Approach for
Predicting
/as Meters
The meters available in the software are:
9"s 4opeties
Oifi*e 2ete
:iti*"! ,!o$ 4o#e
4itot Tube
;e"n :ho<e
+d=ust"b!e :ho<e
2e"sued >"te
?@ )nteg"! Oifi*e
.*one
.oteA
/as Meter 'loc< Aiagram
115
?ptional /as Meter Processes
116
The Frac process can be added to any gas meter, augmenting the meters gas properties calculation
engine. Meter gas properties are set to the reservoir gas composition. The meter is positioned to measure
the produced gas from the well (reservoir + Frac. Gas). A real-time gas analysis determines the percent of
Co2 and N2 in the produced gas. The first stage of the Frac. Process calculates the produced gas
properties based on the reservoir gas properties and the percent N2 and Co2 input from the gas analysis.
The produced gas properties are used by the gas meter to calculate the produced gas rate.
The second stage of the Frac Process splits the produced gas rate into the recovered Frac gasses and
reservoir gas. t does this on a volumetric basis utilizing the reservoir gas properties and the results of the
gas analysis.
/as ?rifice Meter
117
The most common method of measuring gas is through an orifice meter. Gas flows through a piece of
straight pipe with an orifice plate inserted in the middle.
The orifice plate is a steel circular plate with a hole in the middle; the hole is smaller than the internal
diameter of the pipe. The plate is placed perpendicular to the gas flow, and is sealed so that all the gas
flows through the hole. The hole is "tapered", meaning that the edge of the orifice hole is sharp. The plate
must be inserted in such a way as to have the direction of flow of gas from the smaller to larger diameter,
i.e. if the gas is flowing from left to right, the sharp edge of the orifice (the smaller diameter) must be at the
left. Reversing the orifice plate will give an incorrect measurement.
The orifice plate is actually a highly machined component. ts dimensions must adhere to certain
specifications. f the plate is damaged in any way in or around the "hole", it can no longer measure gas
rates with any accuracy, and it must be replaced.
118
The plates come in different sizes for measuring different rates. Each time an orifice plate is changed, the
size of the new plate must be recorded because the orifice size is needed for calculating flow rates.
n addition to knowing the size of the orifice plate, there are other parameters, which also must be known
and reported. The relationship for calculating flow rate, using an orifice meter, is described by the orifice
equation.
.rifice "eter $quation
Where:
&g B g"s f!o$ "te
: B oifi*e *oeffi*ient
4s B st"ti* pessue, o pessue inside the pipe
CDp B diffeenti"! pessue "*oss the oifi*e
Reference
Orifice Metering of Natural Gas, Gas Measurement Committee Report #3, Page 19, American Gas
Association, 1969.
.rifice Coefficient< C
The orifice coefficient, C, is a variable that accounts for many parameters that are associated with an
orifice meter. As you can see in the equation below, it depends on several factors, ranging from Fb. to.
Ftf. These factors account for the various meter set-ups, as follows:
the inten"! di"1ete of the 1ete itse!f 3 2ete >un -i7e 3 (,"*to ,b)
the si7e of the oifi*e p!"te 3 Oifi*e Di"1ete 3(,"*to ,b)
$hee the pessue is being 1e"sued 3 Eo*"tion of 4essue T"ps 3 (,"*to ,b)
the g"s g"#it8 "nd its *o1position (,"*tos ,g "nd ,p#)
the g"s f!o$ing te1pe"tue 3 (,"*to ,tf)
the 1"gnitude of the pessue (,"*tos , , F , ,p#)
the -t"nd"d :onditions (b"se) of 4essue "nd Te1pe"tue (,"*tos ,pb "nd
,tb)
C = Fb * Fr * Y * Fpb * Ftb * Fg * Fpv * Ftf
C Factor Came Contributing Parameters
Fb Basic Orifice Flow Factor Location of the pressure taps, diameter of the orifice, and
internal diameter of the meter pipe.
Fr Reynold's Number Factor p, P, location of taps, gas viscosity, gas temperature, and
gas gravity.
Y Expansion Factor Various thermodynamic variables and gas properties.
Fpb Pressure Base Factor Standard pressure conditions.
119
Ftb Temperature Base Factor Standard temperature conditions.
Fg Specific Gravity Factor Gas Gravity.
Fpv Supercompressibility Factor Z-factor, Flowing pressure and temperature, gas gravity
Ftf Flowing Temperature Factor Flowing Temperature
From this equation, "C" appears to be a very complex number. Even though the same orifice may be used
for measuring different streams of gas, the coefficient of that orifice will change to reflect the different
flowing conditions of the different systems.
Before the days of computers, engineers and operators used a complex system of tables to create an
orifice coefficient for each size of orifice and various flowing conditions. FieldNotes does these
calculations automatically, and the correct value of C is always applied to current calculation of gas flow
rates. Some field operators use a "Sony Circular Slide Rule" to calculate gas flow rates. The answers
obtained from this device are only approximate, and may differ from those calculated in the FieldNotes
program.
/as Dcone
A V-Cone is a type of differential pressure flow meter that uses the same idea as a orifice meter. The main
difference is that instead of a hole in the center of the orifice plate, which the gas flows through, the V-
Cone occupies the center of the pipe forcing gas to flow around it.
120
NOTE: t is very important with a Vcone to have accurate numbers for pipe D because calculations are
based on the space between the V-Cone and the inside of the pipe.
The Vcone measures the pressures upstream and downstream. Since velocity and pressure are related
(pressure is proportional to velocity squared), the velocity can be calculated from the difference upstream
(P1) and downstream (P2) pressures. As the pressure difference increases so does the velocity (the
velocity will increase much faster). Different size V-Cones will show a different pressure velocity
relationship.
9cone Shape
The Vcone is shaped, as it is to get a more accurate velocity measurement by measuring the maximum
velocity in the pipe. n a pipe where the flow has not been obstructed or disturbed, the flow will become
"well-developed". During well-developed flow, the velocity at each point will be different. The velocity would
be zero at the wall of the pipe, maximum at the center of the pipe and zero at the wall again. The following
image is a velocity profile for gas flowing in a pipe:
121
This is due to friction at the pipe wall that slows down the fluid as it passes. Since the cone is suspended
in the center of the pipe, it interacts directly with the high velocity region in two ways:
2ost piping *h"nges (pu1ps, tees, e!bo$s, et*) *"n distub $e!!3de#e!oped f!o$%
+ .3*one o#e*o1es this b8 esh"ping the #e!o*it8 pofi!e upste"1 of the *one
b8 using its *ontoued sh"pe% +s the f!o$ "ppo"*hes the *one, the f!o$ pofi!e
*h"nges to be*o1e " $e!!3de#e!oped pofi!e%
The pessue senso is !o*"ted in the *ente of the pipe to po#ide the highest
#e!o*it8 1e"sue1ent%
$quations
The equations used in a Vcone follow the same principle as an orifice meter. The biggest difference is that
an accurate measure of internal diameter is very important. Small errors in the internal diameter are raised
to the second power and so can make a large impact.
And:
Where:
G" B +*tu"! .o!u1eti* f!o$ "te (see *h"nging "*tu"! "tes to st"nd"d "tes)
:f B f!o$ *oeffi*ient of the 1ete (usu"!!8 po#ided b8 1"nuf"*tue)
: B 1ete *onst"nt
D B 4ipe inten"! di"1ete
d B f!o$ 1ete di"1ete
n B " unit *on#esion *onst"nt% 6%3002 fo fie!d units% 1%1107 fo 1eti* units%
p B densit8 of f!uid
122
; B bet" "tio (*one di"1ete e!"tion)
H 4 B pessue dop, diffeenti"! pessue
F B eAp"nsion f"*to
/as Properties
The gas property calculations used in Fieldnotes are dependant on user inputs that are used in
correlations. There are several general correlations used in the program.
The different correlations result in Equation of State calculations that differ depending on the inputed
values.
;%/%> :oe!"tion This *oe!"tions is b"sed on the ;enedi*t3/ebb3>ubin
e&u"tion of st"te%
+9+8 :oe!"tions "e b"sed on the +1ei*"n 9"s +sso*i"tion(s do*u1ent 8%
The +9-8 det"i!ed g"s *oe!"tion "!!o$s fo *h"nging *o1position% -e!e*ted
*o1ponents "e "dded to the ,ie!d 1e"sue1ent gid "s d"t" *o!u1ns% /hee
the *o1ponents *"n #"8 in ti1e%
Gas Gra:ity
The most important gas property that affects the flow rate calculation is the Gas Gravity, G. The calculated
flow rate is inversely proportional to the square root of the gas gravity.
Many equations and hand calculations assume G = 0.6 . FieldNotes does not assume that, and
accounts for the correct gas gravity. Sometimes, during a test, the gas gravity is not known because the
laboratory gas analysis is not available. n such cases it is common practice to assume an approximate
gravity, calculate an approximate flow rate, re-input the corrected gas gravity when it becomes available,
and then re-calculate the correct flow rate.
Gas gravity is the Molar mass (molecular weight) of the natural gas divided by the Molar mass of air
(28.94). t ranges from 0.55 for dry sweet gas to approximately 1.5 for wet, sour gas.
123
UNTS: None DEFAULT: 0.65
Critical *emperature
The PVT properties of natural gases (viscosity, compressibility, z-factor) are usually obtained from
correlations. These are usually formulated in terms of the reduced variables "reduced temperature" and
"reduced pressure". These reduced variables are defined as:
Reduced Temperature = Temperature / Critical Temperature (Tc)
The critical temperature can be specified, if it is known from the gas analysis, or it can be calculated from
Standing's correlation. This correlation requires a knowledge of the gas gravity, and the H2S, CO2 and N2
content. There are two slightly different correlations, one for dry gas and one for condensate gas. The
most commonly used one is for condensate gas, but the differences between these two correlations are
small.
UNTS: R or (K) DEFAULT: ERCB Guide G-3
Critical Pressure
The PVT properties of natural gases (viscosity, compressibility, z-factor) are usually obtained from
correlations. These are usually formulated in terms of the reduced variables "reduced pressure" and
"reduced temperature". These reduced variables are defined as:
Reduced Pressure = Pressure / Critical Pressure (Pc)
The critical pressure can be specified, if it is known from the gas analysis, or it can be calculated from
Standing's correlation. This correlation requires knowledge of the gas gravity, and the H2S, Co2 and N2
content. There are two slightly different correlations, one for dry gas and one for condensate gas. The
most commonly used one is for condensate gas, but the differences between these two correlations are
small.
UNTS: psia (kPaa) DEFAULT: ERCB Guide G-3
/as Critical Flow Pro!er
124
Critical flo# pro:ers are used to measure gas flo# rates6
n some respects, a critical flow prover is similar to an orifice meter. t uses a circular orifice plate with its
own orifice coefficient and flowrate equation, and a static pressure measurement.
Critical flow provers require the gas rate to be in "critical flow." f the upstream pressure drops too low,
then critical conditions may cease to exist, and the standard critical flow prover equation will no longer
apply. However, FieldNotes has incorporated some adjustment correlations to accommodate those
situations when non-critical flow occurs.
Critical flow assumes that the pressure upstream of a plate or choke is at least twice as large as the
downstream pressure. f this condition exists, then the velocity of the gas in the orifice or choke is at the
speed of sound. Since a pressure wave travels at the speed of sound, this means that any change in the
downstream pressure has no effect on the upstream pressure. As a consequence, critical flow provers do
not require differential pressure to calculate a flow rate; only the upstream static pressure measurement is
required. When flowing at critical conditions, gas flow rates are directly proportional to upstream pressure.
This relationship is shown in the critical flow equation.
Non-critical flow occurs when the upstream pressure is less than twice the downstream pressure. f the
gas is vented to atmosphere after leaving the critical flow prover, non-critical flow would occur when the
upstream (gauge) pressure falls below 15 psi(g) or 100 kPa(g). t is recommended that operators try to
avoid non-critical flow conditions. However, FieldNotes has incorporated some modifications to obtain
reasonably accurate flow rates when non-critical conditions occur.
Critical flow provers are excellent gas measurement tools when gas is released into the atmosphere. With
the atmospheric pressure acting as the downstream side of the prover, it is relatively easy to maintain
enough upstream pressure to maintain critical flow conditions. The lack of a differential pressure
measurement simplifies the operations and flow rate calculations.
Critical flow provers lose usefulness when the measured gas is not being immediately released into the
atmosphere. With significant pressure on the downstream side, operators must be vigilant to maintain that
2:1 ratio of upstream to downstream pressure. As well, that kind of pressure drop may be too large in
many operations, in which case the orifice meter is better suited for the job.
125
Like the orifice meter, the flow prover plates, pressure taps, and piping for the critical flow prover must
meet certain specifications.
Critical flow provers come in two sizes: two-inch and four-inch. The size corresponds to the internal
diameter of the prover. Each flow prover size has a set of orifice plates, each of which has its own
coefficient.
The critical flow prover plate is actually a highly machined component, and its dimensions must adhere to
certain specifications. f the plate's orifice is damaged in any way, it can no longer measure gas rates with
any accuracy, and it must be replaced.
Critical Flo# Pro:er $quation and *a'le of Coefficients
When calculating flow rates by hand, the commonly used critical flow prover equation is given below.
FieldNotes actually takes advantage of the computer to calculate more accurate rates, by using a more
rigorous form of the equation. The right hand side of the critical flow equation below is multiplied by Fpv,
Fpb, and Ftb which were defined for the Orifice Meter in the "Orifice Coefficient" section,
where:
&g B g"s f!o$ "te (1s*fCd"8)
4 B "bso!ute pessue
9 B g"s g"#it8
T B "bso!ute te1pe"tue (00>)
Critical Flo# Pro:er *a'le of Coefficients
Prover Orifice Size
(inches)
Coefficients for the two-inch Prover Coefficients for the four-inch Prover
1/8 6.30 -
25.86 24.92
3/8 56.68 56.01
101.8 156.1
5/8 154.0 223.7
224.9 304.2
7/8 309.3 396.3
1 406.7 499.2
1 1/8 520.8 616.4
126
1 1/4 657.5 742.1
1 3/8 807.8 884.3
1 1/2 1002.0 1208.0
1 3/4 - 1596.0
2 - 2566.0
2 1/2 - 3904.0
/as Pitot 9ube
Pitot *u'es con:ert the dynamic flo#ing pressure of the gas into a gas
flo# rate6
The Pitot tube actually measures two pressures. To do this, two concentric tubes are inserted into a
flowing gas line. The inside tube has its end open and points directly upstream. t is in direct contact with
the flow and measures the impact pressure of the gas. Ensure that the Pitot tube is exactly in the center of
the pipe where dynamic pressure is the strongest. The Pitot tube correlations require this position.
The outside concentric tube has its end sealed. nstead it has perforations on the side, and thus, is not be
in direct contact with the force of the flow. t is measuring only the static pressure.
127
The difference between the impact and static pressures is the dynamic pressure. FieldNotes calls it the
"Differential Pressure ". This is similar to the idea behind a manometer.
Pitot tubes are not used that much in today's petroleum industry. However a variation of the pitot tube,
called the "Annubar" is used by a few well testing companies to measure gas rat
/as 'ean Cho<e
The bean choke is used for measurements when conditions require more robust equipment. For example,
if sand is being produced, orifice plates will be eroded very quickly and a bean choke, which is much more
robust, is preferable.
128
A bean choke is basically a 6" tube with a known internal diameter.
Bean chokes require critical flow to be valid. This means the upstream pressure must be at least twice the
downstream pressure. f this condition fails, then flow rates from the bean choke equations are no longer
valid. The operator should be vigilant and ready to change to a smaller choke when this condition occurs.
However, if operations do fall below critical flow, FieldNotes has some provisions to calculate reasonably
accurate flow rates.
Bean chokes (sometimes just called chokes) are found in several places. A bean choke can be placed
near the wellhead to limit production from one particular well. t can limit production into a separator. t can
be found in a manifold between two pieces of production equipment. Bean chokes can be easily changed
out. This is very useful when encountering sand problems.
&ean Cho-e $quation
The equation is identical to that for a Critical Flow Prover. However, the "C" coefficients are different.
where
&g B g"s "te (1s*fCd"8)
: B *ho<e *oeffi*ient
4 B upste"1 pessue (psi")
9 B spe*ifi* 9"#it8 of 9"s
T B Te1pe"tue (>)
9alues for C +&ean Cho-e,
Choke Size (inches) C
0 0
0.0625 0.88
0.09375 2.74
0.125 6.25
0.188 14.44
0.250 26.51
0.313 43.64
0.375 61.21
0.438 85.13
0.500 112.72
129
0.625 179.74
0.750 260.99
1 468.99
1.25 737.86
1.5 1067.39
1.75 1457.56
2 1908.38
2.25 2419.85
2.5 2991.98
2.75 3624.75
3 4318.17
Source: Diehl, John C., Natural-Gas Handbook: Metric Metal Works, Erie, Pa., 1927. p. 94
/as &djustable Cho<e
130
The adjustable choke is an adjustable valve which is calibrated (in 1/64 of an inch) to show the size of the
valve opening. Simply turning the valve handle can increase the opening from 0 (shut-in) to the maximum.
The calculation of flow rates from the choke settings is approximate and can be obtained from the
following equations and coefficients.
(d=usta'le Cho-e $quation
The equation for the adjustable choke is a simplified version of that used for the bean choke or the critical
flow prover. Because flow rate measurements when using adjustable chokes are only approximate, a
complex equation is not justified. The equation used in FieldNotes, and the corresponding coefficients
are shown below:
G B ,!o$ "te in 22s*fCd
: B :ho<e *oeffi*ient, "ssu1ing *iti*"! f!o$ *onditions%
4 B Ipste"1 pessue (psi")
9alues of C for the (d=usta'le Cho-e
Nominal Size (nches) Bore Diameter (inches) Coefficient
131
1/8 0.1250 0.347
9/64 0.1406 0.444
5/32 0.1563 0.553
11/64 0.1719 0.674
3/16 0.1875 0.802
13/64 0.2031 0.956
7/32 0.2188 1.116
15/64 0.2344 1.288
0.250 1.470
17/64 0.2656 1.667
9/32 0.2813 1.885
19/64 0.2969 2.110
5/16 0.3125 2.340
21/64 0.3281 2.601
11/32 0.3438 2.866
23/64 0.3594 3.144
3/8 0.3750 3.400
25/64 0.3906 3.740
13/32 0.4063 4.063
27/64 0.4219 4.394
7/16 0.4375 4.730
29/64 0.4531 5.101
15/32 0.4688 5.474
31/64 0.4844 5.862
132
0.5000 6.260
9/16 0.5525 8.010
5/8 0.6250 9.980
11/16 0.6875 12.176
0.7500 14.49
64/64 1.0000 25.76
72/64 1.125 32.6025
5/4 1.250 40.459
11/8 1.375 49.048
3/2 1.500 58.463
7/4 1.750 79.770
128/64 2.000 104.382
9/4 2.250 132.298
5/2 2.500 163.518
11/4 2.750 198.042
192.64 3.000 235.869
This table comes from a commonly used adjustable choke meter. The coefficients are essentially
equivalent to those of the bean choke. Because the machining standards may be different among the
manufacturers, users should consult the manufacturer for the exact coefficient of their adjustable choke.
/as Measured =ate
133
Note: The Measured Rate has been modified in FieldNotes Version 3 from FeldNotes V2.XX. See this link
for more detail: Version 3 changes.
Gas "easurement *heory
Gas flow rate measurement is a crucial part of the petroleum industry. Without reliable gas measurements,
companies buying and selling gas could not agree on how much was sold. Neither could reservoir
engineers predict the reserves or reservoir behavior.
Measuring gas is not easy. Unlike oil or water measurement, it is difficult to capture gas in some kind of
vessel, measure the volume, and calculate a flow rate. This is just the nature of natural gas being a "gas."
nstead of direct methods of measurements, we must measure gas rates by indirect means.
The science of thermodynamics is used to estimate gas rates. Basic thermodynamics was introduced in
your high school chemistry with the following formulas:
P1V1 = P2V2
P1/T1 = P2/T2
Where:
4 is pessue
. is #o!u1e
T is te1pe"tue
'1( is the *ondition of the s8ste1 "t st"te 1
'2( is the *ondition of the s8ste1 "t st"te 2
To see how these equations work, take this example: assume a cylinder has a volume of 100 cm3 and a
pressure of 200 kPa. f a piston is pushed into the cylinder so that the volume for gas has decreased to 50
cm3, what would be the new pressure?
134
You could devise an experiment to find out the actual answer or you could use the equation. n either
case, the answer would be 400 kPa (P2 = P1 V1 / V2 = 200 100 / 50). However, the equation was
much easier to use than setting up the experiment. n essence, we can actually predict the result of the
experiment without doing the experiment.
The level of thermodynamics used in measuring gas rates is at a much higher level than high school
chemistryand much beyond the scope of the FieldNotes manual. However the scientists and
engineers have developed some fairly straightforward equations to calculate flow rates.
But like the P1V1 = P2V2 equation, the user of this equation must know the values of all the variables
except one in any gas rate equation. This last variable is the flow rate, which is calculated by inserting all
the known values into the equation and working out the math.
n most gas flow rate equations, you must know the value of these parameters to obtain a gas flow rate:
1% f!o$ing st"ti* pessue
2% diffeenti"! pessue (not e&uied fo po#es o *ho<es)
3% !o*"tion of these pessue 1e"sue1ents
4% f!o$ing te1pe"tue
5% g"s g"#it8
6% si7e of the oifi*e p!"te o *ho<e
7% si7e of the pipe $hee the g"s 1e"sue1ent is being *ondu*ted%
f you are missing any one of these variables, you can not calculate a proper flowrate. As well, the gas
must not have any liquids.
n theory, any piping system can measure gas rates if enough mathematics and experimentation is
applied. This could have meant that every engineer and scientist could develop their own set of
thermodynamic equations for measuring gas rates. nstead of having many different systems, the
American Petroleum nstitute, Texas Railroad Commission, and other associations started developing
standard conditions and standard equations for measuring gas in the 1920's. The oil industry around the
world has adopted these standards.
This standardization has produced equations for:
1% oifi*e 1etes
2% *iti*"! f!o$ po#es
3% be"n *ho<es
4% "d=ust"b!e *ho<es
5% pitot tubes
n addition, FieldNotes has features for a specialized meter called the 1/2" integral orifice meter.
Location of the Pressure "easurements
n FieldNotes, the user must specify the location of the static pressure measurement. They must indicate
whether the static pressure is being measured upstream or downstream of the orifice.
/as -G5 Integral ?rifice
135
For some applications, which require accurate measurements of small flow rates, the standard orifice
meter sizes are not small enough. A special meter called the 1/2" ntegral Orifice Meter is available for use
in these cases. ts equation is as follows:
Where:
&g B 22s*fCd"8
4 B upste"1 pessue (psi")
h B diffeenti"! pessue (in*hes of $"te)
T B te1pe"tue (J>)
9 B g"s g"#it8
,7 B :o1pessibi!it8 "d=ust1ent f"*to B (1C7)K0%5
,tb B Te1pe"tue b"se "d=ust1ent f"*to B (519%67CTb)K0%5
,pb B 4essue b"se "d=ust1ent f"*to B ( 4bC14%64)
/as Dorte>
136
Note: The Measured Rate has been modified in FieldNotes Version 3 from FeldNotes V2.XX. See this link
for more detail: Version 3 changes.
A Vortex flow meter is based on the principle of vortex shedding. Vortex-shedding meters are excellent
devices for flows that do not contain abrasives or large diameter particulate or long, stringy substances.
Vortex meters can be used on liquids and gases, including steam.
When the fluid arrives at the flow meter it passes by a bar known as the bluff body or shedding bar. This
bar causes the fluid to swirl around it, causing eddies (also known as shedding vortices) to form. This
effect is similar to what makes the ripples in a waving flag.
137
The eddies cause fluctuations in pressure that are fairly regular and directly proportional to the fluid
velocity. This leads to a fairly accurate calculation of the velocity using the relation:
Flow rate can then be calculated from fluid velocity using:
(Fluid Rate) = (Fluid Velocity) x (Pipe cross-section Area)
The K-factor is virtually a constant over a broad range of flow regimes (it is based on the Reynolds
number).
Condensate Meters
Condensate Meter 'loc< Aiagram
2e"sued Ee#e!
4odu*ed .o!u1e
Tubine
2e"sued >"te
Condensate Measured =ate
138
Condensate 9urbine
139
Condensate Produced Dolume
140
Condensate Measured Le!el
141
Liquid Le:el "easurements
Some testing situations determine fluid rates from the levels in the stock tanks as the test progresses. The
height of the liquids can be converted into a cumulative or incremental volume.
The principle revolves around this simple equation:
V = A * h
Where:
. B .o!u1e
+ B +e"
h B height
The equation is perhaps better stated as follows:
V = A * h
Where:
. B *h"nge in #o!u1e
h B *h"nge in height
+ B "e" of the t"n<, $hi*h does not *h"nge%
142
The area of the tank can be used to create the tank level conversion factor. To see how this is done, click
on either the metric example or the field units example.

Water Meters
Water Meter 'loc< Aiagram

2e"sued Ee#e!
4odu*ed .o!u1e
Tubine
2e"sued >"te
Water Measured =ate
143
Water 9urbine
144
Water Produced Dolume
Water Measured Le!el
145
V = A * h
Where:
. B .o!u1e
+ B +e"
h B height
V = A * h
Where:
?il Meters
2e"sued Ee#e!
4odu*ed .o!u1e
Tubine
2e"sued >"te
?il Meter 'loc< Aiagram
?il Measured =ate
146
?il 9urbine
?il Produced Dolume
147
?il Measured Le!el
V = A * h
Where:
148
. B .o!u1e
+ B +e"
h B height
V = A * h
Where:
149

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