Translation in Predicate Logic The crucial differences between translations in Sentential Logic and translations in Predicate Logic are

that atomic sentences are written differently to better reflect the logical structure of the sentence and that we have two additional logical operators available to us. Atomic Formulas The first key fact about Predicate Logic is that atomic sentences are to be thought of in subject predicate form. For our purposes! the predicate is just the part of the sentence that is left when all the singular terms "like names of people or objects# are removed. For e$ample! in the sentence %Alice is tall& Alice is a singular term "refers to some object# so %'''' is Tall& is a predicate. This is a one place predicate since it has one place for a singular term to go to fill out the sentence. (arry loves Sally is a sentence so %'''' loves '''' % is a predicate. This is a two place predicate since it re)uires two terms to complete the sentence. This generali*es to n place predicates which are sentences with n names removed. +ust as with Sentential Logic! to determine which PL sentences to use to represent ,nglish sentences! we use a translation scheme to give an interpretation to each of the symbols that we are using. A translation scheme needs to specify what symbols we should use for our predicates and which constant symbols to use as names. For e$ample! here is a translation schemeP- is a painter L- loves a- Alice b- .ob /sing this scheme! 0 can translation the following sentences,nglish Predicate Logic Alice is a painter. Pa .ob loves Alice Lba Alice loves .ob Lab .ob is not a painter 1Pb 0f .ob is a painter then Alice loves .ob PbLab .ob is a painter only if Alice is not a painter Pb 1Pa 0t is easy to see how to e$tend this to more comple$ cases. 2uantified sentences

0n addition to building comple$ sentences with our old connectives! we can also form )uantified sentences such as %,veryone is a painter& and %Someone is a painter.& Assume for a moment that we were only interested in talking about people. To say that everyone is a painter is to say that P$ is true regardless of which person $ stands for. Pa is true! Pb is true! Pc! etc. 3e can formulate this as $P$ which is read %for all $! P$&. /niversal )uantifiers "# thus work very much like giant conjunctions since $P$ implies that Alice is a painter and .ob is a painter and 4harlie is a painter and5 etc.. $P$ symboli*es %someone is a painter.& This means at least one person is a painter "maybe more.# ,$istential )uantifiers thus work like giant disjunctions since this entails that either Alice is a painter or .ill is a painter or 4harlie 5 etc.. (ere are some e$amples,nglish ,veryone is a painter Someone is a painter 6ot everyone is a painter 6o one is a painter ,veryone loves .ob Alice loves someone 7estricting conte$ts 8f course we often want to talk about much more than just people. To say that every student read a book last week we have to talk about books. To say some number is prime we have to talk about numbers. To say there were five problems on the last test we have to talk about problems and about tests. This is accomplished first by simply including everything in our domain of discourse unless it is e$plicitly stated otherwise. Thus $ doesn9t mean %every person& it means %everything& and $ means %something.& 8f course we don9t usually want to talk about literally everything. :ost universal claims are restricted claims such as %,very student in my class is smart& %,very number greater than seven is a big number& and %Some of the buildings on campus have been here for more than fifty years.& So we need to know how to restrict the conte$t of what we are talking about. 0n the case of the universal )uantifier! we do this by using a universally )uantified conditional. To say that every dog is a mammal! we say that the following claim is true of everything %if it is a dog! then it is a mammal.& This is written as $";$ :$#. This sentence is true if no matter what $ is! ;$ :$ is true. (ere it is useful to note that if $ is not a dog! then this formula is true of $ since ;$ will be false. So for ;$:$ to be true of everything is just for :$ to be true of every ;og. 6ote that we use a conditional to restrict universal )uantified sentences. 0n the case of an e$istentially Predicate Logic $P$ $P$ 1$P$ $1P$ $L$b $La$

)uantified sentence! we use conjunctions. To say that some dogs are mammals is to say that there is at least one dog that is a mammal which is to say that there is at least one thing that is both a dog and a mammal. Thus we write $";$ < :$#. ;o not make the mistake of writing $";$ :$#. This says that there is something such that if it is a dog! then it is a mammal. .ut this conditional is made true by lots of things = for e$ample! by me since 0 am not a dog. 3e want %some dogs are mammals& to only be made true by a dog that is also a mammal. Similarly! we don9t normally translate sentences as universali*ed conjunctions. $";$ < :$# would mean that everything in the world is both a dog and a mammal. This sentence is false since 0 am not a dog. (ere are some e$amples,nglish ,very painter loves .ob Some teacher is a painter Alice loves every teacher Some painters are not teachers 6o painters are teachers 6ot every painter loves Alice Predicate Logic $"P$ L$b# $"T$ < P$# $"T$ La$# $"P$ < 1T$# $"P$ 1T$# 1$"P$ L$a#

:any sentences have two or more )uantifiers. To translate these! simply break up the sentence into pieces. To translate %,very teacher loves every painter& we can start by nothing that we are claiming that something is true of every teacher. So the sentence is structured like this$"T$ 5 3here the conse)uent of this conditional is going to be that $ loves every painter. Since we know how to write Alice loves every painter $"P$La$# we will simply use this sentence putting $ in the place of Alice. (owever! we cannot directly do that since we cannot write a sentence that has two $ )uantifiers with overlapping scope. So we simply use y instead of $ for the second part. 3e thus have$"T$ y"Py L$y## (ere are some e$amples,very teacher loves some painter Some painter loves some teacher 6o teacher loves every teacher ,very teacher who is also a painter loves .ob Some teacher loves both .ob and Alice ,very teacher who loves .ob also loves Alice $"T$ y"Py < L$y## $"P$ < y"Ty < L$y## $"T$ 1y"TyL$y## $""T$ < P$# L$b# $"T$ < "L$b < L$a## $""T$ < L$b#L$a#