UNIT 31 LEADERSHIP

Structure
31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 31.4 31.5

Objectives Introduction Meaning of Leadership Leadership Theories Leadership Qualities Functions of Leaders
31.5.1 Leaders as Executive 3 1 S.2 Leaders as Teacher

31.6 31.7 3 1.8 31.9 31.10 3 1.1 1 31.12

Techniques of Leadership Styles of Leadership Hazards of Leadership Let Us Sum Up Key Words Some Useful Books Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

After studying this unit you should be able to:

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define leadership describe the functions and qualificaiions of leaders discuss the techniques of Ieadership; and explain the problems and hazards of leadership.
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* explain theories of leadership and styles of leaders

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31.1 INTRODUCTION
The most irnpo~-rant task in the public service is to guide and direct work of the group as a whole cowards desired objectives. Leadership assumes much more importance in the modem government since the size and the number of organisations continue to grow. Further, there is a need for effective participation of hundreds and thousands of individuals who are continually joining the organisation with little prior knowledge of what the organisations are striving to do. They involve in more and more complex functions of individual duties.

A combination of several factors separates the individual members more and more from a personal connection with the organisation he joins. The tie becomes impersonal cold and un-inspiring. Generally, in many Government organisations work is divided departmentally. Each will work independently. To provide link there is a need for a leader. Again, the division of labour tends to separate and isolate individual members from the central purpose. In every organisation the tendency is both for the departmental heads and for the rank and file members to see the organisation's problems in terms of primarily of their functional effort. Only competent leaders can correct the tendencies which functionalism and division of labour create. The leader alone can keep tiie entire group committed to the goals whiclr could produce the best results.
Thus, the multiplication of organisations, functions, departmnents, and subordinate geographic units lead to [he increased importance of leadership. In this connection it is necessary to mention that formerly it was thought born leaders were enough to handle the situation. Now the scene underwent a change. The demand is for effective leaders in many fields, on many fronts and at successive levels of authority. There are not enough born leaders to go round. We have to develop them.

In view of our need the idea of leadership should also change. We do not look towards a unique individual set apart with umsual personal qualities. Organisations requires people who can adminisler it. In this connection it is necessary to clarify certain doubts. Generally, leadership tends to be expressed in terns of power to command or ability to dominate. Commanding by itself is not adequate as a basis for getting things done. Command is an exercise of power over people. But leadership is interested in how people can be brought to work together for a common end effectively and happily. It implieb the use and crearion of power with people. It is conce~ned about the process by which result is auained. Thus, we rnay cor~clude that in every organisation the whole man has to be appealed to and persuaded to do the job. There is n need for total involvement in the organisation. This will be ensured only by a good leader.

Leadership

Let us try to define leadership. Evcry executive whether he deals with the people directly or indirectly is potentially in a position to lead people. He has the task of bringing them into an effective working harmony. To achieve this, there is a faclor known as leadership. Leadership is defined as the activity of influencing people to cooperate towards some goal which they come to find desirable. This definition may bc elaborated further. There are at least four distinct fiictors in the definition. First, it is usefuI to explain the way by which people rise to leadership. Second, the process of influencing requires study. Thirtl, the nature of goals which people will find desirable has to be analysed. And fouith, the qualities exhibited by leaders in action can be considered. Some details, though brief, are required to explain the above mentioned factors. The executive who is also the leader, sometimes gets his chance to lead because the situation in which he finds himself' is one where the best results come in terms of leading than i11 terms of commanding. It is the situation and not the person alone which allows the leader to function. Thus every leader is as rnuch a product of the setting of his life and times as of his own will to power. Sometimes we find self constituted leaders who will push his way up by a combination of a strong personality with a vigorous, assertive ego and a steady detem~inationto accomplish certain results. The wcond process, is through a democratic political process where a leader is selected from the group. In this there is a understanding between the leader and the led. In this situation rhe leader chosen by the group has the most advantageous conditions for success. Yet in another way he is in conlparativcly greater difficulty because he is always being tested. However, the leader selected by a group has the best chance of winning and holding his following. Finally, people get the chance to be leaders through a method commonly found in many organisations where boards of directors or trustees appoint top executives who in turn select the lower executives. Here the group has vested interest which brought all of them to The problem of the leader is to show them that in serving the a common platforn~. corporate group they itre serving themselves; that in being loyal to the organisation as a whole they are also loyal to themselves.

31.3 LEADERSHIP THEORIES

Leadership is one of the most important topics which was widely researched both by the individuals and institutions. Studies by Ronald Lippitt and Ralf K. White, at the University of Iowa, Bureau of Business Research of the Ohio State University and University of Michigan have undertaken pioneering studies on leadership. The important theories of leadership are trait theory, situational theory, group theory, etc. We will now discuss some of these theories to gain a broad understanding of leadership.

Trait Theory
Studies on leadership in the beginning concentrated on the qualities of leaders. The major

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question that was always asked was what qualities or traits analte a person a leader. S o m e believed that leaders we bo& and are not made. This is what is popularly called the 'Greatman Theory' of Leadership. These born leaders possess certain traits and characteristics, certain natiaral abilities which allow them to become leaders. The trait approach is particularly concerned with identifying the personality' Waits of leaders, Later, behavio~ral studies have revealed that the leadership qualities lare rlot totally inhorn a n d they can be acquired through learning, traini~~g and experience. Several studies tried trp identify the important traits and there was wide variation in the traits identified by the scholars. Keith Devis for example, identifies four important traits for a successfial leader viz., intelligence, social maturity and breadtl~,inner motivation and achievement, d r i v e and human relations attitude. We will study some of these characteristics later in this unit. Group Theory Grvup theory was also developed by social psychologisis. This theony ernphasises that the leader provides benefits to his followers. According to this theory, the followers depend upon those leaders who satisfy their needs. B e y extend support ar~d cooperation as l o n g as the leaders satisfy their needs and motivate them to achieve the objectives and goitls of the organisation. Halander and Julion have ernphasised this point when they said.
" ... the person in the role of leader who fi~lfills expectations and achieves group goals provides rewards for others which are reciprocated in the form of status, esteem, and heightened influence. Because leadership embodies a two-way influence relationship, recipients of influence assertions may respond by asserting influence in turn ..... The very sustenance of the relationship depends upon some yieldirlg to influence on both sides.

Situational Theory.
Both trait and group theories were found inadequate to provide an overall theory of leadership. Therefore, the scholars turned their attention to the situational aspect of leadership. They begun a search for situational variables which influence leadership roles, skills and behaviour. This tkieory believes that leadership emerges from the situatiori a n d is influenced by the situation. As a result leadership differs from situation to situation. F.E. Fielder, who is important proponent of this theory, feels that people welcome leaders because of situational factors. He ernphasises that it is not meaningful to speak of an effective Ieader or an ineffective leader. We can only speak of a leader'who tends to fx effective in one situation and ineffective in another situation'.

31.4 LEADERSHIP QUALITIES

Certain qualities are essential in any leader because they are vital to take the individual towards success. Deficiencies can be eliminated by conscious effort. Good qualities can be strengthened. But it is not possible to cultivate all the attributes since some are rliore innate than others. An exhaustive list is not possible. However, certain specific and easily identifiable traits are enlisted here on the basis of practical experience although ,several of them fall under psychological terns.
A11 the,qualities listed however, do not necessarily appear in every leadership situation nor are the? all equally required of every leader. The aim is to present a comprehensive picture of all desirable qualifications.

i) It is generally agreed that possession of a generous and unusual endowment of physical and nervous energy is the secret of the most successful leaders. Those who rise in any marked way above the general public have more drive, more endurance, greater vipour of body md mind than the average person. Robust health and basic strength is an usrct for the effectiveness of the leader. Everyone of us realise how important is the phyhiciil and nervous conditions in our working. Sluggishness, apathy, fatigue are generally considered to be the stumbling elements of good leader. The leader also must recognibe that his job is more demanding than the average worker. Therefore, the leader should be careful about his health and vitality. ii) The second quality which is clearly predominant in every good leader is a strong sentr

of a dominant purpose and direction. The leader is one who k~iaws much better what he wants to get it done and where he wants to go. It means he possesses clarity and precision as to the objectives, purpose or aims he want to achieve. iii) The next quality pertains to enthusiasm. The mere presence of a sound purpose is not enough. It must be felt to be sound by all. A sound purpose must be supported by dynamic emotion, hope, will to win and a robust sense of joy in the job. Thus enthusiasm is essential. It is important because it is self sustaining. If the leader has real vigour on the physical side and definite objective on the mar~ual horizon, then enthusiasm is an automatic offspring. Enthusiasm can be deliberately increased but it requires great energy, and deep intellectual conviction. A good leader is always conscious of this fact. He should be a known enthusiast. iv) Affection and friendliness are essential in a good leader. Infact, affection and friendliness are positive motivating forces over the conduct of those upon whom it is expressed. This will work in more than one direction. The tendency is for friendliness and affection to evoke a reciprocal response. However, the leader has to guard against sycopi~ancy-andother-evilsassociated with it in the name of friendli~iess and affection. The followers must be able to trust their leaders. The followers want to feel a sense of solidarity, of honesty and reliability towards the leader. The people should gain the trust or confidence. In shdrt they want the leader to possess integrity. It is not necessary being a paragon of virtue because it is not possible. But what is required is acting appropriately to the expectations of the group we may hasten to'add here that where there is a divergence of views relating to the major objectives of the organisation then the leader should maintain his integrity and convince the followers. If he fails, he should quit after giving a reasonable time, making clear to the group the grounds on which he has acted. But these are extraordinary illustrations. Integrity is demanded for another reason also. In a complex society like ours there are conflicting demands. It becomes impossible to have a competer~t opinion about many issues. Yet the opir~ion is sought and a decision is expected. In this situation, people expect integrity. This is a major problem of entire life philosophy the leader to possess co~nplete of the individual. To these above general qualities, Chester Barnard adds four other qualities of leader. They are (i) vitality and endurance; (ii) decisiveness; (iii) persuasiveness, and (iv) responsibility and intellectual capacity, in that order of priority. Millet identifies eight qualities which a leadership should possess. They are (i) good health; (ii) a sense of mission; (iii)'interest in other people; (iv) intelligence; (v) integrity; (vi) persuasiveness; (vii) judgment and; (**:;i) loyalty.
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Leadership

Your Progress 1

Note: i) Use the space below for your answers. ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit. I ) Explain the significallce of leadership.

2) What is Trait Theory?

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3) Explain. Siiuutiorial Theory of leac!crship.

4) What qualities are irnporraint for a leader'?

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31.g FUNCTIONS OF LEADERS

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Leader has a significant role in the organisational Ilfc. The success or tailurc of organisations are greatly dependent upon how well the leaders perfonns his functions. It is necessary, therefore, to know as to what fimctionl: ; leader perfonnu. Hick!, and Ciullett have identified eight important functions of a leader. 'Uiey are (i) arbitrCL;;iig, (ii) suggesting; (iii) supplying objectives; Ilv) catalysing; (v) providing security; (vi) representing; (vii) inspiring; and (viii) praising. Chester Banlard identifies three main functions of thc executives. They are to 111aintai11 communications in the organisation, to secure essential services from individuals, and to formulate purposcj and objectives. The work of a leader is restricted neither to the eight functions identified by Hicks and Gullett nor to the three functions identified by Barnard. Broadly, the work of a leader, who will be an executive, includes the following:

i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) vii)

planning and defining policies and procedures. organising the activities of all the individuals. delegating authority and responsibility controlling them towards the desired results supervising Lhe work of the group giving general orders and guidelines interpreting and transmitting policies

viii)training the key subordinates to carry executive load ix) coordination and x) stimulating and vitalising all the individuals who are contributing their efforts.
A leader should support definite objectives in the organisation so that it becomes easier for the people to understand thc goals of the organisation. If the objectives are sound then it is

possible for the lead~r lo become sound. The leader must be certain that he has a sound and therefore an appealing purpose before he tries to win followers. In this exercise the leader shoulcl try to interpret the experiences of his followers occasionally so that the finer points could be explained to them. It could be convincing since the experience would benefit the followers. In sum it means the leader should take the followers into confidence while . rhe objectives of the organisation. The process of drawing out support from the followers for any aim is often a crucial one for the leader. It is possible only when the followers are convinced that the interest's and the desires of them are being talcen adequate care. Leadership is not a matter of hypnosis or salesmanship. It is a matter of bringing out from within the individuals, positive impulses, motives and efforts. In fwt leadership is known by the personalities it enriches and not by those it dominates or captivates.

i 3 6 . 5 . 1 1 Leader as Executive
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The most important aspect of the leaders with which we are really interested is that of executives whose primary duty is to direct some departments or its units or some enterprise. 111this respect they lnust first be able to do the executive job. It means they should see that it is done. This requires a detailed analysis. In every organisation there are many tasks and activities to be carried out. There is always a need for sub-division and fi~nctioniil distribution of duties. It requires coordination. Further, the executive at the top cannot possibly know all thc details. This situation is confronted by all the top executives corporations, Government departments etc. As the size of the organisation increases the technical command of the top executive who is the leader of the organisation seems to decrease considerably. It is true that in every leadership situation the leader has to possess enough grasp of the ways and nlearls to give wise guidance to the staff as a whole. Due to [he complexities, the job of leading has its own special techniques and these are different in kind from thc special techniques of directing or operating line or staff departments. In a large organisation thc top executive posts require primarily a coordinative responsibility. The executive leader in such a situation should be more than a goad technician. The conductor of an orchestra is the best example of coordinator. Thus, the coordinative technique means ability to formulate, transmit, interpret and supervise the working of people from top to .bottom. There may be some variations in the organisations. But there are certain broad aspects which are comtnon in many leadership positions. The effectiveness with which the purpose is being realised depends mostly on the t'echnical grasp of the leader. It means he should be farniliar with standards of sound performance and related matters of technical irnportancc. The leader should be in a position to make use of the available expertise shrewdly. The expert should be on tap and not on top. Now it is for the leader to take advantage of this situation, hl addition, there is more and more to leadership in other directions. It is the ability to make a team out of a group of individual workers, to foster a team spirit, to bring their efforts together into a unified lotal action. It is in this broader sense that the real skill of leaders is being increasingly viewed. Ultimately the leader has to get results. There must be action and accomplishment. The group objectives should be realised. This is very important and also vital. It is essential that the leader should take human experience in hand and make it the way he believes it should take. Decision-making is, psychologically, one of weighing evidence, sorting out alternatives, and making n choice by which one is willing to stand. Exercising sound judgment is essential. The leader has to understand certain very well known elements. If these are carefully followed, the results of judgments are sure to bc better than if no conscious attempt is made. L.et us list out those eiemenls. In the first instance, the leader should recognise the problem he faces. Secondly he has to gather all the facts and data relevant to the problem. The next step is its classification '

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and arrangement into related groupings. The fourth step is the formulation o T possible solution. The fifth step will be checking of this possible solution and finding out whether it is the good solution. Thus testing is necessary to get sound results. Finally, adoption or acceptance of the trial solution as valid and useful. This kind of procedure is called inducting thinking or sometimes called scientific method. Decision made as a result of a careful adherence to these steps will be far more sound than the random selection. The procedure has certain difficulties but under the circun~stances it is the best method. The leader must be careful about announcing the decisions. We most impress upon his followers with the fact that a decision has been reached and there is no scope for functions in opinion, hesitation; delay etc. He must act and support his decision. It is his responsibility and cannot escape it. Sometimes it is at this point that many leaders reveal their weaknesses.
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The capacity and the willingness to rnake decisions can be cultivated. Prior planning and standard routine will be useful in several decisions. There is a need for taking counsel, eliminate confusion from the followers. It is necessary to state that there is no place for stubbornness, obstinacy or inflexibility on the part of the leader. Finally, the real leader will stand ready courageously to pay the price of seeing his decision through without blaming others for his own errors. The next important function of leader, particularly in public orgariisations, is the capacity to delegate authority to subordinates, to carryout their essential duties. Leadership becomes effective when others are persuaded to accept the assignments given to them and proceed to carryout their duties. In effect, leadership is dependence upon the faithful performance of one's associates and subordinates. Some people try to do everything by themselves. They do not trust others. They dislike inter-dependence. But in every organised effort in large groups dependence upon one another becomes essential. The leader has no choice except to delegate authority to others. The essence of delegation is to confer discretion upon others to use their judgement in meeting specific problems within the framework of their duties. Management leadership must then accept the responsibility for how this discretion is exercised. Intelligence in a personality is colnpletely in-built than most others. In the context of organisation, the intelligence of a person is see11as the capacity to see the problem. It is also the ability to appraise situation readily and tackle it. This capacity differs from perso11 to person. It is difficult to develop the intelligence by conscious effort. But it can be safely stated that there are many leaders who have made up the deficiency through dete~mination, integrity and friendliness. In this connection, mention may be made regarding two other qualities as special evidences of intelligence-namely imagination and a sense of humour. The capacity for imagination can be improved by deliberate effort. Imagination is essential in more than one way. A sense of humour is important as a lubricant. It will facilitate smooth flow of communication without hurting anybody.

3 1 . 5 . 2 Leader as Teacher
The next important aspect of leadership is that of staff development. In this connection it is important to mention that a good leader is a good teacher. A good teacher is never a boss. He is a &ide who will set up a goal, pose some problems, guide the activities afid hold a person to a new way of mind and conduct. This is true of evkry executive in the organisation. Let us examine some of the tested principles of a good teacher which will ultimately be of immense use to the leader. In the first place, the good teacher tries to build up a feeling in the learner that he is engaged in an activity which is very inlportant for him. Thus a good leader like teacher has to generate a desire to learn and willingness among the learners. In the second place, learning' should begin at the point of the learner's-Present total outlook and equipment. The new objectives should be related to what he now knows and feels. The third aspect is that learning involves the whole organism. One has to think, feel and act appropriately for the process to go on successfully. Briefly, it is said that the leader has to be sure that his followers are given a chance to go through much the same experiences as have led him to , believe in his objectives. The fourth aspect in this analysis is in regard to the duty of the executive to guide the foliower and provide him a chance to think and supply the I I
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infommation which constitute the immediate sub.iect matter of the learning. The leader should help to arouse interest in the objectives of the group. A good leader may sometimes win temporary support for his objectives by verbal advocacy but the real support has to come from an experience which is deeper than learning to exhortation. One can say with a sense of conviction and cmotion. One final aspect of the teaching process needs a mention here. Learning takes time. Beyond a point we cannot hurry up. The teacher and the leader alike should be aware of the capacity and competence of the learners and direct their experiences and thus lead them on to the desired changes in attitude. In conclusion, it is clear that the learning process requires an active experience of for a favourable result by those being led. The leader cannot afford to be in a haste. It is a slow proces? But it is essential.

Leadership

31.6 TECHNIQUES OF LEADERSHIP

1 1 1 any art there are definite techniques. This is true of leadership. There are certain techniques which deserves mention. Conscious cultivation of them can bring about improvement in general and leade~.ship value in particular. Giving orders occupy the first position. Order is a functional fact. It is in~plicit in the tasks or duty to be performed. Every individual is expected to know, as a result of good training, what is expected of him and what are the standards of good performance. This is what scientific management teaches us, and which every execlltive is expected to adopt. Thus on the basis of this definite and sound method, order giving can be reduced to a minimum. But it cannot be entirely dispensed with. There are certain exceptions to this. Emergencies and other contingencies must be attended to by the leader because the followers always look towards the leaders for the line to follow. Under these circumstances the leader must step in and take command of the situation. Problems of working method will arise. The relationships among the individual workers, or the inter-relationships of groups or of depaftments require special adjustments which may entail giving orders. The leader must be clear while giving orders, remove all possible doubts and confusion. The words used must be carefully chosen and should convey the same meaning to the speaker and the listener. The order should be explicit. If the order is oral then the leader should impart the order in a natural, vigorous and firm tone of voice. It should not lead to anger or annoyance. If warranted, the order may be repeated. Any superficial behaviour is not a healthy sign of a good leader. Thc leader should phrase the orders courteously. Avoid terms like 'Do this' or 'Do thatY. Courteous phrase may seen1 weak but it is the most effective method. In conclusion, good leadership implies good manners, from top to bottom in any organisation. It is veky essential in every democratic society. The leader has to avoid giving too many orders at one time. This creates confusion, slowness of Keep orders simple, keep them in time sequence, space assimilation and hewildem~ent. them according to priorities. The orders should be positive in contact. It means one has to avoid negative oornmands. Finally, makc sure not to issue contradictory orders. Let us look at the problem of handling followers who do not attend to their duties seriously. The process of reprimand, punishment or criticism should be bslsed on clear facts and figures. Penalties should be definite and administered even-1.1andedwithout partiality or animosity. Failures on the part of individuals have to be dealt with carefully because there may be reasons beyond their grasp. Hence, careful consideration of various factors is essential. Another factor of tremendaus importance is the assurance that good performance is being appreciated by the leader. The leader should not hesitate while giving praise for good work. The executive, however, has to follow some standard procedure. Whenever, a standard proccdure and method is followed, the leader has a definite piece of informatiorl for a conclusion. Commendation can be given in public where the group will know that the merit has been recognisecl. The total hearing and appearance of the leader is another important factor. The leader should be straightforward in personal dealings. There is need for r\ proper balance between friendliness, cordiality, and undue familiarity.

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A good leader has to encourage the followers to evolve new ideas. It is possible thraugh organised group deliberations. Fostering a sense of group identity among the followers is another important element the leader is expected to develop in the organisation. This improves the morale of the group. Self disciplines in the group is another item which deserves attention by the leader. Finally the leader has a clear duty to see to it that on all important issues the followers are informed of all relevant facts about new policies as quickly and fully as practicable.
Now let us look at the factors affecting leader's influence over others? There are a number of processes through which the leader influences others. The most important of these are: (i) suggestion; (ii) imitation; (iii) persuasive argument; (iv) publicity; (v) reliance upon the lagic of events (vi) a show of affectionate devotion;(vii)the creating of a typical problem situation. It is not possible to generalise in advance as to when the leader should wisely uke one method or another. Often several of them are in operation at the same time. But a conscious knowledge about how each influence works will help the leader. Suggestion may be either direct or indirect. It is used normally to build up or maintain the prestige of the leader. It is also adopted to avoid the danger of offending the pride or disturbing the self confidence of the followers. Suggestion is also useful in getting supporters. Imitation is not an active process for the leader. It is rather a support upon which he can frequently rely upon. It is said that nothing succeeds like success. It is because people will imitate; c'opy and kllow along as soon as success, status and esteem are present. Persuasive argument is important and also very essential to influence individuals for an agreement on specific issues. It is an art in which the leader has to gather all the evidences and opinions and convince the follower to adopt a desired course. Publicity is another technique, of which all of us are fi~lly aware in the modern times. It will build prestige, interpret facts, attitudes and co~iclusions to all concerned. The leader has to choose the niedia and methods of publicity depending on the size and character of the followers. It is necessary to differentiate between publicity and propaganda. The leader has to be watchful to sense the trends, and tendencies at work and find out the logic of events and direct the followers accordingly. Devotion to the leader, perhaps sometimes blind, is always a powerful weapon. Lastly, let us consider the most efficient method of influencing others. This is explained in terms of helping to create in and around the group of followers a definite set of conditions and circumstances which the followers feel problematic or difficult. In this situation a leader recognises a dificulty and helps to give it a sharper focus and then offers a solution. A further fact not to b b e ignored is that people are influenced by a leader because he becomes a symbol of some higher cause.

31.7 STYLES OF LEADERSHIP

The style an executive selects greatly influences his effectiveness as a leader. Leadership style provides motivation for the achievement of organisational goals. Improper styles may cause irreparable damage as the employees may fed dissatisfied and resentful. Broadly three leadership styles are identified viz., autocratic, participative and laissez-faire. Each of the styles has both advantages and disadvantages. The leaders adopt different styles at different points of times depending upon the station. We shall now briefly discuss each of these styles.

Autocratic Style
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In this, policy and decisional authority is concentrated in the licandsof the leader. It is the leader who decides policies and modifies them according to his own wishes. This type of leaders expect unquestioned acceptance of the leadership by their subordinates. I1 is very

difficult to anticipate the behaviour of the leaders because of their autocratic style. Leader tends to be personal and remains aloof from the group. He considers himself superior and all his colleagues inferior, inexperienced and ignorant. This type of leadership has the advantage of quick decision-making. But it causes pain to the employees and results in dissatisfaction. In the process employees may become passive towards organisational goals. Participative Style This style is also called the democratic style of leadership. In this, leaders obtain the cooperation of the employees in achieving organisational goals. They allow the employees to participate in decision-making process. All policies and decisions are arrived at through group discussions. Leader encourages and assists his colleagues and only provides alternatives instead of dictating the final decisions or policies. The members of the group enjoy greater freedom. Leader is generally objective both in praise and criticism. Leader recognises the work of subordinates. He believes that the subordinates are capable of making decisions. Participative style leads to improved employee-employer relations, higher morale and greater job satisfaction. It also seduces the burden on the leader. A major problem in this type of leadership is dilution in the quality of decisions as every view point has to be taken into.consideration in fom~ulating policies and taking decisions. It is also time consuming because of consultative process. Laissez-faire Style In this type of leadership, the organisation does not depend on the leader to provide external motivation. The employees motivate themselves. They enjoy greater freedom and the leader's participation in decision-making is minimal. No attempts are made to regulate the course of events in the functioning of the organisation. Leader only assumes the role of one of the members of the organisation. This style of leadership has advantage of giving freedom and independence to the employees. But unfortunately in the absence of a strong leader the employees may not have proper direction and control. This may lead the employees to become frustrated and may even result in organisational chaos.

311.8 HAZARDS OF LEADERSHIP

There are certain-constraints on good leadership. In the first place, leaders should properly regard other pe'r;ple as ends in themselves, not as mere instruments to realise ends imposed by a leader. Secondly, any normal, healthy minded person will exercise power by persuasive influence rather than by coercion.
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The manifestation of various causes and occasions of mental disturbance show themselves under the following: Every leader gets an opportunity to satisfy an inner urge for enhancement of his ego. Bul this love of self aggrandisement can easily get out of hand. This is a dangerous tendency. This excess may take several farms. It may lead to a feeling of superiority and aloofness, vanity, pride etc. ,He m8y demand too much. flattery and personal loyalty and therefore gather a set of 'yesmen' or sycophants. There are several ways through which the leader will have set right his behaviour. In the next instance, a leader should guard himself against emotional instability. This will take the form of chronic irritability and quick temper. Another hazard in the leadership style pertains to obsessive few complex. The leader in some cases entertains the feeling that he is not good enough for his task or is on the verge of failure. All such feelings undermine self confidence. They curb enthusiasm. They are inhibiting factors and tend to destroy the sources of personal power. The leader has to avoid such self defeating propositions, 'In certain other instances, good workers just below the level of top executives,seern to be well qualified to lead but are afraid to try when a chance is given. This inferiority feeling also becomes one of the powerful hazards of leadership. Another aspect which is equally dangerous is the tendency to legitimise irregular activity. Legitimisation means that whatever we do we try to defend it and support it as a correct decision. This is no1 a healthy symptom. This will generate an attitude of self-righteousness in the leader.

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This tendency will create a feeling among the fol'loweis that their leader is a hypocrite. Finally, the leader must be vigilant about the sadism. It means any form of behnviour from which the individual derives satisfaction, which imposes suffering pain or cruelty upon others. This is the most unfortunate trait for a leader to have. One manifestation, not always thought of as sadistic, is the use of sarcasm. This is also not desirable. In conclusion, the corrective line to be followed, is re-ducation in the light of full knowledge of the causes of the maladjustments. Discover and confront the realities. That is the general dictate which must be followed wherever any of the several kinds of potential 9nzards of leadership listed abQve are found to be present.

Check Your Progress 2

Note: i) Use the space below for your answers. ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit. 1) Explain the functions of the leader as an 'executive'.

2) Is leader a teacher? How?

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3) How does a leader influence others?

Lendership

4) Distinguish between autocratic and participative styles of leadership.

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31.9 LET US-SUMUP

In this Unit we have discussed that leadership has an important role to play in the efficient functioning of organisations. In particular we have discussed the theories of leadership, functions of leaders, qualities of a good leader, leadership styles and problems and hazards of leaders.

31.10 KEY WORDS

Styles of leadership Autocratic Style: In this style of leadership, the leader has the absolute authority to take decisions. Participative Style: In this style of leadership, the employees too participate in the decision-making process. Laissez-faire Style: Here, the employees have full freedom to take decisions, leaders' participation in decision-making is minimal. ,Theories of leadership Trait Theory: According to this theory, leaders have inborn qualities. Situational Theory: According to this theory, leadership emerges from situation and is influenced by situation. Group Theory: According to this theory, a person is accepted as a leader as long as he/she satisfies the needs of the groups.

31.11 SOME USEFUL'BOOKS

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Barnard, Chester I., 1948. Organisation and Managenlent; Harvard University Press: Cambridge Hicks, Herbert G. and Gullett, C. Ray, 1975. Organisations: Theory and Behavioul.; McGraw Hill Book Company: New York.
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Concepts in Organisation - II

Luthans, Fred, 1977. Organisational Behavioul-; MCGS~W Hill Book Company: New York. Millett, J.D., 1954. Management itt the Puhlic Set-vice; McGraw Hill Book Campally lnc. New York. Nigro, Felix A, and Nigro Lloyd G., 1973. Modern Public Administ?-ntiotz; Haver and Row Publishers: New York. Pfiffner, John M., and Sherwnod Frank P., 1968. Arlministrativc Orgm~isatiort; Prentice Hall of India Private Ltd.: New Delhi.
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31.12 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES

Check Your Progress 1 1)' See Section 31.1 and 3 1.2 2) See Section 31.3 3) See Section 31.3 4) See Section 31.4

Check Your Progress 2

1) See Sub-Section 3 1.5.1 2) See Sub-Section 31.5.2 3) See Section 31.6 4) See Section 31.7